The study of light based on the assumption that light travels in straight lines

and is concerned with the laws controlling the reflection and refraction of rays
of light.

UNIT 1:Geometrical Optics

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1.1 Reflection of Plane Mirror and Refraction
1.1.1 Reflection of Plane Mirror Definition – is defined as the return of all
or part of a beam of particles or waves when it encounters the boundary between
two media. Laws of reflection state : The incident ray, the reflected ray
and the normal all lie in the same plane.

The angle of incidence, i equals the angle of reflection, r as shown in figure

below.

i
Simulation

i=r

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Plane mirror

2
Image formation by a plane mirror. Point object

where

r i
A

u : object distance v : image distance ho : object height hi : image height

Vertical (extended) object

i u

i
v

A'

i
ho
Object
Simulation

i r u

r
v

hi
Image

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The properties of image formed are virtual upright or erect laterally
reverse

the object distance, u equals the image distance, v the same size where the linear
magnification is given by

Image height, hi M= =1 Object height, ho

obey the laws of reflection.

Example 1 : Find the minimum vertical length of a plane mirror for an observer of
2.0 m height standing upright close to the mirror to see his whole reflection. How
should this minimum length mirror be placed on the wall?

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H (head)

Solution: By using the ray diagram as shown in figure below.

E (eyes)

A L

1 AL = HE 2 1 LB = EF 2

F (feet )

The minimum vertical length of the mirror is given by

h = AL + LB 1 1 h = HE + EF 2 2 1 h = ( HE + EF ) 2

h = 1.0 m
5

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Height of observer
The mirror can be placed on the wall with the lower end of the mirror is halved of
the distance between the eyes and feet of the observer.

Example 2 : A rose in a vase is placed 0.250 m in front of a plane mirror. Nagar

looks into the mirror from 2.00 m in front of it. How far away from Nagar is the
image of the rose? Solution: u=0.250

2.00 m x
From the properties of the image formed by the plane mirror, thus v = u

v = 0.250 m

Therefore, the distance between Nagar and the image of the rose is given by x =
2.00 + v x = 2.25 m
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v
1.1.2 Refraction Definition – is defined as the changing of direction of a
light ray and its speed of propagation as it passes from one medium into another.
Laws of refraction state : The incident ray, the refracted ray and the
normal all lie in the same plane. For two given media,

sin i n2 = = constant sin r n1

Or Snell’s law

n1 sin i = n2 sin r
where

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i : angle of incidence r : angle of refraction n1 : refractive index of the medium

1 (Medium containing the incident ray) n2 : refractive index of the medium 2
(Medium containing the refracted ray)

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Examples for refraction of light ray travels from one medium to another medium can
be shown in figures below. (a) n1 < n2 (b) n1 > n2 (Medium 1 is less (Medium 1 is
denser dense than medium 2) than medium 2)

Incident ray

Incident ray

i n1 n2
r
Refracted ray

n1 n2

The light ray is bent toward the normal, thus

r <i

Refracted ray The light ray is bent away from the normal, thus

r >i

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Simulation-1

Simulation-2

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Refractive index (index of refraction) refraction sin i Definition – is defined
as the constant ratio for the two given media. sin r The value of refractive
index depends on the type of medium and the colour of the light. It is
dimensionless and its value greater than 1. Consider the light ray travels from
medium 1 into medium 2, the refractive index can be denoted by

velocity of light in medium 1 v1 = 1 n2 = velocity of light in medium 2 v2

(Medium containing the incident ray)

(Medium containing the refracted ray)

Absolute refractive index, n (for the incident ray is travelling in vacuum or air
and is then refracted into the medium concerned) concerned is given by

velocity of light in vacuum c n= = velocity of light in medium v

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Table below shows the indices of refraction for yellow sodium light having a
wavelength of 589 nm in vacuum.

(If the density of medium is greater hence the refractive index is also greater)
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The relationship between refractive index and the wavelength of light.

