CIV100 Wind and Earthquake

Chevron Corporation 100-1 September 2000
100 Wind and Earthquake

Design Standards
Abstract
This section contains guidance for determining wind and earthquake loads on indus-
trial structures and equipment. It also includes design methods for avoiding wind-
induced vibration of steel stacks. It is based on ASCE 7-93 and the Uniform
Building Code (1997). Wind and earthquake loads on tanks, buildings, and offshore
platforms are beyond the scope of this document. The Tank Manual covers wind and
earthquake loads on tanks. Local building codes define lateral loads on buildings.
Finally, API RP-2A should be used for the design of offshore platforms.
Maps showing basic wind speeds and seismic zones for the United States are
included in this section.
Allowable stresses, foundation stability ratios, soil bearing pressures, and sample
calculations are also included.
This section can be used as a design guide for contractors responsible for seismic
and wind design of new or existing Company facilities. Copies of this section can be
obtained from CRTC Technical Standards Team. For additional guidance and
requirements, refer to Chevron Specification CIV-EG-5009-C, Structural Design
Criteria. This document can also be obtained from the CRTC Technical Standards
Team.
Contents Page
110 Design Standards 100-3
111 Introduction
112 General
113 Wind Design
114 Earthquake Design
115 Allowable Stresses, Soil Bearing, and Stability Ratios
120 Methods and Calculations 100-24
121 Natural Period of Vibration
100 Wind and Earthquake Design Standards Civil and Structural Manual
September 2000 100-2 Chevron Corporation
122 Wind-Induced Vibration of Steel Stacks and Columns
123 Examples of Wind and Earthquake Load Calculations
Example 1Two-Story Concrete Vessel Support Structure
(Assume El Segundo, CA Location)
Example 2Uniform Cylindrical Column
Example 3Column of Variable Cross Section
(Assume Salt Lake City, UT Location)
Example 4Braced-Column Spheres
(Assume Richmond, California Location)
Example 5Vertical Vessels with Unbraced Legs
(Assume Richmond, CA Location)
Example 6Stack Vibration and Ovalling
Example 7Stack Vibration
130 References 100-53
Civil and Structural Manual 100 Wind and Earthquake Design Standards
110 Design Standards
111 Introduction
It is important that a civil engineer be consulted whenever new facilities or existing
structures are being evaluated for seismic and wind loads. This section is for civil
engineers of all experience levels. Engineers from other disciplines might use this as
a reference to follow a civil engineers calculations.
This section gives the reader specific instructions for calculating wind and earth-
quake loads on structures. It does not describe how to use the loads to calculate
stresses and design/analyze a structure or piece of equipment. It does, however, give
allowable stresses and foundation stability information that must be used in wind
and earthquake design.
This section includes formulas for natural period of vibration, example load calcula-
tions, and a method of preventing wind-induced vibration of tall steel stacks.
Section 110 may be used as a design specification.
112 General
These requirements provide the basic criteria for calculating wind and seismic loads
for Company facilities. For further information and background material used in
formulating these provisions, a list of references is provided in Section 130.
For critical structures containing significant quantities of acutely hazardous mate-
rial whose failure could result in off-site consequences, more stringent require-
ments may be appropriate. Examples of critical structures are LNG tanks and
ammonia spheres. The CRTC Civil/Structural Technical Service Team may be
consulted in these cases.
Use of Building Codes
Where legal building code provisions are more stringent and more applicable to a
particular structure than the guidelines and requirements presented here, then the
more stringent provisions must necessarily govern the design.
These provisions apply primarily to framed industrial structures other than build-
ings and to industrial equipment.
Load Combinations
The basic principle of design for lateral forces involves determining the lateral
forces due to wind and earthquake (not both at once) and designing for the most
adverse conditions. Wind or earthquake loads should be combined with all other
loads which may reasonably be expected to occur simultaneously with the design
lateral loads. Vessels and other equipment and their supports should be analyzed for
wind loads combined with gravity loads, both including and excluding the weight of
the normal contents of the equipment. Earthquake loads need be combined only
with normal operating and gravity loads. Wind and earthquake loads need not be
combined with hydrostatic test loads.
Structures designed for wind and earthquake loads must also be capable of with-
standing all other conditions of loading. Stresses from other loads must not exceed
normal allowable stresses.
Load Direction
The wind or earthquake forces should be considered as acting in any direction, but
for analysis they can be resolved into components in the directions of the principal
axes of the structure.
Dynamic Effects
Both wind and earthquake effects are dynamic phenomena. However, for the design
of structures covered by this document, the use of equivalent static forces is
adequate. Wind design for some structures, e.g., for stacks or slender processing
columns, must consider dynamic behavior. For earthquake design, dynamic
behavior is considered to a limited extent in that the lateral force is based on the
structures natural period. For major structures or critical facilities, it may be desir-
able to use dynamic procedures to supplement the basic static approach.
Design Standard Basis
The wind design provisions are based on ASCE 7-93 and the 1997 UBC.
1
The earthquake provisions are similar in form to those in Recommended Lateral
Force Requirements and Commentary (1997 7
th
Edition), Structural Engineers
Association of California, and to the 1997 Uniform Building Code.
Locations outside the US must determine whether these standards or their own (e.g.,
Canadas NBC) apply.
113 Wind Design
Design wind pressures are dependent on the Wind Speed Zone, which is defined for
Company locations in Figure 100-1. Use Figure 100-2 to determine the Wind Speed
Zone for other locations in the United States including Alaska and Hawaii. Increase
the Wind Speed Zone if warranted by local conditions or anomalies.
After determining the appropriate Wind Speed Zone, wind forces (F
w
) on an
exposed structure can be calculated:
F
W
= (Shape Factor) (Basic Wind Pressure)
(Projected Area) (Importance Factor)
(Eq. 100-1)
1. The wind load provisions of ASCE 7-95 were reviewed during this manual revision. ASCE 7-95 contains
changes from previous editions and utilizes 3-second gust wind speeds instead of fastest-mile. However, the
design wind forces using the ASCE 7-95 criteria are essentially the same as ASCE 7-93 and 1997 UBC criteria.
Shape factors for various elements are defined in Figure 100-3. The wind impor-
tance factor I
W
shall be taken as 1.0 for normal non-critical oil industry structures.
For critical structures or structures housing or supporting acutely hazardous mate-
rials (AHMs) I
w
shall be taken as 1.15.
Fig. 100-1 Wind Speed Zone for Company Locations
Location
Wind Speed Zone
(mph)
California
Bakersfield/Cymric/McKittrick/Kern River/Taft 70
Carpinteria/Gaviota 70
El Segundo 70
Richmond 70
Colorado
Rangely 70
Hawaii
Barbers Point/Honolulu 80
Louisiana
Venice/Leeville/Oak Point/Morgan
City/Cameron/St. James 100
Mississippi
Pascagoula 100
Ohio
Marietta 70
Oregon
Willbridge 75
Texas
El Paso 75
Cedar Bayou/Houston/Mont Belvieu 90
Orange 95
Port Arthur 100
Utah
Salt Lake City 70
Washington
Kennewick 75
Wyoming
Evanston 75
Rock Springs 80
C
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D
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1
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-
6
S
e
p
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m
b
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r

