Guide to Drives

Guide to Drives

Contents

Description Page Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 Load Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 Centrifugal Load Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 Basic Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352 Tables and Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 Maintenance of Industrial Control Equipment . . . . . . . . . . 381

Introduction

The illustrations, definitions and equations presented in this section are for educational purposes only. This reference material is provided to assist the reader in understanding certain basic electrical and physical relationships commonly associated with rotating machinery and adjustable speed drive technology. Since each machine or process has unique control parameters, no individual formula can take into consideration all the requirements to accurately apply a specific product or predict its performance. Each drive application must be carefully examined by the user.

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Basics
Introduction
A variable speed drive is an electronic device that controls the speed, torque, horsepower and direction of an AC or DC motor. AllenBradley manufactures variable speed drives to meet wide variety of applications. Adjustable frequency AC drives serve processing needs and numerous general industrial applications such as fans, pumps and conveyors in a variety of working environments. DC industrial drives control material handling and processing equipment in the forest products, mining, metals, printing, and other industries. System engineered AC/DC drives are custom designed for highly specialized applications. High performance motion control drives meet the needs of special purpose, high volume production and assembly machines. The following information provides the basics required to evaluate AC or DC drives application needs.

DC Drive Control System

Any DC drive control system generally contains the following: operating controls, drive controller and DC motor (see Figure 1). The operator controls allow the operator to start, stop, change direction and speed of the controller by simply turning potentiometers or other operator devices. These controls may be an integral part of the controller or may be remotely mounted. Programmable controllers are being used more frequently in this area to achieve greater flexibility in process or machine control. The drive controller converts a constant potential AC voltage to an adjustable DC voltage which is then applied to a DC motor armature. Regulation characteristics of the controller allow the motor to run at the desired speed set by a reference input. Additional circuits can help protect the controller, motor and driven machine from line voltage transients, overloads and various circuit faults.

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Figure 1 DC Drive Control System

The DC motor converts the adjustable voltage DC from the drive controller to rotating mechanical energy. Motor shaft rotation and direction are proportional to the magnitude and polarity of adjustable voltage applied to the motor. Normally, the motor shaft is coupled to a gear reducer or other transmission device which is then coupled to the driven machine (see Gear Reducer Selection in the Basic Mechanics section for more information). The DC motor in a typical drive control system can be of the shunt wound or permanent magnet type. In adjustable speed DC drive applications, the motor armature is connected to an adjustable voltage supply. The motor field (if not of the permanent magnet type) is connected to either a fixed or adjustable voltage supply. The tachometer-generator (feedback device) shown in Figure 1 converts actual speed to an electrical signal that is summed with the desired reference signal. The output of the summing junction provides an error signal to the controller and a speed correction is made.

Constant Torque Applications

The following paragraphs discuss DC drives in regard to major categories of applications. The term drive refers to an electronic regulator, armature and field supply. These supplies could be in a selfcontained unit or packaged separately. Armature voltage controlled DC drives are constant-torque drives. They are capable of providing rated current at any speed between zero and the base (rated) speed of the motor. These drives use a fixed field supply and give motor characteristics shown in Figure 2. As seen in Figure 2, the motor output horsepower is directly proportional to speed (50% horsepower at 50% speed, etc.) However, rated torque is available at any speed (constant torque).

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Figure 2 Constant Torque Curve

Constant Horsepower Applications

Armature and Field Controlled DC Drives Certain applications require constant horsepower over a specified speed range. As seen in Figure 3, an armature voltage controlled DC drive has constant torque characteristics. Two items should be noted here. A drive required to deliver constant horsepower over a 2:1 speed range would need special motor and control devices. It should also be noted that at half speed, an armature controlled DC drive only develops 50% of its rated torque and horsepower.
Figure 3 Constant Torque and Horsepower Curves

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Variable Torque Applications
Field Controlled DC Drives (Operation Above Motor Base Speed) One characteristic of a shunt-wound DC motor is that a reduction in rated field current, at a given armature voltage, will result in an increase in speed. However, this also results in a lower torque output per unit of armature current (see Figure 3). This concept can also be seen in Figure 4. Armature current is a function of motor load. As the demand on the motor increases, so does the motors demand for more current. In order to keep the motor within its rated current range, the motor load must inherently decrease above base speed with a resultant decrease in motor torque output.
Figure 4 Motor Speed and Load Characteristics

A simple method of reducing rated field current is to insert a resistor in series with the field current source. This may be useful for achieving an ideal motor speed for the application.

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A more sophisticated method of reducing rated field current is by use of a solid state variable current field regulator. This method provides coordinated automatic armature and field current control for an extended speed range in constant HP applications. The motor is armature voltage controlled for constant torque-variable HP operation up to base speed. Then the motor is transferred to field current control for constant HP - variable torque operation up to maximum speed (shown in Figure 3).

AC Adjustable Frequency Drives

Much of the power that is consumed today by AC motors goes into the operation of fans and pumps. With these type of devices however, actual demand is often less than the design capacity of the system. Direct variable speed control of the fan or pump provides an attractive means of energy savings and cost efficiency.

AC Drive Characteristics
AC adjustable frequency drives convert 3 phase 60 Hz input power to an adjustable frequency and voltage source for controlling the speed of AC squirrel cage induction motors. The frequency of the applied power to an AC motor determines the motor speed and is based on the following equation:
Equation 1:

120f N = ----------P Where: N = speed (RPM) f = frequency (Hz) P = number of poles The number of poles is considered a constant since this design characteristic is already manufactured into the motor. The AC adjustable frequency drive controls the frequency (f) and voltage applied to the motor. The speed (N) of the motor is then proportional to this applied frequency. Control frequency is adjusted by means of a potentiometer or external signal depending on the application. To maintain constant motor torque, the drive controller automatically maintains the voltage and frequency output at a constant relationship for any motor speed. This is called the volts per hertz ratio (V/Hz). AC Drive System An AC adjustable frequency drive typically consists of three basic parts: operator controls, drive controller (referred to as an inverter) and an AC motor. Figure 5 shows an AC adjustable frequency drive system.