As light travels from one medium to another, its wavelength, λ

changes but its frequency, f remains constant. constant The wavelength changes
because of different material. The material frequency remains constant because the
number of wave cycles arriving per unit time must equal the number leaving per
unit time so that the boundary surface cannot create or destroy waves. waves By
considering a light travels from medium 1 (n1) into medium 2 (n2), the velocity of
light in each medium is given by then

v1 = fλ1

and

v 2 = f λ2

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v1 fλ1 = v2 fλ2 c n λ 1 = 1 c λ2 n 2

where

c v1 = n1

and

c v2 = n2

n1λ1 = n2 λ2
(Refractive index is inversely proportional to the wavelength)
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If medium 1 is vacuum or air, then n1 = 1. Hence the refractive index for any
medium, n can be expressed as where

λ0 n= λ

λ0 : wavelength of light in vacuum λ : wavelength of light in medium

Example 3 : A fifty cent coin is at the bottom of a swimming pool of depth 2.00 m.
The refractive index of air and water are 1.00 and 1.33 respectively. What is the
apparent depth of the coin? Solution:

na=1.00, nw=1.33
Air (na)

A B

Water (nw)

r i i

2.00 m
where
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C AB : apparent depth AC : actual depth = 2.00 m

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From the diagram, tan r ABD ACD

AD AB AD tan i = AC =
and

By considering only small angles of r and i , hence

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tan i ≈ sin i AD then tan i sin i AC AB = = = tan r sin r AD

AC AB From the Snell’s law, Note : (Important) sin i n2 na = =
Other equation for absolute sin r n1 nw refractive index in term of depth is given
by AB na = real depth AC nw n= apparent depth AB = 1.50 m 13

tan r ≈ sin r
Example 4 : A light beam travels at 1.94 x 108 m s-1 in quartz. The wavelength of
the light in quartz is 355 nm. a. Find the index of refraction of quartz at this
wavelength. b. If this same light travels through air, what is its wavelength
there? (Given the speed of light in vacuum, c = 3.00 x 108 m s-1)
No. 33.3, pg. 1278, University Physics with Modern Physics,11th edition, Young &
Freedman.

Solution: v=1.94 x 108 m s-1, λ=355 x 10-9 m a. By applying the equation of

absolute refractive index, hence

c n= v n = 1.55

b. By using the equation below, thus

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λ0 n= λ λ0 = nλ λ0 = 5.50 x10 −7 m @ 550 nm

14
Example 5 : (exercise) We wish to determine the depth of a swimming pool filled
with water by measuring the width (x = 5.50 m) and then noting that the bottom
edge of the pool is just visible at an angle of 14.0° above the horizontal as
shown in figure below. (Gc.835.60)

Calculate the depth of the pool. (Given nwater = 1.33 and nair = 1.00) Ans. : 5.16
m Example 6 : (exercise) A person whose eyes are 1.54 m above the floor stands
2.30 m in front of a vertical plane mirror whose bottom edge is 40 cm above the
floor as shown in figure below. (Gc.832.10)

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Find x. Ans. : 0.81 m

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1.2 Reflection of Spherical Mirrors
1.2.1 Spherical mirror Definition – is defined as a reflecting surface that is
part of a sphere. There are two types of spherical mirror. It is convex
(curving outwards) and concave (curving inwards) mirror. Figures below show the
shape of concave and convex mirrors. (a) Concave (Converging) mirror (b) Convex
(Diverging) mirror Converging Diverging imaginary sphere A C P silver layer P A

r
B

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reflecting surface Some terms of spherical mirror Centre of curvature (point C)

is defined as the centre of the sphere of which a curved mirror forms a part. 16
Radius of curvature, r is defined as the radius of the sphere of which a curved
mirror forms a part. Pole or vertex (point P) is defined as the point at the
centre of the mirror. Principal axis is defined as the straight line through
the centre of curvature C and pole P of the mirror. AB is called the aperture of
the mirror.

1.2.2 Focal point and focal length, f Consider the ray diagram for concave and
convex mirror as shown in figures below. Incident Incident rays rays C F P P C F

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From the figures, Point F represents the focal point or focus of the mirrors.
Distance f represents the focal length of the mirrors. The parallel incident
rays represent the object infinitely far away from the spherical mirror e.g. the
sun. Focal point or focus, F for concave mirror – is defined as a point where
the incident parallel rays converge after reflection on the mirror. Its focal
point is real (principal). for convex mirror – is defined as a point where the
incident parallel rays seem to diverge from a point behind the mirror after
reflection. Its focal point is virtual.