2
0
0
0
Fig. 100-2 Basic Wind Speeds for the United States (from 1997 Ed. UBC) Reproduced from the 1997 edition of the Uniform Building Code
1997, with the permission of the International Conference of Building Officials
Basic Wind Pressures are defined in Figure 100-4 and are a function of exposures.
Exposure B has terrain which has buildings, forest or surface irregularities 20 feet or
more in height covering at least 20 percent of the area, extending one mile or more
from the site. Exposure C has terrain which is flat and generally open, extending
one-half mile or more from the site in any full quadrant. Exposure D represents the
most severe exposure in areas with basic wind speeds of 80 mph or greater and has
terrain which is flat and unobstructed facing large bodies of water over one mile or
Fig. 100-3 Shape Factors For Wind Load Calculation
The shape factor shall be 1.3 for structures 40 feet or less in height and 1.4 for structures over 40 feet
in height, except as specified below:
Spheres 0.65
Tanks, stacks (except for cooling towers or stacks with helical spoilers) and
other cylindrical structures, excluding appendages
0.8
Induced draft cooling towers: 1.3 +(0.2N)
N = number of cells in direction of wind loading
Total design pressure shall not be less than 23 psf at any height.
Cooling tower stacks 0.9
Stacks with helical spoilers (projected area to include the spoilers, i.e., to
outside
diameter of spoilers)
1.2
Columns and vessels, including normal piping and platforms:
Under 4-ft diameter 1.4
4-ft to 8-ft diameter 1.7 (0.075D)
Over 8-ft diameter 1.1
D = Outside diameter, including insulation, ft
Elements of structures:
Applies to the projected framing area of the wind members on any element
exposed to the wind (i.e., consider both columns for a frame parallel to the
wind).
2.0
(Forces on equipment and piping supported on the structure shall be added.)
Flat or angular sections 1.3
Cylindrical members (including piping):
Two inches or less in diameter
Over two inches in diameter
1.0
0.8
more in width. Exposure D extends inland from the shoreline .25 miles or 10 times
building height, whichever is greater.
Fig. 100-4 Basic Wind Pressures (psf) for Heights above Ground
Height
Wind Speed (MPH)
Exposure
70 75 80 85 90 95 100 110
0-15 ft.
20
25
30
40
60
80
100
120
160
200
300
400
8
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
18
20
22
9
10
10
11
12
14
15
16
17
19
20
23
26
10
11
12
12
14
16
17
19
20
21
23
26
29
11
12
13
14
15
18
19
21
22
24
26
30
33
13
14
15
16
17
20
21
23
25
27
29
33
37
14
15
16
17
19
22
24
26
28
30
32
37
41
16
17
18
19
21
24
26
29
31
33
36
41
46
19
21
22
23
26
29
32
35
37
40
44
50
55
B
0-15 ft.
20
25
30
40
60
80
100
120
160
200
300
400
13
14
15
16
16
18
19
20
21
22
23
26
28
15
16
17
18
19
21
22
23
24
26
27
30
32
17
18
19
20
21
23
25
26
27
29
31
34
36
20
21
22
23
24
26
28
30
31
33
35
38
41
22
23
25
26
27
30
32
33
35
37
39
43
46
24
26
27
29
30
33
35
37
39
41
43
47
51
27
29
30
32
33
37
39
41
43
46
48
53
56
33
35
37
38
40
44
47
50
52
55
58
64
68
C
The values of basic wind pressures in Figure 100-4 include: Structure Importance
Factor for wind, Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficient, and a Gust Response
Factor per ASCE 7-93.
Use the projected area of each element within each height zone for calculating the
force. The total force on the structure is the sum of the forces on all the elements,
including wind up-lift forces on the surfaces of horizontal projections. Apply all
forces at the centroids of the projected areas. For example calculations, demon-
strating wind design methodology, see Section 123, Examples of Wind and Earth-
quake Load Calculations. Other wind design concerns include wind-induced
vibration of stacks, above-grade pipelines, or any slender element which can be
excited aerodynamically. See Section 122 for an analysis of this problem.
114 Earthquake Design
These requirements are intended only for use in designing ordinary industrial struc-
tures. They are not intended to cover offshore platforms or buildings.
These criteria are adequate for most conditions. However, specific sites may present
special seismic hazards, such as soil liquefaction, landslide, surface rupture, and
tsunami that require additional design considerations beyond the scope of this docu-
ment.
These provisions shall apply to the structure as a unit and also to the individual parts
of a structure.
0-15 ft.
20
25
30
40
60
80
100
120
160
200
300
400
17
18
19
19
20
22
23
24
24
25
26
28
29
20
21
22
22
23
25
26
27
28
29
30
32
34
23
24
24
25
27
28
30
31
31
33
34
36
38
26
27
28
28
30
32
33
35
36
37
39
41
43
29
30
31
32
34
36
37
39
40
42
43
46
48
32
33
35
36
37
40
42
43
44
47
48
51
54
35
37
38
39
42
44
46
48
49
52
54
57
60
43
45
46
48
50
53
56
58
59
62
65
69
72
D
Note For regions between the hurricane oceanline and 100 miles inland, the basic wind pressures shall be determined by
linear interpolation. At the hurricane oceanline, the basic wind pressures shall be multiplied by 1.05. At 100 miles from
the hurricane oceanline, the basic wind pressures shall be multiplied by 1.00. Hurricane oceanlines are the Atlantic and
Gulf of Mexico coastal areas.
Fig. 100-4 Basic Wind Pressures (psf) for Heights above Ground (Contd.)
Height
Wind Speed (MPH)
Exposure
70 75 80 85 90 95 100 110
Structural Systems Similar to Buildings (SSSB)
A concentric braced frame is a braced frame in which the members are subjected
primarily to axial forces.
A shear wall is a wall designed to resist lateral forces parallel to the plane of the
wall (sometimes referred to as a vertical diaphragm).
A light-framed wall with shear panels is similar to a shear wall system except the
vertical diaphragm is usually light gage metal, i.e., similar to a refinery box furnace.
A moment-resisting space frame is a structural system in which the members and
joints are capable of resisting lateral forces primarily by flexure. An ordinary
moment-resisting space frame (OMRSF) is a moment-resisting space frame not
meeting special detailing requirements for ductile behavior. An intermediate
moment-resisting space frame (IMRSF) is a concrete space frame designed in
conformance with UBC Section 1921.8. A special moment-resisting space frame
(SMRSF) is a moment-resisting space frame specially detailed to provide ductile
behavior and comply with the requirements given in UBC Section 1921 for concrete
and UBC Chapter 22, Division IV or V for steel.
An induced draft cooling tower is typically a timber structure with some type of
internal brace system.
Nonbuilding-Type Structures
These structures include all self-supporting structures (equipment with integral
supports) other than buildings which carry gravity loads and resist the effects of
earthquake. Nonbuilding structures also include structures supporting equipment
with structural systems similar to buildings (SSSB).
Design Base Shear for Structures
The determination of design base shear is directly related to the structures
fundamental period of vibration, T. The fundamental period of a structure can be
determined by rational methods as demonstrated in Section 121, Natural Period of
Vibration. Structures with longer periods of vibration, such as stacks, frames, one-
column pipe supports, and vertical vessels, will typically be governed by
Equation 100-2 below. Rigid structures with a short period of vibration, such as
short horizontal vessel supports or pump foundations, will typically be governed by
Equation 100-6.
It is important to note that the earthquake design forces specified by the 1997
Uniform Building Code are based on strength design; whereas in past editions of the
UBC the design forces were based on allowable stress design. Because this section
is based on the 1997 UBC, the following equations will provide results which are
strength design based. If one desires to use allowable stress design, the earthquake
forces calculated using the following equations need to be divided by a factor of 1.4.
For structure systems similar to buildings (such as those listed in sections I and II of
Figure 100-11) the total design base shear in a given direction shall be:
(Eq. 100-2)
With the conditions that:
(Eq. 100-3)
and
(Eq. 100-4)
In addition, for Seismic Zone 4,
(Eq. 100-5)
For nonbuilding structures (such as those listed in Sections III and IV of
Figure 100-11) and having a period, T, less than 0.06 seconds, the total design base
shear shall be:
(Eq. 100-6)
For flexible nonbuilding structures (such as those listed in sections III and IV of
Figure 100-11), Equation 100-2 and Equation 100-3 shall apply, with the additional
stipulations that:
(Eq. 100-7)
and additionally, for Seismic Zone 4,
(Eq. 100-8)
The coefficients used above are defined as follows:
V = Total base shear
Z = Seismic zone factor
I = Occupancy importance factor
C
a
, C
v
= Site-dependent seismic coefficients representing the ground
motion
N
a
, N
v
= Near-source factors related to the proximity of the structure to
known faults in seismic zone 4
V
C
v
I
RT
--------W =
V
max
2.5C
a
I
R
----------------W =
V
min
0.11C
a
IW =
V
min
0.8ZN
v
I
R
--------------------W =
V 0.7C
a
IW =
V
min
0.56C
a
IW =
V
min
1.6ZN
v
I
R
--------------------W =
R = Structural system factor
T = Fundamental period of vibration, in seconds, of the structure in
the direction under consideration. See Section 121, Natural
Period of Vibration
W = Total seismic deadload plus operating weight
The Seismic Zone Factor, Z, shall be as specified below for the earthquake zone in
which the structure is located. The earthquake zone shall be as listed in Figure 100-5
and shown on Figure 100-6.

Seismic Zone
Corresponding Seismic Zone
Factor, Z
0 0
1 0.075
2A 0.15
2B 0.20
3 0.30
4 0.40
Fig. 100-5 Seismic Zone for Company Locations
(1)
Location
Earthquake
Zone N
a
N
v
California
Bakersfield/Cymric/McKittrick/Kern
River/Taft 4 1.0 1.0
Carpinteria 4 1.3 1.6
El Segundo 4 1.1 1.33
Gaviota 4 1.1 1.33
Richmond 4 1.2 1.6
Colorado
Rangely 1
Hawaii
Barbers Point/Honolulu 2A
Louisiana
Venice/Leeville/Oak Point/Morgan
City/Cameron/St. James 0
Mississippi
Pascagoula 0
Ohio
Marietta 1
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1
0
0
-
1
3
S
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2
0
0
0
Oregon
Willbridge 3
Texas
Cedar Bayou/Houston/Mont
Belvieu/
Orange/Port Arthur 0
El Paso 1
Utah
Salt Lake City 3
Washington
Kennewick 2B
Wyoming
Evanston 2B
Rock Springs 1
(1) Near-source factors (N
a
and N
v
) are given for Company locations found in Zone 4 only.
Fig. 100-5 Seismic Zone for Company Locations (Contd.)
(1)
Location
Earthquake
Zone N
a
N
v
The Occupancy Importance Factor, I, shall be taken as 1.0 for normal non-critical
oil industry structures. For critical structures or structures housing or supporting
acutely hazardous materials (AHMs), I shall be taken as 1.25. See Figure 100-12.
The seismic coefficients, C
a
and C
v
, shall be determined using Figures 100-7 and
100-8:
C
a
and C
v
represent the ground motion, and are a function of the seismic zone (Z)
and the soil profile type (given in 100-9). In seismic zone 4 only, C
a
and C
v
are also
a function of the near source factors N
a
and N
v
. N
a
and N
v
factors are dependent on
the distance of the structure to known active large magnitude faults. The N
a
and N
v