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Figure 5 AC Adjustable Frequency Drive System
3 PH AC Line

Operator Controls

Control Unit

Power Conversion Unit

AC Motor

Drive Controller

The operator controls allow the operator to start, stop, change direction and speed of the controller by simply turning potentiometers or other operator devices. These controls may be an integral part of the controller or may be remotely mounted. Programmable controllers are often used for this function. The drive controller converts fixed voltage AC to an AC adjustable frequency and voltage source. It consists of a control unit and a power conversion unit. The control unit oversees the operation of the drive and provides valuable system diagnostic information. The power conversion unit performs several functions. It rectifies the incoming fixed AC voltage (changes AC to DC). The resultant DC voltage is then filtered through an LC low pass filter to obtain a DC voltage bus. The power conversion (inverter) unit then produces an AC current and voltage output having the desired frequency. The AC motor converts the adjustable frequency AC from the drive controller to rotating mechanical energy.

AC Adjustable Frequency Drive

Types The most common types of AC adjustable frequency drives used are: variable voltage input (VVI) and pulse width modulated (PWM). The following paragraphs offer a brief description of each type.

Variable Voltage Input (VVI)

This type of drive rectifies AC input power and delivers variable voltage DC to a section of the power conversion unit called the inverter section. The inverter section then inverts the variable voltage DC to variable voltage and frequency AC. This inverter section is built with power transistors or thyristors (SCRs) depending on horsepower requirements. Figure 6 shows a block diagram of the power conversion unit in a variable voltage inverter.

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Figure 6 Power Conversion Unit (VVI)

An SCR bridge rectifier converts the 3 phase input power to variablevoltage DC which is then the input to the inverter section. The inverter section generates variable voltage, variable frequency AC power to control motor speed. Because a large filter capacitor provides a voltage supply to the inverter, output voltage is not affected by the nature of the load. The output voltage from a VVI drive is frequently called a six step waveform and is shown in Figure 7.
Figure 7 VVI Output Waveforms

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Pulse Width Modulated (PWM)
Figure 8 shows a block diagram of the power conversion unit in a PWM drive. In this type of drive, a diode bridge rectifier provides the intermediate DC circuit voltage. In the intermediate DC circuit, the DC voltage is filtered in an LC low-pass output frequency and voltage is controlled electronically by pulse-width-modulating techniques. Essentially, these techniques require switching the inverter power devices (transistors or SCRs) on and off many times in order to generate the AC variable voltage and frequency.
Figure 8 Power Conversion Unit (PWM)

This switching scheme requires a more complex regulator than the VVI. However, with the use of a microprocessor, these complex regulator functions are effectively handled. The output voltage from a PWM drive is shown in Figure 9.
Figure 9 PWM Output Waveforms

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Drives
As factory automation increases, many applications require position control as well as speed and direction control. Parts being processed in an automated manufacturing line may need machining or sorting. Precise control of part location (accomplished by a motion control drive) directly affects the quality of the product. A positioning drive receives a signal from some type of position controller: numerical controller (NC), programmable controller (PC) or computer numerical controller (CNC). This position controller tells the motion control drive at what direction, speed and time to move a part from point A to point B. One category of motion control drives is the servo controller.

Servo Controllers
Servo controllers offer extremely fast response and precise control of acceleration/deceleration, speed and torque. Originally designed for aviation control applications, servos can accelerate from standstill to 100 RPM in several milliseconds. Many servos are built with three major system loops: position loop, velocity loop and current loop (see Figure 10). A typical servo system is comprised of a position controller, encoder, or resolver (feedback device), servo controller (servo amplifier) and a servo motor.

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Figure 10 Servo Controller System

Speed feedback (velocity) is usually supplied by a tachometergenerator (tach) with an encoder or similar sensor giving the position feedback. The velocity loop (contained in the servo controller) sums the velocity feedback and position error signals and generates a velocity error signal. The current loop (contained in the servo controller), sums the current feedback and current command signals and controls current limit. In some designs, the position feedback (encoder) is connected to the system controller, and in others, it is fed to the drive controller. Most conventional DC servos require the position loop to be closed externally. Therefore, a tachometer-generator (tach) used for speed feedback is the only feedback device needed by the DC servo controller. Most servo controllers have power transistors that produce a pulse width modulated (PWM) DC output. This design offers faster response with better utilization and protection of the DC servo motor compared to SCR servo controller designs. However, these SCR units are still used for the larger HP applications. Many new drive controllers include the functions of the system controller plus several servo drive controller in one unit. These are usually termed multi-axis units.

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Load Characteristics
Introduction
The process of selecting an adjustable speed AC or DC drive is one where load is of primary consideration. It is important to understand the speed and torque characteristics as well as horsepower requirements of the type of load to be considered. AC drive characteristics are somewhat different than DC drives. The demands and economics of a particular application should be matched to the drive capabilities. After this matching process is completed, the decision regarding the type of adjustable speed drive can be made. When considering load characteristics, the following should be evaluated: What type of load is associated with the application? Does the load have a shock component? What is the size of the load? Are heavy inertial loads involved? What are the motor considerations? Over what speed range are heavy loads encountered?