Focal length, f Definition – is defined as the distance between the focal point
(focus) F and pole P of the spherical mirror. The paraxial rays is defined as the
rays that are near to and almost parallel to the principal axis.

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1.2.3 Relationship between focal length, f and radius of curvature, r Consider
a ray AB parallel to the principal axis of concave mirror as shown in figure
below. incident ray B A

i
F

θ
D P

From the figure, BCD BFD

By using an isosceles triangle CBF, thus the angle θ is given by

BD tan i = ≈i CD BD tan θ = ≈θ FD

Taken the angles are << small by considering the ray AB is paraxial ray.

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θ = 2i

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then

Because of AB is paraxial ray, thus point B is too close with pole P then

BD BD = 2 FD CD CD = 2 FD
CD ≈ CP = r FD ≈ FP = f

Therefore

r=2f
r f= 2
or This relationship also valid for convex mirror.

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O

1.2.4 Ray Diagrams for Spherical Mirrors Definition – is defined as the simple
graphical method to indicate the positions of the object and image in a system of
mirrors or lenses. Ray diagrams below showing the graphical method of locating
an image formed by concave and convex mirror. (a) Concave mirror (b) Convex mirror
1 1 1 3 2 2 3 2 C P I C P F O IF 2 3 1

At least any two rays for drawing the ray diagram.

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Ray 1 - Parallel to principal axis, after reflection, passes through the focal
point (focus) F of a concave mirror or appears to come from the focal point F of a
convex mirror. Ray 2 - Passes or directed towards focal point F reflected parallel
to principal axis. Ray 3 - Passes or directed towards centre of curvature C,
reflected back along the same path. 21
1.2.5 Images formed by a convex mirror Ray diagrams below showing the graphical
method of locating an image formed by a convex mirror.

O
u
Front

I
v

back

Properties of image formed are virtual upright diminished (smaller than

the object) formed at the back of the mirror Object position → any position in
front of the convex mirror.
22

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1.2.6 Images formed by a concave mirror Table below shows the ray diagrams of
locating an image formed by a concave mirror for various object distance, u.
Object distance, u Ray diagram Image property

u>r

I
F

Real Inverted Diminished Formed between point C and F.

Front

back

u=r
I

F C P

Real Inverted Same size Formed at point C.

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Front

back
Object distance, u

Ray diagram

Image property

f<u<r

P F

Real Inverted Magnified Formed at a distance greater than CP.

Front

back

O
u=f
C F P

Real Formed at infinity.

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Front

back

24
Object distance, u

Ray diagram

Image property

u<f
F C

Virtual Upright Magnified Formed at the back of the mirror

O
Front

I
back

Linear (lateral) magnification of the spherical mirror, M is defined as the ratio

between image height, hi and object height, ho h v where

Simulation

M=

ho

=−

v : image distance from pole u u : object distance from pole

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1.2.7 Derivation of Spherical mirror equation

Figure below shows an object O at a distance u and on the principal axis of a

concave mirror. A ray from the object O is incident at a point B which is close to
the pole P of the mirror.

α
C

θ θ φβ
I

From the figure, φ = α +θ BOC β = φ +θ BCI then, eq. (1)-(2) :

(1) (2)

DP

φ − β = α −φ α + β = 2φ

(3)

By using BOD, BCD and BID thus

BD BD BD tan α = ; tan φ = ; tanβ = OD CD ID

By considering point B very close to the pole P, hence

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tan α ≈ α ; tan φ ≈ φ ; tanβ ≈ β OD ≈ OP = u ; CD ≈ CP = r ; ID ≈ IP = v then BD

BD BD Substituting this α= ;φ= ;β= value in eq. (3) u r v

26
therefore

BD BD BD + = 2 u v r 112 where r = 2 f += uvr 111 Equation

(formula) =+ of spherical mirror fuv

Table below shows the sign convention for equation of spherical mirror . Positive
sign (+) (in front of the mirror) Negative sign (-) (at the back of the mirror)

Physical Quantity

Object distance, u Image distance, v Focal length, f Linear magnification, M SF027

Real object

Virtual object

(same side of the object) (opposite side of the object)

