AIRCRAFT REFUELING AND DEFUELING FUEL SYSTEMS

Aviation fuel is a specialized type of petroleum-based fuel used to power aircraft. It is generally of a higher quality than fuels used in less critical applications such as heating or road transport, and often contains additives to reduce the risk of icing or explosion due to high temperatures, amongst other properties. Most aviation fuels available for aircraft are kinds of petroleum spirit used in engines with spark plugs i.e. piston engines and Wankel rotaries or fuel for jet turbine engines which is also used in diesel aircraft engines. Alcohol, alcohol mixtures and other alternative fuels may be used experimentally but are not generally available. Avgas is sold in much lower volumes, but to many more individual aircraft, whereas Jet fuel is sold in high volumes to large aircraft operated typically by airlines, military and large corporate aircraft. The Convention on International Civil Aviation, which came into effect in 1947, exempted air fuels from tax. Australia and the USA oppose a worldwide levy on aviation fuel, but a number of other countries have expressed interest.

AVGAS Avgas is a high-octane aviation fuel used to power many aircraft and racing cars. Avgas is a portmanteau for aviation gasoline, as distinguished from mogas (motor gasoline), which is the everyday gasoline used in cars. Some light aircraft also use automobile fuel instead of avgas. Avgas is used in aircraft that have piston or Wankel engines. Gas turbines can operate on avgas, but typically do not. Turbine and diesel engines are designed to use kerosene-based jet fuel.

KEROSENE

Kerosene, sometimes spelled kerosine in scientific and industrial usage,[1] also known as paraffin, is a combustible hydrocarbon liquid. The name is derived from Greek keros ( wax). The word Kerosene was registered as a trademark by Abraham Gesner in 1854 and for several years only the North American Gas Light Company and the Downer Company (to which Gesner had granted the right) were allowed to call their lamp oil kerosene.[2] It eventually became a genericized trademark. It is usually called paraffin (sometimes paraffin oil) in the UK, South East Asia and South Africa (not to be confused with the much more viscous paraffin oil used as a laxative, or the waxy solid also called paraffin wax or just paraffin); the term kerosene is usual in much of Canada, the United States, Australia (where it is usually referred to colloquially as kero) and New Zealand.[3] Kerosene is widely used to power jet-engined aircraft (jet fuel) and some rockets, but is also commonly used as a heating fuel and for fire toys such as poi.

Aviation Fuel Quality Control

Intertek offers aviation fuel quality control services worldwide. With 217 laboratories serving 118 nations, the lab network supports global jet and Avgas fuel testing and quality assurance requirements. Intertek locations in key locations are equipped for aviation fuel analyses according to ASTM, IP test methods and other international protocols. Jet Fuel laboratories are staffed by experienced chemists, technicians and fuel specialists. Instrumentation is modern and conforms to all applicable aviation fuel testing methodologies. Intertek laboratories test and analyze samples to world-wide standards:

ASTM Aviation Fuel Methods IP Aviation Fuel Methods Jointly Operated Systems (AFQRJOS), MIL, MOD, GOST and other protocols, standards and methods.

Aviation fuel field inspection, sampling and sample transportation services are available in many areas. Depending upon the area, fuel test results can be available in a matter of hours.

Intertek offers fuel testing services to the entire fuel production, transportation and storage chain. From the refinery to the aircraft, Intertek is ready to test and verify fuel quality.

Aviation Jet Fuel Information

AVIATION TURBINE FUEL (JET FUEL) CIVIL JET FUELS Aviation turbine fuels are used for powering jet and turbo-prop engined aircraft and are not to be confused with Avgas. Outside former communist areas, there are currently two main grades of turbine fuel in use in civil commercial aviation : Jet A-1 and Jet A, both are kerosene type fuels. There is another grade of jet fuel, Jet B which is a wide cut kerosene (a blend of gasoline and kerosene) but it is rarely used except in very cold climates. JET A-1 Jet A-1 is a kerosene grade of fuel suitable for most turbine engined aircraft.

It is produced to a stringent internationally agreed standard, has a flash point above 38C (100F) and a freeze point maximum of -47C. It is widely available outside the U.S.A. Jet A-1 meets the requirements of British specification DEF STAN 91-91 (Jet A-1), (formerly DERD 2494 (AVTUR)), ASTM specification D1655 (Jet A-1) and IATA Guidance Material (Kerosine Type), NATO Code F-35. JET A Jet A is a similar kerosene type of fuel, produced to an ASTM specification and normally only available in the U.S.A. It has the same flash point as Jet A1 but a higher freeze point maximum (-40C). It is supplied against the ASTM D1655 (Jet A) specification. JET B Jet B is a distillate covering the naphtha and kerosene fractions. It can be used as an alternative to Jet A-1 but because it is more difficult to handle (higher flammability), there is only significant demand in very cold climates where its better cold weather performance is important. In Canada it is supplied against the Canadian Specification CAN/CGSB 3.23