Motor loads are classified into three main groups depending on how their torque and horsepower varies with operating speed. The following paragraphs deal with the various DC and AC motor load type usually found in process, manufacturing or machining applications.

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Motor Load Types
Constant Torque Load This type of load is the one most frequently encountered. In this group, the torque demanded by the load is constant throughout the speed range. The load requires the same amount of torque at low speeds as at high speeds. Loads of this type are essentially friction loads. In other words, the constant torque characteristic is needed to overcome friction. Figure 11 shows the constant torque and variable horsepower demanded by the load.
Figure 11 Constant Torque Load

100 Torque Demanded by the Load (%)

100 Horsepower Demanded by the Load (%)

Speed (%)

100

Speed (%)

100

As seen in Figure 11, torque remains constant while horsepower is directly proportional to speed. A look at the basic horsepower equation also verifies this fact:
Equation 2

Torque Speed HP = -------------------------------------5252 Where: Torque = lb-ft. Speed = RPM 5252 = a proportionality constant Examples of this type of load are conveyors, extruders and surface winders. Constant torque is also used when shock loads, overloads or high inertia loads are encountered. Constant Horsepower Load In this type of load, the horsepower demanded by the load is constant within the speed range. The load requires high torque at low speeds. From Equation 2, you can see that with the horsepower held constant, the torque will decrease as the speed increases. Put another way, the speed and torque are inversely proportional to each other. Figure 12 shows the constant horsepower and variable torque demanded by the load.

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Figure 12 Constant Horsepower Load
100 Torque Demanded by the Load (%) BASE 100 200 100 Horse-power Demanded by the Load (%) BASE 100 200

Examples of this type of load are center-driven winders and machine tool spindles. A specific example of this application would be a lathe that requires slow speeds for rough cuts and high speeds for fine cuts where little material is removed. Usually very high starting torques are required for quick acceleration. Variable Torque Load With this type of load, the torque is directly proportional to some mathematical power of speed, usually speed squared (Speed2). Mathematically:
Equation 3

TorqueCons tan t ( Speed ) 2 Horsepower is typically proportional to speed cubed (Speed3). Figure 13 shows the variable torque and variable horsepower demanded by the load.
Figure 13 Variable Torque Load

100 Torque Demanded by the Load (%)

100 Horsepower Demanded by the Load (%)

50

100

Examples of loads that exhibit variable load torque characteristics are centrifugal fans, pumps and blowers. This type of load requires much lower torque at low speeds than at high speeds.

50

100

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Table 4 summarizes load types, torque and horsepower characteristics.
Table 4: Load Types
HP and Torque Characteristics Constant HP, Torque varies inversely with speed Constant Torque, HP varies as the speed Application Examples Metal-cutting tools operating over wide speed range. Some extruders, mixers, special machines where operation at low speed may be continuous. General machinery, hoists, conveyors, printing press, etc. (represents 90% of applications)

Squared exponential, HP varies as square of the speed. Torque varies with Positive displacement pumps, some mixers, some extruders speed. Cubed exponential. HP varies as cube of speed. Torque varies as square of All centrifugal pumps & some fans. (Note: Fan power may vary as the 5th speed. power of speed) High Inertia Loads Are typically associated with machines using flywheels to supply most of operating energy, punch presses, etc.

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Other Functional Considerations
Shock Loads Drives for crushers, separators, grinders, conveyors, winches, cranes and vehicular systems often must manage loads which range from a small fraction of the rated load to several hundred percent. Under these considerations, a drive has two fundamental tasks: move the load and protect the prime mover and driven equipment. If the prime mover is an electric motor, as is the case with a large number of industrial drives, shock loads can damage components such as bearings, brushes and commutators, as well as components of the drive control circuitry, by inducing signal irregularities and electrical overloads in the power converter. Size of Load The size of the load determines the type of drive chosen. Adjustable speed drives (AC, DC, fluid, traction, etc.) range from fractional to multithousand horsepower. However, not all types of drives can be manufactured in full range. Generally, power converter rectifier technology is the limiting factor in what is practical or economical to manufacture for any given type of electrical drive. DC Motor Torque and HP A DC adjustable speed drive is able to handle a variety of load characteristics. Examples of load characteristics are: constant torque loads, variable torque loads, constant horsepower loads or a combination of both constant torque and constant horsepower. Speed can be adjusted from 0 to 100% by controlling the armature voltage from zero to rated nameplate voltage (assuming full rated motor field). A DC motor can be selected to provide a constant torque capability through nearly the entire controllable speed range. Horsepower increases from zero to nameplate horsepower at base speed (100% speed). Refer to Figure 14.
Figure 14 DC Motor Torque and HP Curves

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By weakening the motor field, speed can be further increased up to 3, 4, or even 5 times base speed. Over this speed range, the DC motor now has a constant horsepower characteristic where torque decreases and is inversely proportional to speed (Refer to Figure 14). Many industrial processes require a combination of constant torque and constant horsepower depending on specific requirements. These include rubber and plastics extruders where the torque requirements at 25% speed may be double the torque requirements at 100%. As seen in Figure 14, the DC motor allows a combination of constant torque and horsepower, depending on the speed range used. Because of this combination characteristic, a smaller HP motor and drive rating would be required compared to a constant torque only drive. A constant torque only drive has horsepower determined by the maximum torque required (at any speed) and the top speed. It should be noted that operation above base speed (in Field Control Range) is not a standard feature on most DC Drives. This feature requires a field supply like the Bulletin 1370-CHP Module or 1370RFS Module and a motor-mounted tach generator. With these field supply modules, as speed increases (above base speed), torque decreases. The selection of a drive with one of these modules should be considered for applications requiring wide speed ranges with both constant torque/constant horsepower load characteristics.

