SLB Training Manual

This information is CONFIDENTIAL and must not be copied in whole or in any part, and should be filed accordingly by the
addressee.
It must not be shown to or discussed with anyone outside the SCHLUMBERGER organization.
CMR Tool Manual
Volume 1
Training Manual
MH606601
Edited by
Chris Morriss
Houston Product Center,
November 1995
The following people contributed to this manual: Bob
Freedman, Bob Kleinberg, Mark Moller, Bill Vandermeer and
other members of the CMR team at HPC.
This information is CONFIDENTIAL and must not be copied in whole or in any part, and should be filed accordingly by the addressee.
About this manual
This training manual is the 1st volume of the 4 volume CMR Tool Manual. Volume 2 is the
Wellsite Reference Manual (WRM). Volumes 3 and 4 are the Maintenance Manuals. The
contents of each volume are shown in Table 1. To prevent needless duplication, there is very
little overlap between the 4 volumes
The primary goals of this manual are to:
explain the fundamentals of nuclear magnetic resonance,
provide a general description of CMR hardware,
establish CMR logging procedures,
describe interpretation principles and applications.
This manual does not contain detailed operating instructions, detailed circuit diagrams or
troubleshooting procedures -- this information is available in other volumes.
Table 1.
CMR Tool Manual Contents
(MH606600)
Vol. 1
Training Manual
(MH606601)
Document Organization
Ch 1 - Introduction
Ch 2 - Measurement Principles
Ch 3 - Hardware Description
Ch 4 - Data Description &
Processing
Ch 5 - Calibration &
Environmental Corrections
Ch 6 - Operating Procedures
Ch 7 - Interpretation Principles &
Applications
Appendix A - Hardware
Soecifications & Ratings
Appendix B - Safety, Handling and
Transportation
Appendix C - Mud Doping for
Residual Oil
Appendix C - Signal Processing
Algorithms
Vol. 2
WRM Document
(MH606602)
Ch 1 - Theory of Measurement
(applications, physics
overview, etc)
Ch 2 - Hardware Description &
Specifications
Ch 3 - Operating Instructions
(safety overview, h/w
preparation, wellsite
operations, wellsite
troubleshooting)
Ch 4 - Software Reference
(parameters, channels,
LQMS, etc)
Ch 5 - FIT & TRIM Checks
Ch 6 - Detailed Tool &
Acquisition Software
Reference
Vol. 3
Maintenance Volume
(TEXT)
(MH606603)
Master Table of Contents
Ch 1 - Safety, Handling and
Transportation
Ch 2 - Hardware Description &
Specifications
Ch 3 - Detailed Block Description
Ch 4 - Detailed Circuit
Description
Ch 5 - Electronic Calibration
Theory
Ch 6 - Disassembly &
Reassembly
Ch 7 - RITE Maintenance
Ch 8 - Shop Troubleshooting
Ch 9 - Circuit Diagram Listing
Vol. 4
Maintenance Volume
(APPENDIX)
(MH606604)
Appendix A - CMR-AA Tool
BOM, Assy Drawings &
TPS.
Appendix B - CMRS-A Sonde
BOM, Assy Drawings &
TPS.
Appendix C - CMRC-A
Cartridge BOM, Assy
Drawings & TPS.
Appendix D - CMR-AA
Drawings
Appendix E - EME-F BOM,
Assy Drawings & TPS.
Appendix F - SFT-307 BOM,
Assy Drawings & TPS.
Appendix G - Reference
Documents
Appendix H - Special
Equipment
Appendix I - Wire Lists
Table of Contents
1. Introduction................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Hardware characteristics..................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Measurement overview...................................................................................................... 3
1.3 CMR sonde ........................................................................................................................ 6
1.4 CMR cartridge..................................................................................................................... 7
2. Measurement Principles ............................................................................................................... 8
2.1 Introduction to NMR............................................................................................................ 8
2.1.1 Alignment: longitudinal relaxation (T1) .................................................................... 8
2.1.2 Tipping ................................................................................................................. 10
2.1.3 Precession and dephasing................................................................................... 11
2.1.4 Refocussing: spin echoes.................................................................................... 13
2.1.5 Irreversible dephasing: transverse relaxation (T2).............................................. 15
2.1.6 Realignment.......................................................................................................... 16
2.2 NMR relaxation mechanisms............................................................................................. 17
2.2.1 Relaxation by bulk fluid processes...................................................................... 18
2.2.2 Surface relaxation................................................................................................. 20
2.2.3 Relaxation by diffusion in magnetic field gradients............................................... 22
2.2.4 Summary of relaxation processes........................................................................ 24
2.3 Multiexponential decay..................................................................................................... 25
3. Hardware Description................................................................................................................. 28
3.1 Tool concept ..................................................................................................................... 28
3.2 Operational requirements.................................................................................................. 30
3.3 CMR simplified block diagram........................................................................................... 31
3.3.1 Sonde electronics and block description............................................................... 31
3.3.2 DTS telemetry interface board.............................................................................. 33
3.3.3 Enhanced downhole controller board.................................................................... 34
3.3.4 Acquisition control/synthesizer board................................................................... 34
3.3.5 Receiver board..................................................................................................... 34
3.3.6 Auxiliary measurements/calibration board ............................................................ 34
3.3.7 Power supplies .................................................................................................... 34
3.3.8 Power up reset/RS232......................................................................................... 35
3.4 CMR measurement cycle.................................................................................................. 35
4. CMR Data Description and Processing Overview.................................................................... 38
4.1 CMR spin-echo sequences.............................................................................................. 38
4.2 T2-distributions................................................................................................................. 39
4.3 Inversion problem............................................................................................................. 40
4.4 Data redundancy and data compression.......................................................................... 40
4.5 Maximum likelihood estimation........................................................................................... 42
4.6 Measurement sensitivity limits.......................................................................................... 42
4.7 Standard deviations in log outputs................................................................................... 43
4.8 Parameter selection........................................................................................................... 43
5. Calibration and Environmental Corrections................................................................................ 46
5.1 Overview......................................................................................................................... 46
5.2 Master calibration.............................................................................................................. 47
5.3 Electronic calibration.......................................................................................................... 47
5.4 Environmental corrections ................................................................................................. 48
6. Operating Procedures................................................................................................................ 49
6.1 Special procedures........................................................................................................... 49
6.1.1 Tool tuning............................................................................................................ 49
6.1.2 Pulse sequence.................................................................................................... 49
6.1.3 Polarization and the polarization correction........................................................... 50
6.1.4 Measurement time and logging speed.................................................................. 51
6.1.5 Stacking, precision and vertical resolution............................................................ 51
6.2 Tuning the tool to the Larmor frequency............................................................................ 51
6.3 MAXIS control panel ......................................................................................................... 55
6.3.1 Hardware operating parameters........................................................................... 56
6.3.2 Data processing parameters ................................................................................ 58
6.3.3 Logging modes ..................................................................................................... 60
6.3.4 Diagnostic channels.............................................................................................. 62
6.3.5 Log outputs .......................................................................................................... 62
6.4 Presentations and Formats ............................................................................................... 63
6.4.1 Depth logging - Four tracks with T2-distribution................................................... 63
6.4.2 Depth logging - quality control log ........................................................................ 64
6.4.3 Station Logging -- single-wait time station log display......................................... 65
6.4.4 Station Logging -- multiwait time station log display............................................. 66
6.5 Log quality control ............................................................................................................. 67
6.5.1 Operating technique............................................................................................. 67
6.5.2 Response in various formations........................................................................... 71
6.5.3 Borehole conditions .............................................................................................. 71
6.5.4 Repeatability........................................................................................................ 72
6.6 Log quality display ........................................................................................................... 73
6.7 Acquisition quality control .................................................................................................. 75
6.8 Environmental corrections ................................................................................................. 75
6.9 Master calibration.............................................................................................................. 75
7. Interpretation Principles and Applications .................................................................................. 76
7.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................ 76
7.2 Pores contain only water (or filtrate) ................................................................................. 76
7.3 Pores contain water and oil ............................................................................................... 79
7.4 Pores contain gas ............................................................................................................. 83
7.5 CMR applications............................................................................................................. 84
Appendix A. Hardware Specifications and Ratings....................................................................... 87
Appendix B. Safety, Handling and Transportation........................................................................ 89
Appendix C. Mud Doping Procedures for Residual Oil Determination........................................... 96
Appendix D. Signal Processing Algorithms.................................................................................... 99
CMR Training Manual
Introduction
-1- First Edition
November 1995
This information is CONFIDENTIAL and must not be copied in whole or in any part, and should be filed accordingly by the addressee. It
must not be shown to or discussed with anyone outside the SCHLUMBERGER organization.
1. Introduction
1.1 Hardware characteristics
The CMR Combinable Magnetic Resonance tool makes nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
measurements that respond to the hydrogen nuclei contained in pore fluids. These measurements
contain information relating to both pore volume and pore size.
CMR hardware has been designed to overcome the limitations associated with the previous-
generation NML Nuclear Magnetic Log tool. It is no longer necessary to dope the borehole with
magnetite and the CMR tool is combinable, top and bottom, with other logging tools. By using
permanent magnets in the CMR sonde, the tool does not have to rely on the earth's magnetic field
to make the NMR measurement. This eliminates many of the environmental corrections associated
with the NML tool.
The CMR is a skid tool that has high vertical resolution. It must be run eccentered using a
bowspring, in-line eccentralizer, or powered caliper. The sonde outside diameter (OD) is 5.3 in.
Total OD with the bowspring is 6.6 in. Recommended minimum hole sizes are as follows:
With bowspring (EME-F) 7.5 in.
Withpoweredcaliper (e.g., PCD or MLT) 6.5 in.
With in-line eccentralizer (ILE-F) 6.25 in.
The CMR tool works in large boreholes, provided the bowspring or caliper device has sufficient
force to eccenter the tool. Finally, there are no mud conductivity limitations; the CMR works in both
conductive and resistive muds.
The CMR tool consists of a sonde and cartridge. A tool sketch is shown in Figure 1.1 and tool
specifications are listed in Appendix A. It is a compact tool that has a makeup length of 14.2 ft
and total weight of 327 lb. Dimensions of the individual components are as follows:
Component Length (ft) Weight (lb) OD (in.)
Sonde 4.6 165 5.3
Cartridge 9.6 127 3.625
Bowspring N/A 35 6.6
A field joint is provided between the sonde and cartridge for ease of handling. The sonde and
cartridge must be operated as a set once they have been calibrated together, because sonde
characterization and master calibration data are stored in an EEPROM in the cartridge.
The CMR has through wiring to allow tools to run below it. It is a DTS compatible tool that may
also be combined with CTS tools provided a DTA is included in the tool string. The CTS tools
must be run below the CMR tool unless they have been modified with FTB through-wiring.
CMR Training Manual
Introduction
-2- First Edition
November 1995
14.2
Bow
Spring
Cartridge
Sonde
Bull Nose
Figure 1.1. CMR tool.
CMR Training Manual
Introduction
-3- First Edition
November 1995
1.2 Measurement overview
The NMR measurement is made by manipulating the hydrogen nuclei contained in fluid molecules;
either water or hydrocarbon. The magnetic moment and angular momentum of hydrogen nuclei
cause them to behave like bar magnet and gyroscope combinations. The nuclei tend to align in
the magnetic fields produced by permanent magnets and radio frequency (rf) pulses. However,
the alignment process is resisted by the angular momentum of the nuclei, which results in a
precessional motion analogous to the wobbling motion of a toy top spinning in the earths gravity
field.
Figure 1.2 shows an idealized CMR raw measurement. The received signal consists of a
sequence of spin-echo amplitudes that are recorded over a period of time typically in the range of
0.2 to 2.0 sec. The spin-echo signal originates from hydrogen nuclei that are precessing about a
magnetic field produced by magnets in the sonde. Because the hydrogen nuclei have a magnetic
moment, they can induce a signal in the CMR antenna.

A
time
p
m
spin echo amplitudes
l
i
t
u
d
e
Figure 1.2. Idealized NMR measurement.
The spin echoes are generated by transmitting rf pulses from the same antenna used to detect
the spin echoes. Each transmitter pulse produces a spin echo, and the amplitude of the spin echo
is recorded by the tool. The collection of spin-echo amplitudes are referred to as a CPMG (after
Carr, Purcell, Meiboom and Gill).
CPMGs are always collected in pairs. The second set is acquired with the phase of the
transmitter pulse changed to give spin echoes of negative amplitude. The second CPMG is then
subtracted from the first CPMG to produce a phase-alternated pair (PAP). This procedure
preserves the signal and eliminates low-frequency electronic offsets. Further details, including a
full description of the NMR phenomena, can be found in Section 2.
Two pieces of information are extracted from the spin-echo sequence: an initial signal amplitude
and the rate at which the signal amplitude dies away.
The initial signal amplitude is proportional to the number of hydrogen nuclei in the
measurement volume that are associated with the pore fluids. Hence, the initial signal
amplitude can be calibrated to give a porosity,
CMR
. Because the NMR measurement
responds only to pore fluids (i.e., the hydrogen nuclei in the rock matrix do not contribute to
CMR Training Manual
Introduction
-4- First Edition
November 1995
the signal amplitude),
CMR
is a direct measure of pore volume and is therefore obtained
without specifying minerology or matrix properties.
The signal amplitude decays (i.e., dies away) exponentially with time in a manner similar to
the more familiar thermal decay time measurement. The time constant of the NMR signal decay
is called the transverse relaxation time, or more simply T2.

T2 (msec)
0.1 1.0 10.0 100.0 1000.0
T
2,log
= 100 msec
CMR
= 9.9 p.u.
D
i
s
t
r
i
b
u
t
i
o
n
Figure 1.3. T2-distribution obtained from the spin-echo
sequence shown in Figure 1.2.
In water-saturated rocks, T2 has been shown to be proportional to pore size. That is, small
pores have short T2 values, and large pores have long T2 values. At any depth in the
wellbore, the rock sample probed by the CMR tool will have a distribution of pore sizes.
Hence, the NMR signal decays not with a single value of T2, but rather with a distribution of
T2 values that corresponds to the distribution of pore sizes in the sample. For example,
Figure 1.3 shows the T2-distribution obtained from the spin-echo sequence displayed in
Figure 1.2.
The area under the T2-distribution curve is equal to the measured porosity. Hence the T2-
distribution plot completely summarizes the results of the NMR measurement. It is the task of the
CMR hardware and software to measure the T2-distribution of the formation at each sample
interval in the wellbore. Details of the signal processing algorithm that computes the T2-
distribution from the spin-echo amplitudes are contained in the CMR Training Manual.
Porosity and pore size information from an NMR measurement may be used to estimate both
producible porosity and permeability.
The NMR estimate of producible porosity is referred to as the free-fluid porosity,
FF
. The estimate
is based on an expectation that the producible fluids reside in the large pores, whereas the
bound fluids reside in the smaller pores. Hence, a T2 cutoff (i.e., a pore size cutoff) may be
applied to the T2-distribution that divides the NMR porosity into free-fluid and bound-fluid
porosity (
BF
), as shown in Figure 1.4.
CMR Training Manual
Introduction
-5- First Edition
November 1995
T2 (msec)
0.1 1.0 10.0 100.0 1000.0
small pores contain large pores contain
free fluid -
FF
D
i
s
t
r
i
b
u
t
i
o
n
bound fluid -
BF
Figure 1.4. Bound and free-fluid porosity is
computed using a T2 cutoff.
An attractive feature of NMR is that the borehole measurement can be duplicated in the lab on
core samples. The correlations between NMR measurements and petrophysical properties are
derived from lab measurements. For example, measurements on water-saturated core samples
have shown that T2 cutoff values of 33 and 100 msec are appropriate for sandstones and
carbonates, respectively. These cutoff values resulted in free-fluid porosities that best matched
the volumes of water produced from the core samples by centrifuging at 100 psi air-brine capillary
pressure. Typical results for sandstone core samples are shown in Figure 1.5.
Well A
Well B
Well C
FF
centrifuge
20
15
10
5
0
0 5 10 15 20
Figure 1.5. Comparison of NMR free-fluid porosity and volume of
water centrifuged from sandstone core samples.
The NMR estimate of permeability is similarly based on an expectation that permeability will
increase with both porosity and pore size. NMR and permeability measurements on water-
saturated sandstone samples have shown that permeability can be estimated by
K T
NMR CMR
( ) ( )
a
4
2
2
,log
, (1.1)
CMR Training Manual
Introduction
-6- First Edition
November 1995
where K
NMR
is the permeability estimate,
CMR
is the porosity and T
2,log
is the logarithmic mean T2 of
the distribution. The logarithmic mean relaxation time of the distribution is analogous to the center
of mass of a body in classical mechanics (i.e., it is the T2 value at the center of mass of the
distribution).
The premultiplier, a, in the above Eq. 1.1 has a default value of 4. Better results can be obtained
if the premultiplier is adjusted on a per reservoir basis. A comparison of K
NMR
with measured brine
permeability for sandstone samples from two wells is shown in Figure 1.6.
0.01
0.01
100.00
100.00
K
brine
Well A, a=2.8
K
NMR
Well B, a=3.4
K
NMR
= a
NMR
T
2, log
4 2
Figure 1.6. Comparison of NMR permeability and measured
brine permeability for sandstone samples from two wells.
The CMR tool is run in station logging mode or continuous depth logging mode. Values of
CMR,
FF,