Real image

Virtual image

Concave mirror Upright (erect) image

Convex mirror Inverted image

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Example 7 : An object is placed 10 cm in front of a concave mirror whose focal
length is 15 cm. Determine a. the position of the image. b. the linear
magnification and state the properties of the image. Solution:

u=+10 cm, f=+15 cm

a. By applying the equation of spherical mirror, thus

The image is 30 cm from the mirror on the opposite side of the object (or 30 cm at
the back of the mirror). b. The linear magnification is given by The properties of
the image v − 30 are M =− =−

111 =+ fuv 1 11 = + 15 10 v v = −30 cm

10

Virtual Upright Magnified

28

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M =3
Example 8 : An upright image is formed 30 cm from the real object by using the
spherical mirror. The height of image is twice the height of object. a. Where
should the mirror be placed relative to the object? b. Calculate the radius of
curvature of the mirror and describe the type of mirror required. Solution:

hi=2ho

Spherical

u
O

mirror

v
I
(1)

30 cm

u + v = 30 cm

hi v M =− a. From the figure above,= ho u By using the equation of linear

magnification, (2) v = −2u thus
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By substituting eq. (2) into eq. (1), hence The mirror should be placed 10 cm in
front of the object. b. By using the equation of spherical mirror,

u = 10 cm

and

r f= 2

111 =+ fuv 11 1 =+ f u ( − 2u ) f = +20 cm

therefore

r = 40 cm

The type of spherical mirror is concave because the positive value of focal
length.

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Example 9 : A mirror on the passenger side of your car is convex and has a radius
of curvature 20.0 cm. Another car is seen in this side mirror and is 11.0 m behind
the mirror. If this car is 1.5 m tall, calculate the height of the car image .
(Similar to No. 34.66, pg. 1333, University Physics with
Modern Physics,11th edition, Young & Freedman.)

Solution:

ho=1.5x102 cm, r=-20.0 cm, u=+11.0x102 cm

By applying the equation of spherical mirror,

111 =+ fuv 211 =+ ruv

and

r f= 2

v = −9.91 cm
From equation of linear magnification,

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hi v M = =− ho u v hi = − ho u
hi = 1.35 cm

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Example 10 : A concave mirror forms an image on a wall 3.20 m from the mirror of
the filament of a headlight lamp. If the height of the filament is 5.0 mm and the
height of its image is 35.0 cm, calculate a. the position of the filament from the
pole of the mirror. b. the radius of curvature of the mirror. Solution:

hi=-35.0 cm, v=3.20x102 cm, ho=0.5 cm O I 5.0 mm P

C F

35.0 cm 3.20 m
hi v M = =− ho u
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− 35.0 3.20 x10 2 =− 0.5 u u = 4.57 cm

32

a. By applying the equation of linear magnification,

b. By applying the equation of spherical mirror, thus

r 111 and f = =+ 2 fuv 211 =+ ruv r = 9.01 cm

Example 11 : (exercise) a. A concave mirror forms an inverted image four times

larger than the object. Find the focal length of the mirror, assuming the distance
between object and image is 0.600 m. b. A convex mirror forms a virtual image half
the size of the object. Assuming the distance between image and object is 20.0 cm,
determine the radius of curvature of the mirror.
No. 14, pg. 1169,Physics for scientists and engineers with modern physics, Serway
& Jewett,6th edition.

Ans. : 160 mm, -267 mm

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1.3 Refraction of Spherical Surfaces

Figure below shows a spherical surface with radius, r forms an interface between
two media with refractive indices n1 and n2.

n1

θ
φ
r
v

n2

α
O

PD
u

The surface forms an image I of a point object O as shown in figure above. The
incident ray OB making an angle i with the normal and is refracted to ray BI
making an angle θ where n1<n2. Point C is the centre of curvature of the spherical
surface and BC is normal.
34

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From the figure,

BOC BIC

i = α +φ φ = β +θ θ =φ −β

(1) (2)

From the Snell’s law

n1 sin i = n2 sin θ

By using BOD, BCD and BID thus

By considering point B very close to the pole P, hence

BD BD BD tan α = ; tan φ = ; tanβ = OD CD ID

sin i ≈ i ; sin θ ≈ θ ; tan α ≈ α ; tan φ ≈ φ ; tanβ ≈ β OD ≈ OP = u ; CD ≈ CP = r