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AC Motor Torque
In an AC induction motor, torque results from the magnetic attraction between the rotor and stator. In essence, the stator (stationary case) has a rotating magnetic field at a frequency delivered by the inverter. The rotor (rotating piece) is attracted to the stator producing a twisting motion called torque. Figure 15 shows an AC induction motor curve with the various torque ratings marked.
Figure 15 AC Motor Torque Curve

Point A in Figure 15 is the torque produced at locked rotor when rotor frequency is highest and inductive reactance is greatest (breakaway torque). As the motor begins to accelerate, the torque drops off, reaching a minimum value called pull-up torque. This is between 25 - 40% of synchronous speed. As acceleration continues, rotor frequency and inductive reactance decrease. The rotor flux moves more in-phase with stator flux and consequently, torque increases. Maximum torque is developed where inductive reactance becomes equal to the rotor resistance. Beyond the maximum torque point, the inductive reactance continues to drop off along with the current through the rotor. The torque capabilities of the motor therefore also decrease.

Centrifugal Load Applications

Introduction
Centrifugal fans and pumps are sized to meet the maximum flow rate required by the system. However, system operating conditions frequently require reducing the flow rate. Therefore, throttling devices damper and valves are frequently installed to limit pump and fan outputs. The throttling devices are effective but are not energy efficient. Alternative means offer the ability to both vary the flow and greatly reduce energy losses. The method: adjust the fan and pump impeller speeds so the units deliver the required flow.

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Pump Energy Savings
Pumps are generally grouped into two categories, positive displacement pumps and dynamic (centrifugal) pumps. The vast majority of pumps used today are the dynamic or centrifugal type and are the only type discussed in this article. The graph in the box on pump terminology shows two independent curves. One is the pump curve, which is solely a function of the pump characteristics. The other is the system curve. This depends on the size of pipe, the length of pipe, the number and location of elbows, etc. The intersection of these two curves is called the natural operating point, because the pump pressure matches the system losses. If the system is part of a process that requires adjustable flow rates, then some method is needed to continuously alter the pump characteristics or the system parameters. As mentioned, these include valves for throttling, which change the system curve, or variable speed control of the pump, which modifies the pump curve. Figure 16 shows a throttling system with two operating conditions one with the valve open and the other with the valve throttled or partially closed. Closing the valve effectively increases the system head that, in turn, decreases the flow.
Figure 16 Typical Pump and System Curves for Pump With Throttling Valve for Flow Control

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By comparison, the variable speed method changes the pump characteristics when the pump impeller speed is changed, Figure 17. Of these two, only the adjustable speed method uses considerably less energy with reduced flow, thus offering significant energy savings. For example, a particular pump with a 14 in. impeller operates at a base speed of 1150 rpm in a system with a 63 ft head (no static head), and delivers 1200 gpm when the system is not throttled, Figure 18. The process requires flow rates of 1200, 960, 720, and 480 gpm.
Figure 17 Typical Pump and System Curves for Pump Driven by Adjustable Speed Drive for Flow Control

For a specific flow rate, the difference between points A and B, Figure 18, gives a visual indication of possible energy savings. In addition, changes in pump efficiency should be included in the calculation to determine brake horsepower.

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Figure 18 Pump and System Curves for 14 in. Impeller Operating at 1150 rpm. Points A Indicate Operating Points for Throttled System and Points B are Operating Points When Pump is Powered by Adjustable Speed Drive.

Table . lists the comparative brake horsepower values required by throttling and adjustable speed methods for the four operating points. Figure 19 graphically shows the power requirements and savings for the various flow rates.
Table 5: Comparison of Pump Brake Horsepower Requirements for Throttling and Adjustable Speed Methods
Throttling Flow (gpm) 1200 (100%) 960 (80%) 720 (60%) 480 (40%) Head (ft) 63 69 75 81 Pump Efficiency 76.3% 73 65 54 Head (ft) 63 40 23 10 Adjustable Speed Pump Efficiency 76.3% 75 75 75

Bhp 25 23 21 18

Bhp 25 13 5.6 1.6

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Figure 19 Pump Power Requirements for Throttling and Adjustable Speed Methods, and the Resultant Power Savings

This example does not include a static head. The magnitude of the static head will affect the possible power savings. The less the static head is in relation to the total head, the greater the power savings will be achieved by using adjustable speed drives. For example, Figure 20 shows a pump curve with three system curves one with no static head, and two with different amounts of static heads. For a given flow rate, the difference between operating points A and B indicate possible power savings with adjustable speed. Thus, the difference between points A and B3 (no static head) is greater and offers greater power savings than between A and B1, which has a 40 ft static head.

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Figure 20 Pump Curve and Three System Curves With Different Static Heads

How to Determine Curves

Pump curves are readily available from pump manufacturers. However, system curves are more difficult to establish. One quick method gives a fairly reliable approximation: 1. Determine the unthrottled (open) system flow rate (gpm) at the location under consideration. 2. Measure the static head. 3. Plot these two points on a copy of the pump curve. 4. Connect these two points using approximately a square function (Y = X2 or head = flow2).

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Duty Cycle and Energy Costs
Before the dollar savings can be calculated, it is first necessary to establish the average duty cycle percent of time the pump delivers the various flow rates. The horsepower requirements for each duty cycle can then be weighted to give the average power requirements.