BF
, K
NMR
and T2-distributions are output in both modes. Station logging is employed when
greater precision is required for the log outputs.
1.3 CMR sonde
Two magnets are located in the sonde together with an antenna and the sonde electronics. A
cross section of the sonde is shown in Figure 1.7. Note that the antenna section protrudes from
the sonde body by 1 in. to minimize skid standoff in rugose hole.
The sonde electronics contain the circuitry necessary to transmit an rf magnetic field and receive
the spin-echo signal from the formation fluids. Both the transmit and receive functions use the
same antenna, which is operated in half duplex mode. The received signal (which is about 50
nanovolts per porosity unit) is amplified in the sonde by a factor of about 2000 before passing
through the sonde/cartridge head to the cartridge receiver circuits.
The antenna used to radiate the formation is housed in the antenna cradle assembly. The
assembly is an oil-filled pressure balanced environment. A small metal bellows is utilized to
compensate for changes in pressure and a replaceable plastic wear-plate covers the antenna.
The antenna is essentially a half coaxial cable whose conducting surfaces are copper. Ferrite
material is placed between the inner and outer conductors to enhance the sensitivity of the
antenna.
CMR Training Manual
Introduction
-7- First Edition
November 1995
N N
S S
CMRS-A
Repl aceabl e Ant enna Cover 1.0"
Ski d
5.30"
4.625"
Ant enna
Samari um Cobal t
Magnet s
Channel s f or
Thru-Wi res
Sonde El ect roni cs
Figure 1.7. CMR sonde cross section.
Samarium cobalt magnets are used to produce the static magnetic field required for the NMR
measurement. Samarium cobalt is the preferred material because it has high field strength, a high
resistance to demagnetization and a Curie point of 820 C (the Curie point is the temperature at
which permanent magnetism is destroyed). The magnets are potted inside metal cases with
epoxy. The metal cases provide protection; the magnet material is brittle and will shatter on
impact.
The sonde body is made of titanium to reduce the overall weight of the tool and to provide a non-
magnetic mounting for the magnets. Plows are located at both the uphole and downhole end of
the sonde to protect the magnets and antenna assembly as the tool traverses the borehole and
surface casing. They also remove soft mudcake. The plows and magnet casings are coated with
tungsten carbide to provide wear resistance.
1.4 CMR cartridge
The CMR electronics cartridge contains the electronic circuits necessary to acquire and process
the spin-echo signals before being sent uphole on the telemetry channel. The cartridge contains
power supplies, control circuits, telemetry interface, microprocessors, calibration circuits and
diagnostic circuits.
CMR Training Manual
Measurement Principles
-8- First Edition
November 1995
2. Measurement Principles
2.1 Introduction to NMR
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) refers to a physical principle -- the response of nuclei to a
magnetic field. Many nuclei have a magnetic moment and therefore behave like bar magnets.
They also have spin (i.e., angular momentum) that makes them behave in some respects like
gyroscopes. These spinning magnetic nuclei can interact with external magnetic fields and
produce measurable signals.
There are three sources of magnetic fields during an NMR measurement:
static magnetic fields from permanent magnets
oscillating magnetic fields associated with radio frequency (rf) pulses
local magnetic field fluctuations from unpaired electrons (such as those found in iron and
chromium ions) and from neighboring nuclei.
NMR measurement can be made on any nuclei that have an odd number of protons and/or
neutrons (e.g., H
1
, C
13
, Na
23
, F
19
and P
31
). For most of these nuclei the signal is too small to be
detected with a borehole logging tool. However, hydrogen has a relatively large magnetic
moment and is abundant in both water and hydrocarbon molecules found in pore fluids. By tuning
the CMR tool to the resonant frequency of hydrogen, the signal is maximized and is therefore
measurable.
The measured quantities are signal amplitude and relaxation rates. The signal amplitude is
calibrated to give porosity. Two principal relaxation times are associated with NMR
measurements; the longitudinal relaxation time (T1) and the transverse relaxation time (T2). Both
are described in subsequent sections. The relaxation times, either T1 or T2, are interpreted to
give pore size and/or pore fluid properties.
Both T1 and T2 measurements are made on core samples using lab NMR apparatus. T1
measurements usually take several minutes and are therefore not practical for a moving logging
tool. For this reason, fast T2 measurements are preferred for the CMR tool.
The CMR measurement consists of a sequence of steps: alignment, tipping, precession,
dephasing, refocussing, transverse relaxation and then realignment. Each step is described
below. Only after all steps have been completed can the measurement be repeated; usually
several seconds are required. Thus, the measurement is cyclic rather than continuous.
Terminology
For present purposes, the words "proton," "nucleus," "moment," and "spin" are all synonyms
and are used interchangeably in this document. Spin is the property of nuclei or electrons that is
due to their angular momentum and results in a magnetic moment. Therefore, the term spin is not
strictly a synonym but is often used interchangeably by NMR practitioners.
2.1.1 Alignment: longitudinal relaxation (T1)
The first step in performing an NMR measurement is to align the magnetic moments in a static
magnetic field. The static field is called B
0
(B zero). Permanent magnets are well suited for
CMR Training Manual
-9- First Edition
November 1995
creating a static magnetic field, although in principle electromagnets could be used. For the CMR
permanent magnets, B
0
is approximately 540 Gauss, about 1000 times stronger than the
magnetic field of the earth. Therefore, protons will preferentially align in the tools magnetic field.
After the protons are aligned in the magnetic field they are said to be polarized.
The static magnetic field exerts a twisting force (i.e., torque) that tries to align the spin axis with
the magnetic field. However, when a torque is applied to a spinning object its axis moves
perpendicular to the torque in a motion called precession. This motion is analogous to the motion
of a toy top spinning in the earths gravity field, as shown in Figure 2.1.
Precessional motion
Earths gravitational field
Magnetic field, B
o
Spinning
motion
Proton
Toy top
Spinning
motion
Figure 2.1. Hydrogen nuclei (protons) behave like spinning bar
magnets. They precess about a magnetic field similarly to a
toy top spinning in the earths gravity field.
The precessional motion would continue indefinitely if it were not for interactions with the magnetic
fields of other nuclei or unpaired electrons. These interactions result in the proton losing energy
and rotate it into alignment by a process that is referred to as relaxation. Again, this is similar to a
toy top that gradually loses energy because of friction and eventually topples.
Analogously, polarization does not occur immediately but rather grows with a time constant called
the longitudinal relaxation time, T1. That is,
nuclear polarization
( )
1 e
-t/T1
, (2.1)
where t is the time that the nuclei are exposed to the B
0
field. A typical T1 relaxation curve is
shown in Figure 2.2.
For the case of hydrogen nuclei in pore fluids, polarization takes up to several seconds and can
be done while the logging tool is moving, but the nuclei must be exposed to B
0
for the entire
measurement cycle. To accomplish this, the permanent magnets on the CMR sonde are
elongated in the direction of tool motion.
CMR Training Manual
-10- First Edition
November 1995
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
N
u
c
l
e
a
r

P
o
l
a
r
i
z
a
t
i
o
n
B
o
exposure time (sec)
Nuclei Polarize Slowly
in a Magnetic Field
941110-03
T
1
= 0.2 sec
1 - exp(-t/T
1
)
Figure 2.2. T1 relaxation curve showing the degree
of alignment (polarization)with exposure time (t).
Polarization results in a net magnetization that is the vector summation of the individual magnetic
moments.
2.1.2 Tipping
Once the protons are polarized they are in equilibrium (i.e., they are in a low energy state and
remain aligned unless disturbed). The second step in the measurement cycle is to tip the protons
into the transverse plane. This is accomplished by applying an oscillating magnetic field
perpendicular to the direction of B
0
using an antenna. The oscillating magnetic field is called B
1
.
For effective tipping, the frequency of B
1
must be
f
0
=
_
,
B
0
. (2.2)
f
0
is the frequency in hertz, is the gyromagnetic ratio of the nucleus, and B
0
is the static magnetic
field. is different for each type of nucleus. f
0
is called the resonance frequency or Larmor
frequency.
For hydrogen nuclei, /2 = 4258 Hz/Gauss. For the CMR tool, B
0
is about 540 Gauss.
Therefore, B
1
must have a frequency just below 2.3 MHz. It is this frequency selectivity that
makes NMR a resonance technique.
The angle through which the protons are tipped is given by
CMR Training Manual
-11- First Edition
November 1995
= 360
_
,
B
1
t
P
(2.3)
where is the tip angle in degrees, B
1
is the strength of the linearly polarized oscillating field in
Gauss, and t
P
is the length of time the B
1
field is left on. If we desire a tip angle of 90, and if B
1
is
8 Gauss, then t
P
is 15 microseconds. (Note: Eq. 2.3 differs by a factor of 2 from other equations
found in many NMR texts, which assume B
1
is circularly polarized).
2.1.3 Precession and dephasing
After the protons (spins) are tipped 90 from the direction of B
0
, they immediately begin to
precess in the plane perpendicular to B
0
. The precession frequency is equal to the Larmor
frequency, given by Eq. 2.2.
y
x
z
M
B
0
Figure 2.3. Immediately after the 90 pulse, the spins precess
in unison and the net magnetization, M, is preserved.
At first the spins precess in unison (see Figure 2.3). While doing so they generate a small
magnetic field, at frequency f
0
, that can be detected by the CMR antenna. Gradually, the protons
lose synchronization. This is because the magnets never provide a uniform B
0
field that is the
same everywhere in the formation. Since the field is slightly different at point A in the formation
than it is at point B, the protons at points A and B will precess at correspondingly different
frequencies, according to Eq. 2.2 and as shown in Figure 2.4.
y
x
z
m
m
A
B
Figure 2.4. Dephasing of the spins result in a
reduction of the net magnetization.
CMR Training Manual
-12- First Edition
November 1995
a b
c d
e f
Figure 2.5. The process of dephasing and refocussing can be compared to runners
on a circular track.
The 90 pulse starts the race, and the runners move out together. However, their
speeds vary slightly, and they slowly disperse. Eventually they are distributed
uniformly around the track, as shown in (c). The 180 pulse is analogous to a
signal from the referee that reverses the running direction (d). The fastest runners
have the greatest distance to run back to the starting line. If all runners return at the
same speed with which they left, they will all return to the starting line at the same
time as shown in (f).
CMR Training Manual
-13- First Edition
November 1995
The situation may be compared to runners on a circular track as shown in Figure 2.5. The 90
pulse starts the race, and the runners move out together. However, the speeds vary slightly,
and the runners slowly disperse. Eventually they are distributed uniformly around the track, as
shown in Figure 2.5 c.
When the spin directions are uniformly distributed in the transverse plane, the net magnetic
moment produced by them sums to zero, and no further signal is detected by the antenna. The
signal decay is called a "free induction decay" (FID), and it is usually exponential. The decay time
constant is called T2 star (T2*). The * indicates that the decay is not a property of the
formation, but of the imperfection of the measurement apparatus. An example of an FID is shown
in Figure 2.9. For the CMR measurement, T2* is comparable to t
P
, the length of the tipping pulse
(i.e., a few tens of microseconds).
After a B
1
pulse, which may put hundreds of volts on the transmitting antenna, the sensitive
receiver electronics are saturated. Therefore, the free induction decay is usually lost in the dead
time of the measurement electronics. If this were the end of the story, there would be no point in
attempting NMR measurements.
2.1.4 Refocussing: spin echoes
The dephasing caused by the inhomogeneity of B
0
is reversible. Returning to the runner analogy
shown in Figure 2.5, imagine that after the runners are dispersed around the track the referee
gives a signal causing the runners to turn around and run in the opposite direction. The fastest
runners have the greatest distance to run back toward the starting line. If all runners return at the
same speed with which they left, they will all return to the starting line at the same time as shown
in Figure 2.5 f.
In a similar manner, the magnetic moments can be rephased when a 180 pulse is applied at the
resonance frequency f
0
. The 180 pulse is approximately twice as long as the 90 pulse. It does
not reverse the direction of precession, but it does change the phase of each spin so that those
that have precessed the farthest have the farthest to return. Once the spins are back in phase,
they are able to generate a signal in the antenna. That signal is called a "spin echo." The effects
of these pulses on the magnetization vector are shown in Figure 2.6, Figure 2.7 and Figure 2.8.
y
x
z
m
A
m
m
m
A
B
B
Figure 2.6. Application of 180 pulse.

CMR Training Manual
-14- First Edition
November 1995
y
x
z
m
m
A
B
Figure 2.7. Spins begin to rephase.

y
x
z
M
Figure 2.8. Spins completely rephase. Net magnetization is restored
and a spin-echo signal is generated in the antenna.
Of course, the spin echo quickly disappears again. However, the technique of applying 180
pulses can be repeated over and over again. The usual procedure is to apply 180 pulses in an
evenly spaced train, as close together as possible (as shown in Figure 2.9). An echo forms
midway between each pair of 180 pulses.
FID
Transmitter
Receiver
Spin Echo
TE
Spin Echo
TE
90 180 180
0 0 0
Figure 2.9. Transmitter pulses and received spin-echo signal.
CMR Training Manual
-15- First Edition
November 1995
The entire pulse sequence, a 90 pulse followed by a long series of 180 pulses, is called a
"CPMG" after its inventors, Carr, Purcell, Meiboom, and Gill. The echo spacing is abbreviated
TE. For the CMR tool, the minimum TE value is 0.32 msec. Another commonly used quantity is
TCP (Carr-Purcell time), which is equal to TE/2.
TE TE TE TE TE TE
90
o
180
o
180
o
180
o
180
o
180
o
180
o
0.2 mi l l i seconds
Figure 2.10. CPMG spin-echo sequence from a CMR measurement.
The first six echoes of a CMR-CPMG sequence are shown in Figure 2.10. There is electronic
feed through in the first 0.2 msec. The first echo is smaller than the rest because of the
inhomogeneous fields of the tool.
2.1.5 Irreversible dephasing: transverse relaxation (T2)
The CPMG pulse sequence negates the dephasing caused by the imperfection of the B
0
field.
However, dephasing can also be caused by molecular processes. Unlike the dephasing caused
by magnet inhomogeneities, which is reversible, the dephasing resulting from molecular
processes is irreversible.
Once irreversible dephasing occurs, the protons can no longer be completely refocussed using
the spin-echo technique (applying 180 pulses). Thus, irreversible dephasing is monitored b y
measuring the decaying amplitude of the spin echoes in the CPMG echo train, as shown in Figure
2.11.
CMR Training Manual
-16- First Edition
November 1995
Time (t)

T
r
a
n
s
v
e
r
s
e
M
a
g
n
e
t
i
z
a
t
i
o
n
1st echo 2nd echo 3rd echo
M
0
M(t) = M
0
e
-t/T2
Figure 2.11. Irreversible dephasing results in decreasing spin-echo amplitudes.
The amplitude of the transverse magnetization , M(t) is given by
M(t) M
t T2
0
e

, (2.4)
where M
0
is the transverse magnetization at time zero, t is time and T2 is the transverse relaxation
time constant.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. .
.
0.1 sec
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
Figure 2.12. CPMG spin-echo amplitudes measure d on a rock sample.
An example T2 decay for a rock sample is shown in Figure 2.12. Each data point is the amplitude
of a spin echo.
2.1.6 Realignment
Whenever magnetization is in phase in the transverse plane, a signal (free induction decay or
spin echo) can be generated in the receiver antenna. After a time equal to several times T2, the
spins completely lose phase coherence and no further refocussing is possible. The 180 pulses
CMR Training Manual
-17- First Edition
November 1995
also prevent T1 processes; polarization does not occur during a CPMG. Hence, the spins are
completely randomized at the end of the CPMG sequence.
It is not possible to start the next CPMG sequence until the spins have returned to the B
0
direction, resulting in a net magnetization. Therefore, a waiting time is necessary between the end
of one CPMG and the start of the next. Once realignment has occurred, the measurement cycle
can start again.
2.2 NMR relaxation mechanisms
There are three independent relaxation mechanisms for pore fluids:
bulk fluid mechanism
surface relaxation mechanism
molecular diffusion mechanism.
Each mechanism is described in a following section.
The relative importance of each mechanism depends upon the fluid type in the pores (e.g., water,
oil or gas), the size of the pores, and the wettability of the rock surface. For a wide range of
conditions, the surface relaxation mechanism is dominant.
The surface and bulk relaxation mechanisms are due to magnetic interactions between the proton
spins and neighboring spins. The neighboring spins can be
other protons that are in the same molecule or in a nearby molecule
other nuclei that have spin (this interaction is usually small)
electron spins such as those found in paramagnetic ions (e.g., iron and chromium). These
interactions are usually the most important.
Longitudinal relaxation (T1) occurs when a proton can transfer energy to its surroundings via the
neighboring spin; then it can relax to its lowest energy state, which is along the direction of B
0
.
The same transfer also contributes to transverse relaxation (T2): any spin that is aligned with B
0
can no longer contribute to CPMG echoes. In the race analogy, the runner drops out of the race.
Transverse relaxation (T2) also occurs by dephasing without a transfer of energy. The mere
presence of a nearby spin changes the local B
0
field slightly, causing protons to precess at
slightly different rates and therefore dephase. In the race analogy, the runner can be tripped b y
another runner and stumble ahead or fall behind the pack, but he stays in the race.
Longitudinal relaxation can only occur by energy transfer, but transverse relaxation can occur
through energy transfer and dephasing. Therefore, longitudinal relaxation is always less efficient
than transverse relaxation. Consequently, T1 is always longer than T2. For bulk liquids (i.e.,
fluids measured in a large container), it is often the case that T1 and T2 are approximately equal.
For nuclei in solids, T1 is usually very much longer than T2. The molecular diffusion mechanism is
a pure dephasing mechanism and hence contributes only to T2. From the practical standpoint, it is
worth noting that T2 is exactly represented by the spin-echo decay of the CPMG measurement;
a "correction for T1" is not required.
CMR Training Manual
-18- First Edition
November 1995
2.2.1 Relaxation by bulk fluid processes
The term bulk fluid refers to fluid in large containers (e.g., fluid in a test tube, etc.). However, the
bulk fluid mechanism is always active (regardless of whether the fluid is in a large container or
confined to the pore space of a rock) and is independent of the size of the container.
NMR measurements on bulk fluids are of great interest, since T1 measurements are used to
estimate several fluid properties.
For water and hydrocarbons, bulk relaxation is primarily due to fluctuating local magnetic fields
arising from the random tumbling motion of neighboring molecules. The local fields are about 1
Gauss, but the very fast molecular motions (mostly rotations of the molecules) tend to average
out the effect. The molecular motions and rotational averaging depend upon the viscosity and
temperature of the fluid; hence, T1 and T2 are both highly correlated with these variables (see
Figure 2.13, Figure 2.14, and Figure 2.15.).
For the case of water at room temperature, bulk relaxation is weak and relaxation times are long
(about 3000 msec). For viscous crudes, the rotational averaging is not as effective and relaxation
times are relatively short.
3
.
0
1
.
0
0
.
3
0
.
1
0
.
03
T
1
1
.
0 3
.
0 10 30 100 300
Viscosity (centipoises)
(sec)
Figure 2.13. Longitudinal relaxation time (T1) versus viscosity
for 14 crude oils at various temperatures.
CMR Training Manual
-19- First Edition
November 1995
Figure 2.14. Mean transverse relaxation time (T
2,log
) versus viscosity for bulk oil
samples from the Belridge field (triangles), international oil fields and oil viscosity
standards. All samples were measured at room temperature.
Temperature and pressure effects
Temperature has a large effect on bulk relaxation rates (see Figure 2.15). Over the typical
borehole temperature range of 25 C to 175 C, relaxation times increase by about a factor of 10.
Pressure has little effect on the relaxation of water or oil. The relaxation is controlled by molecular
processes, and on the molecular level 20,000 psi is a very modest pressure. However, pressure
has a substantial effect on relaxation of bulk gas, as shown in Figure 2.16.
0.1
1
10
0 50 100 150 200
T
1

o
r

T
2

(
s
e
c
o
n
d
s
)
Temperature (C)
950926- 01
Wat er
S6 Oil
S20 Oil
Figure 2.15. Bulk relaxation of water and two oils
(S6 and S20) versus temperature.
CMR Training Manual
-20- First Edition
November 1995
0
2
4
6
8
10
0 3000 6000 9000 12000 15000
25 C
75 C
125 C
175 C
T
1