factors for Company locations in seismic zone 4 are given in 100-5.
Fig. 100-6 Seismic Zone Map of the United States (from 1997 ed. of UBC) Reproduced from the 1997
edition of the Uniform Building Code 1997, with the permission of the International Confer-
ence of Building Officials
A review of the Design Response Spectra (shown in Figure 100-10) helps to illus-
trate how the seismic coefficients C
a
and C
v
define the seismic response throughout
the spectral range. There are two basic regions to the response spectrum-short
period
(T < T
S
) and long period (T > T
S
). Equation 100-2 represents the curved (long
period) portion of the response spectrum, while Equation 100-3 represents the flat
(short period) portion of the spectrum.
The Structural System Factor, R, reflects the expected earthquake resistance for
different types of structures. It is a numerical coefficient which represents the
inherent global energy absorbing capability or ductility and overstrength in a
particular type of structural system. Values for R for a wide variety of structural
systems are presented in Figure 100-11.
Fig. 100-7 Seismic Coefficient C
a
(Reproduced from the 1997 edition of the Uniform Building Code
1997, with the permission of the International Conference of Building Officials)
Seismic Zone Factor, Z
Soil Profile
Type Z = 0.075 Z = 0.15 Z = 0.2 Z = 0.3 Z = 0.4
S
A
0.06 0.12 0.16 0.24 0.32N
a
S
B
0.08 0.15 0.20 0.30 0.40N
a
S
C
0.09 0.18 0.24 0.33 0.40N
a
S
D
0.12 0.22 0.28 0.36 0.44N
a
S
E
0.19 0.30 0.34 0.36 0.36N
a
S
F
See Footnote
(1)
(1) Site-specific geotechnical investigation and dynamic site response analysis shall be performed to determine seismic coeffi-
cients for Soil Profile Type S
F
.
Fig. 100-8 Seismic Coefficient C
v
(Reproduced from the 1997 edition of the Uniform Building Code
1997, with the permission of the International Conference of Building Officials)
Seismic Zone Factor, Z
Soil Profile
Type Z = 0.075 Z = 0.15 Z = 0.2 Z = 0.3 Z = 0.4
S
A
0.06 0.12 0.16 0.24 0.32N
v
S
B
0.08 0.15 0.20 0.30 0.40N
v
S
C
0.13 0.25 0.32 0.45 0.56N
v
S
D
0.18 0.32 0.40 0.54 0.64N
v
S
E
0.26 0.50 0.64 0.84 0.96N
v
S
F
See Footnote
(1)
(1) Site-specific geotechnical investigation and dynamic site response analysis shall be performed to determine seismic coeffi-
cients for Soil Profile Type S
F
.
Two major types of structural systems exist, e.g., structures similar to buildings, and
nonbuilding-type structures, each having a different minimum design requirement.
Fig. 100-9 Site Coefficients (Reproduced from the 1997 edition of the Uniform Building Code 1997,
with the permission of the International Conference of Building Officials)
Soil
Profile
Type
Soil Profile
Name/Generic Descrip-
tion
Shear Wave
Velocity V
s