; ID ≈ IP = v

then Snell’s law can be written as

(3) By substituting eq. (1) and (2) into eq. (3), thus

n1i = n2θ

then
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n1 (α + φ ) = n2 (φ − β ) n1α + n2 β = (n2 − n1 )φ

BD BD BD n1 + n2 = (n2 − n1 ) u v r

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n1 n2 (n2 − n1 ) += uv r
where

Equation of spherical refracting surface

v : image distance from pole u : object distance from pole n1 : refractive index
of medium 1 (Medium containing the incident ray) n2 : refractive index of medium 2
(Medium containing the refracted ray)

Note : If the refraction surface is flat (plane) : r = ∞ then n1 n2

=0

The equation (formula) of linear magnification for refraction by the spherical

surface is given by

hi n1v M = =− ho n2u
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Sign convention for refraction : Positive sign (+) (in front of the refracting
surface) (opposite side of the object) Negative sign (-) (at the back of the
refracting surface) (same side of the object)

Physical Quantity

Object distance, u Image distance, v Focal length, f Radius of curvature, r Linear

magnification, M

Real object

Virtual object

Real image

Virtual image

Convex surface Convex surface Upright (erect) image

Concave surface Concave surface Inverted image

Example 12 : A cylindrical glass rod in air has refractive index of 1.52. One end
is ground to a hemispherical surface with radius, r =2.00 cm as shown in figure
below. air glass P cm C O I .00 2

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8.00 cm

37
Find, a. the position of the image for a small object on the axis of the rod, 8.00
cm to the left of the pole as shown in figure. b. the linear magnification. (Given
the refractive index of air , na= 1.00)
Example 34.5, pg. 1302, University Physics with Modern Physics,11th edition, Young
& Freedman.

Solution:

ng=1.52, u=8.00 cm, r=+2.00 cm

a. By applying the equation of spherical refracting surface,

n1 n2 (n2 − n1 ) += uv r na ng ( ng − na ) + = u v r

v = +11.26 cm
The image is 11.26 cm at the back of the convex surface. b. By using the equation
of linear magnification for refracting surface,

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hi n1v M = =− ho n2 u

na v M =− ng u M = −0.93

Negative sign indicates the image is inverted.

38
Example 13 : A point object is 25.0 cm from the centre of a glass sphere of radius
5.0 cm. The refractive index of glass is 1.50. Find the position of the image
formed due to refraction by a. the first spherical glass surface. b. the first and
second refractive surfaces of spheres. Solution: a. Given na=n1=1.00,

ng=n2=1.50, u=20.0 cm, r=5.0 cm

1.00 1.50 (1.50 − 1.00 ) + = The image is real and 30 cm at the back 20.0 v 5.0
v = +30 cm na O
of the convex surface.

By using the equation of spherical refracting surface, thus na ng (ng − na )

Convex surface and r = +5.0 cm + = (first surface) u v r

ng P C I1
39

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u = 20.0 cm

r v = 30 cm
b.

na O P
First surface

ng C Q

na I 2 30 cm 20 cm
Second surface

I1

From the figure above, the image I1 formed by the first surface is in glass and 20
cm from the point Q of the second surface.I1 acts as a virtual object for the
second refraction surface and

na (na − ng ) += u v r 1.50 1.00 (1.00 − 1.50 ) + = (−20.0 ) v (−5.0 )

Using

ng=n1=1.50, na=n2=1.00, u=-20.0 cm, r=-5.0 cm

ng

Concave surface (second surface)

v = +5.71 cm

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The image is real and 5.71cm at the back of the concave surface 40 (5.71 cm from
point Q as shown in figure above).
Example 14 : (exercise) A small strip of paper is pasted on one side of a glass
sphere of radius 5 cm. The paper is then view from the opposite surface of the
sphere. Find the position of the image. (Given refractive index of glass =1.52 and
refractive index of air=1.00) Ans. : 20.83 cm in front of the concave surface
(second refracting surface) Example 15 : (exercise) A point source of light is
placed at a distance of 25.0 cm from the centre of a glass sphere of radius 10 cm.
Find the image position of the source. (Gc.830.Exam.33-11) (Given refractive index
of glass =1.50 and refractive index of air=1.00) Ans. : 28 cm at the back of the
concave surface (second refracting surface).