(
s
e
c
)
Pressure (psi)
951008- 01
Methane Gas
Figure 2.16. T1 versus pressure for bulk methane
at 25, 75, 125 and 175 C.
2.2.2 Surface relaxation
In the description of NMR principles (Section 2.1), no mention was made of the unceasing
molecular motion of fluids. Brownian motion causes fluid molecules to diffuse substantial
distances during an NMR measurement. The equation for diffusion is
< x > = 6Dt , (2.5)
where < x > is the root mean square distance a molecule diffuses in time t, and D is the molecular
diffusion coefficient. For water at room temperature, D is about 2x10
-5
cm
2
/sec. Thus, in one
second (the typical length of time of an NMR measurement), a molecule can diffuse 110 microns,
which is substantially greater than the pore size in many rocks.
Diffusion gives a fluid molecule ample opportunity to contact the grain surface of the rock during
the NMR measurement. Each of these contacts provides an opportunity for surface relaxation.
When fluid molecules approach grain surfaces, two things can happen. First, protons can
transfer nuclear energy to the grain surface, allowing the proton to realign with B
0
and thereby
contributing to longitudinal relaxation (T1). Second, the proton can be irreversibly dephased,
thereby contributing to transverse relaxation (T2). These events appear not to occur with every
collision; there is only a probability that they will occur. As suggested by Figure 2.17, which
shows the paths of two molecules in a pore, several collisions may occur before a spin is
relaxed. Nevertheless, for the case of pore fluids, the most important influence on T1 and T2 is
the interaction of fluid molecules with the surfaces of rock grains.
CMR Training Manual
-21- First Edition
November 1995
Rock Grain
Light line - molecule with unrelaxed spin
Heavy line - molecule with relaxed spin
Rock Grain
Rock Grain
Figure 2.17. Relaxation at the grain surface.
Not all surfaces are equally effective in relaxing the proton spins. High-purity quartz or carbonate
surfaces are not particularly strong relaxers. Paramagnetic ions (e.g., iron, manganese, nickel and
chromium) have very strong local magnetic fields. They are particularly powerful relaxers and
tend to control the rate of relaxation whenever they are present. Sandstones generally have an
iron content of about 1% which makes fluid proton relaxation fairly efficient. The relaxing power of
a surface is called its "relaxivity" and is denoted by the symbols
1
(for T1 relaxation) and
2
(for
T2 relaxation).
The other important part of the surface relaxation mechanism is geometrical. Relaxation will be
relatively slow if a small amount of surface has to relax the spins of a large volume of fluid. Thus
the relaxation rates (1/T1 and 1/T2) are the products of the intrinsic relaxivity of the surface, and
the surface to volume ratio (S/V) of the pore:
1
1
T1
S
S
V
_
,

_
,

pore
, ( 2.6)
and
1
2
T2
S
S
V
_
,

_
,

pore
. ( 2.7)
The surface relaxation mechanism does not depend upon temperature or pressure. This has
been shown by measurements on rock samples that found no changes in relaxation times at
temperatures up to 175 C and pressures up to 36,000 psi.
From a practical viewpoint, the temperature and pressure independence of surface relaxation
rates considerably simplifies the interpretation of CMR measurements and strengthens their
connection to the great body of laboratory measurements that have been made at room
temperature and pressure.
CMR Training Manual
-22- First Edition
November 1995
2.2.3 Relaxation by diffusion in magnetic field gradients
The CPMG sequence described in Section 2.1.4 removes the effect of inhomogeneous B
0
fields
for protons that do not move during the measurement. When there are significant gradients in the
B
0
field, molecular diffusion can contribute to T2 relaxation (dephasing). Longitudinal relaxation
(i.e., T1) is not affected.
B
0
B
0
+ B
0
+ 2 B
0
+ 3 B
0
+ 4 B
0
+ 5
Pore
A
B
C
Rock Grain
Rock Grain
Rock Grain
Figure 2.18. Molecular diffusion in a field gradient.
Consider a molecule located at point A during the 90 pulse that starts a CPMG sequence (see
Figure 2.18). After being tipped into the transverse plane, the proton starts precessing at f
0
, the
local Larmor frequency. However, as it diffuses it encounters a slowly varying B
0
and therefore
its Larmor frequency slowly changes. It is rephased by a 180 pulse at point B and continues
moving. It arrives at point C at time TE, when the spin echo is expected. Note, however, that it
precessed faster between points A and B than it did between points B and C. Because of this, it
is not perfectly rephased at TE. In the meantime, other molecules are moving in other directions,
each with its own precession history. Hence, refocussing of the protons at time TE is imperfect.
Since molecular motions are random, the dephasing is irreversible and contributes to transverse
relaxation.
For bulk liquids, T2 resulting from effect is given by

1
T2
D
D( G TE)
12
2
_
,

. (2.8)
In the above, D is the molecular diffusion coefficient, and is the gyromagnetic ratio of the proton.
G is the gradient strength in Gauss/cm, and TE is the echo spacing defined in Figure 2.9.
The gradient, G, has two sources:
CMR Training Manual
-23- First Edition
November 1995
a gradient caused by the magnet configuration (the strength of the B
0
field varies by about 5
Gauss over the measurement region)
microscopic gradients induced by the applied B
0
field that arise from the difference in magnetic
susceptibility between rock grains and pore fluids.
The diffusion mechanism is smaller for pore fluids than bulk fluids, because molecular motions in
pore fluids are restricted by grains and the nonmixing of different fluid types. The CPMG
sequence minimizes the effects of diffusion, and it is not significant when the pore fluid is water or
oil and the minimum CMR echo spacing of 0.32 msec is used.
The diffusion mechanism is important when gas is present, because the diffusivity of gas is
several orders of magnitude larger than that for oil and water.
The bulk diffusion coefficients of water, oil (Figure 2.19) and methane gas (Figure 2.20) increase
with temperature.
The diffusion coefficient of gas decreases with pressure (Figure 2.20).
10
- 1 1
10
- 1 0
10
- 9
10
- 8
10
- 7
0 50 100 150 200
T (C)
D

(
m
2
/
s
)
Wat er
S6 Oil
S20 Oil
Diffusion Coefficient
950926- 03
Figure 2.19. Diffusion coefficient for bulk water and two
bulk oils versus temperature.
CMR Training Manual
-24- First Edition
November 1995
0 10
0
1 10
- 7
2 10
- 7
3 10
- 7
4 10
- 7
5 10
- 7
0 1000 2000 3000
77 F
136 F
177 F
196 F
D
i
f
f
u
s
i
o
n

C
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t

(
m
2
/
s
)
Pressure (psi)
950203- 01
Methane Gas
Figure 2.20. Diffusion coefficient of bulk methane gas versus
pressure at 77, 136, 177 and 196 F.
2.2.4 Summary of relaxation processes
The relaxation processes described above act in parallel; that is, their rates add:
1
T2
total

1
T2
S
1
T2
B
1
T2
D
_
,

_
,
+

_
,
+

_
,
, (2.9)
where (1/T2)
S
is the surface relaxation, (1/T2)
B
is the bulk relaxation and (1/T2)
D
is the diffusion
relaxation.
The corresponding equation for T1 is
1
T1
total

1
T1
S
1
T1
B
_
,

_
,
+

_
,
. (2.10)
Note that there is no diffusion relaxation for T1, because that process is strictly a dephasing
mechanism.
During CMR-T2 measurements, all three relaxation mechanisms are active. However, diffusion
and bulk relaxations are often weaker than surface relaxation.
The diffusion mechanism is deliberately minimized by using a short echo spacing. When the pore
fluids are water and oil, diffusion effects are negligible provided the CMR tool is run with the
CMR Training Manual
-25- First Edition
November 1995
minimum echo spacing of 0.32 msec. However, when the pore fluid is gas, diffusion effects are
important and cause reduced values of T2.
Bulk relaxation is only important in the following three situations.
The first situation occurs when water is in very large pores and therefore rarely contacts a
grain surface.
Bulk relaxation can be the dominant process when the pore fluid has a high concentration of
paramagnetic ions. For example, chromium ions in chromium lignosulfonate mud filtrates can
dramatically reduce the fluid relaxation time because the local field around the electron spin is
so large.
When two or more fluids occupy the pore space, bulk relaxation is important for the non-
wetting fluid. For example, in a water-wet system, hydrocarbon molecules are prevented from
interacting with grain surface and therefore relax at their bulk rate.
2.3 Multiexponential decay
The transverse magnetization, M(t), in porous rocks does not decay with a single value of T2,
but rather with a distribution of T2 values. The multi-exponential nature of relaxation in rocks is
due to:
The three independent relaxation mechanisms: surface relaxation, bulk relaxation and
molecular diffusion relaxation.
Each relaxation mechanism may be multi-exponential. This is described below for surface
relaxation. Bulk relaxation and molecular diffusion relaxation can also be multi-exponential.
In many cases (e.g., water-saturated rocks), bulk and diffusional relaxation can be neglected.
Surface relaxation is dominant and T2 is proportional to pore size. That is,
1
2
T2
S
S
V
_
,

_
,

pore
. (2.11)
For a single pore, the magnetization decays exponentially, therefore, the signal amplitude as a
function of time, M(t), in a T2 measurement is given by
M(t) M exp
S
V
t
0 2

_
,
1
]
1
. (2.12)
Rocks tend to have very broad distributions of pore sizes. Each pore has its own value of
surface-to-volume ratio. The total magnetization (being the superposition of signals from individual
pores) is therefore a summation of single exponential decays. That is,
M(t) M
i
S
V
t
i

_
,
1
]
1
1
exp
2

_
,

M exp
- t
T2
i
i
. , (2.13)
where the summation is over all pores. T2
i
is the decay constant of the ith pore. M
i
is the initial
magnetization from the ith pore and is proportional to its volume.
CMR Training Manual
-26- First Edition
November 1995
The summation of the individual signal amplitudes is proportional to the porosity measured by the
tool.
M M
0 i
,
(2.14)
K M
tool
.
0
, (2.15)
where K
tool
is a factor containing various calibration and environmental corrections.
In practice, each pore is not considered individually. Rather, all pores having similar surface-to-
volume ratios are grouped together. Then, the sums in the equations have a manageable number
of terms; for example, 30.
For illustrative purposes, Figure 2.21 shows the NMR signal that would result from a rock sample
that has only three pore sizes, x, y and z. Pore size x has pore volume
X
, and relaxation time
T2
X
, and so on.
x
Time (t)
T2
y
T2
z
x
+
y
+
z
x
exp(-t/T2
x
)
+
y
exp(-t/T2
y
)
+
z
exp(-t/T2
z
)
Time (t)
Time (t)
Time (t)
T2
x
z
Figure 2.21. Sketch showing the NMR signal
resulting from three single exponential decays.
The goal of the CMR signal processing is to determine the underlying T2 distribution that
produces the observed magnetization (i.e., it is a mathematical inversion problem). Figure 2.21
shows the distribution for the simple case shown in Figure 2.21. The distribution is divided into a
set of rectangles that have areas proportional to
X,