feet/second
(m/s)
Standard Pene-
tration Test, N
[or N
CH
for cohe-
sionless soil
layers]
(blows/foot)
Undrained Shear
Strength S
U
psf
(kPa)
S
A
Hard Rock > 5,000
(1,500)
--- ---
S
B
Rock 2,500 to 5,000
(760 to 1,500)
S
C
Very Dense Soil and Soft
Rock
1,200 to 2,500
(360 to 760)
> 50 > 2,000
(100)
S
D
Stiff Soil Profile 600 to 1,200
(130 to 360)
15 to 50 1,000 to 2,000
(50 to 100)
S
E
(1)
Soft Soil Profile < 600
(180)
< 15 < 1,000
(50)
S
F
Soil Requiring Site-specific Evaluation. See Section 1629.3.1.
(1) Soil Profile Type S
E
also includes any soil profile with more than 10 feet (3048 mm) of soft clay defined as a soil with a
plasticity index,
PI > 20, w
mc
40 percent and s
u
< 500 psf (24 kPa). The Plasticity Index, PI, and the moisture content, w
mc
, shall be
determined in accordance with approved national standards.
Fig. 100-10Design Response Spectra (Reproduced from the 1997 edition of the
Uniform Building Code 1997, with the permission of the International
Conference of Building Officials)
Fig. 100-11Structural System Factors (R Factors) (1 of 2)
Structural System Description
I. STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS SIMILAR TO BUILDINGS (SSSB) Structural System Factor,
R
Steel Structures
Special moment resisting frame 5.6
Ordinary moment resisting frame 4.5
Braced frame
a. Eccentrically braced frame 5.6
b. Concentrically braced frame 4.5
Inverted pendulum type structure (cantilever column) 2.2
Concrete Structures
Intermediate moment resisting frame
(1)
4.5
Ordinary moment resisting frame
(2)
3.5
Shear wall 4.5
Inverted pendulum type structure (cantilever pier/column) 2.2
II. PIPEWAYS
Steel
Ordinary moment resisting frame 4.5
Braced frame (CBF) 4.5
Cantilever column 2.9
Concrete
Intermediate moment resisting frame
(1)
4.5
Ordinary moment resisting frame
(2)
3.5
Cantilever column 2.9
III. EQUIPMENT BEHAVING AS STRUCTURES WITH INTEGRAL SUPPORTS
Vertical vessels/heaters, tanks, or spheres supported by:
Steel skirts 2.9
Steel skirt when t
shell
/t
skirt
> 1.5 2.2
Steel braced legs 2.9
Steel or concrete unbraced legs 2.2
Horizontal vessels
Flexible concrete support 2.2
Boilers
Light steel framed wall with shear panels 4.5
Steel braced frame where bracing carries gravity load 4.5
Steel ordinary moment frame 4.5
Chimneys, stacks, or truss covers
Steel guyed 2.9
Steel cantilever 2.9
Concrete 2.9
IV. COOLING TOWERS
Wood frame 5.6
Concrete 3.6
Notes: 1. Some R values are slightly different than those prescribed by the 1997 UBC. This is in accordance with the ASCE
Publication Guidelines for Seismic Evaluation and Design of Petrochemical Facilities.
2. For analysis of existing Moment-Resisting Frames, use R for an Ordinary Moment-Resisting Frame unless a different
value can be justified.
3. If assigning a value of R to a system not itemized in this table, in the absence of a detailed study, use R = 2.1. CRTCs
Civil/Structural Team is available for counsel on this subject.
(1) Prohibited in Seismic Zones 3 and 4, except as permitted in UBC Section 1634.2.
(2) Prohibited in Seismic Zones 2A, 2B, 3, and 4.
Fig. 100-11Structural System Factors (R Factors) (2 of 2)
Vertical Distribution of Base Shear Force for Free Standing
Structures
For structures having a natural period, T, greater than 0.7 sec., a portion of the total
base shear force, V, shall be applied at the top of the structure, as determined by the
following equation:
F
t
= 0.07 TV (Eq. 100-9)
where:
F
t
= Portion of base shear applied at the top of the structure.
T = Structure natural period of vibration, sec.
V = Total base shear from appropriate equation (Equation 100-2
through Equation 100-8)
F
t
need not exceed 0.25V (applies when T is equal to or greater than 3.57 sec.). If T
is less than or equal to 0.7 sec., F
t
shall be taken as zero.
The remainder of the total base shear force shall be distributed and applied to the
various masses in the structure in accordance with the following equation:
(Eq. 100-10)
where:
F
x
= Lateral force applied to a mass at level x.
W
x
= Weight of the mass at level x.
h
x
= Height of level x above the base (normally the bottom of the base
plate of the structure or portion of the structure being analyzed)
V = Total base shear from appropriate equations (Eq. 100-2 through
100-8)
Wh = The sum of the products of W
x
and h
x
for all the masses within
the structure.
Vertical Distribution of Base Shear Force for Guyed Structures
Where guys are used to provide lateral force resistance, the total lateral force shall
be distributed to the various masses in direct proportion to their weights and shall be
applied at their centers of gravity. See Section 300, Industrial Structures, for more
information on the design of guyed structures.
Horizontal Distribution of Base Shear Force
The total shear in any horizontal plane shall be distributed to the various resisting
elements in proportion to their rigidities, considering the rigidity of the horizontal
bracing system or diaphragm as well as the rigidities of the vertical resisting
elements. Provision shall be made for the increase in shear resulting from the hori-
zontal torsion due to an eccentricity between the center of mass and the center of
rigidity. Negative torsional shears may be neglected. In addition, where the vertical
F
x
V F
t
( )
W
x
h
x
Wh
------------- =
resisting elements depend upon diaphragm action for shear distribution at any level,
the shear resisting element shall be capable of resisting a torsional moment assumed
to be equal to the shear at the level, acting with an eccentricity of not less than 5%
of the maximum structure plan dimension at that level.
Details of Earthquake Resistant Design
Much of the damage sustained in past earthquakes could have been avoided through
proper detailing of structural elements and connections. It is important in earth-
quake-resistant design to give the structure the ability to absorb energy if loaded to
levels above the minimum design. This quality is best achieved by detailing the
structural frame, the members, and the connections so that overall structural defor-
mation will be ductile rather than brittle. This flexibility is particularly desirable for
reinforced concrete construction. Structures should also have a consistent stress
level, or margin of reserve strength throughout.
An increased force, E
m
, shall be used for the design of crucial structural
components in the lateral force resisting system such as collector elements, steel
connections, and elements supporting discontinuous systems. The symbol E
m
repre-
sents the estimated maximum earthquake force that can be developed in a structure.
It is a function of the base shear and the system overstrength, which takes into
account factors such as material overstrengths, advantageous collapse mechanisms,
and the type of lateral force resisting system. For more information on this topic,
contact the CRTC Civil/Structural Team.
The following general comments apply to structures and components of structures.
1. Masonry StructuresAlways reinforce in accordance with Section 2106 of the
Uniform Building Code.
2. Reinforced Concrete StructuresConcrete frames in Seismic Zones 3 and 4
shall be Special Moment Resisting Space Frames (SMRSF). Concrete frames in
Seismic Zones 2A and 2B shall be, as a minimum, an Intermediate Moment
Resisting Space Frame (IMRSF). Concrete shear walls, braced frames, or
moment resisting frames used to resist earthquake forces shall be designed in
accordance with Section 1921 of the Uniform Building Code.
3. Steel StructuresPay special attention to connections. At connections and
other points of high stress in rigid frame structures, follow the requirements of
the AISC Specification for plastic design regarding width-thickness ratios,
lateral bracing, web stiffening, and fabrication. Follow the provisions of
Chapter 22, Divisions IV or V of the Uniform Building Code.
4. Vessels, Columns and SpheresMinimize stress raisers and provide for conti-
nuity of reinforcement around openings. Use bracing effective in tension and
compression for braced legs of spheres and vertical vessels. Anchor bolts
should be sized to resist the maximum predicted earthquake forces. Use the
Standard Anchor Bolt Drawing (GD-Q68922) for bolt selection and spacing.
This drawing was developed based on a ductile failure criteria. Do not oversize
the anchor bolts as this will result in a non-ductile failure.
5. FoundationsProvide tie beams, reinforced concrete slabs, or other equivalent
restraint interconnecting individual footings on piles when the surface soil does
not provide adequate lateral restraint.
See Sections 1626 through 1636 of the Uniform Building Code for general earth-
quake regulations.
Electrical and Mechanical Equipment
All equipment and equipment anchorage to foundations or supporting structures
shall be designed to resist a minimum lateral earthquake force acting at the center of
mass of the equipment. This provision includes such items as switch gear, trans-
formers, vessels supported in structures, control panels, etc.
For equipment supported by a structure:
(Eq. 100-11)
With the condition that:
(Eq. 100-12)
(Eq. 100-13)
where:
For rigid equipment supported at grade (such as a transformer, switchgear, etc.):
(Eq. 100-14)
F
p
= Design lateral earthquake force
I
P
= Seismic importance factor (See Figure 100-12)
W
p
= Total operating weight of equipment
a
p
= In-Structure Component Application Factor (from Figure 100-13)
R
p
= Component Response Modification Factor (from Figure 100-13)
h
x
= element or component attachment elevation with respect to grade.
h
x
shall not be less than 0.0
h
r
= structure roof elevation with respect to grade
Fig. 100-12Seismic Importance Factor
Description I I
P
Equipment required for life safety systems 1.25 1.5
Items containing sufficient quantities of acutely
hazardous material whose failure could result in off-site
consequences.
1.25 1.5
All other equipment or normal non-critical structures 1.0 1.0
Critical structures 1.25 1.5
F
p
a
p
C
a
I
p
R
p
----------------- 1 3
h
x
h
r
----- +
\ .
|
| |
W
p
=
F
pmin
0.7C
a
I
p
W
p
=
F
pmax
4.0C
a
I
p
W
p
=
F
p
0.7C
a
I
p
W
p
=
Direct anchorage through anchor bolts shall be provided where possible. For
shallow expansion anchor bolts, use R
p
= 1.5. For nonductile or adhesive anchor
bolts, use R
p
= 1.0. In situations where anchor bolt connections are impractical, a
welded ductile connection between equipment and support may be provided. A
ductile connection shall be defined as one that will undergo inelastic deformation
through yielding before the connection fails. The direct welding of rigid equipment
to a rigid foundation or support is not recommended.
Appendix H, Determination of Base Shear for Selected Structures, indicates the
appropriate base shear equations that should be used for many typical refinery struc-
tures and types of equipment. Appropriate R values are also included.
Displacement
There is no specific code requirement which limits the lateral displacement/drift in
industrial structures. However, it is recommended that the lateral displacement be
limited to a displacement that can be tolerated by the equipment being supported,
including the associated piping and other appurtenances.
The Maximum Inelastic Response Displacement,
M
, corresponds to the maximum
deformations of a structure responding in the inelastic range. In order to calculate
M
, the design level displacement (
S
) is simplified to the inelastic level using the
following equation:
(Eq. 100-15)
where:
M
is as defined above
S
is the displacement corresponding to the code-level design seismic forces
R is the structural system factor.
The analysis used to determine the Maximum Inelastic Response Displacement
(
M
) shall consider P effects. For guidance on this subject, contact the CRTC
Civil/Structural Team.
Earthquake Loads
To design a structure, calculate the forces to be applied to each element of the
structure. The earthquake load (E) on an element of a structure is a result of the
Fig. 100-13Horizontal Force Factors (a
p
and R
p
)
Equipment Description a
p
R
p
1. Vessels (including contents), and their support systems 1.0 3.0
2. Electrical, mechanical, and plumbing equipment and associated conduit
and ductwork and piping such as switchgears, transformers, pumps, and
air-handling units.
1.0 3.0
NOTE:
Refer to UBC Table 16-0 for a more extensive listing of horizontal force factors.
M
0.7R
S
=
combination of the horizontal component (E
h
) and the vertical component (E
v
), and
can be calculated using the following equation:
(Eq. 100-16)
where:
= redundancy/reliability factor
= 1.0 for nonbuilding structures and for structures in seismic zone
0, 1, or 2
1.0 for structural systems similar to buildings (SSSB) in seismic
zone 3 or 4
E
h
= earthquake load due to either the base shear (V) or the design
lateral force (F
p
)
E
v
= the load effect resulting from the vertical component of the earth-
quake ground motion
= 0.5C
a
ID for Strength Design
= 0 for Allowable Stress Design
The intent of the factor is to encourage the design of redundant lateral force
resisting structures by penalizing non-redundant structures. There are a number of
important benefits to redundancy, one of the most evident being that the failure of
any single element in a non-redundant structure can produce global structural
collapse. Therefore, in order to obtain good seismic performance, the lateral resis-
tance should be distributed throughout the structure so that failure of any single
element will not result in collapse of the entire structure. The factor varies
between 1.0 and 1.5, and takes into account the number of lateral force resisting
elements, the plan area of the structure, and the distribution of the forces to the
lateral force resisting elements. For a structure with an adequate level of redun-
dancy, the factor would be equal to 1.0; whereas a structure with poor overall
redundancy could have a factor of up to 1.5, resulting in design forces that are
50% higher than otherwise required. Contact the CRTC Civil/Structural Team for
guidance on this subject.
Analysis of Existing Facilities
These Design Standards are intended to apply to the design of new facilities. In
general, structures and equipment properly designed in accordance with earlier
codes need not be redesigned to meet the present Wind and Earthquake Design
Standards. However, when any significant modification is made or weight is added
to an existing structure, the design should be reviewed. If required, the structure
should be modified to meet the requirements of the appropriate building code.
Although current building codes do not require the upgrading of existing facilities,
in keeping with Corporate Policy 530 for Safety, Fire, Health, and the Environment,
it may be appropriate to review the design of facilities in critical service. A portion
of that policy instructs management to conduct scientific hazard and risk assess-
E E
h
E
v
+ =
ments, as needed, to identify, characterize, and safely manage any present or future
potential hazards of Company products and operations.
A critical facility is defined as one for which a major failure would cause one of the
following:
1. Develop a condition which would result in serious injury or death.
2. Result in damage to the environment significantly beyond that which the earth-
quake would cause at the site.
3. Result in appreciable loss of revenue.
To evaluate the risk of a critical facility, the following steps are recommended:
1. Determine the existing strength of the structures.
2. Make a judgment as to whether the existing strength is acceptable in light of
current conditions, including the types of risk factors previously noted.
The judgments required to determine acceptability should include evaluation of
structural redundancy and reserve strength. The assessment of existing facilities for
earthquake capacity is not commodity engineering and should be done by qualified
personnel.
Since most assessments of existing facilities are voluntary efforts to mitigate
potential business risks, it is not always necessary or even beneficial to measure a
structures acceptability against the current building code requirements. CRTCs
Civil/Structural Technical Service Team has performed many seismic assessments
of Company owned facilities utilizing Proposed Guidance for Risk Management
and Prevention Program (RMPP) Seismic Assessments. This document was
developed in 1992 by a team of technical experts and industry professionals to aid
in the assessment of seismic risk at existing industrial facilities. In 1998, this
document was revised and renamed Proposed Guidance for California Accidental
Release Prevention (CalARP) Program Seismic Assessments.
Proposed Guidance for CalARP Seismic Assessments evaluates the ultimate
strength capacity of existing structures. The ultimate strength capacity of a structure
is defined here as the ability of a structure to perform inelastically while avoiding
failure. The ultimate strength must be compared to the expected structural demand
resulting from the expected levels of ground shaking at the site. The CalARP guide-
lines utilize the same level of acceptable risk as that defined in the current UBC, i.e.,
the level of ground motion associated with a 10 percent chance of exceedance in 50 years.
For facilities with unacceptably low strength, one of the following should be
considered:
1. Strengthen the facility
2. De-rate the facility to lower the risk of failure. For example, reduce the safe
operating height for tanks.
CRTCs Civil/Structural Technical Service Team is available for counsel regarding
these procedures and judgments.
115 Allowable Stresses, Soil Bearing, and Stability Ratios
Allowable Stresses for Structural Members
The allowable stresses for structural members for loading conditions including wind
or earthquake loads shall be one-third greater than the stresses allowed for normal
conditions of loading by applicable structural design codes.
Stability Ratio
The stability ratio of the resisting moments about the edge of a foundation to the
overturning moment due to wind loads shall not be less than 1.5.
The stability ratio for earthquake loads shall not be less than 1.0 and the force F
t
, if
applicable, may be omitted when determining the earthquake overturning moment
to be resisted at the foundation-soil interface.
Foundation Soil Bearing Pressures
Foundation soil bearing pressures for loading conditions including wind or earth-
quake loads should be based on sound engineering principles taking into account the
nature of the subsoil and distribution of the load. In the absence of other criteria, the
allowable soil bearing pressures may be increased by one-third when considering
wind or earthquake forces acting alone or when combined with vertical loads.
Allowable Stresses in Pressure Vessel Shells and Skirts
See the Pressure Vessel Manual for allowable stresses in pressure vessels subject to
wind or earthquake loads. Allowable stresses for loading conditions including wind
or earthquake loads are typically higher than stresses allowed for normal conditions.
120 Methods and Calculations
121 Natural Period of Vibration
In the design of flexible structures for earthquake loads and wind-induced vibra-
tion, it is necessary to determine the first mode natural period of vibration of the
structure. The following figures (Figures 100-14 through 100-20), and their accom-
panying equations give the natural period of vibration for several types of industrial
structures. Texts about dynamics of structures tell how to find the periods of more
complex structures. Computer programs with dynamic structural analysis capabili-
ties can also determine periods of structural vibration.
The units used throughout the following formulas must be consistent except where
otherwise noted.
Equation 100-23 in Figure 100-20 is an approximate formula which is sufficiently
accurate for most non-uniform distillation columns and vertical vessels. If a vessel
has a lower section several times the diameter of the upper portions, and the lower
portion is short compared with the overall height (such as a vertical seal drum on
which is mounted a self-supporting flare or vent stack), the period can be more
accurately determined by finding the period of the upper portion, assuming that
displacement and rotation are fixed at its junction with the lower section. For
vessels where the shell diameter or thickness is large in comparison with the
supporting skirt, such as for high pressure reactors, the period calculated from
Equation 100-23 may be overly conservative for earthquake design, and more accu-
rate methods may be justified.
The equations presented in this section ignore the effects of soil-structure inter-
action. Soil-structure interaction can have a profound effect on the natural
period of large vertical vessels on individual pile-supported foundations. All
critical calculations for such vessels should consider this dynamic phenom-
enon. The CRTC Civil/Structural Technical Service Team may be consulted in
these cases.
Figure 100-14 gives the general formula for determining the natural period of
vibration, T, for a one mass structure.
Figure 100-15 gives the equation for determining the natural period of vibra-
tion for a one mass, Bending Type Structure.
Figure 100-16 gives the equations for a one mass, rigid frame-type structure.
Figure 100-17 gives the equation and parameters for determining the natural
period of vibration for a two mass structure.
Figure 100-18 gives the equation for a bending type structure of uniform
weight distribution and constant cross section.
Figure 100-19 gives the equation for the natural period of vibration for a
uniform vertical cylindrical steel vessel.
Figure 100-20 gives the equation for the natural period of vibration for a non-
uniform vertical cylindrical vessel.
Figure 100-21 lists the coefficients for determining the natural period of vibra-
tion of free-standing cylindrical shells with varying cross sections and mass
distribution.
Fig. 100-14Natural Period of Vibration - One Mass Structure
(Eq. 100-17)
where:
y = static deflection of mass resulting from a lateral load applied at the
mass equal to its own weight.
g = acceleration due to gravity.
See Examples 4 and 5 for application.
T 2
y
g
---
\ .
| |
0.5
=
Fig. 100-15Natural Period of Vibration - One Mass, Bending Type Structure
Fig. 100-16Natural Period of Vibration - One Mass, Rigid Frame Type Structure
(Eq. 100-18)
(Eq. 100-19)
Fig. 100-17Natural Period of Vibration - Two Mass Structure
Fig. 100-18Natural Period of Vibration - Bending Type Structure, Uniform Weight Distribution and
Constant Cross Section
(Eq. 100-20)
(Eq. 100-21)
C
i
v
i
l