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1.4 Thin Lenses

Definition – is defined as a transparent material with two spherical refracting

surfaces whose thickness is thin compared to the radii of curvature of the two
refracting surfaces. There are two types of thin lens. It is converging and
diverging lens. Figures below show the various types of thin lenses, both
converging and diverging. (a) Converging (Convex) lenses

Biconvex Plano-convex (b) Diverging (Concave) lenses

Convex meniscus

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Biconcave

Plano-concave

Concave meniscus 42
1.4.1 Terms of lens Figures below show the shape of converging (convex) and
diverging (concave) lenses. (b) Diverging lens (a) Converging lens

r1
C1 O

r1 r2
C2 C1 O

r2

C2

Centre of curvature (point C1 and C2) is defined as the centre of the sphere of
which the surface of the lens is a part. Radius of curvature (r1 and r2)

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is defined as the radius of the sphere of which the surface of the lens is a part.
Principal (Optical) axis is defined as the line joining the two centres of
curvature of a lens. Optical centre (point O) is defined as the point at which
any rays entering the lens 43 pass without deviation.
1.4.2 Focus (Focal point) and focal length Consider the ray diagrams for
converging and diverging lens as shown in figures below.

F1

F2

F1

F2

From the figures, f Point F1 and F2 represent the focus of the lens.

Distance f represents the focal length of the lens. Focus (point F1 and F2) For
converging (convex) lens – is defined as the point on the principal axis where
rays which are parallel and close to the principal axis converges after passing
through the lens. Its focus is real (principal). For diverging (concave) lens –
is defined as the point on the principal axis where rays which are parallel to the
principal axis seem to diverge from after passing through the lens. Its focus
is virtual. 44

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Focal length ( f ) Definition – is defined as the distance between the focus F
and the optical centre O of the lens. 1.4.3 Ray Diagrams for Lenses Ray
diagrams below showing the graphical method of locating an image formed by
converging (convex) and diverging (concave) lenses. (a) Converging (convex) lens

1 2 3 F2 F1 2 3 1

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45
(b) Diverging (concave) lens 1 1 2 3

F2

3 F1

v
2

At least any two rays for drawing the ray diagram.

Ray 1 - Parallel to the principal axis, after refraction by the lens, passes
through the focal point (focus) F2 of a converging lens or appears to come from
the focal point F2 of a diverging lens. Ray 2 - Passes through the optical centre
of the lens is undeviated. Ray 3 - Passes through the focus F1 of a converging
lens or appears to converge towards the focus F1 of a diverging lens, after
refraction by the lens the ray parallel to the principal axis. 46

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1.4.4 Images formed by a diverging lens Ray diagrams below showing the
graphical method of locating an image formed by a diverging lens.

F2

F1

Front

back

Properties of image formed are virtual upright diminished (smaller than

the object) formed in front of the lens. Object position → any position in
front of the diverging lens.
47

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1.4.5 Images formed by a converging lens Table below shows the ray diagrams of
locating an image formed by a converging lens for various object distance, u.
Object distance, u Ray diagram Image property

I
u > 2f O 2F1
F1 Front F2 back 2F2

Real Inverted Diminished Formed between point F2 and 2F2. (at the back of the
lens)

u = 2f

O
2F1 F1 Front F2 back

2F2

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Real Inverted Same size Formed at point 2F2. (at the back of the lens)
48
Object distance, u

Ray diagram

Image property

f < u < 2f

2F1 O

I
F1 Front F2 back 2F2

Real Inverted Magnified Formed at a distance greater than 2f at the back of the
lens.

u=f

O
2F1 F1 Front F2 back 2F2

Real Formed at infinity.

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49
Object distance, u

Ray diagram

Image property

u<f

Virtual Upright Magnified Formed in front of the lens.

2F1

F1 O Front

F2 back

2F2

Linear (lateral) magnification of the thin lenses, M is defined as the ratio

between image height, hi and object height, ho h v where

Simulation

M=

ho

=−

v : image distance from optical centre u : object distance from optical centre
50

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Considering the ray diagram of refraction for 2 spherical surfaces as shown in
figure below.