MILITARY JP-4 JP-4 is the military equivalent of Jet B with the addition of corrosion inhibitor and anti-icing additives; it meets the requirements of the U.S. Military Specification MIL-DTL-5624U Grade JP-4. (As of Jan 5, 2004, JP-4 and 5 meet the same US Military Specification). JP-4 also meets the requirements of the British Specification DEF STAN 91-88 AVTAG/FSII (formerly DERD 2454),where FSII stands for Fuel Systems Icing Inhibitor. NATO Code F-40. JP-5 JP-5 is a high flash point kerosene meeting the requirements of the U.S. Military Specification MIL-DTL-5624U Grade JP-5 (as of Jan 5, 2004, JP-4 and 5 meet the same US Military Specification). JP-5 also meets the requirements

of the British Specification DEF STAN 91-86 AVCAT/FSII (formerly DERD 2452). NATO Code F-44. JP-8 JP-8 is the military equivalent of Jet A-1 with the addition of corrosion inhibitor and anti-icing additives; it meets the requirements of the U.S. Military Specification MIL-DTL-83133E. JP-8 also meets the requirements of the British Specification DEF STAN 91-87 AVTUR/FSII (formerly DERD 2453). NATO Code F-34.

AVIATION FUEL ADDITIVES Aviation fuel additives are compounds added to the fuel in very small quantities, usually measurable only in parts per million, to provide special or improved qualities. The quantity to be added and approval for its use in various grades of fuel is strictly controlled by the appropriate specifications. A few additives in common use are as follows: 1. Anti-knock additives reduce the tendency of gasoline to detonate. Tetraethyl lead (TEL) is the only approved anti-knock additive for aviation use and has been used in motor and aviation gasolines since the early 1930s. 2. Anti-oxidants prevent the formation of gum deposits on fuel system components caused by oxidation of the fuel in storage and also inhibit the

formation of peroxide compounds in certain jet fuels. 3. Static dissipater additives reduce the hazardous effects of static electricity generated by movement of fuel through modern high flow-rate fuel transfer systems. Static dissipater additives do not reduce the need for `bonding' to ensure electrical continuity between metal components (e.g. aircraft and fuelling equipment) nor do they influence hazards from lightning strikes. 4. Corrosion inhibitors protect ferrous metals in fuel handling systems, such as pipelines and fuel storage tanks, from corrosion. Some corrosion inhibitors also improve the lubricating properties (lubricity) of certain jet fuels. 5. Fuel System Icing Inhibitors (Anti-icing additives) reduce the freezing point of water precipitated from jet fuels due to cooling at high altitudes and prevent the formation of ice crystals which restrict the flow of fuel to the engine. This type of additive does not affect the freezing point of the fuel itself. Anti-icing additives can also provide some protection against microbiological growth in jet fuel. 6. Metal de-activators suppress the catalytic effect which some metals, particularly copper, have on fuel oxidation. 7. Biocide additives are sometimes used to combat microbiological growths in jet fuel, often by direct addition to aircraft tanks; as indicated above some anti-icing additives appear to possess biocidal properties. 8. Thermal Stability Improver additives are sometimes used in military JP-8 fuel, to produce a grade referred to as JP-8+100, to inhibit deposit formation in the high temperature areas of the aircraft fuel system. POWER BOOSTING FLUIDS It used to be commonplace for large piston engines to require special fluids to increase their take-off power. Similar injection systems are also incorporated in some turbo-jet and turbo-prop engines. The power increase is achieved by cooling the air consumed, to raise its density and thereby increase the weight of air available for combustion. This effect can be obtained by using water alone but it is usual to inject a mixture of methanol and water to produce a greater degree of evaporative cooling and also to provide additional fuel energy. For piston engines, methanol/water mixtures are used and these may have 1 percent of a corrosion inhibiting oil added. The injection system may be used to compensate for the power lost when operating under high temperature and/or high altitude conditions (i.e. with low air densities) or to obtain increased take-off power under normal atmospheric conditions, by

permitting higher boost pressure for a short period. Both water alone and methanol/water mixtures are used in gas turbine engines, principally to restore the take-off power (or thrust) lost when operating under low air density conditions. Use of a corrosion inhibitor in power boost fluids supplied for these engines is not permitted. The methanol and water used must be of very high quality to avoid formation of engine deposits. The water must be either demineralised or distilled and the only adulterant permitted in the methanol is up to 0.5 per cent of pyridine if required by local regulations as a de-naturant. In the past there were several different grades of water/methanol mixtures, e.g. 45/55/0 for turbine engines, 50/50/0 for piston engines (this was also available with 1% corrosion inhibiting oil and was designated 50/50/1) and 60/40/0, however, with decreasing demand Shell now only supplies 45/55/0. The table shows the principal characteristics of Shell demineralised water and of the commonly used methanol/water blend.