a
n
d

S
t
r
u
c
t
u
r
a
l

M
a
n
u
a
l
1
0
0

W
i
n
d

a
n
d

E
a
r
t
h
q
u
a
k
e

D
e
s
i
g
n

S
t
a
n
d
a
r
d
s
C
h
e
v
r
o
n

C
o
r
p
o
r
a
t
i
o
n
1
0
0
-
2
9
S
e
p
t
e
m
b
e
r

2
0
0
0
Fig. 100-19Natural Period of Vibration - Uniform Vertical Cylindrical Steel Vessel
(Eq. 100-22)
Fig. 100-20Natural Period of Vibration - Non-uniform Vertical Cylindrical Vessel Courtesy of the James F.
Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation
(Eq. 100-23)
Fig. 100-21Coefficients for Determining Period of Vibration of Free-Standing Cylindrical Shells Having
Varying Cross Sections and Mass Distribution Courtesy of the James F. Lincoln Arc Welding
Foundation
122 Wind-Induced Vibration of Steel Stacks and Columns
Introduction
Welded steel stacks and other tall, cylindrical structures such as fractionating
columns are susceptible to large-amplitude oscillations during steady winds of
moderate velocity. These oscillations occur transverse to the mean wind direction
and are driven by the vortices which form the downstream wake. The amplitude of
the oscillations is inversely related to the mass and damping of the structure. Unac-
ceptable oscillations are most likely to be encountered with lightly damped struc-
tures, such as welded steel stacks on rigid foundations, and less likely with lined
stacks, riveted structures, concrete stacks, or columns containing process fluids.
The following is a method for design to avoid wind-induced oscillations for tall
cylindrical structures, including guyed stacks. The method is based on a conserva-
tive interpretation of available data, and will produce reliable results when used with
realistic estimates of structural damping.
Ovalling vibration of thin walled stacks must also be checked.
Critical Wind Velocity
The design objective is to have the Critical Wind Velocity (U
c
) be greater than the
Design Wind Velocity (U
d
), thereby eliminating wind-induced vibration.
The Critical Wind Velocity is the lowest velocity at which wind-induced oscilla-
tions occur. It is computed as follows:
1. Determine the natural fundamental period (T) of the structure (See Section 121,
Natural Period of Vibration).
2. Using the outside diameter of the stack (D), find the Critical Wind Velocity
(U
c
):
(Eq. 100-24)
3. Determine the Mean Steady Wind Velocity (U
m
) at the site, sustained for
approximately 10 minutes. This wind velocity should be referenced to a
particular height above grade (Z), which is 30 feet in most meteorological data.
Note: This is not the Wind Speed Zone used in Section 113 or the Base Shear
Z used in Section 114.
4. Determine the Mean Steady Wind Velocity (U
t
) at the top of the stack (H):
(Eq. 100-25)
5. Calculate the Design Wind, (U
d
):
U
d
= 3U
t
(Eq. 100-26)
If U
c
> U
d
, then the stack is not susceptible to wind-induced oscillation. If U
c
< U
d
,
the following design check is required.
U
c
4.7D
T
------------ =
U
t
U
m
H
Z
----
\ .
| |
0.28
=
Design Check
The design objective is to have the Design Damping Coefficient (C
d
) be less than
the Structural Damping Coefficient (C
s
) so wind-induced vibration amplitudes will
not exceed acceptable limits.
The Design Damping Coefficient (C
d
) and the Structural Damping Coefficient (C
s
)
are determined as follows.
1. Select an allowable vibration amplitude, Y
a
, which represents the amplitude of
vibrations that could be sustained indefinitely without fatigue damage to the
stack. Use this method to find a good approximation for Y
a
.
a. Define allowable stress range (F
r
) for infinite life. For shells with butt
welded circumferential joint, F
r
is 16 ksi. For shells with fillet welded
circumferential joint, F
r
is 5 ksi. For other types of connections, refer to the
tables in the AISC Manual of Steel Construction, Part 5, Appendix K4.
b. Determine stress per unit-deflection (F
m
) for the fundamental mode shape
of the stack. This may be approximated by:
F
m
= 1.2 F
w
/ Y
w
(Eq. 100-27)
where:
F
w
= the maximum change in stress from a static condition due to
design wind load only.
Y
w
= The maximum deflection from a static condition due to the design
wind load only.
c. Let:
Y
a
= (F
r
/ 2F
m
) (Eq. 100-28)
Note that allowable stress range is divided by two to get single amplitude
allowable stress.
2. Compute M
r
:
(Eq. 100-29)
w = Weight/unit length of the top one-third of the stack. If variable,
average the weight over the top one-third of the stack.
= Weight density of air times /4
= 0.076 lb/ft
3
x /4 = 0.06 lb/ft
3
D = Diameter of the top one-third of the stack. If variable, take the
square root of the length-weighted average of the squared values
of the diameters over the top one-third. For example, for two
sections:
(Eq. 100-30)
M
r
w
D
2
---------- =
D
D
1
2
l
1
D
2
2
l
2
+
l
1
l
2
+ ( )
------------------------------
0.5
=
3. Compute Design Minimum Required Damping Coefficient (C
d
):
(Eq. 100-31)
= A shape factor; use 1.3 for the fundamental mode of cantilever
structures.
4. Select a Structural Damping Coefficient (C
s
) by adding the appropriate frac-
tions listed below (other values for structural damping may be used if they can
be substantiated):
For example, a stack with refractory lining on a 2000 psf foundation would
have:
C
s
= 0.003 + 0.002 + 0.002 = 0.007.
5. If C
d
< C
s
, then wind-induced vibration amplitudes will not exceed acceptable
limits. If C
d
> C
s
, then design alternatives must be considered.
Design Alternatives
1. Lower H/D or increase t, stack wall thickness (to raise U
c
above U
d
.)
2. Increase t or refractory line stack (to increase M
r
and C
s
.)
3. Attach helical spoilers to the top third of the stack. Conservative guidelines for
spoiler design are:
a. Spoilers shall consist of three helical strakes over the top third of the stack
with a pitch of 5D and a height of 0.12D.
b. A conservative estimate for Design Minimum Damping Fraction for a
stack with spoilers is:
(Eq. 100-32)
C
d
0.45
M
r
----------
D
Y
a
-------- 1.0
\ .
| |
0.5
=
Factor Incremental Damping Fraction
Basic Stack 0.003
Refractory 0.002
Basic Column
Empty 0.008
With Liquid Content 0.013
Foundation soil strength:
less than 1500 psf 0.006
1500 psf to 3000 psf 0.002
greater than 3000 psf 0.0
Pile-supported stacks 0.0
Stacks supported atop structures 0.0
C
d
0.30
M
r
---------- =
Spoilers will be effective if C
s
> C
d
. A lower value of C
d
may be used if it can
be justified.
Note that spoilers increase the effective area and shape factor for static wind
load, which must be accounted for in the design.
4. Attach a damping device to the stack. Several such devices have been used.
Two proven alternatives are hydraulically tensioned guys, and chain impact
dampers.
If Design Minimum Damping is close to the required minimum, so that short dura-
tions of wind-induced vibration will not result in damage, then a reasonable alterna-
tive is to design an auxiliary damping system and provide attachments to the stack
(i.e., padeyes), but defer fabrication and installation of the dampers until after the
stack is erected and actual unacceptable vibration amplitudes have been observed.
Ovalling Vibration of Thin-walled Stacks
Thin-walled stacks are also susceptible to ovalling vibrations, i.e., oscillations
where the stack cross-section vibrates as a ring. The same aeroelastic phenomena
described in the introduction to this section create this mode of vibration. Ovalling,
however, can be directly prevented by the addition of circumferential stiffeners to
the stack.
Criteria for avoiding ovalling is:
If (Eq. 100-33)
where:
t = stack wall thickness, inch
R = stack radius, inch
U
d
= Design Wind (see Equation 100-26), fps
If stiffeners are required:
1. Choose a spacing of stiffeners, L, such that:
(Eq. 100-34)
2. Calculate the required moment of inertia, I
r
(in
4
), of the added stiffener section
about its center of gravity axis by
(Eq. 100-35)
where:
E = modulus of elasticity at operating temperature in psi
D = Diameter in feet
R = Radius in inches
t
R
---
U
d
10200
--------------- stiffeners are required <
4
L
R
--- 6
I
r
U
d
2.5D
------------
2
0.00334LtR
4
E
-------------------------------- =
3. Select the stiffener section to provide this I
r
. Usually a flat projecting circum-
ferential bar will do this efficiently.
4. Check that stack thickness, t, is large enough to avoid possible vibration of the
shell between stiffeners.
t > 0.003 R (Eq. 100-36)
Example Calculations
See Section 123, Examples 6 and 7, for a demonstration of the methodology for
analyzing wind-induced vibration of steel stacks
123 Examples of Wind and Earthquake Load Calculations
Following are seven examples of wind and earthquake load calculations for several
different structures and supports. These examples are:
Note: Examples 1-5 are based on the 1997 edition of the UBC. The earthquake
design forces specified by the 1997 UBC are based on strength design; whereas in
past editions of UBC the design forces were based on allowable stress design.
Therefore, in order to be consistent with the 1997 UBC, examples 1-5 are strength
design based. If you want to use allowable stress design, the calculated earthquake
forces should be divided by a factor of 1.4.
Example 1Two-Story Concrete Vessel Support Structure
Earthquake Forces (Transverse directionLoads on one bent)
W = 20 kips (includes structure weight)
Deflections from 1 kip at A and B (calculations not shown):
C
aa
= 0.0384 in., C
ab
= 0.0180 in., C
bb
= 0.0157 in.
Example 1 Two-Story Concrete Vessel Support Structure
Example 2 Uniform Cylindrical Column
Example 3 Column of Variable Cross Section
(Assume Salt Lake City, UT Location)
Example 4 Braced-Column Spheres
(Assume Richmond, California, Location)
Example 5 Vertical Vessels with Unbraced Legs
(Assume Richmond, CA Location)
Example 6 Stack Vibration and Ovalling
Example 7 Stack Vibration
Use Equation 100-20
(Eq. 100-2)
Z = 0.40 (Seismic Zone 4)
I = 1.0
Assume Type S
c
soil.
For El Segundo, N
a
= 1.1 and N
v
= 1.33 (Figure 100-5)
Fig. 100-22Two-Story Concrete Vessel Support StructureSMRSF, EQ Zone 4, Wind Zone 70 MPH
T 2 3.14 ( )
12 0.0384 ( ) 8 0.0157 ( ) 12 0.0384 ( ) 8 0.0157 ( ) | |
2
4 12 ( ) 8 ( ) 0.0180 ( )
2
+ | |
0.5
+ +
2 386 ( )
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
)
`