y
and
z
. The area under the distribution is
proportional to the total porosity.
CMR Training Manual
-27- First Edition
November 1995
y
T2
T2
x
T2
y
T2
z
D
i
s
t
r
i
b
u
t
i
o
n
Figure 2.21. T2 distribution for the NMR signal shown in Figure 2.21.
In general, the underlying T2 distribution is a continuous function. However, CMR spin-echo data
is fit to a multi-exponential model that assumes the distribution has N
S
discrete relaxation times T2
i
with pore volumes
i
. The values of T2
i
are preselected and the signal processing problem is
reduced to determining the pore volume that is associated with each fixed value of T2.
CMR Training Manual
Hardware Description
-28- First Edition
November 1995
3. Hardware Description
3.1 Tool concept
N N
S S
Y (cm)
X (cm)
MAGNET
MAGNET
ANTENNA
7.5
5.0
2.5
0.0
-2.5
-5.0
-7.5
-10.0
-12.5
-7.5 -5.0 -2.5 0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5
B
0
Field
Figure 3.1. Cross-sectional view of CMR sonde showing static magnetic field.
A cross-sectional view of the sonde is shown in Figure 3.1. There are two compound magnets
magnetized in the same direction. The static magnetic field lines for this magnet configuration are
also shown in Figure 3.1. The static field is predominantly radial into the formation.
N N
S S
350
400
450
500 500
550 550
7.5
5.0
2.5
0.0
-2.5
-5.0
-7.5
-10.0
-12.5
-7.5 -5.0 -2.5 0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5
Y (cm)
X (cm)
B
0
Field
Strength
Figure 3.2. Contour plots of static magnetic field strength.
Figure 3.2 shows contour plots of the static magnetic field strength. A region of relatively uniform
field is located about 1 in. inside the formation. This region is known as the saddle point.
CMR Training Manual
-29- First Edition
November 1995
FERRITE
INNER
CONDUCTOR
TUNING
CAPACITORS
STEEL
SHELL
OUTER
CONDUCTOR
Figure 3.3. CMR antenna.
The antenna used to generate the oscillating magnetic field (B
1
) is located in a semicircular cavity
on the face of the skid. It is shown in cross section in Figure 3.1 and in perspective in Figure 3.3.
B
1
field lines are shown in Figure 3.4.
The antenna is 6 in. long. It is essentially a half coaxial cable whose conducting surfaces are
copper. The antenna has a high Q, which is very important for the reception of weak signals from
the nuclear spin system, and minimizes power requirements during transmission.
N N
S S
7.5
5.0
2.5
0.0
-2.5
-5.0
-7.5
-10.0
-12.5
-7.5 -5.0 -2.5 0.0 2.5 5.0 7. 5
Y (cm)
X (cm)
sensitive
region
B
1
Field
Figure 3.4. B
1
field lines.
The tool is designed to resonate nuclei at the saddle point. The sensitive (or measurement) region
is shown in Figure 3.4. Three necessary conditions are met in this region:
CMR Training Manual
-30- First Edition
November 1995
The B
1
field is perpendicular to the B
0
field. This condition is required for spin tipping.
The frequency of the B
1
field is set to the Larmor frequency for nuclei at the saddle point. B
0
at
the saddle point is about 540 Gauss and the corresponding Larmor frequency (f
O
) is slightly
below 2.3 MHz.
At the saddle point, the B
0
field is constant over a relatively large area. This is necessary to
ensure an adequate measurement volume and signal strength.
In practical terms, the field is considered constant over a region in which the Larmor frequency
of the spins lies within the bandwidth of a 180
o
tipping pulse. This condition is equivalent to
B = B
1
/ 2., where B is the maximum deviation from the center field found in the resonated
region . For the CMR tool, B
1
is approximately 10 Gauss; hence, B is about 5 Gauss. The
B
1
field is not particularly homogeneous over the resonance region. Inhomogeneity of B
1
is
acceptable, as long as error-correcting pulse sequences such as the Carr-Purcell-Meiboom-
Gill sequence are employed.
The sensitive region is approximately 1 in. by 1 in. (2.5 cm by 2.5 cm) and centered 1.1 in. (3
cm) from the skid. Note that the zone immediately in front of the skid does not contribute to the
NMR signal. This is the blind zone that provides immunity against the effects of mudcake and
small washouts. The blind zone extends 0.5 in. (1.25 cm) in front of the skid.
The antenna irradiates the sensitive region over most of its length; therefore, the sensitive region
is about 6 in. long (15.2 cm).
3.2 Operational requirements
The operational specifications of the CMR include
a sonde no bigger than 5.3 in. (13.5 cm)
ability to make measurements in large boreholes
low power requirements
a rugged metal sonde
combinability with other tools
no geographical limitations
immunity to mudcake and borehole size and shape effects
freedom from mud doping
ease of calibration and testing.
The CMR tool has a maximum OD of 5.3 in.(13.5 cm). Because the skid is pressed against the
borehole wall with a bowspring or powered caliper, there is no upper limit on the size of the
borehole that can be logged.
Since the B
0
field is created by permanent magnets (rather than electromagnets) and a pulsed
measurement technique is used, the power requirements are quite modest. Under most operating
conditions the peak sonde power is about 200 watts.
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Ensuring that the sonde survives high temperature, high pressure, abrasion, and rough handling
is vastly simplified by the all-metal construction. This is a significant departure from other borehole
NMR devices. The only nonmetallic part exposed to the environment is the antenna. This is
protected by a replaceable plastic cover. The metal sonde allows other logging tools to be run
beneath the CMR tool.
There are no geographical limitations to tool operation. The CMR tool does not utilize, and is not
affected by, the earth's field which is much smaller than the field created by the permanent
magnets.
The skid was designed to limit the length of the wall-engaging section to 18 in. in order to minimize
rugosity effects Where the borehole wall is substantially damaged or washed out, preventing
good contact between the face of the sonde and the formation, it is possible to pick up signal from
borehole fluid. In such cases, the tool will give erroneous results. This limitation is common to all
wall-engaging logging tools. However, such zones are routinely detected by borehole caliper
devices, and data acquired in them are disregarded. Insensitivity to mudcake is assured by the
blind zone. Mudcake can occasionally be as thick as 0.5 in., but rarely it exceeds that due to
modern drilling techniques.
In normal operation, the sensitive region does not intrude into the borehole. This eliminates the
requirement of doping the mud with particulate magnetic material such as magnetite.
The ability to calibrate and test the CMR tool in remote locations is important. Other borehole
NMR devices can not easily be tested or calibrated because of their large measurement volumes,
sensitivity to the presence of metal, and common electrical noise sources. The CMR tool has a
relatively small volume of investigation. This permits all calibration and test procedures to be
performed inside a small rf screened enclosure 3 ft. in length and 15 in. in diameter.
3.3 CMR simplified block diagram
A simplified block diagram is shown on Figure 3.5. The basic operational blocks are described in
the following sections.
3.3.1 Sonde electronics and block description
Antenna/tuning
The antenna is a narrow-band circuit that is tuned to the Larmor frequency for hydrogen nuclei.
The Larmor frequency depends upon the strength of the magnetic fields produced by the
samarium cobalt magnets, which decreases with temperature. Hence, both the transmitting and
receiving frequency must be adjusted with wellbore temperature. The MAXIS and downhole
controller compute operating frequencies based on data received from the temperature probe
located in the sonde. Tuning is achieved by a capacitor ladder with relays to switch in
capacitance values.
The antenna has a high Q, which is very desirable for reception of the weak signals from the
hydrogen nuclei and which also minimizes the power requirements during transmit phase.
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Calibration loop
Electronic calibration is accomplished using a test loop taped to the antenna. A constant
amplitude signal is sent to the test loop and is picked up by the antenna and processed through
the receiver chain. The test loop signal is used to correct for changes in system gain caused b y
changes in temperature, operating frequency and conductivity.
Transmitter
Low Voltage
Power Supply
Acquisition
Control &
Synthesizer
Board
Auxillary
Measurements
& Calibration
Board
Q-Switch
Duplexor
Preamp
Power Up Reset
RS232
High Voltage DC
Power Supply
Larmor Freq Pulses
Tune Word Serial Data
Acquisition Control Signals
Serial Control Bus
Larmor Freq Clock
Sonde
Power
Cartridge
Power
Serial Data to
Telemetry Cartridge
Commands From
Telemetry Cartridge
RS232 Transmit, Receive
Receiver
Board
Enhanced
Downhole
Controller
DTS
Telemetry
Interface
Tuning
Board
Antenna
+15 VDC
-15 VDC
-5 VDC
+5 VDC Ana
+5 VDC Dig
Power Supply
Voltages
Cal Signal
Test
Loop
Bo Field and
Temp Sensors
Sonde
Figure 3.5. CMR simplified block diagram.
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Auxiliary sensors
Two additional sensors are located in the sonde: a Hall probe and temperature sensor. The Hall
probe measures the magnetic field strength midway between the magnets. The temperature
sensor is used to correct the Hall probe and to provide the temperature of the magnets. Both
temperature and Hall probe readings are used to estimate the field strength (i.e., B
0
) in the
measurement region, that in turn is used to set the operating frequency. The temperature readings
are also used to correct for signal attenuation with temperature (i.e., the Curie law correction).
Transmitter
The transmitter drives the antenna with high-voltage (250 volt peak) pulses of rf energy. The
pulse duration is approximately 30 microseconds and maximum current is about 2 amps. It is
important that the transmitter frequency be at the Larmor frequency, and it is therefore adjustable
over a limited range.
Q-switch
The Q-switch is used to dissipate energy stored in the antenna after a transmitter pulse, and
thereby prepares the antenna for reception of the low-level spin-echo signal.
Duplexer
The duplexer is a passive coupling network that joins the antenna to the preamp. The duplexer
circuit protects the preamp from damage by the very large antenna voltages during transmit. The
duplexer acts as a high impedance during the transmit pulse and as a low impedance when the
spin-echo signal is received. It also acts as a broad band pass filter during receive mode.
Preamp
The preamp has multiple gain steps to achieve a voltage gain of about 2000. This amplifies the
raw antenna signal, which is in the order of hundreds of nanovolts up to a few millivolts. The
output of the amplifier is sent to the receiver board for further processing.
3.3.2 DTS telemetry interface board
The CMR tool uses the fast tool bus (FTB) protocol of the digital telemetry system (DTS) to
communicate with the surface processors. The telemetry interface board provides the electronics
needed to interface the CMR cartridge to the DTS fast tool bus. There are three main functions of
this board:
decode and extract commands sent to the CMR cartridge from the downlink data
insert, encode and transmit CMR messages in the uplink data
rebroadcast all downlink and uplink FTB data not associated with the CMR to tools above
and below the CMR.
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3.3.3 Enhanced downhole controller board
Surface commands are received by the telemetry interface and then read and decoded by the
enhanced downhole controller (EDHC). The EDHC then initializes the data acquisition and
processing circuits accordingly.
The EDHC also reads the auxiliary channels, creates uplink messages and starts the uplink
transmission.
3.3.4 Acquisition control/synthesizer board
Timing for the data-acquisition operation is implemented on the acquisition control/synthesizer
board. Once the timing circuits are initialized on this board by the EDHC, the acquisition cycle
generally proceeds with minimal intervention from the EDHC. The only tool control functions
during the acquisition cycle are to set a new operating frequency (if necessary) and send a start
of acquisition cycle control pulse.
The acquisition control/synthesizer board has a frequency synthesizer circuit that uses the
principle of direct digital synthesis (DDS) to compute a digital square wave of adjustable
frequency.
The acquisition control/synthesizer board also has a 64KX8 EEPROM for storing tuning control
relay words, master calibration data, master operating frequency search data, sonde and cartridge
serial numbers and a list of modifications that have been made to the tool. Data are read to, and
written from, the EEPROM by the EDHC using the serial link bus.
3.3.5 Receiver board
The echo signal from the sonde is routed to the receiver board where it is processed. The raw
echo signal is an amplitude modulated sine wave with a frequency of about 2300 kHz. This signal
is amplified and mixed down to an intermediate frequency of approximately 460 kHz and then
filtered. The resulting signal is digitized by an analog-to-digital converter and then stored in static
random access memory (SRAM) space. The echo samples are then read by the receiver signal
processor and processed to extract the spin-echo amplitudes and several data quality indicators.
The results are written to a triported memory module on the EDHC board.
3.3.6 Auxiliary measurements/calibration board
Several auxiliary measurements are made continuously to monitor the quality of the CMR data.
These parameters are measured and transmitted to the surface every acquisition cycle. The
auxiliary measurements consist of power supply voltages, transmitter current, transmitter output
power, sonde temperature and magnetic field strength. The EDHC reads these measurements
and includes them in the uplink message. The aux - cal board also generates test signals that are
used during calibration and tool diagnostics. Calibration is performed continuously during the wait
time periods of the measurement cycle.
3.3.7 Power supplies
The CMR cartridge receives 250 Volts rms AC power from the AC main power source in the TPD.
The power to the tool is carried on cable conductors 1 and 4. This AC power is used to produce
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November 1995
five voltages: +/- 5 volts DC for the analog circuits, +5 volts DC for the digital circuits and +/-15
volts DC. Cartridge power consumption is 30 watts.
The CMR high voltage power supply (HVPS) provides the necessary power for the generation
of the high voltage rf transmitter pulses. Because large load fluctuations occur during the transmit
cycle, AC aux is used as the power source for the HVPS (rather than AC main). This power is
provided on cable conductors 2 and 10. Because of the high power requirements of the
transmitter, a duty cycle limit is imposed such that the transmitter is on for less than 3% of the
time.
3.3.8 Power up reset/RS232
On power up, the power up reset generator circuit performs a global reset of all boards in the
cartridge.
As an aid in troubleshooting, the CMR cartridge has RS232 interface capabilities that interface to
the downhole controller software. The downhole controller software includes several utilities that
provide mechanisms for testing and controlling the hardware and monitoring the data-acquisition
process.
3.4 CMR measurement cycle
The CMR measurement consists of repetitive measurement cycles that are specified by the field
engineer by means of the MAXIS control panel. A measurement cycle consists of wait-time
intervals, during which no data are acquired, followed by acquisition periods during which the
transmitter is rapidly pulsed; each pulse produces a spin echo. The collection of spin echoes is
referred to as a CPMG.
CPMGs are always collected in pairs. The second set is acquired with the phase of the
transmitter pulse changed to give spin echoes of negative amplitude. The two sets of CPMGs
are referred to as plus phase and minus phase. The CPMG pairs are eventually combined to
give "phase alternated pairs" (PAPS).
The CMR timing signals are shown on Figure 3.6 for the case where the measurement cycle
consists of two wait periods. The measurement cycle begins when the downhole controller
software pulses the "acquisition start" control signal. This event marks the beginning of the first
wait time. After the wait period (during which time hydrogen nuclei align with the static field) the
acquisition of plus-phase echoes occurs. The procedure is then repeated for the minus-phase
cycle. This is followed by further wait time/acquisition operations until all subcycles in the
measurement cycle have been completed.
A data-acquisition operation follows each wait time. This process consists of transmitting pulses
at the Larmor frequency. The first pulse is called the 90 pulse, since its function is to tip the nuclei
90 into the transverse, or measurement, plane. Succeeding pulses are called 180 pulses, since
their function is to flip the nuclei 180. The duration of the 90 and 180 pulses are approximately
20 and 30 microseconds, respectively.
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+
+
+
+ -
Acquisition Start
Wait Time Active
Tipping Pulse
Q Switch Enable
Start of Echo
Acquisition Phase
180 Pulses
29.2 s 2xTcp
320 s
Tcp
160 s
spins
rephase
spins
dephase
90 Pulse
19.2 s
spins
in phase
20 s
50 s
wait #1 wait #1 wait #2 wait #2
- -
-
Figure 3.6. CMR timing diagram.
The 180 pulse rephases the nuclei, and a spin echo is received after each pulse at a time
interval known as the Carr-Purcell time, Tcp. The repetition period of the 180 pulses is twice
Tcp. Since the echoes are also separated by this amount, this time interval is also called the
echo spacing, TE. The echo spacing is primarily determined by the time required for the receiver
electronics to come out of saturation following the 180 pulse. It is desirable to have the echo
spacing as short as possible, and for the CMR tool the minimum echo spacing is 320
microseconds. The transmitter energy must be dissipated before the spin echo arrives or it will
swamp out the extremely small echo signal. To do this, a "Q-switch" enable signal is generated
that switches a 4-ohm resistor across the antenna for approximately 20 microseconds, effectively
shorting out the antenna and dissipating the energy.
The spin-echo signal lasts for approximately 50 microseconds. Since the start of the signal can
be predicted by the value of Tcp, the acquisition timing electronics sends a "start of echo" signal
to the receiver circuits when the echo begins.
The echo signal received from the sonde is an amplitude modulated sine wave at the Larmor
frequency. The parameter of interest is the area under the echo envelope. To extract this
information the signal must be demodulated to remove the carrier. One complication to this
process is that the phase relationship of the carrier to the timing signals is unknown. Because of
this, a two-channel detection system is used; that is, the in-phase (i.e., R) and quadrature (i.e., X)
components of the signal are found. The magnitude of the area under the echo envelope is then
CMR Training Manual
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computed from these components. There is one R value and one X value for each echo in the
CPMG sequence.
To reduce both the telemetry bandwidth requirement and loading on the MAXIS system, a large
portion of the signal processing is performed in the CMR cartridge. The signal processor on the
receiver board performs the following operations:
The first step in the processing is to compute phase-alternated pairs. R and X signals from
the plus-phase measurement are subtracted from the corresponding R and X signals acquired
from the minus-phase measurement. Since the echo envelopes of the minus-phase echoes
are negative with respect to those of the plus-phase echoes, the signal remains unaffected.
However, any electronic offsets in the data common to both phases are removed.
Next, the data are corrected for system gain variations using the test loop signal from the
calibration operation.
The data is averaged with data collected from previous acquisition cycles, according to the
downhole stacking specified by the field engineer. For depth logging, up to 5 level averaging
may be selected. For station logging, the PAPs are stacked continuously for the entire
duration of the station log.
The receiver signal processor computes the phase angle between the stacked R and X data.
The phase angles are used to compute two channels: (1) a phase coherent channel that
contains the total signal amplitude plus noise (this is the echo amplitude channel, A
(+)
) and (2)
a channel that contains only noise.
The A
(+)
data are then compressed by summing the data over windows. The position and
number of the windows depend on the number of echoes in the sequence. In this way the
large number of echoes is replaced by a few window sums. For example, if there are 200
echoes in the sequence the window boundaries will be at 30, 100 and 200. Echoes 2 through
30 are summed and scaled; echoes 31 through 100 are summed and scaled; and echoes 101
through 200 are summed and scaled. Hence, 200 amplitudes are replaced by 3 window sums.
The compressed data are used to compute T2-distributions as described in Section 4.
The data in the noise channel are used to estimate the root mean square (RMS) noise. The
RMS noise is later used to compute the standard deviations in the CMR logs.
The results of the processing are written to the EDHC triport memory. When the data transfer is
complete, the receiver board sends a processing complete interrupt to the EDHC, indicating
there are data to transfer uphole. The processing and data transfer occur during the wait time
associated with the next plus-phase subcycle.
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Data Description and Processing Overview
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November 1995
4. CMR Data Description and Processing Overview
4.1 CMR spin-echo sequences
In standard depth logging modes, 600 or 1200 spin-echo amplitudes are typically recorded in
each of two channels using quadrature detection. During station logging, as many as 8000 spin
echoes are acquired. The two channel data are used to estimate the phase of the signal and
combine the two channels into: (1) a phase coherent channel that contains the total signal
amplitude plus noise (hereafter called the "signal channel" or spin-echo sequence) and (2) a
channel that contains only noise (hereafter called the "noise channel"). The data in the signal
channel are used to compute T2-distributions. The data in the noise channel are used to estimate
the root-mean-square (RMS) noise. The RMS noise is used to compute the standard deviations
in the CMR logs (described in Section 4.7).
The signal-to-noise (SNR) of CMR measurements is substantially lower than that of data
acquired by most other well logging tools. Each echo in a phase-alternated pair (PAP) contains
zero mean Gaussian noise with RMS amplitude equal to approximately 3.5 p.u.
During depth logging, a three-level averaging of PAPs is normally performed prior to processing
the data. Three level averaging reduces the RMS noise on each spin echo to about 2.0 p.u.
Therefore, the SNR of the data typically processed during depth logging ranges from 15 to about
2 in reservoir quality rocks. Unfortunately, the SNR decreases with increasing borehole and
formation temperatures due to two effects. First, the tool thermal noise increases with borehole
temperature. Secondly, the measured spin-echo amplitudes decrease with increasing formation
temperature according to the well-known Curie law of paramagnetism.
Figure 4.1. Typical spin-echo sequence for depth logging.
Dashed line are window boundaries.
A typical spin-echo sequence with 600 echoes is shown in Figure 4.1. The solid line in the figure
represents the signal decay in the absence of noise. The SNR of the data shown in this example
is in the midrange of that typically acquired during CMR depth logging operations.
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4.2 T2-distributions
The decay of spin-echo sequences in porous rocks are properly described by continuous T2-
distributions.