Aircraft Refueling.
Servicing aircraft with fuel and defueling aircraft requires the utmost precaution due to the highly flammable characteristics of fuel. Personnel performing fueling and defueling operations must be thoroughly familiar with FM 10-68, Aircraft Fueling, and FM 10-69, Petroleum Supply Point Equipment and Operations. Personnel must also be completely familiar with the aircraft being serviced. NOTE :

Aircraft shall have all fuel cells fully serviced prior to being parked or stored in a hangar. All fuel cells should be full in order to minimize the presence of flammable vapors within fuel cell (for safety purposes) and additionally to minimize water condensation and subse- quent microbiological growth which results in contamination of the fuel. This procedure should be adhered to at all times; except when impending mission requirements shall necessitate a reduced fuel load or when an aircraft shall require mainte- nance to the fuel system.

a. Open-Port Refueling. Open-port refueling is refueling by inserting an automotive-type nozzle into a fill port of larger diameter. Most of the Army fueling nozzles are designed for open-port refueling and must be used until enough FARE systems are deployed to make open- port aircraft refueling an obsolete practice. Because the port is larger than the nozzle, fuel vapors can escape through the fill port during open-port refueling opera- tions. Airborne dust and dirt, as well as rain, snow, and ice can get into the fill port during refueling, thus lowering the quality of the fuel in the tanks and endangering the aircraft. Spills from overflowing tanks are possible in open-port refueling. Spills can also be caused by the sudden pressure surge that comes when pumping from another nozzle in the system is completed, throwing the whole pressure of the pump to the operating nozzle. Because of these dangers, hot refueling by the open-port method is restricted to combat or vital training or testing use. Refer to FM 10-68.

b.

Open-Port Hot Refueling. In combat operations, the open-port method of hot refueling may be used for helicopters when, in the judgment of the aviation com- mander, the requirements of the tactical mission and the benefits of reducing ground time outweigh the inherent risks of this method of refueling. In noncombat situations, helicopters may be refueled by this method only when there are compelling reasons to do so. For example, aviation commanders may decide that hot refueling must be done for purposes of training, or for field testing or combat testing for development. When the FARE system is used for hot refueling in a training situation, a firewall should be built around 500-gallon drums whenever it is possible. Refer to FM 10-68.

NOTE : Nozzles of the open-port type must be held open by hand throughout use. If any auto- matic device has been added to the nozzle to hold it open, the device must be removed; if notches have been made to hold open, they must be filed off. No exceptions to this rule are allowed in aircraft refueling.

c. Rapid Hot Refueling. Aircraft may be rapid (hot) refueled (with engines running), electrical power on, radios on, weapons system on with safety covers/ guards/switches in safe position, and with any computer systems operating that would require reprogramming if shut down. See the applicable aircraft operators manu- als (-10 and -CL) for detailed instructions. If rapid (hot) refueling is required (prescribed in FM 10-68), ground the aircraft properly. It is also recommended that the aircraft be in a revetment type shelter or separated from fuel storage by a fire wall.

WARNING :

Only emergency radio transmissions should be made during rapid (hot) refueling. Radio switches may electrically arc when being keyed

d. Fuel Truck Operations. Fuel truck operations are covered in the following paragraphs.

(1) Fuel truck types. The M49A2C tank truck with a 1,200 gallon stainless steel tank, the M559 tank truck with a 2,500 gallon stainless steel tank, and the M857 semitrailer with a 5,000 gallon tank are used to fuel Army aircraft

2) General operation. After the aircraft parks and its engine or engines are shut down, the rotor blades are secured, and armaments are set on

SAFE, the sequence of the refueling operation can start. The follow- ing procedures are for all aircraft: (a) Check the interior of the aircraft. No one should be aboard during refueling unless the pilot or copilot are on board to monitor the quantity of fuel to be loaded. When the D-1 nozzle is used, the only way of knowing when to stop flow is for the pilot or copilot to watch the fuel gauges in the aircraft. (b) Drive the tank vehicle into position in front of the aircraft. Use the sort of approach route shown in figure 3-3. Do not drive the refueler directly at the aircraft because brake failure could cause a serious accident. (c) Keep a distance of at least 10 feet between the refueler and the aircraft. There must be at least 10 feet between the refueler and rotor blades of a helicopter. Keep a distance of at least 20 feet between the exhaust pipe of the pump engine (or truck engine) and the aircraft fill port and tank vent as shown in figure 3-4. (d) Park the refueler so that it has a clear and open path to drive away from the aircraft in an emer- gency. Do not detach a tank semitrailer from its tractor when refueling an aircraft; the tractor must be ready to pull the trailer away from the aircraft if the need arises. NOTE : If the refueler can be driven into position with- out backing, do so. If it must be backed toward the aircraft, bring the truck to a full stop when it is 20 to 25 feet away from the aircraft or its rotor blades. Have another person act as a ground guide. Follow signals to guide the final backing approach until signaled to stop at the proper distance from the aircraft and its fill

port and vent, as shown in figure 3-5.