0.5
=
0.234 sec 0.06 sec > =
Use V
C
v
I
RT
--------W =
C
a
0.40N
a
0.40 1.1 ( ) 0.44 (Figure 100-7) = = =
C
v
0.56N
v
0.56 1.33 ( ) 0.745 = = = Figure 100-8 ( )
Check vs. V
max
:
(Eq. 100-3)
Note: If it is desired to use allowable stress design, the base shear value (V =
3.93
K
) should be divided by 1.4.
(Eq. 100-10)
Base Moment, M
o
= (2.95) (20) + (0.98) (10) = 68.2 k-ft.
Wind Forces (Transverse directionLoads on one bent). Assume wind speed
zone = 70, Exposure B.
Shape Factors: Vessels = 1.4; Open Framework Structures = 1.3
Base Overturning Moment = (0.64) (20) + (0.41) (10) = 16.9 k-ft
Therefore, the Earthquake Moment controls the design.
R 5.6 (Figure 100-11) Special Moment-Resisting Space Frame - Concrete =
V
C
v
I
RT
--------W
0.745 ( ) 1.0 ( )
5.6 ( ) 0.234 ( )
------------------------------- 20 ( ) 11.17 kip Total Base Shear = = =
V
max
2.5C
a
I
R
----------------W =
2.5 ( ) 0.44 ( ) 1.0 ( )
5.6
---------------------------------------- 20 ( ) =
3.93
k
=
V
max
controls!
Use V 3.93
k
=
T 0.7 sec., therefore F
t
0.0 =
W
A
h
A
12 20 ( ) 240 W
B
h
B
; 8 10 ( ) 80 Wh ; 320 = = = = =
F
A
V
W
A
h
A
Wh
---------------- 3.93 ( )
240
320
--------- 2.95 kip F
B
;
W
B
h
B
Wh
---------------- 3.93
80
320
--------- 0.98 kip = = = = = =
F
A
1.4 9 ( ) 4
20
2
------
\ .
| |
1.3 8 ( ) 1.5
11
2
------
\ .
| |
1.0
10
2
------
\ .
| |
+ +
1 000 ,
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 0.64 kip = =
F
B
1.4 8 ( ) 2
15
2
------
\ .
| |
1.3 8 ( ) 1.5
11
2
------
\ .
| |
1.0
10
2
------ 10 +
\ .
| |
+ +
1 000 ,
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 0.41 kip Total Shear 1.05 kip = = =
Example 2Uniform Cylindrical Column (Assume El Segundo,
CA Location)
In most columns of constant diameter, the entire mass can be assumed uniformly
distributed over the height. Where there are large concentrations of mass or varia-
tions in cross-section, the analysis should be made as shown in Example 3.
Period of Vibration:
(Eq. 100-22)
Z = 0.4 (Zone 4); Importance Factor, I = 1.0
N
a
= 1.1; N
v
= 1.33 (From Figure 100-5).
Assume Type S
c
soil.
Fig. 100-23Uniform Cylindrical Column: Earthquake Forces
T
7.78
10
6
----------
100
6
---------
\ .
| |
2
12 600 6
0.25
------------------------------
\ .
| |
0.5
0.898 sec = =
t
vessel
t
skirt
---------------
0.625
0.25
------------- 2.5 and 2.5 1.5 therefore, use R 2.2 = (from Figure 100-11) , > = =
From Figures 100-7 and 100-8,
C
a
= 0.40N
a
= 0.40(1.1) = 0.44
C
v
= 0.56N
v
= 0.56(1.33) = 0.745
(Eq. 100-2)
(Eq. 100-0)
Check V
min
:
(Eq. 100-7)
Also, for Zone 4:
(Eq. 100-8)
Note If it is desired to use allowable stress design, the base shear value
(V = 23.21k) should be divided by 1.4.)
T > 0.7 sec, therefore F
t
= 0.07 TV = 0.07(0.898)(23.21) = 1.46 kip (Eq. 100-9)
V-F
t
= 21.75 kip
W wH 600 lb ft ( ) 100 ft ( ) 60 000 lb , 60 kip = = = =
Base Shear, V
C
V
I
RT
---------W
0.745 ( ) 1.0 ( )
2.2 ( ) 0.898 ( )
------------------------------- 60 kip ( ) 22.63 kips = = =
Check V
max
2.5C
a
I
R
----------------W
2.5 ( ) 0.44 ( ) 1.0 ( )
2.2
---------------------------------------- 60 ( ) 30.0 kip = = =
V
min
0.56C
a
IW =
0.56 0.44 ( ) 1.0 ( ) 60 ( ) =
14.78kips =
V
min
1.6ZN
V
I
R
---------------------W =
1.6 0.4 ( ) 1.33 ( ) 1.0 ( )
2.2
------------------------------------------------ 60 ( ) =
23.21kips =
V
min
controls! Use V 23.21 kips =
When the weight is distributed uniformly along the height, the distribution of the
lateral force V-F
t
given by Equation 100-10 resolves to the triangular distribution
shown in Figure 100-23.
The moment at the top of the skirt, or at any other elevation, can be found by
drawing a free body diagram. For example, M
15
= 1,243 k-ft.
Wind Forces (Wind Zone = 70, Exposure C)
Diam. = 6 ft.-0 in. + 2 (2 in) = 6.33 ft.
Shape Factor = 1.7 - (0.075 D) = 1.7 - (0.075)(6.33) = 1.23
Fig. 100-24Uniform Cylindrical Column: Wind Forces
Base Moment, M
o
F
t
H F
x
h
x
+ 1.46 100 ( )
2
3
--- 21.75 ( ) 100 ( ) + 1 596 k-ft , = = =
Wind Base Shear, V
W
Wind Moment, M
OW
:
F
1
= 1.23(13)(6.33)(15) = 1,520 M
01
= 1,520(7.5) = 11,400
F
2
= 1.23(14)(6.33)(5) = 550 M
02
= 550(17.5) = 9,630
F
3
= 1.23(15)(6.33)(5) = 580 M
03
= 580(22.5) = 13,050
F
4
= 1.23(16)(6.33)(15) = 1,870 M
04
= 1,870(32.5) = 60,780
F
5
= 1.23(18)(6.33)(20) = 2,800 M
05
= 2,800(50) = 140,000
F
6
= 1.23(19)(6.33)(20) = 2,960 M
06
= 2,960(70) = 207,200
F
7
= 1.23(20)(6.33)(20) = 3,110 M
07
= 3,110(90) = 279,900
V
w
= 13,390 lb M
ow
= 721,960 lb-ft = 722 k-ft
Moment at top of skirt:
M
15
= 1.23(14)(6.33)(5)(2.5) + 580(7.5)
+ 1,870(17.5) + 2,800(35)
+ 2,960(55) + 3110(75) = 532.5 k-ft.
Therefore, Earthquake Moment controls the design.
Wind and earthquake moments can be determined similarly at other sections.
Combine the larger of wind or earthquake moment with corresponding gravity
forces at each section and use allowable stresses to determine the required skirt and
shell thickness.
Example 3Column of Variable Cross Section (Assume Salt
Lake City, UT Location)
Period of VibrationUse Equation 100-23 (see Figure 100-20.)
Z = 0.30 (Zone 3); Occupancy Factor = 1.0
Fig. 100-25Column of Variable Cross Section: Natural Period of Vibration
1800
(lb/ft)
(lb)
D
3720 684.86
1200
8000
900
40
3760
1039.76
672.47
2397
2397
Assume S
D
soil.
Therefore, from Figures 100-7 and 100-8, C
a
= 0.36, and C
v
= 0.54
W = 58.5(1.8) + 23.5(1.2) + 12(0.9) + 8.0 = 152.3 kips
(Eq. 100-2)
Check V
min
= 0.56C
a
IW = 0.56(0.36)(1.0)(152.3) = 30.7 kips (Eq. 100-7)
Therefore, use V = 33.83 kips.
Note If it is desired to use allowable stress design, the base shear value
(V=33.83 kips) should be divided by 1.4.
T > 0.7 sec; therefore F
t
= 0.07TV = 0.07 (1.105) (33.83) = 2.62 kip (Eq. 100-9)
V - F
t
= 31.21 kips
(Eq. 100-10)
Shear and Moments: Divide column into segments not exceeding 20% of height.
Base overturning moment, M
o
= 2239.3 k-ft. See Figure 100-26.
Wind Forces (Wind Speed Zone = 70, Exposure B)
Base overturning moment, M
o
= 499 k-ft. See Figure 100-27. The shape factor and
projected area are based on the outside diameter including the insulation. M
(Figure 100-27) is calculated for each section by multiplying average shear in
section by height of section. (Area under shear diagram.) Therefore, M is the
incremental moment at each section, while M
x
is the total moment at each section.
t
vessel
t
skirt
---------------
0.625
0.25
------------- 2.5 and 2.5> 1.5, therefore, use R 2.2 (from Figure 100-11) = = =
Base Shear, V
C
v
I
RT
--------W
0.54 ( ) 1.0 ( )
2.2 ( ) 1.105 ( )
------------------------------- 152.3 ( ) 33.83 kips = = =
F
x
V F
t
( )
W
x
h
x
Wh
-------------
31.21
7672.7
----------------W
x
h
x
= =
Fig. 100-26Column of Variable Cross Section: Earthquake Forces
Fig. 100-27Column of Variable Cross Section: Wind Forces
62 62
11.7
11.7
11.7
11.7
11.7
21.06
21.06
21.06
21.06
21.06
88.15
76.45
64.75
53.05
41.35
1856.44
1610.04
1363.64
1117.23
870.83
7.55
6.55
5.55
4.54
3.54
10.17
16.72
22.27
26.81
30.35
6.40
13.45
19.49
24.54
28.58
74.83
157.32
228.08
287.11
334.42
74.83
232.15
460.22
747.34
1081.76
5.875
5.875
5.875
7.05
7.05
7.05
32.56
26.69
20.81
229.57
188.15
146.73
0.93
0.77
0.60
31.29
32.05
32.65
33.14
33.57
33.83
30.82
31.67
32.35
32.89
33.35
33.70
181.07
186.06
190.07
0.0
195.94
404.38
1262.83
1448.89
1638.96
1638.96
1834.90
2239.28
5.875 7.05 14.94 105.31
0.49
0.43
0.26
60
73
106
179
192
34
226
22
248
37
285
39
324
41
365
26
391
108
499
Example 4Braced-Column Spheres (Assume Richmond, Cali-
fornia
Location)
The recommended bracing system for spheres consists of x-bracing connecting
adjacent pairs of columns as illustrated in Figure 100-28. In accordance with Details
of Earthquake Resistant Design in Section 114, the bracing for large spheres subject
to earthquake loads should be effective both in tension and compression to better
resist the lateral forces. The lateral forces are transmitted into the shell by a
balcony girder.
The shear in each panel and the maximum panel shear may be found by the
formulas:
Fig. 100-28Recommended Bracing System for Spheres
(Eq. 100-37)
(Eq. 100-38)
where:
V
p
= panel shear
V
pmax
= maximum panel shear
V = total lateral force
n = number of panels (equal to number of columns)
= angle between the plane of the panel and the direction of the
lateral force.
Earthquake Forces
The period of vibration is found using the general formula for one-mass structure in
Section 121, Equation 100-17. The static deflection, y, is found by determining the
change in length of the bracing resulting from a total lateral load equal to the weight
of the sphere. Deformation of the columns and balcony girder are usually neglected
for one-story structures.
(Eq. 100-17)
Z = 0.4, Zone 4; Occupancy Factor I = 1.0, R = 2.9 (Figure 100-11)
From Figure 100-5, N
a
= 1.2 and N
v
= 1.6.
Assume S
E
Soil (site over Bay mud)
Therefore, from Figures 100-7 and 100-8,
V
p
2V
n
------- cos =
V
pmax
2V
n
------- =
P Maximum force in brace
1
2
---
2 1500
6
---------------------
\ .
| |
36.0
20.0
----------
\ .
| |
450 kip = = =
Change in length of brace
PL
EA
-------
450 ( ) 36.0 ( ) 12 ( )
29 000 , ( ) 8.0 ( )
---------------------------------------- 0.838 in. = = = =
y