The multi-exponential nature of NMR relaxation in rocks is a result of the pore size
distribution. That is, under some plausible assumptions, it can be shown that the T2-decay rate
of NMR signals from fluids in an individual pore is proportional to its surface-to-volume ratio. The
total NMR signal (being the superposition of signals from a distribution of individual pores) is
therefore a summation of single exponential decays. The sum of the amplitudes of the individual
decays is proportional to the total porosity measured by the tool.
T2-distributions are displayed by plotting the amplitudes versus their associated relaxation times
on a logarithmic scale. The computed T2-distributions are the primary result of the processing and
are used to compute logs of CMR porosities (
CMR
), free-fluid porosities (
FF
), capillary bound fluid
porosities (
BF
) and logarithmic mean relaxation times (T
2,log
).
Figure 4.2. Typical T2-distribution for a clean sand.
A T2-distribution typical of a clean sandstone formation is shown in Figure 4.2. The total porosity
is proportional to the area under the T2-distribution. The free-fluid porosity is proportional to the
shaded area having T2 relaxation times greater than 33 msec. The 33 msec is an empirically
determined cutoff that is frequently used in sandstones to partition the distribution into bound and
free-fluid porosities. The logarithmic mean relaxation time for the distribution is 44 msec. The
logarithmic mean relaxation time of a distribution is analogous to the "center of mass" of a body in
classical mechanics. The logarithm of the mean relaxation time is computed by averaging the
logarithms of the relaxation times in the distribution each weighted by its signal amplitude. The
logarithmic mean relaxation times are used in the estimation of permeability in sandstone
formations.
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4.3 Inversion problem
The computation of T2-distributions from spin-echo sequences involves a mathematical inverse
problem. The inverse problem is the estimation of the amplitudes in the multi-exponential model
(e.g., 30 components are typically used during depth logging) from the noisy spin-echo data.
NMR data from rocks can be adequately fit to a simple relaxation model involving a few
exponentials or to a stretched exponential model. These simple models are mathematically stable
but do not provide valuable information on pore size distribution and free fluid that is contained in
the T2-distributions.
The inverse problem that must be confronted in computing T2-distributions is mathematically ill-
posed. It can be shown that a spin-echo sequence consisting of hundreds or thousands of spin-
echo amplitudes contains only a few (e.g. 5) linearly independent pieces of information. Therefore
the problem is underdetermined; the number of unknown amplitudes (e.g. 30) far exceeds the
independent pieces of information. This results in unstable and nonunique solutions to the
mathematical inverse problem. The solutions are unstable because arbitrarily small changes in the
input data can lead to large changes in the estimated T2-distributions.
Tikhonov regularization method
Methods were developed during the 1960's to provide practical solutions to ill-posed inverse
problems. The regularization method imposes a criterion for selecting a smooth T2-distribution from
the possible solutions that are consistent with the data. The smoothness criterion is consistent
with the fact that the NMR measurement kernels attenuate the high-frequency components in the
underlying T2-distributions. That is, NMR data intrinsically have low frequency content, which is
the rationale for selection of a smooth distribution. The regularization not only reduces the
statistical fluctuations on the computed T2-distributions but it also controls the standard deviations
of the logs.
4.4 Data redundancy and data compression
Because the spin-echo sequence contains only a few independent pieces of information, they
can be compressed into a few numbers without any loss of information. Data compression is
performed downhole using a digital signal processing chip in the tool electronics cartridge.
Compression reduces telemetry capacity requirements and also disk and tape storage (the spin-
echo sequence can also be transmitted uphole and stored on disk if required for later processing).
More importantly, data compression allows computation of T2-distributions in real time with the
computing resources presently available at the wellsite. This would not be possible using the
raw spin-echo data.
The data compression algorithm used for the CMR tool is called the window processing (WP)
algorithm. The compressed data, in the WP algorithm, are sums of spin-echo amplitudes over a
small number of predetermined time intervals that are referred to as "windows. Figure 4.3 shows
averaged window sums and one-standard-deviation error bars computed from the 600 echoes
shown in Figure 4.1.
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Figure 4.3. Averaged window sums for the 600 spin
echoes shown in Figure 4.1.
The averaged window sums are simply the average spin-echo amplitudes in the five windows
whose boundaries are indicated by the dashed lines in Figure 4.1. The RMS noise on the
averaged amplitude in each window is reduced, by a factor equal to the square root of the number
of echoes in the window. For example, the third window in Fig. 1 contains 100 echoes so that the
2.0 p.u. of RMS noise on each spin echo is reduced to 0.2 p.u. on the averaged amplitude.
Sensitivities of window sums
The window sums exhibit varying sensitivities to the different components (T2s) in the
underlying T2-distribution that produces an observed CPMG. Figure 4.4 shows the sensitivity
curves for the five windows shown in Figure 4.1, and for an inter-echo spacing of 0.32 msec.
Figure 4.4. Sensitivity curves for window porosities computed
using the window boundaries shown in Figure 4.1.
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Note that later window sums have less sensitivity to short T2 components than those from earlier
windows. In particular, only the first three window sums show much sensitivity to bound fluid
below a 33-msec cutoff (dashed line in Figure 4.4).
The sensitivity curves can be understood intuitively as follows. Early echoes contain signal
contributions from all pore spaces within the rock. As time progresses, the signal from the small
pores completely decays. Therefore, later echoes contain contributions from only the large pore
spaces that have long T2.
The sensitivity curves show the contribution to each window sum from a unit signal amplitude
with a particular T2 relaxation time. The sensitivity to fast relaxation times, of the order of a few
milliseconds, can be increased (e.g., the curves in Figure 4.4 shifted to the left) by using shorter
early time windows. Simulations have shown, however, that using shorter early time windows
provides negligible practical increases in CMR porosity and is less robust in the presence of
noise. The reason for this is that only the first few echoes contain contributions from signals
having relaxation times shorter than a few milliseconds.
4.5 Maximum likelihood estimation
The statistical properties of the window sums are used to derive a maximum likelihood function for
these random variables. The amplitudes of the components in the multi-exponential relaxation
model (i.e., the T2-distributions) are determined by maximizing the likelihood function subject to a
constraint that the amplitudes be non-negative. The relaxation times in the relaxation model are
determined by user inputs (see Section 4.8) and are therefore not part of the estimation. This
means that, except for the positivity constraint, the estimation problem is linear.
The Tikhonov regularization method is used to select a smooth distribution that is consistent with
the raw data. Monte Carlo simulations have shown that this method results in unbiased log
outputs over the entire range of SNR. The regularization requires a parameter , that is
automatically computed from the input data using an algorithm that seeks to minimize the error
between the computed T2-distributions and the true underlying T2-distributions. It has been
shown that the resulting distributions are relatively insensitive to the value of .
The maximum likelihood function is defined in Appendix D.
4.6 Measurement sensitivity limits
The sensitivity of the NMR measurements to decay times of the order of a few milliseconds is
difficult to quantify because there is no sharp cutoff on the sensitivity response to short relaxation
times. This can be seen from the sensitivity plots in Figure 4.4. The loss of sensitivity to short
relaxation times is gradual and depends on the SNR of the measured data; however it is the inter-
echo spacing that provides an intrinsic lower limit to the shortest relaxation times that can be
measured. For the CMR tool, this limit is a few milliseconds. The CMR porosity reads essentially
zero porosity in hard shales and contains contributions from pores with relaxation times greater
than a few milliseconds. The CMR porosity is therefore an effective porosity that does not include
contributions from clay-bound water. NMR laboratory measurements on core samples have
shown that clay-bound waters have relaxation times below about 3 msec.
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4.7 Standard deviations in log outputs
An important log quality control feature of the processing is the computation of the standard
deviations in all of the derived log outputs. The standard deviations can be reduced, albeit with
some loss of vertical resolution, by averaging of PAPs prior to processing the data. Thus, for a
typical CMR sandstone logging mode, a CPMG consists of a 1.3 second wait time followed b y
the acquisition of 600 spin echoes. The total time for acquisition of a single PAP is 3 seconds. The
three-level averaging results in total CMR porosity statistical precision of less than 1.0 p.u., a
free-fluid porosity precision of less than 0.5 p.u. and a capillary bound-fluid porosity precision of
about 1.0 p.u.
Monte Carlo simulations have shown that the statistical precisions quoted above will vary
slightly depending on the characteristics of the underlying T2-distributions. The porosity precision
is comparable to that obtainable with nuclear logging tools. An important difference, however, is
that the CMR porosity standard deviations are essentially independent of the SNR of the
measurements (i.e., do not depend on the porosity of the formation), whereas the precisions of
measurements made by nuclear logging tools are known to vary with porosity.
Unlike the CMR porosity measurements, the standard deviations in the logarithmic mean
relaxation times depend on the SNR of the measurements. Therefore, an absolute precision
specification cannot be quoted for the estimated logarithmic mean relaxation times. The computed
standard deviations in the mean T2 are output on a quality control log.
The standard deviations in the logs are computed from a covariance matrix for each measurement.
The computations require an estimate of the RMS noise. As noted earlier, the RMS noise is
estimated from the data in a noise channel that is computed for each measurement. Figure 4.5
shows the noise channel for the spin echoes in Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.5. Noise channel for data shown in Figure 4.1.
4.8 Parameter selection
The computation of T2-distributions and log outputs requires the selection of a set of processing
parameters: (1) the number of components in the multi-exponential relaxation model (2) the
minimum and maximum values of T2 in the computed T2-distribution, (3) the free-fluid cutoff, (4)
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an input T1/T2 ratio and (5) the mud filtrate relaxation time. These parameters are inputs for the
computation of T2-distributions, relative amounts of free and bound-fluid porosity and mean
relaxation times. It is useful to briefly discuss and define the role played by each of these
parameters.
Number of components
Simulations and processing of field data have shown that the number of components has
negligible effects on the CMR log outputs (which are integrals of the T2-distribution) provided that
at least a 10-component model is employed. Adding more components results in having more
points on the computed T2-distributions and is necessary for displaying continuous T2-
distributions. During depth logging, a 30-component model is frequently used so that T2-
distributions can be displayed while logging. For station logging, a 50-component model is
normally employed.
T2min and T2max
The minimum and maximum T2 values specify the range of the T2-distribution assumed in the
relaxation model. Specification of T2min, T2max and the number of components determines the
relaxation times in the model, which are chosen equally spaced on a logarithmic scale. The
minimum value of T2 is determined by the intrinsic sensitivity limit of the measurement to short
relaxation times. The intrinsic limit for a measurement is set by the inter-echo spacing. The CMR
pulse sequences, under normal conditions, have an inter-echo spacing of 0.32 msec. This
suggests that the minimum T2 should be set in the range from 1 to 3 msec. The choice is not
critical since, for practical purposes, the log outputs are relatively insensitive to T2min. However,
using 3 msec provides slightly improved porosity precision.
The value of T2max that is selected for processing is a compromise between the longest
relaxation time that can be present in the T2-distribution and the longest relaxation times that can
be resolved by the measurement. The latter is determined by the echo collection time, i.e., the
number of spin echoes in the CPMG and the inter-echo spacing. Simulations have shown that
CMR log outputs are insensitive to the value of T2max over a reasonable range of values. For
CMR depth logging with 600 or 1200 echoes, a value of 3000 msec is typically used for T2max.
Re-processing of depth log data using values of T2max in the range from approximately 1500 to
3500 msec should produce negligible practical changes in the logs.
During station logging, 3000 to 8000 echoes are usually collected and a value of 5000 msec for
T2max is typically used. Station logs with long echo collection times are required to resolve
features in T2-distributions corresponding to relaxation times of the order a few seconds.
Simulations and field data have shown, however, that long echo collection times are not required
to determine accurate values of the CMR log outputs. That is, values of
CMR
,
FF
,
BF
, and T
2,log
obtained during depth logging agree with station log outputs to within the statistical uncertainty.
Free-fluid cutoff
The free-fluid cutoff is an input parameter that is used to partition
CMR
into free- and bound-fluid
porosity. The cutoff depends on mineralogy, and cutoffs have been determined empirically for
some sandstones and carbonates. The experimental data support a value of 30 msec in
sandstones and 100 msec in carbonates. The cutoff is defined so that
FF
represents the porosity
CMR Training Manual
-45- First Edition
November 1995
associated with relaxation times greater than or equal to the cutoff. It should be noted that the
quoted cutoffs for sandstones and carbonates are not expected to be universally applicable.
T1/T2 ratios
The T1/T2 ratio is a parameter used to make a polarization correction. The correction accounts for
the incomplete polarization of the proton magnetization during the wait time that initiates a CMPG.
The correction is important in rocks having T1-distributions with long relaxation times as
explained below.
The rate at which the proton magnetization approaches its equilibrium value depends on the T1-
distribution of longitudinal relaxation times in the sample. If the wait time is too short, the signal
associated with the longer relaxation times will be reduced (e.g.,
FF
will be too low). Ideally, the
wait time should be at least three times the longest relaxation time in the T1-distribution. In some
logging environments (e.g., vuggy carbonates) this would require wait times longer than 10
seconds, which is clearly not practical for logging measurements.
Laboratory experiments, on a lithologically mixed suite of water-saturated rocks, have shown
that: (1) T1 and T2-distributions have approximately the same size and shape and (2) T1/T2
ratios range from approximately 1 to 3 with a mean of about 1.65. The experiments were
performed, and are valid, in the 2-MHz frequency range of the CMR tool. An inter-echo spacing of
0.32 msec was used in acquiring the experimental data. At higher frequencies and for longer inter-
echo spacings, the results are not necessarily valid.
Moreover, the experimental findings are valid only in the absence of molecular diffusion effects.
Under normal circumstances the CMR tool response is not affected by diffusion. An exception
occurs in zones with unflushed gas. The relatively large gas diffusion constant can cause
diffusion effects that reduce the T2 of the gas. Since T1 is not affected by diffusion, enhanced
T1/T2 ratios are possible.
The CMR polarization correction for single wait time logging uses an assumed input value for the
T1/T2 ratio (e.g., a value near the experimental mean of 1.65). The correction is more important for
short wait times. Using longer wait times reduces not only the magnitude of the correction but also
any errors in log outputs that occur because the assumed ratio is not equal to the actual T1/T2
ratios. Note that if the assumed T1/T2 ratio is greater than the actual ratio in the formation, then
FF
will be overestimated; the converse is also true.
T1/T2 ratios can be logged by the CMR tool using multi-wait time CPMG pulse sequences.
Mud filtrate relaxation time
The mud filtrate relaxation time is measured by the logging engineer at the wellsite prior to logging
operations. The filtrate relaxation times in mud systems containing paramagnetic ions (e.g., Fe
+++
or Cr
++
) can be less than 100 msec. In such environments, mud filtrate that invades the formation
can suppress the long relaxation components in the T2-distributions. If a correction is not applied,
then
FF
and T
2,log
might not be accurate. The CMR porosity is not affected by the filtrate relaxation
time; however, if a correction is not applied, then the permeability estimator based on T
2,log
can be
pessimistic. It should be noted that, in practice, mud filtrate relaxation times of the order of 1 sec
are frequently encountered and the correction is negligible.
CMR Training Manual
Calibration and Environmental Corrections
-46- First Edition
November 1995
5. Calibration and Environmental Corrections
5.1 Overview
The computation of
CMR
,
FF
, and
BF
requires several environmental and calibration parameters.
These include the master calibration constant, the formation temperature, the magnetic field
strength and the hydrogen index of the fluids in the zone of investigation of the measurement.
The primary calibration standard for the CMR tool is a 100 p.u. signal from a water bottle that is
placed directly on the sonde. Electronic calibration is achieved using a test loop located near the
antenna. A constant amplitude signal is sent to the test loop and picked up by the antenna. The
test loop signal is used to correct for changes in system gain that are caused by changes in
temperature, operating frequency and conductivity. Signal amplitudes measured during logging
are also automatically corrected for changes in temperature and static field strength.
The calibrated and environmentally corrected porosity is given by
CMR
DH
MC
MC
DH
O,MC
O,DH
DH
MC
AMP
AMP
LOOP
LOOP
B
B
TEMP
TEMP
1
HI
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
2
, (5.1)
where:
CMR
= CMR porosity, calibrated and corrected (p.u.)
AMP
DH
= Raw signal amplitude (volts)
AMP
MC
= Amplitude of the water bottle signal (volts)
LOOP
MC
= Amplitude of the test loop signal during master calibration (volts)
LOOP
DH
= Amplitude of the test loop signal during logging (volts)
B
0,MC
= Static field strength during master calibration
B
0,DH
= Static field strength during logging (changes with the temperature of the magnets)
TEMP
MC
= Temperature of water during master calibration ( K)
TEMP
DH
= Temperature of formation during logging ( K)
HI = Hydrogen index of the fluid in the measurement region
Temperature is an important variable in both the calibration and environmental corrections. The
CMR signal amplitude varies with temperature for three reasons.
The Curie law effect. The tendency for the hydrogen nuclei to align in the static field is
disrupted by thermal effects; hence signal amplitudes decrease with temperature. Amplitudes
measured downhole are corrected to the temperature during the master calibration by the last
term in Eq. 5.1:

TEMP
TEMP
DH
MC
_
,
. (5.2)
CMR Training Manual
-47- First Edition
November 1995
The field strength of the permanent magnets decreases with temperature. A decrease in field
strength results in a decrease in signal amplitude.
The electronic gain (i.e., the system gain) changes with temperature.
For the above reasons, amplitudes measured during the master calibration or downhole are
always associated with an ambient temperature and field strength.
5.2 Master calibration
Master calibrations are performed in the shop at regular intervals. The master calibration is used
to convert signal amplitudes obtained in the borehole into porosity units. During the master
calibration, a fixture containing a water sample is placed on the tool antenna cover. The fixture
was designed so that the water completely fills the sensitive region of the measurement. The
water is doped with Nickel Chloride (NiCl) to reduce the water T1 relaxation time to approximately
50 msec. This allows the use of a short wait time and consequently a fast calibration; excellent
SNR is achieved by averaging the data over a 5 minute period.
The spin-echo data are processed to determine the signal amplitude from the water solution. This
signal amplitude (i.e., AMP
MC
) represents a 100 p.u. standard. During logging, the CMR porosity
is simply the ratio of the signal amplitude determined downhole to the master calibration amplitude
(i.e., the first term in Eq. 5.1: AMP
DH
/AMP
MC
).
The test loop signal (LOOP
MC
), static field strength (B
0,MC
) and temperature of the fluid in the bottle
(TEMP
MC
) during calibration are stored in an EEPROM in the CMR cartridge, together with the
master calibration amplitude (AMP
MC
).
5.3 Electronic calibration
Electronic calibration occurs during the wait period of the measurement cycle. At this time a low
level (10 microvolt) signal is sent to the test loop. The signal is picked up by the antenna and
processed through the receiver circuitry.
The CMR test loop is analogous to the induction test loop but with the added convenience that it
can be measured downhole. During logging, the test loop signal checks out the entire CMR
system except for the transmitter. (Note: In test phase the loop is also used to check the
transmitter).
Changes in electronic gain occur with changes in temperature, conductivity and the operating
frequency of the tool. During logging, a system gain correction is calculated from the loop signal
(LOOP
DH
) and the loop signal obtained during master calibration (LOOP
MC
):
correction LOOP LOOP
MC DH
( ) . (5.3)
This is the second term in Eq. 5.1. The value of LOOP
MC
is indicative of the system gain at the
time AMP
MC
was determined.
The gain correction is applied downhole to both the spin-echo amplitudes and window sums. The
gain correction, which should vary slowly with depth, is also presented on the CMR quality
control log.
CMR Training Manual
-48- First Edition
November 1995
5.4 Environmental corrections
The signal amplitudes measured during logging are automatically corrected for changes in
temperature and static field strength, as per Eq. 5.1. Formation temperature is obtained from the
sonde temperature sensor. The determination of the static field strength during logging is
described in Section 6. Corrections for hydrogen index may also be optionally applied.
Temperature correction
Signal amplitudes measured in boreholes must be corrected for the Curie law effect that causes a
reduction in signal amplitude with temperature. The formation temperature is used in the correction
together with the master calibration temperature (i.e., the temperature that corresponds to the 100
p.u. signal). The formation temperature is approximated by a temperature sensor located in the
CMR sonde.
Magnetic field strength
The amplitude of the measurement is proportional to the square of the magnetic field strength in
the zone of investigation. The field strength changes with tool temperature and, therefore, a
correction is applied to account for the fact that the master calibration is performed at a different
field strength.
In practice, other effects besides temperature can cause changes in the magnitude of the static
field. Iron scrapings from the drilling process can adhere to the tool magnets and perturb the static
field. The CMR tool has a special pulse sequence for measuring the static field strength downhole
that is used immediately prior to logging. During logging, the field strength is estimated from a Hall
probe and temperature sensor located in the sonde and the correction is automatically applied.
Hydrogen index
The hydrogen index of the fluid in the measurement zone is an input parameter used by the
processing. It is used to correct for the fact that the tool master calibration is performed using a
water sample with a hydrogen index of 1.
The software computes the hydrogen index of formation fluids from:
the salinity of the mud filtrate
formation pressure (estimated by the mud column hydrostatic pressure that is computed from
an input value of mud weight and the true vertical depth)
formation temperature (estimated from the sonde temperature readings).
The hydrogen correction is an option in the MAXIS software. The correction assumes that
formation fluids are mud filtrate and is therefore an approximation. However, it is an important
correction in saline muds. For example, if the mud filtrate has a hydrogen index of 0.95,
CMR
will be
5% too low if the correction is not applied. In zones with unflushed hydrocarbons, the hydrogen
index of the composite fluids is generally unknown. It depends on many variables including the
fluid saturations, formation pressure, oil properties, and gas types (methane, propane, etc.).
CMR Training Manual
Operating Procedures
-49- First Edition
November 1995
6. Operating Procedures
6.1 Special procedures
CMR logging involves many new concepts. These concepts, which are summarized below, must
be understood in order to produce good quality logs.
6.1.1 Tool tuning
The tool must be operated at the Larmor frequency (i.e., the resonant frequency) for hydrogen
nuclei. Operation at this frequency is required to maximize the amplitude of the spin echoes and
produce a calibrated log.
The Larmor frequency (f
0
) depends upon the strength of the static magnetic field (B
0
) generated
by the permanent magnets; that is,
f 4258.B
0
0
( 6.1)
for f
0
in Hz and B
0
in Gauss.
At room temperature, the static field strength in the measurement region is about 540 Gauss, and
the corresponding Larmor frequency is approximately 2300 kHz.
The strength of the static field decreases as the temperature of the samarium cobalt magnets
increase. Because of this, the operating frequency must be periodically changed during logging
operations. The frequency is initially determined by running the tool adjacent to a porous bed and
measuring relative signal strengths as the operating frequency is changed. The signal amplitude
peaks at the Larmor frequency. This procedure is known as the Larmor Frequency Search Task
(LFST). Once the Larmor frequency has been determined at one depth in the wellbore, the
operating frequency is automatically adjusted during logging according to temperature readings
from a sensor located in the sonde.
Further details of tool tuning are given in Section 6.2.
6.1.2 Pulse sequence
The CMR measurement cycle is defined by a set of parameters known as a pulse sequence.
The pulse sequence describes the timing and manner in which the rf pulses are transmitted.
In general, a measurement cycle consists of
A set of wait times when the transmitter is turned off. During the wait time, the hydrogen nuclei
align (i.e., polarize) in the direction of the static field.
Each wait time is followed by an acquisition period when the transmitter is rapidly pulsed to
produce the spin echoes.
The pulse sequence specifies the duration of each of the wait times, the number of times that the
transmitter is pulsed during the acquisition period (this determines the total number of spin echoes
that are collected) and the time interval between the transmitter pulses during the acquisition
period.
CMR Training Manual
-50- First Edition
November 1995
A pulse sequence may have single or multiple wait times. Single wait times are used to measure
the T2-distribution of the formation. Multiwait time sequences are used to determine both T2-
distributions and T1/T2 ratios. The T1/T2 ratio is used for a polarization correction, as described
below.
6.1.3 Polarization and the polarization correction
As previously stated, hydrogen nuclei align (become polarized) in the direction of the static
magnetic field during the wait time of the measurement cycle. Because of their angular momentum,
this alignment does not occur instantaneously, but rather grows with a time constant called the
longitudinal relaxation time, T1 (see the CMR Training Manual for a full description of T1).
Ideally, the wait time should be 5 to 10 sec to allow for complete polarization of the hydrogen
nuclei. Shorter wait times result in reduced signal, as nuclei that are not polarized do not contribute
to the amplitude of the spin echoes. This in turn results in erroneously low porosity and T2
values. Unfortunately, wait times of 5 to 10 sec are impractical for depth logging, because the tool
would move too far during this time interval. Because of this, shorter wait times are used in
practice and a correction is then applied for incomplete polarization.
The polarization correction methodology is based on the results of lab NMR measurements on
core samples. These measurements show that T1 and T2 are closely related in rocks: both T1
and T2 are proportional to pore size. Furthermore, for a large number of water saturated samples,
the T1/T2 ratio was found to have a fairly narrow range -- from 1.0 to 3.0 -- and an average value
of 1.6.
For CMR measurements acquired with a single wait time, the polarization correction is determined
from the measured T2-distribution and an input value of the T1/T2 ratio. Both are used to estimate
the T1-distribution that in turn is used to correct the signal amplitudes. Note that a polarization
correction is required for the free-fluid porosity but not the bound-fluid porosity. This is because
the bound-fluid has short T1 and therefore polarizes in a fraction of a second. During logging, free-
fluid porosity is computed both with and without the polarization correction. A free-fluid
polarization correction is then defined as
PC
F FF FF,UNC
/ , (6.2)
where
FF
is the polarization-corrected free-fluid porosity and
FF,UNC
is the uncorrected value.
Note that the polarization correction is an approximation, as the true T1/T2 ratio is often different
than the input value. In addition, the ratio probably varies continuously with depth. For this
reason, wait times should be sufficiently long to minimize the magnitude of the correction. In order
to produce reasonably accurate logs, the correction should be less than 1.10 in zones of interest.
The polarization correction, PC
F
, is displayed on the CMR quality control log
It is not necessary to input a T1/T2 ratio for logs acquired with multiwait times. In such cases, the
T1/T2 ratio is computed directly from the signal amplitudes obtained from each of the different wait
times.
CMR Training Manual
-51- First Edition
November 1995
6.1.4 Measurement time and logging speed
Compared to most other logging measurements, it takes a relatively long time to complete each
measurement cycle. This affects maximum logging speed since a new measurement is required for
each sample rate interval (usually 6 in.).
To understand the relationship between measurement time, sample rate and logging speed,
consider the default pulse sequence for logging sandstone formations. In this case, a single wait
time of 1.3 sec is used to allow for polarization of the hydrogen nuclei. Six hundred spin echoes
are then measured with an interecho spacing of 0.32 msec. The acquisition time is therefore about
0.2 sec and the total measurement cycle time is 1.5 sec. Hence, the total time to acquire a phase
alternated pair is 3 sec. A 6 in. sample rate is used for standard vertical resolution logging. To
obtain a new PAPs during each sample interval, the cable speed must be less than 6 in./ 3 sec,
i.e., 600 ft/hr.
Faster logging speeds can be achieved if the wait time is shortened. In some formations this
would lead to large polarization corrections and an unacceptable decrease in the accuracy of the
log, as described in Section 6.1.3.
6.1.5 Stacking, precision and vertical resolution
NMR is a statistical measurement analogous to the nuclear count rate-type measurements.
Stacking of data by vertical averaging is required to obtain logs with acceptable precision (i.e.,
acceptable repeatability). Three-level averaging is the default for depth logging. Under most
circumstances, this will result in
CMR
logs with a precision of less than 1 p.u.,
FF
logs with a
precision of less than 0.5 p.u., and
BF
logs with a precision of about 1.0 p.u. Unlike nuclear
logging measurements, CMR precision does not change with porosity.
The precision of the log can be improved by increasing the vertical averaging; however, this
results in a decrease in vertical resolution. For example, consider the case above where the cycle
time and logging speed are adjusted to give a new sample every 6 in. Three-level averaging
results in a log that is averaged over 18 in. of formation, and 5 level averaging results in a log that
is averaged over 30 in. of formation. CMR logs that are averaged over 5 levels have similar
vertical resolution to Litho-Density logs.
The precision of NMR measurements depends upon temperature. An increase in temperature
results in an increase in the noise in the data and a reduction in signal strength. When logging
deep hot wells, it may be preferable to increase the amount of averaging to ensure good
precision.
6.2 Tuning the tool to the Larmor frequency
The Larmor frequency (f
0
) is the frequency at which the hydrogen nuclei precess in the transverse
(i.e., measurement) plane. It is therefore the frequency of the received signal.
The tool must be operated at the Larmor frequency. The Larmor frequency changes with
temperature and as magnetic debris accumulates on the magnets; hence, the operating frequency
must be periodically adjusted while logging. Operation at frequencies higher or lower than the
Larmor frequency result in low signal amplitudes and therefore erroneously low porosity values.
CMR Training Manual
-52- First Edition
November 1995
The Larmor frequency is sometimes called the resonant frequency and when the tool is operated
at this frequency it is said to be on resonance or tuned to the Larmor frequency. Tuning the
tool involves the following:
Tuning the antenna to resonate at the Larmor frequency to detect the weak NMR signal. This
is accomplished by changing the capacitance connected to the antenna. The amount of
capacitance is specified by the tuning relay control word (abbreviated to tune word in the
following).
Operating the transmitter at the Larmor frequency. The transmitter pulse produces an rf
magnetic field that tips the hydrogen nuclei away from the static field direction. Efficient tipping
occurs only if the pulses are at the Larmor frequency.
The Larmor frequency is given by
f
0 0
B