Flow (gpm) 1200 970 720 480

Reqd. hp for Each Flow Rate 25.0 13.0 5.6 1.6

Duty Cycle (% of Time) 10 40 40 10 100%

Weighted Power Requirements (hp) 2.5 5.2 2.2 0.2 10.1

In this example, the average power requirement is 10.1 hp. This value divided by the motor and drive efficiency and multiplied by the cost of electricity, will give the monthly operating cost. For example, assume a drive is 85% efficient, the pump operates for 400 hours per month, and electricity costs 7 cents per kWh. 10.1hp 0.746kW 400h $0.07 $258 ------------------ ------------------------ ---------------- -------------- = ---------------0.85 hp month kWh month The operating costs can be determined for each type of flow regulation method to establish payback periods. Also, some companies offer a computer analysis to give my cost and payback comparisons.

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Fan Energy Savings
The basic operation of centrifugal fans is similar to pump operation, and energy savings are equally obtainable. However, the common units are slightly different. Outlet pressure (static inches of water) is used in place of head (feet of water) and flow is usually expressed in cubic feet per minute (cfm). Several different methods are used to throttle or regulate fan outputs. The most common include outlet dampers and variable inlet vanes. Outlet damper affect the system curve by increasing the resistance to air flow, Figure 21, much the same as a valve throttles a pump output.
Figure 21 Typical Fan Curve With Three System Curves for Various Settings of Outlet Dampers

Figure 22, show that as the flow is decreased, the power requirement is reduced only slightly. Variable inlet vanes direct the air flow as the air enters the fan, and, in effect, modify the fan curve, Figure 25. With these vanes, power requirements are significantly reduced as flow is decreased, Figure 24. As with pumps, adjustable speed drives offer the greatest energy savings for fans. This adjustable flow method changes the fan curve, Figure 25, and drastically reduces the power requirements, Figure 26, even more than for inlet vanes.

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Figure 22 Typical Fan Curve With Three System Curves for Various Settings of Outlet Dampers

Figure 23 Typical System Curve With Fan Curves for Various Settings of Inlet Vanes

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Figure 24 Power Requirements vs. Flow For Various Settings of Inlet Vanes

Figure 25 Typical System Curve and Various Fan Curves for Adjustable Speed Operation

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Figure 26 Adjustable Speed Fan Drive Power Requirements vs Flow

Adjustable Speed Drives

Available in many different types, adjustable speed drives offer the optimum method for matching pump and fan flow rates to system requirements. One frequently specified type of drive is the electrical adjustable speed type that uses an AC motor. Frequently termed an inverter, this unit receives the fixed voltage and frequency plant power typically 230 or 460 V, 60 Hz and converts this to adjustable voltage and frequency to power the AC motor. The frequency applied to AC motor determines the motor speed. These AC motors are usually readily available standard units that can be connected across the AC power line. This capability maintains operation even if the drive controller (inverter) should fail. Adjustable speed drives also offer an additional benefit increased bearing and pump seal life. By maintaining only the pressure needed in the pump to satisfy system requirements, the pump is not subjected to any higher pressures than necessary. Therefore, the components last longer. The same benefits but to a lesser extent also apply to fans operated by adjustable speed drives. To obtain optimum efficiencies and reliability, many specifiers obtain detailed information from the manufacturers on drive efficiency, required maintenance, diagnostic capabilities within the drive, and general operational features. Then, they make detailed analyses to determine which system will give the best return on the investment.

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Technology and Formulas
Fans and Blowers CFM PSF HP = ---------------------------------------------------------------------33, 000 Efficiency of Fan CFM PIW HP = --------------------------------------------------------------6536 Efficiency of Fan CFM PSI HP = -----------------------------------------------------------229 Efficiency of Fan Where: CFM = Cubic feet per minute PSF = Pounds per square foot PIW = Inches of water gauge PSI = Pounds per square inch Efficiency of fan = %/100 Pump Head measurement of pressure, usually in feet of water. A 30 ft head is the pressure equivalent to the pressure found at the base of a column of water 30 ft high. Static head pressure required to overcome an elevation change, also expressed in feet of water. Dynamic head (or friction head) pressure losses within the pipe system due to flow. To get water to flow at a particular volume may require overcoming a 10 ft static head plus a 1 ft dynamic head. The dynamic head of a system usually increases proportional to the square of the flow rate. System head curve of the head required to satisfy both the static head and the dynamic head for a range of flows in a given system. Pump head pressure the pump produces at its outlet. Centrifugal pump heads can vary depending on the flow through the pump and is also determined by the impeller speed and diameter. Pump curve characteristic curve of a pump showing the head-flow relationship. Operating point intersection of the pump curve and system curve. Water horsepower energy output of the pump derived directly from the outlet parameters.

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QHS Water hp = -----------3960 Where: Q = Flow rate (gpm) H = Pressure head (feet of water) S = Specific gravity (water is 1.0) Brake horsepower horsepower required to operate the pump at a specific point, and equals the water horsepower divided by the pump efficiency. Affinity laws A set of formulas used to evaluate the operation of a centrifugal pump at any operating point based on the original pump characteristics: Q1 N 1 H 1 N 1 2 ------- = ------- ------- = ------- N 2 H 2 N 2 Q2 P1 N 1 2 ------- = ------- P2 N 2 Where: N = Pump speed (rpm) Q = Flow (gpm) H = Pressure head (feet of water) P = Power (hp)

Motors

Introduction
DC motors are used in a wide variety of industrial applications when adjustable speed operation is required. A DC motor provides quick and efficient stopping through dynamic or regenerative braking. Additionally, the speed of a DC motor can be smoothly controlled down to zero RPM and then be immediately accelerated in the opposite direction. The DC motor can also respond quickly to control signals due to their high torque capability.

DC Motor Types
Following are the four basic types of DC motors and their operating characteristics. It should be noted that the performance curves used here to illustrate differences between the various types of motors are those of motors connected to a pure DC power source (e.g. motor/ generator set). Always refer to the adjustable speed DC drive and motor manufacturers specifications for speed and torque capabilities under starting, continuous and overload conditions.