Equation
u1

v1 r1
A

t − v1 r2

v2
D

n1

n2
C1

n1
C2 P2

I1

P1

I2

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51
By using the equation of spherical refracting surface, the refraction by first
surface AB and second surface DE are given by

Convex surface AB (r = +r1)

n1 n2 (n2 − n1 ) += u1 v1 r1 Concave surface DE (r = -r2) n2 n1 (n1 − n2 ) += ( t

− v1 ) v2 − r2
Assuming the lens is very thin thus t

(1)

= 0,

n2 n1 (n1 − n2 ) += − v1 v2 − r2  n1 − n2  n1  n2 = −   −r − v   v1 2  2 

n2 n1 n2 − n1 = − r v1 v2 2
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(2)
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By substituting eq. (2) into eq. (1), thus

n1  n1  n2 − n1  (n2 − n1 ) +  −  r  = u1  v 2  2   r1  n1 n1 (n2 − n1 )
(n2 − n1 ) += + u1 v 2 r1 r2
1 1 1 1 n2 + = − 1 + r r u1 v2 n1 1 2
u1 = ∞ and v2 = f hence eq. (3) becomes
then (3)

If

1 1 1 n2 = − 1 + r r f n1 1 2
where

Lens maker’s equation

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f : focal length r1 : radius of curvature of first refracting surface r2 : radius

of curvature of second refracting surface n1 : refractive index of the medium 53
n2 : refractive index of the lens material
By equating eq. (3) with lens maker’s equation, hence

111 += u1 v 2 f
therefore in general,

111 =+ fuv

Thin lens formula

Note :

If the medium is air (n1= will be

nair=1) thus the lens maker’s equation

1 1 1 = ( n − 1) + r r f 1 2
where

n : refractive index of the lens material

For thin lens formula and lens maker’s equation, Use the sign convention for
refraction. refraction Very Important

The radius of curvature of flat refracting surface is infinity, r = ∞ .

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Example 16 : A biconvex lens is made of glass with refractive index 1.52 having
the radii of curvature of 20 cm respectively. Calculate the focal length of the
lens in a. water, b. carbon disulfide. (Given nw = 1.33 and nc=1.63) Solution:
r1=+20

cm, r2=+20 cm, ng=n2=1.52 = n1

a. Given the refractive index of water, nw

By using the lens maker’s equation, thus

1 1 1 ng = − 1 + r r f nw 1 2
f = +70 cm

b. Given the refractive index of carbon disulfide, nc By using the lens maker’s
equation, thus

= n1

1 1 1 ng = − 1 + r r f nc 1 2
f = −148.18 cm

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Example 17 : A converging lens with a focal length of 90.0 cm forms an image of a
3.20 cm tall real object that is to the left of the lens. The image is 4.50 cm
tall and inverted. Find a. the object position from the lens. b. the image
position from the lens. Is the image real or virtual?
No. 34.26, pg. 1331, University Physics with Modern Physics,11th edition, Young &
Freedman.

Solution: f=+90.0

cm, ho=3.20 cm, hi=-4.50 cm

a. By using the linear magnification equation, hence

hi v M = =− ho u v = 1.41u

(1)

By applying the thin lens formula,

111 =+ fuv 1 11 =+ 90.0 u v

(2)
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By substituting eq. (1) into eq. (2),hence The object is placed 154 cm in front of
the lens. b. By substituting u

u = 154 cm

The image forms 217 cm at the back of the lens (at the opposite side of the object
placed) and the image is real.

v = 217 cm

= 154 cm into eq. (1),therefore

Example 18 : An object is placed 90.0 cm from a glass lens (n=1.56) with one
concave surface of radius 22.0 cm and one convex surface of radius 18.5 cm.
Determine a. the image position. b. the linear magnification. (Gc.862.28)
Solution: u=+90.0

cm, n=1.56, r1=-22.0 cm, r2=+18.5 cm

a. By applying the lens maker’s equation in air,

1 1 1 = ( n − 1) + r r f 1 2
f = +208 cm

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By applying the thin lens formula, thus

The image forms 159 cm in front of the lens (at the same side of the object
placed) b. By applying equation of linear magnification for thin lens, thus

111 =+ fuv v = −159 cm

v M =− u

M = 1.77

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Example 19 : (exercise) A glass (n=1.50) plano-concave lens has a focal length of

21.5 cm. Calculate the radius of the concave surface. (Gc.862.26) Ans. : -10.8 cm
Example 20 : (exercise) An object is 16.0 cm to the left of a lens. The lens forms
an image 36.0 cm to the right of the lens. a. Calculate the focal length of the
lens and state the type of the lens. b. If the object is 8.00 mm tall, find the
height of the image. c. Sketch the ray diagram for the case above. (UP.
1332.34.34) Ans. : +11.1 cm, -1.8 cm 58
1.6 Optical Devices

There are 3 optical devices that extend human vision. It is magnifier, compound
microscope and telescope. telescope The angular magnification of an optical device
is defined as the ratio of the angle subtended at the eye by the image , β to the
angle subtended at the unaided eye by the object (without lens), α.