sin
----------- 0.838 ( )
36.0
20
----------
\ .
| |
1.51 in. = = =
Period of Vibration, T 2
y
g
-- -
\ .
| |
0.5
=
T 2
1.51
32.2 12 ( )
---------------------
\ .
| |
0.5
0.393 sec = =
C
a
= 0.36N
a
= 0.36(1.2) = 0.43
C
v
= 0.96N
v
= 0.96(1.6) = 1.54
(Eq. 100-2)
Check V
max
:
(Eq. 100-3)
Note If it is desired to use allowable stress design, the base shear value (V = 556
kips) should be divided by 1.4.
Fig. 100-29Wind Forces for Braced-Column Spheres
Wind Forces (Wind Speed Zone = 70, Exposure C)
Description Projected Area ft
2
Shap
e
factor
Wind
Pressure
psf
Force
k
Sphere Above 40 Elev. 246 0.65 18 2.9
Sphere Between 30 and 40 Elev. 382 0.65 16 4.0
Sphere Below 15 Elev. 92 0.65 13 0.8
Columns & Bracing Above 25 Elev. (1/6)[4(1)(30)+6(.5)(36
)]=38
2.0 16 1.2
Columns & Bracing Between 20 and 25
Elev.
(1/6)[228]=38 2.0 15 1.1
Columns & Bracing Between 15 and 20
Elev.
(1/6)[228]=38 2.0 14 1.1
Columns & Bracing Below 15 Elev. (1/2)[228]=114 2.0 13 3.0
Total Wind Force, V
W
= 19.4
Note In computing the slenderness ratio of bracing in an x-braced frame, the effective length may be taken as one-half the
total
length about both axes of the member. Braces should be attached at their point of intersection.
Base Shear, V
C
v
I
RT
---------W
1.54 ( ) 1.0 ( )
2.9 ( ) 0.393 ( )
------------------------------- 1500 ( ) 2026.8 kips = = =
V
max
2.5C
a
I
R
----------------W =
2.5 0.43 ( ) 1.0 ( )
2.9
----------------------------------- 1500 ( ) = 556.0 kips =
V
max
controls.
Use V 556.0 kips =
Therefore, earthquake forces control the design.
Example 5Vertical Vessels with Unbraced Legs (Assume Rich-
mond, CA Location)
Vertical vessels are often supported with legs rather than skirts as represented in
Figure 100-30. Where the legs are braced, earthquake and wind loads may be deter-
mined as in Example 4. Small vessels are frequently supported on legs without
bracing. Usually the legs are considered fixed at the vessel shell and pinned at their
bases. For these cases, the shell must be adequate to resist the bending moments
applied by the legs, or must be adequately stiffened.
Earthquake Forces
Since the stiffness of the shell is usually large compared with that of the legs, the
period of vibration can be found using the general formula for a one-mass structure
in Section 121 (Equation 100-17) assuming the deflection, y, equals the deflection
of the legs resulting from a total lateral force equal to the weight of the vessel. For a
vessel supported on three or more legs symmetrically spaced about the center, y
may be determined from the formula:
(Eq. 100-39)
where:
N = number of legs
I
x
+ I
y
= sum of moments of inertia of one leg about the perpendicular axis
L = length of legs from base to shell attachment
For example shown:
(Eq. 100-17)
Zone 4; Z = 0.40, Occupancy Factor, I = 1.0; Assume S
E
soil
From Figure 100-5, N
a
= 1.2; N
v
= 1.6
y
2WL
3
3NE I
x
I
y
+ ( )
------------------------------- =
y
2 ( ) 15.0 ( ) 5 12 ( )
3
3 ( ) 4 ( ) 29000 ( ) 2.45 2.45 + ( )
-------------------------------------------------------------------- 3.80 in = =
T 2
y
g
---
\ .
| |
0.5
2
3.80
32.2 12 ( )
---------------------
\ .
| |
0.5
0.623 sec = = =
Fig. 100-30Vertical Vessel with Unbraced Legs