_
,
2
, (6.3)
where B
0
is the static field strength in the measurement region, and is the gyromagnetic ratio of
the resonated nucleus.
For hydrogen nuclei, / 2 = 4258 Hz/Gauss. Hence the Larmor frequency is determined entirely
by B
0
For the CMR tool, B
0
is nominally 540 Gauss at room temperature. This corresponds to a
Larmor frequency just below 2300 kHz.
B
0
decreases with temperature. The samarium cobalt magnets in the CMR sonde have a
temperature coefficient of about 1 Gauss/ 5
O
C. This corresponds to a change in Larmor
frequency of 0.85 Khz/
O
C. Therefore, the tool operating frequency must be adjusted according to
the ambient temperature of the magnets.
B
0
is also affected by metal debris that is scavenged by the magnets. The metal debris usually
accumulates on the magnets during the descent through the surface casing. Obviously, the
amount of metal debris varies by well, and for this reason the Larmor frequency must be
determined in situ, as described below.
A
Frequency - kHz
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
2240 2260 2280 2300 2320 2340 2360 2380
Sonde Characterization Curve
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
Figure 6.1. Signal amplitude versus operating frequency.
CMR Training Manual
-53- First Edition
November 1995
The Larmor frequency is determined by measuring signal amplitudes as the operating frequency
of the tool is changed. Figure 6.1, known as the sonde characterization plot, shows the
characteristic curve for these types of measurements. The data was generated in the lab from
measurements performed on a water bottle sample. The Larmor frequency is the frequency at
which the maximum signal amplitude occurs. For this example, it is 2310 kHz, which corresponds
to a B
0
of 542 Gauss.
The same general principle applies to determining the Larmor frequency downhole with one
important exception; it took several hours to collect the data shown in Figure 6.1. Measurements
were taken at 240 different frequencies and several hundred readings were averaged at each
frequency to obtain high precision. Obviously, this amount of time is not available during logging.
Therefore, measurements are made at only 7 frequencies. The results are compared to the sonde
characterization data to determine the Larmor frequency. This method takes advantage of the fact
that the sonde characterization and downhole measurements are identical except for a shift in
frequency and amplitude.
The semi automatic procedure for tuning the tool downhole has been semi-automated and is
known as the Larmor Frequency Search Task (LFST). The procedure consists of the following
steps:
1. The tool must be tuned in a porous interval. In thick zones, the tool can be moved slowly
while it is tuned. In thin porous zones, it is preferable to tune the tool while stationary (unless
there is danger of sticking). The interval that has the highest porosity should be selected
since the time taken to complete the LFST decreases with porosity. A minimum porosity of 10
p.u. is generally required to complete the task within 3 min.
2. An initial estimate of the Larmor frequency is computed based on the reading from the
temperature sensor in the sonde. This estimate will be close to the true Larmor frequency if the
tool has not accumulated large amounts of metal debris on the magnets. The initial estimate is
denoted as F
I
.
Tune Word
2500
2000
1500
500
0
40 50 70
1000
60 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
Test Loop Amplitude vs Tune Word
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
Figure 6.2. Test loop signal amplitude versus tuning relay control word.
3. The capacitance connected to the antenna is then adjusted (by changing the tune words) to
make the antenna resonate at F
I
. The capacitance required depends on both wellbore
temperature and pressure and cannot be predicted accurately from surface measurements.
CMR Training Manual
-54- First Edition
November 1995
Therefore, the correct value is determined in situ using an automatic procedure known as the
tune word search task (TWST). During this procedure, the calibration signal is sent to the test
loop at frequency F
I
, and received signal amplitudes are recorded for selected tune words, as
shown in Figure 6.2. The signal amplitude peaks at the correct tune word. It should be noted
that it is necessary to establish the correct tune word for one only operating frequency under
wellbore conditions. As the operating frequency is subsequently changed (during the LFST or
during depth logging) the appropriate tune word is selected from a look-up table stored in an
EEPROM in the cartridge. The Larmor frequency is then determined by measuring signal
amplitudes for 7 values of transmitter frequency centered around F
I
. The signal amplitudes are
fit to the sonde characterization data and the Larmor frequency interpolated from the fit; it is the
frequency at the maximum amplitude. This results of this procedure are shown in Figure 6.3.
.
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
2300 2320 2340 2360 2380 2400 2420 2440 2460 2480 2500
- Amplitudes measured
downhole
Sonde characterization
curve
Operating Frequency
f
0
= 2425 kHz
Larmor Frequency Search Task
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
Figure 6.3. Signal amplitude versus operating frequency at wellbore temperature.
The LFST determines the operating frequency for one depth interval (i.e., one temperature) in the
well. During logging the operating frequency is automatically adjusted in 1 kHz steps according to
estimates of B
0
made from the sonde temperature sensor. This corresponds to a temperature
change of approximately 1.2
O
C [2.1
O
F].
B
0
is also estimated from a Hall probe that measures the magnetic field strength inside the sonde.
The Hall probe reading can be extrapolated to give the field strength in the sensitive region (i.e.,
B
0
). Accumulation of metal debris on the sonde affects the Hall probe estimate of B
0
but not the
temperature estimate. During logging, the difference between the two estimates is calculated. If
the difference exceeds 1 Gauss, the LFST must be performed to accurately determine B
0
.
CMR Training Manual
-55- First Edition
November 1995
6.3 MAXIS control panel
A control panel has been implemented in order to simplify logging operations. The control panel
allows setting of parameters that control both the acquisition and processing of CMR data. The
value of these parameters depend upon mineralogy and whether the tool is in depth logging or
station logging mode. The panel also displays various diagnostic channels from the tool and
computed outputs that indicate log quality. The control panel is shown in Figure 6.4.
CMRT Control Panel
F i l e Mode CMR*
Monitored Signals
Regulated HV (v)
Downhole stacking
Auto-cal Yes
Auto Frequency Yes
Send Echoes No
Downhole Parameters
Set Pulse Sequence. . . .
Apply
Reset
Echo spacing (us)
320.00
1 # of wait times
Pulse Parameters Logging Parameters
Unregulated HV (v)
Noise (pu)
Delta B (mtes)
CMR porosity (pu)
FF porosity (pu)
Monitored Data Channels
1.50
1.00
33.00
3000.00
30
Update interval (sec)
Auto
30.00
1500.00
1
Uphole Processing Parameters
Regularization
T1/T2
T2 min (ms)
T2 max (ms)
T2 cutoff (ms)
T2 mud filt. (ms)
SDR
Uphole stacking
# of components
Hydrogen index
Permeability model
2300.00 Frequency (KHz)
25.31 Temperature (degC)
Xmitter peak volt (v)
10.26
System gain
1.00
Log Mean T2 215.00
Signal / Noise 11.00
Current Mode: Sandstone Depth Log
247.60
285.05
0.012
0.03
23.00
19.60
Sample interval (in) 6.00
Max Log speed (ft/h) 600.00
Signal Process On
Manu
Figure 6.4. MAXIS control panel.
CMR Training Manual
-56- First Edition
November 1995
Parameter values entered into the control panel are transferred to the local parameter buffer when
the Apply button is selected. The knowledge base is also updated at this time. If the Reset
button is selected, parameter values in the control panel are overwritten by values in the local
parameter buffer.
For ease of operation, several default logging modes are available with preset parameter values.
These modes are designed to assist personnel who are unfamiliar with the tool operation and
cover the majority of logging environments encountered in the field. When one of the default
modes is selected, most of the parameters cannot be changed. Therefore, selection of one of the
default modes results in a standard final product. A logging mode is selected via the Mode button.
When the button is activated, a pull-down menu appears that lists the available logging modes.
Several of the modes are described in Section 6.3.3.
An expert logging mode is also provided. In this mode all the parameters may be changed to
values that are within certain limits. This allows a set of parameters to be customized to suit a
particular environment. The ability to customize parameter sets adds complexity to the system
but is considered worthwhile because it can lead to better quality logs and/or faster logging
speeds in some environments. Parameters that are entered manually in expert mode can be
saved by selecting the File button. The parameters are then saved to a file in the current disk
subdirectory by activating SAVE in the submenu. The parameters may be retrieved later b y
selecting the RESTORE option. The File button is active only when expert mode is selected.
CMR signal processing may be switched on or off using the control panel. The purpose of this
switch is to set the CMR log outputs to absent values when the logging speed is too high for
reliable outputs. This occurs when the CMR tool is run in combination and the logging speed is
increased between zones of interest.
A description of the parameters in the control panel follows.
6.3.1 Hardware operating parameters
# of wait times. This specifies the number of different wait times in a pulse sequence. This
parameter has an upper limit of 8 and is editable only in expert mode.
Echo Spacing. This is the time interval between successive echoes and is also the time interval
between successive transmitter pulses. This parameter must be greater than 0.32 msec and is
subject to a duty cycle constraint. The default value is 0.32 msec and it is editable only in expert
mode.
Set Pulse Sequence. This specifies the duration of each of the wait times in the pulse
sequence, the number of echoes collected after each of the wait times, and the number of times
each wait time is repeated within the measurement cycle. Editing is allowed only in expert mode,
and values are subject to duty cycle constraints. An example of the dialogue window associated
with this button is shown in Figure 6.5.
Send Echoes (yes/no). If set to yes, the spin-echo sequence is sent uphole together with the
window sums. The default is yes.
Spin echoes are considered raw data and may be requested by clients who wish to process the
data using their own signal processing code. The spin-echo sequences are phase alternated,
corrected for system gain changes and stacked according to the value of Downhole Stacking.
CMR Training Manual
-57- First Edition
November 1995
Auto Frequency (yes/no). If set to yes, the tool operating frequency is periodically changed
according to the sonde temperature. The default is yes.
Auto Cal (yes/no). If set to yes, the calibration signal from the test loop is measured and applied
to correct for system gain changes. This option is used to disable the auto calibration in the event
that the calibration circuit is broken. The default is yes.

CMRT SEQUENCES
Wait Time Order Wait Time (s) Number of Echoes Repitition
1 15.0 8000 1
2 8.0 5000 1
3 3.0 1800 1
4 1.3 600 2
5 .3 300 3
Apply Cancel
Figure 6.5. MAXIS set pulse sequence window.
Sample interval. This is the sample rate in inches for depth logging. It is generally set to 6 in. for
standard resolution logging or 3 in. for high vertical resolution logging.
Update interval. The time interval (in sec) for updating station log outputs on the control panel.
The default is 30 sec.
Max log speed. This is calculated by the system from the input pulse sequence and sample
rate interval.
For a single-wait time sequence, the maximum logging speed allows sufficient time for one PAP to
be acquired during the sample rate interval.
For a multiwait time sequence, the maximum logging speed allows sufficient time for all PAPs
associated with one subsequence (including repeats) to be acquired during the sample rate
interval.
Downhole Stacking (cont, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5). This determines the number of PAPs that are stacked
downhole prior to computing the window sums. The default for depth logging is 3. During station
logging, when the PAPs are stacked continuously, downhole stacking is set to cont.
For depth logging, stacking must be performed either downhole or uphole (i.e., downhole stacking
should be set to 1 if uphole stacking is used).
CMR Training Manual
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6.3.2 Data processing parameters
6.3.2.1 Signal processing parameters
The signal processing software determines amplitudes on the T2-distribution (e.g., the P
i
s, in
Figure 6.6) at preselected values of T2. These amplitudes output in an array called AMP_DIST.
A curve is fit through the computed points to give the appearance of a continuous curve. The
preselected T2 values are equally spaced on a logarithmic scale and between values of T2 min
and T2 max.
The number of preselected T2 values is referred to as the number of components in the
distribution.
T
2
Min
T
2
Max
P
i
Figure 6.6 Points on the distribution are computed at
preselected values of T2.
The processing parameters are described below:
T2 min. This is the minimum value of T2 for the computed T2-distribution. T2 min can be edited in
expert mode only.
T2 max. This is the maximum value of T2 for the computed T2-distribution. T2 max can be edited
in expert mode only.
# of components. This parameter defines the number of components in the T2-distribution and
is set to 30 and 50 for depth and station logging, respectively. This parameter can be changed
only in expert mode .
CMR Training Manual
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November 1995
Uphole Stacking. This parameter defines the number of consecutive samples that are averaged
uphole. The default is 1 and the maximum value is 30. This parameter can be changed only in
expert mode.
For depth logging, stacking must be performed either downhole or uphole (i.e., downhole stacking
should be set to 1 if uphole stacking is used). It is preferable to utilize downhole stacking.
However, due to hardware limitations, a maximum of 5 level stacking can be performed downhole.
Uphole stacking is utilized if more than 5 level stacking is required.
Regularization (auto/manual). This sets the amount of regularization (or smoothing) that is
applied to the computed T2-distributions. Regularization is required to produce repeatable log
outputs from the inherently noisy raw data. The amount of regularization is determined by the
input value of gamma. High values of gamma improve the precision of the log outputs but may
introduce small bias errors and also give smooth T2-distributions that lack detail.
The default setting for this switch is auto. When auto is selected, values of gamma are determined
from the signal-to-noise ratio of the data and details of the T2-distribution.
Manual regularization can be selected only in expert mode. When manual is selected, a second
window appears that allow values of regularization to be set for each wait time.
6.3.2.2 Interpretation and environmental correction parameters
T2 cutoff. This is the value of T2