Figure 1Fuel Truck Backing Approach

(e) Stop the refueler engine (unless it pow- ers the pump) and set the brake. Chock the tires of the refueler and of the aircraft if appropriate. (f) Check the fuel in the tank to make sure it is the right type for the aircraft. Check the sight glass of the filter/separator to make sure all water has been drained out (g) Place the truck fire extinguisher by the pump. Place a fire extinguisher provided at the refueling point by the aircraft fill port. NOTE : Have members of the ground crew or the air crew man these two fire extinguishers.If there are no people available to man the fire extinguishers, place the extinguishers near the pump and nozzle operators, but position them so that they will not be in the operators way and where they are not likely to be engulfed if a fire should start at either the pump or the nozzle.

(h) Unreel the ground cable and attach its ground-rod clip to the nearest ground rod. If refueling where no ground rod is installed, drive the refueler ground rod into the earth to the required depth and attach the clip to the rod. (i) Ground the aircraft by attaching one end of a ground cable to the ground rod (either the rod that grounds the refueler or a separate ground rod) and the other end to a bare metal part of the aircraft. NOTE : Use the axle of the landing gear or some other unpainted metal part, but do not clip the ground cable to the propeller or the radio antenna. Attaching this clip grounds the aircraft and bonds the refueler to the aircraft. If the refueler does not have a Y-cable that will ground both the refueler and the aircraft to one ground rod, a separate ground cable is required to ground the aircraft. A wire, such as building wire (type TW, number 14 AWG or larger, solid copper) or any other solid copper wire, size number 14 or larger, may be used. (j) Bond the nozzle to the aircraft before taking the dust cap off the nozzle and the cap off the fill port. If the aircraft has a receiver for the bond plug, use the plug, if not, clip the alligator clip to a bare metal part of the aircraft. (k) Open the aircraft fill port and remove the nozzle dust cap. NOTE When using an open-port nozzle or the CCR nozzle adapter, put the nozzle well down into the port. Do not open the nozzle until it is inside the fill port When using the CCR nozzle, mate the nozzle into the fill port. If they

will not latch together, look for dirt in the fill port or on the nozzle. Wipe the fill port out and clean the nozzle, then mate the two together. (l) Refuel using procedures outlined in FM 10-68. (m) Replace the cap on the fill port and then replace the nozzle dust cap before disconnecting the nozzle bond. (n) Remove the nozzle bond plug or undo the alligator clip Reel up the hose and nozzle Do not drag the nozzle across the ground. (o) Undo the clip that grounds the aircraft Replace the fire extinguisher used at the nozzle. (p) Release the clip on the ground rod and reel up the grounding cable. Do not drag the cable clips across the ground. If the refueling operation is over and the refueler ground rod was used, pull the rod up and stow it in the refueler. Replace the fire extinguisher in the refueler.

Safety

requirements.

The following safety requirements must be followed when refueling Army aircraft. Do not allow any open flame, open-flame device, or lighted smoking materials within 50 feet of an aircraft refueling operation NOTE Personnel who refuel aircraft may not carry lighters or matches on their persons and must not allow anyone else to carry a lighter or matches within 50 feet of an aircraft that is being refueled. Use of exposed-flame

heaters, welding or cutting torches, and flare pots is forbidden within 50 feet of refueling operations. Do not allow electrically powered tools to be used in the refueling area. Do not allow any metalworking tools to be used within 50 feet of an aircraft being refueled. Do not use flashlights within 50 feet of the refueling operation unless the lights are of the approved explosion-proof type. Do not allow flashbulbs or electronic flash devices to be used within 10 feet of refueling equipment or the fill port or fuel tank vents of aircraft. Do not remove any piece of clothing while within 50 feet of a refueling operation or in an area where a flammable vapor-air mixture may exist. NOTE If fuel gets on clothing, leave the refueling area as soon as refueling is completed. Wet the clothes with water before taking them off if there is not enough water at the site to wet the clothes thoroughly, ground yourself to a piece of grounded equipment by taking hold of it with both hands before taking off the fuel- soaked clothes. A skin irritation from fuel is not fatal, the fire that may follow a static discharge from clothes may be. Do not enter a flammable atmosphere right after removing a garment. Wait at least 10 minutes before carrying the garment into such atmosphere. an