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Shunt-Wound Shunt-wound motors have the armature connected in parallel across the field winding. With constant armature voltage and field excitation, the shunt-wound motor offers relatively flat speed-torque characteristics. The shunt-wound motor offers simplified control for reversing, especially for regenerative drives. Compound-Wound The compound-wound DC motor utilizes a field winding in series with the armature in addition to the shunt field, to obtain a compromise in performance between a series and a shunt wound type motor. The compound-wound motor offers a combination of good starting torque and speed stability.

Series-Wound The series-wound motor has the armature connected in series with the field. Although the series-wound motor offers high starting torque, it has poor speed regulation. Series-wound motors are generally used on low speed, very heavy loads.

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Permanent-Magnet The permanent magnet motor has a conventional wound armature with commutator and brushes, permanent-magnets replace the field windings. This type of motor has excellent starting torque, with speed regulation slightly less than that of the compound motor. Peak starting torque is commonly limited to 150% of rated torque to avoid demagnetizing the field poles.

Enclosures
The basic protective enclosures for DC motors are: dripproof (DP), dripproof fully-guarded (DPFG), splashproof (SP), force ventilated from either a separate source or integrally mounted blower and motor (FV), totally enclosed nonventilated (TENV), totally enclosed fancooled (TEFC), and totally enclosed unit-cooled (TEUC). The totally enclosed motor can be provided in explosionproof construction but is limited in horsepower ratings available.

Ventilation
The system for ventilating motors depends on the type of motor enclosure. The dripproof motor is ventilated by means of a shaftmounted internal fan which draws air in the commutator bracket openings, through the motor and out the back end bracket openings. The same is true with the dripproof fully-guarded and splashproof motors. When an integrally mounted blower and motor is supplied, it is mounted to blow air into the commutator end bracket so that the air flows from front to back. Since the internal fan is omitted from a blower-ventilated or force-ventilated motor, it is possible to reverse the air flow. In areas where the ambient temperature is too high or the surrounding air is too dirty, fresh air can be supplied from an external source through duct work that attaches directly to the motor end bracket. Forced-Ventilation provides constant cooling independent of the motor shaft speed. It is used when motors must operate at full torque for long periods at very low speeds (when a shaft-mounted fan does not provide adequate cooling). When using a shaftmounted fan the air volume drops off as the speed is reduced. If full torque (full current) is demanded at low speeds, the motor may quickly overheat. As a rule of thumb, extra cooling is required if full torque is demanded below 60% of the (DP) motors rated base speed.

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Totally Enclosed Fan-Cooled motors are ventilated over the frame by means of an external shaft-mounted fan with a shroud to direct the air. The fan is located at the front end of the motor. Since there is no interchange of inside and outside air, this type is better suited for dirty environments. The internal shaft-mounted fan is retained to circulate air within the motor, thus reventing localized hot spots. TEFC motors are normally available in horsepower ratings to 75 HP (1750 RPM). Totally Enclosed Nonventilated motors have only an internal shaft-mounted fan to prevent hot spots within the motor. An external fan is not supplied, making them suitable for applications where a fan would become clogged and disabled. Totally Enclosed motors dissipate heat through the motor frame, which must be larger than a comparable dripproof motor to provide adequate cooling. As a result, cooling ability becomes independent of motor speed, making full torque available at very low speeds. This type of cooling is suitable for small motors up to approximately 71/2 HP. Above 71/2 HP, additional cooling is required. Totally Enclosed Unit-Cooled motors have an internal air path through the motor, a heat exchanger, fan and suitable duct work. The external air path is through the heat exchanger, the fan and then exhausted downward over the motor frame. The fans for the internal and external air are driven from an integrally mounted AC motor. This is an efficient method of ventilating a totally enclosed motor. It allows the use of frames smaller than necessary for fan-cooled ratings and provides constant cooling independent of motor shaft speed. Totally Enclosed Air-Over motor is a type of totally enclosed fan-cooled motor which is also ventilated by air blowing over the frame from another source. The air may be supplied by a integrally mounted blower and motor or from a separate source. An air-over DC motor has constant cooling dependent of shaft speed. In general, air-over motors still carry the same rating as fan-cooled motors in the same frame size.

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The following table is a comparison of the maximum continuous loading and relative cost for different motor enclosures (normal Class F temperature rise). It should be noted that special motors are available for broader speed/torque ranges.
% of Base Speed Available at Full Rated Torque 100% down to 80% 100% down to 5% 100% down to 60% 100% down to 60% 100% down to 40% 100% down to 5% 100% down to 5% 100% down to 80% 100% down to 5% Comparative Price (Multiplier) 1 1.4 to 1.6 1.4 to 1.6 1.4 to 1.6 1.1 to 1.4 2.2 to 2.4 1.1 1.1 1.5 to 1.7

Type DPFG TENV TEFC TEUC Blower Ventilated Explosion-Proof Separately Ventilated Splash Proof Waterproof
1/ 8

HP to 400

1/ to 71/ 8 2

11/2 to 75 10 to 200 3 to 200

1/ 8

to 200

3 to 200 3 to 200 3 to 200

Insulation
DC motor insulation must have mechanical as well as dielectric strength. It must be able to withstand the thermal expansion and contraction of the conducting parts which it is insulating and be strong enough to withstand the normal handling necessary in the assembly of the motor. It must also withstand the centrifugal and electromagnetic forces on the conductors and possible mechanical vibration. For long life, the insulation must be impervious to moisture, oil, cleaning solvents, chemical fumes and dust of all kinds. Great care is exercised in selecting the components of an insulation system. The major classes of insulation are A, B, F, and H. Class A is the lowest grade, suitable for some household appliances, but not normally found in industry. Class B is general purpose. More demanding duty requires Class F or Class H, heavy duty insulation capable of withstanding high ambient and internal motor temperatures. Class F insulation is presently the industry standard. Normal life expectancy of an insulation system is 10,000-15,000 hours, depending on temperature. Reducing the motors winding temperature by 10C will double the insulation life, while increasing the temperature by 10C cuts the expected life in half.