that separates bound and free-fluid porosities. It is set to 30
msec for sandstones and 100 msec for carbonates. It can be edited in any mode.
Permeability. This button allows the selection of a permeability model (SDR or Timur/Coates).
After a model is selected, a second menu appears for setting the model coefficients and
exponents.
T1/T2. This parameter is used for the polarization correction that is applied to single-wait time
data. The default is 1.5.
T2 mud filt. The T2 of the mud filtrate can be measured at the wellsite and its value used to
correct the T2-distributions. The default value is 50,000 msec, and it can be changed only in
expert mode. The T2 of the filtrate is also recorded on the log heading.
Hydrogen Index (auto/manu). A hydrogen index correction may be optionally applied to the
CMR porosity and free-fluid porosity based on salinity, temperature and pressure.
If auto is selected, a second menu appears for inputting mud type (oil or water), mud filtrate
salinity, formation water salinity, mud weight and deviation. For water muds, it is assumed that the
formation is completely flushed and the mud filtrate salinity is used. For oil-base muds, it is
assumed that there is no invasion and the formation water salinity is used for the correction.
Formation pressure is assumed to be equal to the hydrostatic pressure that is computed from the
tool depth, mud weight and well deviation. The formation temperature is approximated by the
sonde temperature.
Values of hydrogen index may be entered directly if manu is selected. The default setting is manu
combined with a hydrogen index equal to 1.0. This parameter is editable in any mode.
CMR Training Manual
-60- First Edition
November 1995
6.3.3 Logging modes
Default parameter values for several of the modes are described below and also summarized in
Table 1.
6.3.3.1 Depth logging modes
Sandstone depth log. The wait time is set to 1.3 sec. Six hundred echoes are then collected
with an echo spacing of 0.32 msec. Total time to acquire 1 PAP is approximately 3 sec.
The sample rate may be set by the user. The default value is 6 in. The maximum logging
speed for this combination of sample rate and pulse sequence is 600 ft/hr.
Carbonate depth log. The wait time is set to 2.6 sec. Twelve hundred echoes are then
collected with an echo spacing of 0.32 msec. Total time to acquire 1 PAPs is approximately 6
sec.
The sample rate may be set by the user. The default value is 6 in. The maximum logging
speed for this combination of sample rate and logging speed is 300 ft/hr.
Expert depth log. Default parameters are the same as for the sandstone depth log mode. All
parameters are editable but are subject to constraints.
6.3.3.2 Station logging modes
During station logging, PAPs are continuously stacked as they are accumulated to improve the
signal-to-noise ratio. New log outputs are periodically computed from the stacked data and
displayed on the control panel. The station log is terminated when a signal-to-noise ratio of at
least 20 has been attained.
Sandstone station log. The wait time is set to 3 sec. Three thousand echoes are then
collected with an echo spacing of 0.32 msec. Total time to acquire 1 PAP is approximately 8
sec.
Carbonate station log. The wait time is set to 6 sec. Five thousand echoes are then collected
with an echo spacing of 0.32 msec. Total time to acquire 1 PAP is approximately 15 sec.
Expert station log. Default parameters are the same as for the sandstone station log mode. All
parameters are editable but subject to constraints.
Sandstone multiwait time station log. This pulse sequence consists of the following 3 sub-
sequences:
1. a wait time of 0.18 sec followed by the acquisition of 300 echoes.
Calibration bottle. This mode is used for the monthly master calibration or for logging the
calibration bottle as a prejob check. The wait time is set to 0.5 sec. Three hundred echoes are
then collected with an echo spacing of 0.32 msec. Total time to acquire 1 PAP is
approximately 0.6 sec.
CMR Training Manual
-61- First Edition
November 1995
Mud sample. This mode is used to determine T2 for a mud or mud filtrate sample at the well
site. The wait time is set to 5 sec. Three thousand echoes are then collected with an echo
spacing of 0.32 msec. Total time to acquire 1 PAP is approximately 12 sec.
# of
Wait
Times
Wait
Time
(sec)
# of
Echoes
T2
min
T2
max
T2
cut
Depth logging
Sandstone 1 1.3 600 3 3000 33
Carbonate 1 2.6 1200 3 3000 100
Expert up to 8 up to
8000
Station logging
Sandstone 1 3.0 3000 1 3000 33
Carbonate 6.0 5000 1 5000 100
Sandstone
MWT
3 1.20 1800 1 3000 33
0.38 600
0.18 300
Carbonate
MWT
3 2.0 3000 1 3000 100
1.0 1800
0.65 1200
Expert up to 8 up to
8000
Notes:
Default echo spacing is 0.32 msec for all modes.
Default number of components is 30 for depth logging and 60 for station logging.
Allowed number of echoes is 200, 300, 600, 1200, 1800, 3000, 5000, 8000
A duty cycle limit applies for all modes; the wait time must be roughly twice the
time during which echoes are acquired.
Table 1. CMR logging modes.
CMR Training Manual
-62- First Edition
November 1995
6.3.4 Diagnostic channels
The following diagnostic channels are displayed on the control panel. If a signal is outside of the
specified range, the background color on the display changes from green to red.
Noise level. The root mean square (RMS) noise, in porosity units, is estimated for each
subsequence in the measurement cycle. Therefore, up to 8 values are available depending on
the pulse sequence selected. For multiwait time sequences, the display shows the RMS noise for
the first sub-sequence.
Note that the RMS noise is calculated from the PAPs after stacking. The RMS noise is also
displayed on the quality control log.
Signal/noise. This is the signal-to-noise ratio of the stacked PAPs.
Frequency. This is the tool operating frequency in MHz.
Temperature. This is the temperature reading from the sensor located in the CMR sonde. It is
used to estimate B
0
and for the Curie law correction.
B. This is the difference between the temperature estimate of B
0
and the Hall probe estimate. If
B exceeds 1 Gauss (0.1 mtesla), a Larmor frequency search task must be performed to
accurately measure B
0
.
Voltages. The transmitter peak voltage, regulated and unregulated high voltages are displayed.
6.3.5 Log outputs
Values of CMR porosity, free-fluid porosity, logarithmic mean T2 and signal-to-noise ratio are also
displayed on the control panel.
CMR Training Manual
-63- First Edition
November 1995
6.4 Presentations and Formats
6.4.1 Depth logging - Four tracks with T2-distribution
Bound Fluid Volume (BFV)
(V/V) 0 0.3
CMR Free Fluid (CMFF)
(V/V) 0.3 0
CMR Porosity (CMRP)
(V/V) 0.3 0
Gamma Ray (GR)
(GAPI) 0 150
Permeability - CMR (KCMR)
(MD) 0.1 1000
T2 Distribution (LC03)
(MS) 3 3000
Tension (TENS)
(LBF) 10000 0
T2 LOG Mean (T2LM)
(MS) 0.1 1000
Bound Fluid Perm
4700
Figure 6.7. CMR four-track presentation with T2-distribution.
The shading between the CMR porosity and the CMR free-fluid curves indicates the bound-fluid
volume. The bound-fluid volume is also presented as a separate curve with porosity increasing
to the right. T2-distributions are displayed in track 4 together with the T2 cutoff (solid blue line).
CMR Training Manual
-64- First Edition
November 1995
6.4.2 Depth logging - quality control log
CMR System Gain (CMR_GAIN)
(----) 0 1
CMR Temperature (CMR_TEMP)
(DEGF) 75 125
Standard Deviation of CMR Porosity
(CMRP_SIG)
(V/V) 0.1 0
Standard Deviation of Free Fluid
(CMFF_SIG)
(V/V) 0.1 0
Delta B0 (DELTA_B0)
(MTES) -0.5 0.5
Operating Frequency (FREQ_OP)
(KHZ) 2260 2310
Gamma Ray (GR)
(GAPI) 0 150
Computed GAMMA (GAMMA[0])
(----) 0 10
Polarization Correction (POLC[0])
(----) 0 10
RMS Noise (RMS_NOISE[0])
(V) 5 0
Signal Phase (SPHASE[0])
(DEG) -180 180
Tension (TENS)
(LBF) 10000 0
4700
Figure 6.8. Log quality control presentation format.
Track 1 contains the correlation curves and the polarization correction (see Section 6.1.3 for a
description of the polarization correction).
Track 2 contains information relating to the tool operation: signal phase, system gain (this is the
inverse of the electronic gain correction described in Section 5.3), sonde temperature, operating
frequency, B (this is the difference between B
0
estimated from the Hall probe and B
0
estimated
from the sonde temperature, as described in Section 6.2).
Track 3 contains information relating to the precision of the output logs: CMR porosity standard
deviation, free-fluid porosity standard deviation, RMS noise, and the value of regularization
(Gamma) used to process the data.
CMR Training Manual
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November 1995
6.4.3 Station Logging -- single-wait time station log display

0
0.1
1 10000 10 100 1000
T2(ms)
Regularization: Auto
T2 min(msec): 1.000 T2 max(msec): 3000.000 T2 cutoff(msec): 33.000 T1/T2: 1.500
Update int.(sec): 8.0
MEASURED DATA
CMR Porosity(V/V): 0.192 Free Fluid(V/V): 0.160 Log Mean T2(msec): 120.432
Computed T1/T2: N/A Permeability(md): 78.345 Temperature(degc): 26.065
Signal/Noise: (36.111 )
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
Amplitude
T2 cutoff
CMR STATION LOG REPORT DEPTH(Ft): 33.533
PARAMETER SUMMARY
Mode: Sandstone-station log
Echo spacing(us): 320.000
Wait times(sec): (3.000 )
Number of echoes: (3000 )
Repetition: (1 )
Figure 6.9. CMR single-wait time station log report.
CMR log outputs are displayed on the station log report, together with the measurement cycle
and processing parameter values.
A quality control log, similar to that shown for depth logging, is also available for station logging.
CMR Training Manual
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November 1995
6.4.4 Station Logging -- multiwait time station log display
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
Amplitude
1 10000 10 100 1000
T2(ms)
T2 cutoff
Updated
Wait time 1
Wait time 2
Wait time 3
CMR STATION LOG REPORT DEPTH(Ft): 32.325
PARAMETER SUMMARY
Mode: Expert-station log
Echo spacing(us): 320.000
Wait times(sec): (1.200 0.380 0.180 )
Number of echoes: (1800 600 300 )
Repetition: (1 3 5 )
T2 min(msec): 1.000 T2 max(msec): 3000.000 T2 cutoff(msec): 33.000 T1/T2: 1.000
Update int.(sec): 13.0
MEASURED DATA
CMR Porosity(V/V): 0.162 Free Fluid(V/V): 0.150 Log Mean T2(msec): 235.821
Computed T1/T2: 2.187 Permeability(md): 154.542 Temperature(degc): 26.588
Signal/Noise: (30.250 34.463 32.781 )
0.4
T2 cutoff
Figure 6.10. CMR multiwait time station log report.
Three wait times are used for this station log; 1.2, 0.36 and 0.18 sec. T2-distributions are
computed for each wait time assuming a T1/T2 ratio of 1.0. These distributions are used to
calculate the true T1/T2 ratio (in this case, 2.187). An updated distribution is then computed using
the true T1/T2 ratio.
CMR Training Manual
-67- First Edition
November 1995
6.5 Log quality control
6.5.1 Operating technique
Tool positioning
The CMR tool must be run eccentered using a bowspring, in-line eccentralizer or a powered
caliper device. Note: the LDT caliper does not eccenter the CMR tool.
Skid contact with the formation is essential. Knuckle joints must be used when the CMR tool is
run with tools that have standoffs or centralizers (e.g., AIT-H). Tool turners are required in
deviated wells. Short-axis orientation hardware is recommended in oval holes.
The CMR skid extends 1 in. beyond the sonde body. When the CMR tool is combined with
eccentered tools (e.g. APS or CNT), knuckle joints must be used to prevent undesirable
standoff.
Pulse sequence
Select the appropriate pulse sequence according to mineralogy. In almost all situations, one of
the standard modes (carbonate or sandstone) is appropriate.
Maximum logging speeds
The CMR requires slow logging speed (typically 300 to 600 ft/hr). Verify that the winch can
operate at the required speed.
Maximum logging speeds are calculated by the MAXIS based on the pulse sequence and sample
rate. The maximum logging speed ensures that a new measurement is acquired during each
sample interval.
Do not exceed the maximum logging speed. If exceeded, there is a possibility that a new
measurement will not be acquired during a sample interval. When this occurs, log values from the
previous sample frame are written into the current sample frame. This results in stair stepping
on the log.
Sample rate
CMR standard resolution logs have a 6 in. sample rate.
CMR high vertical resolution logs have a 3 in. sample rate.
When long wait times are used, the sample rate may be increased to 9 in. to increase logging
speed, provided that the resulting vertical resolution (about 30 in., for 3 level averaging) is
acceptable.
CMR Training Manual
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November 1995
Tool tuning
Correct tool tuning (tune word and Larmor frequency search tasks) is the single most important
task for running a valid log.
The tool must be tuned a minimum of three times; (1) immediately before the repeat pass, (2)
immediately before the main pass, and (3) at the completion of logging. Display the TWST
and LFST reports on the CMR log print.
The tool should be tuned adjacent to an interval that has the highest porosity. Ideally, this is
the same interval that will be logged with the CMR.
Best results are obtained when the tool is moved slowly (up and/or down) during the LFST.
The tool should be alongside the porous zones for the duration of the LFST (about 2 min.).
If the zone is thin, and there is no danger of tool sticking, the tool can be tuned while
stationary.
It is desirable (but not essential) that the CMR temperature stabilize before tuning the tool.
Monitor the tool temperature displayed on the control panel. Temperature stabilization takes
at least 10 minutes, so it is good practice to first run a depth tie in pass, etc.
Tool temperature usually lags borehole temperature when
the tool is initially at the bottom of the well,
when several intervals are logged that are separated by more than several thousand ft.,
and the tool is moved quickly between the intervals.
In these situations, perform an initial tune word search and Larmor frequency search task.
Repeat the LFST until the Larmor frequency from two consecutive searches differ by less
than 3 kHz. This is usually accomplished with 2 or 3 attempts.
Examples of acceptable and unacceptable LFST results are shown on Figure 6.11, Figure
6.12, Figure 6.13 and Figure 6.14. Problems occur in low porosity, in shales and when the
input center frequency is too high or too low.
The LFST must be repeated if there is any doubt about the validity of the result. The tool is
considered to be adequately tuned when two consecutive LFST results (i.e., The found
operating frequency (kHz), on the LFST report) agree to within 3 kHz.
The tool must be retuned if delta B (displayed on the control panel) exceeds 0.1 mtesla (1
gauss) during logging.
Pay close attention to delta B when logging wells that have long casing strings. The CMR
tends to pick up large amounts of metal debris in these wells.
CMR Training Manual
-69- First Edition
November 1995
0
0
.
5
1
1
.
5
2
S
c
a
l
e
d

M
e
a
s
u
r
e
m
e
n
t
2100 2125 2150 2175 2200 2225 2250 2275 2300 2325 2350 2375 2400
Frequency (kHz)
Figure 6.11. LFST result under ideal conditions; 100 p.u. signal source in the lab.
0
0
.
5
S
c
a
l
e
d

M
e
a
s
u
r
e
m
e
n
t
2100 2125 2150 2175 2200 2225 2250 2275 2300 2325 2350 2375 2400
Frequency (kHz)
1
1
.
5
2
S
c
a
l
e
d

M
e
a
s
u
r
e
m
e
n
t
Figure 6.12. LFST result under borehole conditions. This result is borderline
acceptable and should be repeated..
CMR Training Manual
-70- First Edition
November 1995
0
0
.
5
1
1
.
5
2
S
c
a
l
e
d

M
e
a
s
u
r
e
m
e
n
t
2100 2125 2150 2175 2200 2225 2250 2275 2300 2325 2350 2375 2400
Frequency (kHz)
Figure 6.13. Input center frequency too high. Redo the LFST.
0
0
.
5
1
1
.
5
2
S
c
a
l
e
d

M
e
a
s
u
r
e
m
e
n
t
2100 2125 2150 2175 2200 2225 2250 2275 2300 2325 2350 2375 2400
Frequency (kHz)
Figure 6.14. Input center frequency too low. Redo the LFST.
CMR Training Manual
-71- First Edition
November 1995
6.5.2 Response in various formations
Clean formations
The CMR porosity is comparable to neutron and density porosities in clean sandstones and
carbonates.
Shaly formations
The CMR porosity is an effective porosity; and is therefore lower than neutron and density
porosities in shaly formations.
Free-fluid porosity is usually much lower than CMR porosity in shaly formations.
Gas zones
In gas zones, the CMR porosity is much lower than density porosity, and usually slightly
lower than neutron porosity. The CMR response in gas zones depends on invasion and the
hydrogen index of the gas.
Shales
In shales, CMR porosity is low (often close to zero p.u.) and free-fluid porosity is typically
zero p.u.
Heavy oil zones
CMR porosity does not include the volume of heavy oil (or bitumen). The CMR porosity is
much lower than neutron and density porosities when heavy oil is present.
6.5.3 Borehole conditions
Washouts
CMR porosity spikes high in washouts and intervals where the skid is not in good contact
with the formation.
Mudcake
CMR readings are unreliable when mudcake thickness exceeds 0.5 in.
CMR Training Manual
-72- First Edition
November 1995
6.5.4 Repeatability
A typical repeat analysis is shown in Figure 6.15. Note that the free-fluid porosity repeatability is
superior to that of the CMR porosity. Also note that the repeatability of logarithmic mean T2
deteriorates with decreasing porosity.
The following conditions degrade repeatability.
A change in tool orientation between the repeat and main pass, especially in vuggy
carbonates. The CMR has a small azimuthal coverage.
Irregular tool motion, as encountered in sticky and rugose boreholes.
Poor skid contact .
High formation temperature.
8100
CMR Free Fluid (CMFF)
(V/V) 0.3 0
CMRP_REP Curve (CMRP_REP)
(V/V) 0.3 0
CMFF_REP Curve (CMFF_REP)
(V/V) 0.3 0
GR_REP Curve (GR_REP)
(GAPI) 0 100
KCMR_REP Curve (KCMR_REP)
(MD) 1 1000
T2 LOG Mean (T2LM)
(MS) 1 1000
Tension (TENS)
(LBF) 10000 0
T2LM_REP Curve (T2LM_REP)
(MS) 1 1000
TENS_REP Curve (TENS_REP)
(LBF) 10000 0
CMR Porosity (CMRP)
(V/V) 0.3 0
Gamma Ray (GR)
(GAPI) 0 100
Permeability - CMR (KCMR)
(MD) 1 1000
Figure 6.15. CMR repeat analysis.
CMR Training Manual
-73- First Edition
November 1995
6.6 Log quality display
An example log quality display for the CMR tool is shown in Figure 6.16.
CMR System Gain (CMR_GAIN)
(----) 0 1
CMR Temperature (CMR_TEMP)
(DEGF) 75 125
Standard Deviation of CMR Porosity
(CMRP_SIG)
(V/V) 0.1 0
Standard Deviation of Free Fluid
(CMFF_SIG)
(V/V) 0.1 0
Delta B0 (DELTA_B0)
(MTES) -0.5 0.5
Operating Frequency (FREQ_OP)
(KHZ) 2260 2310
Gamma Ray (GR)
(GAPI) 0 150
Computed GAMMA (GAMMA[0])
(----) 0 10
Polarization Correction (POLC[0])
(----) 0 10
RMS Noise (RMS_NOISE[0])
(V) 5 0
Signal Phase (SPHASE[0])
(DEG) -180 180
Tension (TENS)
(LBF) 10000 0
4700
Figure 6.16. CMR log quality display.
Ensure that the log quality control outputs have the following values.
The polarization correction depends on wait time. If the correction exceeds 1.10 in zones of
interest, relog the zone using a longer wait time.
Gamma and signal phase depend on porosity.
Gamma should be low in high porosity intervals (~ 1). High values (>10) are normal in low
porosity intervals (i.e., shale).
CMR Training Manual
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November 1995
Signal phase should be relatively constant (+/-10) in high porosity intervals. Signal
phase may be erratic in low porosity (e.g., less than 5 p.u.); this is not symptomatic of a
tool problem.
When the signal phase is 180, the curve will jump from the right hand to left hand edge of
the track because (-)180 is equal to (+)180. This is not symptomatic of a tool problem.
RMS noise and standard deviation depend on temperature and the amount of stacking. The
following values are for 3 level stacking.
RMS noise should be comparable to the values shown on Figure 6.17.
At 25 C, CMR porosity and free -fluid porosity standard deviations are less than 1.25
and 0.5 p.u, respectively.
Both standard deviations increase with temperature. At 175 C, CMR porosity and free -
fluid porosity standard deviations are about 3.0 and 1.5 p.u, respectively.
The RMS noise and standard deviations can be decreased by increasing the stacking. Five-
level averaging is recommended for temperatures greater than 140 C.
0
1
2
3
4
20 60 100 140 180
Temperature - C
R
M
S

N
o
i
s
e

-

V
o
l
t
s
Figure 6.17. Plot of RMS noise versus temperature.
System gain and operating frequency depend on temperature.
System gain varies with temperature and mud conductivity.
System gain is close to 1 in low temperature wells that have fresh muds.
System gain is lower (~ 0.5) in hot wells that have conductive mud. In these wells,
system gain typically spikes very low (~ 0.3) in washouts.
Operating frequency changes in 1 kHz steps for each 1.2 C change in temperature.
CMR Training Manual
-75- First Edition
November 1995
6.7 Acquisition quality control
While acquisition is running, monitor the following signals in the IO monitor.
DHC_ERR (DHC error). Background color should be green.
DSP_ERR (DSP error). Background color should be green.
STATE_ERR (state error). Background color should be green, except while the tool operating
mode is changing.
VOLT_ERR. (Voltage error). Background color should be green.
HPB0 (Hall probe B). Should be between 51 and 56 mtesla when the tool is in open hole.
NUM_MSG (number of messages). Should be incrementing, except while the tool operating
mode is changing.
CMR_TEMP (temperature). Should correspond with expected values.
6.8 Environmental corrections
Corrections for hydrogen index and mud filtrate T2 can be applied at the wellsite. If required, it is
recommended that the corrections be applied in playback phase. Both the playback and real time
logs should be presented. The mud filtrate correction is usually not applied unless the filtrate T2 is
less than 200 msec.
An additional sample should be measured if the T2 is less than 200 msec. Record the filtrate T2 in
the remarks section of the log heading.
6.9 Master calibration
Master calibrations must be less than one month old.
CMR Training Manual
Interpretation Principles and Applications
-76- First Edition
November 1995
7. Interpretation Principles and Applications
7.1 Introduction
CMR interpretation principles are based on the results of lab NMR measurements. The ability to
duplicate CMR measurements in the lab is very useful, because it allows a direct comparison
between NMR and other core measurements (e.g., porosity, producible porosity and
permeability) for the same sample of rock.
CMR measurements and lab NMR measurements differ in one important respect: NMR porosity
from lab spectrometers is approximately equal to core porosity and is therefore considered to be
total porosity. On the other hand, the CMR measurement is relatively insensitive to the smallest
pores that have fast T2. Because of this, CMR porosity is often less than total porosity. Field
experience shows that CMR porosity is equal to total porosity in clean formations but has a
significantly lower value in shaly formations. Apparently, the clay-bound water volume is not
included (or is at least underestimated) in CMR porosity as indicated in Figure 7.1. Consequently,
the total bound-fluid porosity can only be obtained by subtracting the free-fluid porosity from a
total porosity estimate (e.g., nuclear log porosity).
clay
bound
water
capillary
bound
water
producible
water
total
FF
CMR
Figure 7.1. In shaly rocks,
CMR
is less than total porosity.
The correlations between NMR measurements and pore size, permeability and producible
porosity were established for core samples that were completely saturated with water. Because
of the shallow depth of investigation of the CMR tool (about 1 in.), the tool measures a region that
is substantially flushed with mud filtrate and correlations developed for water-saturated rocks are
generally applicable. In intervals that have poor flushing, the CMR log may have a significant
hydrocarbon effect. This can be used to advantage as described in the following sections.
7.2 Pores contain only water (or filtrate)
Theoretical studies of the NMR phenomena predict that T2 in water-saturated rocks is closely
related to pore size. Specifically,
1
T2
S
V
1
T2
B
+
2
, (7.1)
CMR Training Manual
-77- First Edition
November 1995
where
2

is the surface relaxivity, S is the surface area of a pore and V is the volume of the pore.
T2
B
is the bulk relaxation of the pore fluid. For water, T2
B
is approximately 3500 msec and the last
term in Eq. 7.1 can be neglected. For mud filtrate, T2
B
may be short (i.e., less than 200 msecs) if
the filtrate contains paramagnetic ions. In this case, the measured T2 must be corrected for bulk
relaxation. That is,
1
T2
1
T2
1
T2
S
V
C B