1.6.1 Angular magnification (magnifying power), Ma

β Ma = α

In order to determine the angle α it is necessary to specify the position of the

object. For microscope, the best object position is at the near point.
microscope point For telescope, the object position is not meaningful because
the telescope is used for viewing distant object. Near point is defined as the
nearest point at which an object is seen most clearly by the human eye. The
distance between the near point to the eye is 25 cm and is known as distance of
distinct vision (D).
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1.6.2 Magnifier It also known as magnifying glass or simple microscope.
microscope It is an optical device used for viewing near object. It consists
of single converging (biconvex) lens. Suppose a leaf is viewed at near point of
the human eye as shown in figure below.

ho

α
D

From the figure,

By making small angle approximation, we get

ho tan α = D

ho tan α ≈ α = D
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To increase the apparent size of the leaf, a converging lens can be placed in
front of the eye as shown in figure below.

hi

β
I

ho FO u v

The apparent size of the leaf is maximum when the image is at the near point where

v = − D = −25 cm hi ho tan β = = Du

From the figure above,

By making small angle approximation, we get

The properties of the image are

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hi ho tan β ≈ β = = Du

Virtual, upright and magnified

u<f

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The angular magnification in terms of D and f can be evaluated by derivation
below. By applying the thin lens formula,

111 =+ fuv Df u= D+ f

where

v = −D
(1)

From the definition of angular magnification,

ho β u Ma = = α ho D D Ma = (2) u

By substituting eq. (1) into eq. (2), thus where

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D M a = + 1 f : focal length f D : distance of distinct vision = 25 cm

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The relationship between linear magnification, M with angular magnification, Ma

From the definition of angular magnification,

then

hi β D Ma = = α ho D hi Ma = = M ho

Note: If the object placed at the focal point of the converging lens, the image
formed at infinity. Thus infinity The eye is relax. ho

f β Therefore, since M a = α

β=

then

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ho f Ma = ho D

D Ma = f
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1.6.3 Compound Microscope Because it makes use of two lenses, the magnifying
power of the compound microscope is much greater than that of the magnifier.
The two lenses are converging lens and is known as objective lens (close to the
object) and eyepiece lens (close to the eye). The figure below shows the
schematic diagram of the compound microscope. u L The properties of final image
are fe Virtual, inverted and magnified Objective lens

v >(fo+ fe)

O Fo

Fo' fo

Fe I1
Eyepiece lens acts as a magnifier.

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I2

The properties of first image are Real, inverted and magnified

v >2fo

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The properties of the compound microscope are

The distance between two lenses, L > (fo+fe) fo < fe The final image is I2. The
angular magnification formula is given by where

L D f e : focal length of the eyepiece lens Ma = − f o f e f o :

focal length of the objective lens D : distance of distinct vision = 25 cm

The negative sign indicates that the image is inverted. It is used for viewing
small objects that are very close to the objective lens.

1.6.4 Astronomical (refracting) Telescope This telescope consists of two

converging lenses. Like compound microscope, the two lenses are objective and
eyepiece lens. It is used to magnify objects that are very far away (considered
to be at infinity).
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The figure below shows the schematic diagram of the telescope.

fo

fe

fe

Parallel rays from object at infinity

Fe' Fo I1
Objective lens

Fe

Eyepiece lens acts as a magnifier. The properties of first image are Real,
inverted and diminished

I2
The properties of final image are Virtual, inverted and magnified
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v =fo

v >(fo+ fe)

66
The properties of the telescope are

The distance between two lenses, L <(fo+fe) fo > fe The final image is I2. The
angular magnification formula is given by

fo Ma = − fe
The negative sign indicates that the image is inverted.

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