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Motor Selection
When selecting a DC motor and associated equipment for an application, the following points should be considered: Environment The surrounding environment that the motor is to be operating in is a prime concern. Conditions such as; ambient temperature, air supply, the presence of gas, moisture or dust should all be considered when choosing a motor. Speed Range The minimum and maximum speeds for the application will determine the motor base speed. Speed Variation The allowable amount of speed variation should be considered. Does it require constant speed at all torque values or will variation less than 2% be tolerated? Torque Requirements Determine the torque requirements at the various speeds. Applications such as conveyors require constant torque, while others such as centrifugal blowers, require torque to vary as the square of the speed. Machine tools and winders are constant horsepower, with torque decreasing as the speed increases. Thus, the speed-torque relationship determines the most economical motor. Refer to the section entitled, Load Characteristics for further information. Reversing (Armature or Field) Reversing affects the power supply, control and motor. Motors with series compound and series stabilizing windings should not be used if full load torque is needed in both directions. The use of series fields in these applications can cause a loss of approximately 7% torque in the reverse direction due to opposing reaction of the series field. Regeneration (Armature or Field) The use of series compound or stabilizing windings with static armature or field regenerative drives can cause a loss of approximately 7% braking torque due to improper series field interaction. Duty Rating Most DC motors carry one of three ratings: Continuous Duty is applied to motors that will continuously dissipate all the heat generated by internal motor losses without exceeding rated temperature rise. Definite Time, Intermittent Duty motor carry rated load for a specified time without exceeding rated temperature rise.

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Indefinite Time, Intermittent Duty is usually associated with some RMS load of a duty-cycle operation.

Peak Torque The peak torque that a DC motor delivers is limited by that load at which damaging commutation begins. Brush and commutator damage depends on sparking severity and duration. Therefore, peak torque depends on the duration and frequency of occurrence of the overload. Peak torque is often limited by the maximum current that the power supply can deliver. Heating The temperature of a DC motor is a function of ventilation and losses in the motor. Losses such as core, shunt-field and brush-friction are independent of the load and vary with speed and excitation. Losses in the armature circuit are primarily dependent upon the load and the current required to produce the desired torque. Operating selfventilated motors at reduced speeds may cause above normal temperature rises. Derating or forced ventilation may be necessary to achieve the rated torque output at reduced speeds.

AC Motors
Introduction Allen-Bradley AC adjustable frequency drives operate with various types of standard 60 Hz motors. In some cases the existing motor or motor normally sized for a given fixed speed application can be directly applied to a drive. The user must understand the nature of the application in terms of the speed range, load characteristics and drive requirements as they relate to the AC drive system. This allows proper pairing of the motor and controller. It should be noted that the performance curves used here to illustrate differences between various types of motors are those of motors controlled by across the line full voltage or other type starters. Always refer to the adjustable frequency drive and motor manufacturers specifications for speed and torque capabilities under starting, continuous and overload conditions.

AC Motor Types
AC motors can be divided into two main types: induction and synchronous.

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Induction Motors
The induction motor is the simplest and most rugged of all electric motor. The three most popular types of AC induction motors are; polyphase, wound-rotor and single-phase. Polyphase The polyphase motor is divided into four classifications according to NEMA. The four classifications or designs are determined by the locked rotor torque and current, breakdown torque, pull-up torque and the percent slip. The speed-torque curve and characteristics of each design are as follows: Design A motors have a higher breakdown torque than Design B motors and are normally designed for a specific use. The slip is usually 5% or less.

Design B motors are a general purpose type motor and account for the largest share of induction motors sold. The slip of a Design B motor is approximately 3-5% or less.

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Design C motors have a high starting torque with a normal starting current and low slip. The Design C motor is usually used where breakaway loads are high at starting, but are normally run at rated full load, and are not subject to high overload demands after running speed has been reached. The slip of the Design C motor is 5% or less.

Design D motors have high slip, high starting torque, low starting current and low full load speed. Because of the high amount of slip, the speed can drop if fluctuation loads are encountered. The slip of this type motor is approximately 5 to 13%.

Wound-Rotor Motors The wound-rotor motor allows controllable speed and torque over the conventional induction motor. Wound-rotor motors are generally started with a secondary resistance in the rotor. As the resistance is reduced, the motor will come up to speed. Thus the motor can develop substantial torque while limiting the locked rotor current. The secondary resistance can be designed for continuous service to dissipate heat produced by continuous operation at reduced speed, frequent acceleration or acceleration with a large inertia load. External resistance gives the motor a characteristic that results in a large drop in RPM for a small change in load. Reduced speed is provided down to approximately 50% rated speed with low efficiency.

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Single-Phase Motors Single-phase motors are most commonly found in the fractional horsepower range with some integral sizes available. The most common single-phase motors are listed below. Shaded-Pole motors have a low starting torque and are available only in fractional horsepower sizes. The slip of a shaded-pole motor is 10% or more at rated load. Split-Phase motors have low or moderate starting torque and are limited in size to about 1/3 horsepower. Capacitor-Start motors produce greater locked rotor and accelerating torque than the split-phase motor and are available in sizes ranging from fractional to 10 horsepower. Split-Capacitor motors are similar to the capacitor-start motor but produce a higher power factor ratio.