(Eq. 100-2)
Check V
max
:
(Eq. 100-3)
V
max
controls.
Note If it is desired to use allowable stress design, the base shear value (V = 7.33
kips) should be divided by 1.4.
T < 0.7, therefore F
t
= 0.0
Considering the weight, W, uniformly distributed along the shell length, the force V-
F
t
given by Equation 100-10 resolves to a trapezoid, the extended non-parallel sides
of which intersect at the base as shown in the sketch in Figure 100-30.
Earthquake Base Overturning Moment:
For the distribution noted above, the base overturning moment, M
o
, can be deter-
mined by the formula:
(Eq. 100-40)
for design example,
Wind Forces (Wind Speed Zone = 70, Exposure B)
Wind Base Moment M
o
= 0.53(10) + 0.067(2.5) = 5.47 k-ft.
R 2.2 (Figure 100-11) =
From Figure 100-7, C
a
0.36N
a
0.36 1.2 ( ) 0.43 = = =
From Figure 100-8, C
v
0.96N
v
0.96 1.6 ( ) 1.54 = = =
Base Shear, V
C
v
IW
RT
--------------
1.54 ( ) 1.0 ( ) 1.5 ( )
2.2 ( ) 0.623 ( )
---------------------------------------- 16.85 kips = = =
V
max
2.5C
a
I
R
----------------W =
2.5 0.43 ( ) 1.0 ( )
2.2
----------------------------------- 15 ( ) =
7.33 kips =
use V 7.33 k =
M
0
F
t
H
2
3
--- V F
t
( )
H
3
L
3
H
2
L
2
------------------- + =
M
0
2
3
--- 7.33 ( )
15
3
5
3
( )
15
2
5
2
( )
------------------------- 79.4 k-ft. = =
The axial loads may be determined using the vessel weight and governing base
overturning moment. The bending moment in the legs at the shell about each prin-
cipal axis (axes of maximum and minimum moment of inertia) may be determined
using the governing base shear.
Example 6Stack Vibration and Ovalling
Check the susceptibility to large-amplitude oscillation and also determine the
required circumferential stiffener size and spacing for the following stack:
H = 180 ft
D = 15.0 ft
t = 0.50 in.
U
m
= 15 fps at elev. + 30 ft
Use Figure 100-19, Uniform Vertical Cylindrical Steel Vessel, for determining
period of vibration.
(Eq. 100-22)
(Eq. 100-24)
(Eq. 100-25)
(Eq. 100-26)
Fig. 100-31Base Shear for Vertical Vessels with Unbraced Legs
Item Projected Area (ft
2
) Shape Factor Wind Pressure
Force
(lb)
Shell 5' 10' = 50 1.7-(0.0755) = 1.33 8 532
Legs 5' 0.84' = 4.2 2.0 8 67
Base Shear = 599 lb
w

4
--- 180 ( )
2
179 ( )
2
( )
1
144
--------- 490 959 lb/ft. = =
T
7.78
10
6
----------
180
15
---------
\ .
| |
2
12 959 15
0.50
---------------------------------
\ .
| |
0.5
0.66 sec. = =
U
c
4.7D
T
------------
4.7 ( ) 15 ( )
0.66
----------------------- 106.8 fps = = =
U
t
U
m
H
Z
----
\ .
| |
0.28
15 ( )
180
30
---------
\ .
| |
0.28
24.8 fps = = =
U
d
3U
t
3 ( ) 24.8 ( ) 74.4 fps = = =
Since U
c
> U
d
for this location, the stack is not susceptible to wind-induced
vibration.
Check Ovalling:
(Eq. 100-33)
Ring stiffeners are required. Try spacing equal to 2D.
L = 360 in.
(Eq. 100-35)
Use flat bar 5 in. x 9/16 in., I = 5.8 in.
4
Check thickness necessary to prevent shell vibration between stiffeners:
t
min
> 0.003R
t
min
= 0.50 in.
0.003 R = 0.27
0.50 > 0.27 OK, thickness is adequate
Example 7Stack Vibration
Check the susceptibility of the stack to large amplitude oscillation:
H = 188 ft.
D = 7 ft.
R = 42 in.
t = 0.50 in.
w = 900 lb/ft
U
m
= 15 ft/sec at elev. + 30 ft.
Exposure B
Wind speed zone: 80 mph
t
R
---
0.5
90
------- 0.00555 = =
U
d
10200
---------------
74.4
10200
--------------- 0.0074 = =
t
R
---
U
d
10200
--------------- <
I
U
d
2.5D
------------
2
0.00334 ( ) L ( ) t ( ) R ( )
4
E
----------------------------------------------------
74.4
37.5
----------
2
0.00334 ( ) 360 ( ) 0.50 ( ) 90 ( )
4
29 10
6
--------------------------------------------------------------------- 5.35 in.

4
= = =
Foundation soil strength: 3000 psf
Refractory lining
(Eq. 100-22)
(Eq. 100-24)
(Eq. 100-25)
(Eq. 100-26)
U
c
< U
d
, therefore continue design check:
Geometric properties of stack section:
Fig. 100-32Stack Vibration Wind Stress
T
7.78
10
6
----------
H
D
----
\ .
| |
2
12wD
t
---------------
\ .
| |
0.5
7.78
10
6
----------
188
7
---------
\ .
| |
2
12 900 7
0.5
------------------------------
\ .
| |
0.5
2.18 sec = = =
U
c
4.7D
T
------------
4.7 ( ) 7 ( )
2.18
-------------------- 15.1 ft/sec = = =
U
t
U
m
H
Z
----
\ .
| |
0.28
15 ( )
188
30
---------
\ .
| |
0.28
25.1 ft/sec = = =
U
d
3U
t
75.3 ft/sec = =
Moment of Inertia:
(Eq. 100-41)
(Eq. 100-42)
For exposure B and wind speed zone = 80 mph
10 psf at base
23 psf at top
Shape factor = 0.8
w
b
= Load at base: 10 x 7 x 0.8 = 56 lb/lf = 0.056 k/lf
w
t
= Load at top: 23 x 7 x 0.8 =129 lb/lf = 0.129 k/lf
(Eq. 100-43)
Moment about base,
(Eq. 100-44)
(Eq. 100-45)
(Eq. 100-27)
Assume a full penetration weld, ground flush and checked in accordance with the
requirement of Table 9.25.3 of AWS D1.1. Hence, allowable fatigue stress range:
F
r
= 16 ksi
(Eq. 100-28)
I R
3
t 42 ( )
3
0.5 ( ) 116 377 in
4
, 5.61 ft.
4
= = = =
Section modulus: S
I
R
--- 2771 in.
3
= =
Y
W
H
4
EI
-------
w
t
8
-----
w
t
w
b
( )
30
-----------------------
188 ft ( )
4
4 176 000 k/ft
2
, , ( ) 5.61 ft
4
( )
--------------------------------------------------------------------
0.129 k/lf
8
-----------------------
0.129 k/lf ( ) 0.056 k/lf ( )
30
--------------------------------------------------------------- = =
0.763 ft. = 9.2 in. =
M H
2
w
t
w
b
3
-------------------
w
b
2
------- + 188 ft ( )
2
0.129 k/lf ( ) 0.056 k/lf ( )
3
---------------------------------------------------------------
0.056 k/lf
2
----------------------- + = =
1 850 k-ft. , = 22 200 k-in. , =
F
w
M
S
-----
22 200 ,
2 771 ,
---------------- 8.01 ksi = = =
Stress/unit deflection, F
m
1.2
F
w
Y
w
------- 1.2 ( )
8.01
9.2
----------
\ .
| |
1.04 ksi/inch deflection = = =
Allowable vibration amplitude,Y
a
F
r
2F
m
-----------
1
2
---
\ .
| |
16
1.04
----------
\ .
| |
7.69 in. 0.64 ft. = = = =
(Eq. 100-29)
(Eq. 100-31)
Structural damping coefficient, C
s
= 0.003 + 0.002 + 0.002 = 0.007
C
d
< C
s
, therefore wind-induced vibration amplitudes will not exceed allowable
limits.
130 References
1. American Society of Civil Engineers 7-93 Minimum Design Loads for Build-
ings and Other Structures, 1994.
2. International Conference of Building Officials, Uniform Building Code. Copy-
right 1997, Whittier, California.
3. American Petroleum Institute, API Recommended Practice for Planning,
Designing, and Constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms, API RP 2A. Produc-
tion Department, Dallas, Texas.
4. Seismology Committee, Structural Engineers Association of California,
Recommended Lateral Force Requirements and Commentary. 1999 Edition,
San Francisco, California.
5. American Institute of Steel Construction, Manual of Steel Construction,
Chicago, Illinois.
6. Administering Agency (AA) Subcommittee; Region I Local Emergency Plan-
ning Committee (LEPC), Proposed Guidance for California Accidental Release
Prevention (CalARP) Program Seismic Assessments, August 1998.
7. American Welding Society, Structural Welding Code, ANSI/AWS D1.1-8.3.,
Miami, FL.
8. Wiegel, R.L., Ed. Earthquake Engineering. Copyright 1970, Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
Engleweel Cliffs, NJ, 518 pp.
9. Newmark, N.M., and E. Rosenbluth. Fundamentals of Earthquake Engi-
neering. Copyright 1971, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 640 pp.
10. Blume, J.A., N.M. Newmark, and L.H. Corning, Design of Multistory Rein-
forced Concrete Buildings for Earthquake Motions. Copyright 1961, Portland
Cement Association (Chapter 5).
11. Tighe, J.T. Dynamic Analysis Methods for Structures in Earthquakes and
Waves. Engineering Department Report, February 1972.
M
r
w
D
2
----------
900
0.060 ( ) 7 ( )
2
----------------------------- 306 = = =
C
d
0.45
M
r
----------
D
Y
a
-------- 1.0
\ .
| |
0.5
0.45
306
----------
1.3 7
0.64
---------------- 1.0
\ .
| |
0.5
0.005 = = =
12. Lockheed Aircraft Corp. and Holmes and Narver, Inc. Nuclear Reactors and
Earthquakes. TID-7024, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, August 1963, 415
pp.; see esp. Chapters 1 and 6 and Appendix F.
13. Titlow, Joseph D. Steel Stacks: Structural Behavior in Steady Winds and Fire
Protection. Engineering Department Report, December 1968.
14. Kircher, C.A., R. M. Czarnecki, R.E. School, H.C. Shah, and J. M. Gere.
Seismic Analysis of Oil Refinery Structures, Parts I and II. The John A. Blume
Earthquake Engineering Center, Stanford University, Technical Report No. 31,
September 1978.
15. American Society of Civil Engineers. Guidelines for Seismic Evaluation and
Design of Petrochemical Facilities, 1997.

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