Synchronous Motors
Synchronous motors operate at synchronism with the line frequency and are inherently constant-speed motors without sophisticated electronic control. The two most common types of synchronous motors are nonexcited and DC-excited. When applied to applications, the synchronous motor, typically, provides up to 140% of rated torque. When controlled by an adjustable frequency controller, provisions for volts per hertz adjustments should be provided for setting optimum performance. Nonexcited Motors These motors use a self-starting circuit and require no external excitation. Reluctance, hysteresis and permanent-magnet design motors are the three main types of nonexcited motors available. Reluctance designs have horsepower ratings that range from subfractional to about 30 HP. The subfractional motors have low torque, while the integral motors have moderate torque. Hysteresis designs are made in the subfractional horsepower ratings and are primarily used a timing and servomotors. Hysteresis motors are more costly than the reluctance type and are used when precise constant speed is a requirement. Permanent-Magnet motors are becoming increasingly popular in the fractional and lower integral horsepower ranges of 1/4 to 5 HP. The permanent-magnet motor has relatively high efficiency and power factor.

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DC-Excited Motors These motors require direct-current supplied through slip rings for excitation. Because DC-excited motors have inherent low starting torque and require a DC power source, a starting system providing full motor protection is needed. The starting system must apply the DC field excitation at the proper time, remove field excitation at rotor pull-out, and protect the windings against thermal damage under outof-step conditions.

Enclosure
The totally enclosed nonventilated enclosure (described in the DC Motor section) is the most common type of enclosure found on AC motors. Additionally, many of the remaining enclosures normally used for DC motors can also be used for AC motors. Described below are the: pipe ventilated, weather-protected, totally enclosed water-aircooled, totally enclosed air-to-air-cooled and totally enclosed watercooled enclosures. It should be noted that many of the enclosures mentioned can be found on DC as well as AC motors.

Ventilation
As described for DC motors, the system for ventilation depends on the motor enclosure. The Pipe-Ventilated motor is available in an open or totally enclosed type of enclosure and is used in very dirty environments. Ventilating air (supplied by the customer) enters and exits the motor through inlet and outlet ducts or pipes. The air is then circulated by means either integral or external to the motor. The pipeventilated motor is the most economical totally enclosed type of enclosure. The Pipe-Ventilated Weather-Protected motor uses and open type enclosure for ventilation. The motor is constructed to minimize the entrance of rain, snow and airborne particles to the electrical parts of the motor. External air is circulated through the motor for cooling. The Pipe-Ventilated Totally Enclosed Air-to-Air-Cooled and Totally Enclosed Water Air-Cooled enclosures are normally used on high horsepower motors that generate large amounts of heat. A heat exchanger is used for both types to remove the heat generated by the motor. An AC motor driven blower circulates air through the windings and heat exchanger tubes. The heat in the heat exchanger is removed by either an external air system (air-to-air) or water provided by the user (water-air-cooled). The Pipe-Ventilated Totally Enclosed Water-Cooled Motor is cooled by circulating water. The water or water conductors come in direct contact with the motor parts.

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AC Motor Selection
When selecting an AC motor and associated equipment for an application, the following points should be considered: Environment The environment in which the motor operates is a prime concern. Conditions such as: ambient temperature, air supply, the presence of gas, moisture or dust should all be considered when choosing a motor. Speed Range The minimum and maximum speeds for the application will determine the motor base speed. Speed Variation The allowable amount of speed variation should be considered. Does it require constant speed at all torque values or will variations be tolerated? Torque Requirements The starting torque and running torque should both be considered when selecting a motor. Starting torque requirements can vary from a small percentage of the full load to a value several times full-load torque. The starting torque varies because of a change in load conditions or mechanical nature of the machine. The motor torque supplied to the driven machine must be more than that required from start to full speed. The greater the excess torque, the more rapid the acceleration. Acceleration The necessary acceleration time should be considered. Acceleration time is directly proportional to the total inertia and inversely proportional to the torque. Deceleration The necessary deceleration time should be considered. Dynamic braking or external mechanical braking may be required to achieve stopping times. Duty Cycle Selecting the proper motor depends on whether the load is steady, varies, follows a repetitive cycle of variation or has pulsating torques. The duty cycle which is defined as a fixed repetitive load pattern over a given period of time is expressed as the ratio of on-time to the cycle period. When the operating cycle is such that the motor operates at idle or a reduced load for more than 25% of the time, the duty cycle becomes a factor in selecting the proper motor.

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Heating The temperature of an AC motor is a function of ventilation and losses in the motor. Losses such as operating self-ventilated motors at reduced speeds may cause above normal temperature rises. Derating or forced ventilation may be necessary to achieve the rated torque output at reduced speeds.

Basic Mechanics

Introduction
In order to apply AC or DC drives, certain mechanical parameters must be taken into consideration. The following section explains what these parameters are and how to calculate or measure them.

Torque
Torque is the action of a force producing or tending to produce rotation. Unlike work (which only occurs during movement) torque may exist even though no movement or rotation occurs. Torque consists of a force (lb) acting upon a length of a lever arm (ft). The product of these two factors produces the term lb-ft which is the unit of measurement for torque. Mathematically, it is expressed as:
Equation 4

Torque (lb-ft.) = Force (lbs.) Distance (ft.)

Figure 27 Calculating Torque

Note: The term ft-lb. is the unit of measurement for work. Because most power transmission is based upon rotating elements, torque is important as a measurement of the effort required to produce work.

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