_
,

2
, (7.2)
where T2
C
is the corrected T2.
Since S/V has the dimensions of inverse length, T2 can be rescaled into a pore size (i.e., small
pores have short T2 values and large pores have long T2 values).
Lab NMR measurements confirm that T2 is proportional to pore size; T2-distributions obtained on
water-saturated samples are highly correlated with pore size distributions obtained from other
techniques, such as mercury injection (e.g., see Figure 7.2), or by image analysis on thin
sections.
0.1 1.0 10 100 1000 10000
.01 .1 1 10 100
mercury injection
throat diameter (microns)
T2 (msec)
Figure 7.2. Comparison of T2-distributions (solid line) with throat diameters
determined by mercury injection (dashed line) for four shaly sandstone samples.
CMR Training Manual
-78- First Edition
November 1995
The surface relaxivity,
2
, in Eq. 7.1 is a measure of the rock surface's ability to promote NMR
relaxation. The surface relaxation is primarily due to magnetic field interactions between hydrogen
nuclei and paramagnetic ions (e.g., iron and manganese) at the rock grain surface. The surface
relaxation cannot be measured directly; its value is inferred by comparing T2-distributions to pore
size distributions. These comparisons indicate that surface relaxation is reasonably constant in
most sandstones (about 10 microns/sec). The surface relaxivity in carbonates is three times
weaker than for sandstones (about 3 microns/sec).
The NMR estimate of producible porosity is based on an expectation that the producible fluids
reside in large pores, whereas bound-fluids (e.g., capillary-bound and clay-bound waters) reside
in small pores; hence, a T2 cutoff may be established that divides the total porosity into bound-
fluid and free-fluid porosity (see Section 1.1). The T2 cutoff was determined by measuring the
volume of fluids produced by spinning core samples in a centrifuge. Cutoff values of 33 and 100
msec for sandstones and carbonates, respectively, result in the best agreement between free-
fluid porosity and centrifuged water volume. The different cutoffs for sandstones and carbonates
reflect their difference in surface relaxivities.
Under reservoir conditions, the capillary-bound water volume depends upon the capillary
pressure as well as the pore size distribution of the rock. The capillary pressure varies with fluid
densities and height above the water table. The T2 cutoffs quoted above are appropriate for a
100 psi air-brine capillary pressure. T2 values should be adjusted if the reservoir capillary
pressure is significantly different from 100 psi. The new cutoff can be estimated by multiplying the
cutoff by the ratio (100/capillary pressure). For example, for a capillary pressure of 50 psi in a
sandstone reservoir, the appropriate cutoff would be 66 msec.
The CMR permeability estimate is based on an expectation that permeability increases with both
porosity and pore size. NMR and brine permeability measurements on core samples have
resulted in several empirical correlations. The following permeability models are included in the
MAXIS and Geoframe software:
K a T
CMR 2,log CMR
b1
c1
( ) ( ) 1 , (7.3)
and
K a
CMR
2
FF
BF
CMR
c2
b2
( )
_
,
( ) 10
4

. (7.4)
In the above, relaxation time is in milliseconds and porosity is in decimal units. The default values
for the multiplicative factors and exponents are: a1=4, a2=1, b1=2, b2=2, c1=4, c2=4. The two
models represented by Eqs. 7.3 and 7.4 are referred to as the SDR and Timur/Coates models,
respectively.
It should be noted that both producible porosity and permeability are expected to increase with
pore throat diameter, whereas NMR responds to pore body diameter. Fortunately, the
throat/body ratio is approximately constant for most sandstones. However, some variations can
be expected in vuggy carbonates, which results in poorer correlations.
CMR Training Manual
-79- First Edition
November 1995
7.3 Pores contain water and oil
When two or more fluids occupy the pore space of the rock, the surface relaxation mechanism is
only effective for the fluid that is in contact with the grain surface. The nonwetting fluid relaxes at
its bulk rate.
T2-distributions for water-wet rocks are a superposition of two T2-distributions: (1) a distribution
originating from the water that depends on the S/V distribution of the water, and (2) a distribution
originating from the oil that depends on the bulk relaxation of the oil. For example, Figure 7.3
shows T2-distributions for a rock sample completely saturated with water, and the rock sample
saturated with both water and Soltrol. The T2-distribution for bulk Soltrol is also shown. When
the pores contain both water and Soltrol, the distribution is bimodal with a short T2 water peak
and a long T2 Soltrol peak. This assignment is based on the observation that the short T2 peak
is similar to the distribution obtained on the water-saturated rock, and the long T2 peak is close to
the T2 of bulk Soltrol. These measurements indicate that Soltrol is not wetting the rock surface.
Figure 7.3. T2-distributions for a core sample 100% saturated with water (dash),
bulk Soltrol (dotted), and the core sample with 28% Soltrol and 72% water (line).
Soltrol is a refined oil that has a narrow T2-distribution. In contrast, unrefined oils have broad T2-
distributions that span several decades as a result of the mixture of hydrocarbon types within
each crude (see Figure 7.4). Crude oil T2-distributions frequently consist of a long T2 peak
originating from the most mobile hydrogen nuclei and a tail to shorter relaxation times from nuclei
with more restricted motions. As the hydrogen chain length increases, viscosity increases, and
relaxation times shorten.
CMR Training Manual
-80- First Edition
November 1995
Figure 7.4. T2-distributions for 31 bulk oil samples from the Belridge field,
California. The distributions are plotted in order of increasing viscosity, from top left
to bottom right. Sample number, logarithmic mean T2 (msec) and viscosity
(centipoise) are shown for each sample.
CMR Training Manual
-81- First Edition
November 1995
Figure 7.5 shows a T2-distribution for a rock sample that contains both water and 27 API crude
oil. The distribution is distinctly bimodal with peaks at 10 and 150 msec. Figure 7.5 also shows
the T2-distribution for the sample after it has been soaked in deuterium oxide (D
2
O). During the
soaking process, the D
2
O diffuses into the sample and reduces the concentration of H
2
O to a
negligible level. D
2
O does not contribute an NMR signal at the operating frequency of the lab
spectrometer; therefore, the T2-distribution after soaking is entirely from the in-situ oil. The
distribution is essentially identical to the bulk crude T2-distribution indicating that the oil is not
contacting the grain surfaces. The signal amplitude from the in-situ oil (i.e., the area under the
distribution) is proportional to the volume of oil in the sample. Similar plots are shown in Figure 7.6
for a similar rock sample (sample B) that contains 16 API crude.
Sample A
27
o
API crude
Figure 7.5. Top, T2-distributions for a core (sample A) containing water and
27 API crude (line), and deuterium oxide and 27 API crude (dotted).
Bottom, T2-distribution for the bulk crude.
Sample B
16
o
API crude
Figure 7.6. Top, T2-distributions for a core (sample B) containing water and
16 API crude (line), and deuterium oxide and 16 API crude (dotted).
Bottom, T2-distribution for the bulk crude.
The above examples illustrate that both the T2-distribution and the logarithmic mean T2 are
affected by the presence of oil in the invaded zone. The free-fluid and bound-fluid porosities may
also be affected, depending on the viscosity of the oil. A plot of logarithmic mean T2 versus
viscosity is shown in Figure 7.7. Light and medium crudes with viscosity less than 40 centipoise
have mean T2 greater than 33 msec. The T2-distributions for these oils are predominately in the
free-fluid porosity range. However, they may also have significant amplitudes below 33 msec.
CMR Training Manual
-82- First Edition
November 1995
Oil with higher viscosity is predominantly in the bound-fluid range unless it is extremely viscous
and has T2 shorter than 2 or 3 msec, which is below the detection threshold of the CMR tool. In
this case the oil volume is not included in the CMR porosity.
Viscosity (cp)
1
10
100
1000
1 10 100 1000 10000
T
2,log
(msec)
Figure 7.7. Logarithmic mean T2 (T
2,log
) of bulk oil is
inversely proportional to viscosity.
A summary of the pore fluid types included in the CMR porosity measurement is shown in Figure
7.8.
crude oil
visc >
1000 cp
clay
bound
water
producible
water
total
FF
CMR
capillary
bound
water
crude oil
visc 40 to
1000 cp
crude oil
visc <
40 cp
Figure 7.8. Summary of pore fluid types included in
CMR
and
FF
(when a T2 cutoff of 33 msec is used).
When large volumes of oil are present in the flushed zone, permeability estimation using the SDR
equation is unreliable. If the oil is low to medium viscosity (such that the free-fluid and bound-fluid
porosities are unaffected), the Timur/Coates equation is expected to give reasonable results.
The CMR T2-distributions can be used to identify oil zones when the oil and water signals are
well separated (e.g., the situation shown in Figure 7.5). The T2 peak associated with the oil
signal can be used to estimate the oil viscosity. When light oil is present in shaly sands, T2-
CMR Training Manual
-83- First Edition
November 1995
distributions typically extend to longer times than those for 100% water-saturated rocks. This has
proved valuable for finding oil zones where conventional interpretation methods are unreliable. At
the other extreme, very heavy oil and bitumen can be identified by CMR porosity readings that
are much lower than nuclear porosity logs (cautionary note: this also occurs in shaly rocks and
gas zones).
7.4 Pores contain gas
When gas is present, the CMR porosity reads low as a result of two effects:
The CMR tool is calibrated to read correctly for pore fluids that have a hydrogen index of 1.0
(similar to the neutron tool). The hydrogen index of gas is significantly less than 1.0.
For CMR logs run with long wait times, the signal amplitude from the gas is equal to the
volume of gas times the hydrogen index of the gas.
Gas has long T1 values, ranging from 3 to 7 sec (depending on formation temperature and
pressure). Conversely, T2 for gas is short because of diffusional relaxation. As a result
T1/T2 ratios are very high - typically much higher than the input ratio used for the polarization
correction. Therefore, logs run with typical wait times (1 to 3 sec.) are not adequately
corrected for incomplete polarization.
Gas is a strongly nonwetting fluid. For this reason, gas is unlikely to be in the small pore spaces
of the rock. Therefore, a gas effect is expected for both
CMR
and
FF
, but not for
BF
. Pore fluids
included in the CMR log outputs are shown in Figure 7.9, when both gas and water are present.

clay capillary
bound
water
gas bound
water
CMR
total
FF
produci bl e
wat er
Figure 7.9. Summary of pore fluid types included in
CMR
and
FF
when gas and water are present.
Because of the gas effect on
CMR
,
FF
and mean T2, permeability can only be estimated using
the Timur/Coates model and by incorporating other log data. For example,
K a2
BF
c2
b2
( )
_
,
( ) 10
4

, (7.5)
where is a gas-corrected porosity (e.g., crossplot or ELAN effective porosity).
CMR Training Manual
-84- First Edition
November 1995
7.5 CMR applications
The CMR measurement has broad applications since effective porosity, producible porosity,
bound-fluid porosity and permeability estimates are required for all producing formations. In
addition, CMR logs have good vertical resolution with 9 in. beds fully resolved at slow logging
speeds.
CMR porosity applications
Total porosity independent of mineralogy
In clean, liquid-filled formations,
CMR
is a measure of total porosity that is obtained without
specifying mineralogy.
Effective porosity in shaly formations
In shaly formations,
CMR
is less than total porosity because contributions from the smallest
pore sizes are not included in the measurement. Although the pore size limit is not exactly
defined, field experience suggests that the clay-bound water is not included in
CMR
. Therefore,
CMR
is approximately equal to effective porosity. Furthermore, the volume of clay water can
be estimated by subtracting
CMR
from a total porosity measurement (from nuclear logs, for
example).
Gas zone identification
CMR
reads low in gas zones - much lower than Litho-Density porosity. The CMR gas effect
indicator is especially useful in shaly reservoirs as the neutron and density logs do not
always cross over in these formations.
Sourceless porosity
CMR
is obtained without using a radioactive source.
T2

applications
Pore size distributions
In water-saturated rocks, pore size distributions are estimated from T2-distributions. The
distributions are used to determine bound-fluid and free-fluid porosity. In carbonates, vuggy
porosity is identified by long components (~ 1000 msec) in the distribution.
Permeability estimation
Logarithmic mean T2 is used in the SDR model to estimate permeability.
Oil volume and viscosity
In partially oil-saturated rocks that are predominately water wet, oil volume and viscosity can
be estimated from the T2-distribution provided the oil and water signals are separated. Oil
volume is obtained by integrating the area under the oil signal. Oil viscosity is estimated from
the T2 peak of the oil signal.
CMR Training Manual
-85- First Edition
November 1995
Free-fluid porosity applications
Producible porosity
FF
is a producible porosity estimate.
Permeability estimation
FF
is used (together with
CMR
and
BF
) in the Timur/Coates model to estimate permeability.
Reserve estimation
In nonheavy oil reservoirs that produce without a water cut, the volume of oil is equal to
FF
.
The CMR tool is shallow reading, so the free-fluid porosity is actually a mixture of oil and mud
filtrate. However, the volume of mud filtrate is equal to the volume of flushed oil, as shown in
Figure 7.10.

clay
bound
water
capillary
bound
water
clay
bound
water
capillary
bound
water
crude oil
(visc < 40cp)
mud
filtrate
crude oil
(visc < 40cp)
Invaded
Zone
Invaded
Zone
Non
FF
FF
Figure 7.10. Free-fluid porosity in the invaded and noninvaded zones,
for an interval that does not contain producible water.
Water-cut prediction
For reservoirs that contain producible water,
FF
is greater than the oil volume from a water
saturation calculation. Figure 7.11 shows that producible water can be predicted even though
the CMR tool measures the invaded zone, as the free-fluid porosity is numerically equal in
both the invaded and noninvaded zone.

clay
bound
water
capillary
bound
water
clay
bound
water
capillary
bound
water
crude oil
(visc < 40cp)
mud
filtrate
crude oil
(visc < 40cp)
Invaded
Zone
Invaded
Zone
Non
producible
water
Water Vol Oil Vol
FF
FF
Figure 7.11. Pore fluid types in a nonheavy oil reservoir
that contains producible water.
CMR Training Manual
-86- First Edition
November 1995
Steam flood efficiency in heavy oil reservoirs
In heavy oil reservoirs,
FF
is equal to the producible water volume (Figure 7.12). Intervals
with high producible water respond poorly to steam flooding, since the steam tends to migrate
away from the wellbore and localized heating, required to decrease the oil viscosity, is not
achieved.

cl ay
b o u n d
wat er
capi l l ary
b o u n d
wat er
mud
f i l t r at e (vi sc > 40 cp)
crude oi l
(vi sc > 40 cp)
crude oi l
capi l l ary
b o u n d
wat er
cl ay
b o u n d
wat er
wat er
produci bl e
Invaded
Zone
Invaded
Zone
Non
FF
FF
Figure 7.12. In a heavy oil reservoir, the free-fluid porosity is
equal to the producible water volume.
Remaining oil volume estimation.
FF
is used to estimate remaining oil volume for reservoirs that have been waterflooded and
are now under consideration for tertiary recovery schemes. This technique involves adding
manganese EDTA to the mud system, thus reducing the T2 of the mud filtrate below the
threshold value for computing the free-fluid porosity. It is assumed that the oil volume in the
invaded zone is equal to the oil volume in the noninvaded zone (i.e., the filtrate flushing
efficiency is comparable to the water flood efficiency). In this case the residual oil volume (i.e.,
the remaining oil volume) is equal to the free-fluid porosity (Figure 7.13).
clay
bound
water
capillary
bound
water
mud filtrate
wi th EDTA
(visc < 40 cp)
remai ni ng oi l
(visc < 40 cp)
remai ni ng oi l
water
produci bl e
Invaded
Zone
Invaded
Zone
Non
FF
capillary
bound
water
clay
bound
water
Figure 7.13.
FF
estimates the remaining oil volume after the mud filtrate signal
is eliminated by adding manganese EDTA to the drilling fluids.
Procedures for doping the mud are in Appendix C.
CMR Training Manual
Hardware Characteristics and Ratings
87 First Edition
November 1995
87
A. CMR Hardware Specifications and Ratings
Equipment associated with the CMR tool is described in Table 1. CMR physical specifications
are listed in Table 2. Tool performance and operating specifications are listed in Table 3. Tool
shipping data are listed in Table 4.
Component Temp
(F)
Pressure
(kpsi)
Hole Size (in.)
Min Max
Diameter
(in.)
Weight
(lbm)
Length
(in.)
CMR-AA 350 20 * * 5.3 292 169.9
EME-F 350 20 7.785 21 6.6 35 0
ILE-D 350 20 6.5 13 3.625 118.5 96.0
AH-178 350 20 - 3.625 22 11.9
AH-190 350 20 - 3.625 22 11.9
ILE-F 350 20 6.5 13 3.625 118.5 96.0
* depends on choice of EME or ILE
Table 1. Equipment information.
Physical De-
scription:
CMR-A with
EME-F
CMR-A with ILE-D CMR-A with ILE-F
Configuration (b-
to-t)
CMR ... AH191 / ILE-D / AH178 /
CMR ...
... ILE-F / CMR ...
Make-Up Length 14.16 ft 24.14ft 22.16 ft
Tool Measure
Point from bottom
of string
20.59 in. 140.4 in. 116.6 in.
Weight 327 lbs. 454.5 lbs. 410.5 lbs.
Maximum Di-
ameter
6.6 in. 5.3 in. 5.3 in.
Hole Size
Recommendation
s:
min.
max.
7.785
in.
21.0 in.
min.
max.
6.3 in.
10.0 in.
min.
max.
6.3 in.
10.0 in.
Fishing Strength 100,000 lbs. 100,000 lbs. 100,000 lbs.
Table 2. CMR-A physical specifications.
CMR Training Manual
Hardware Characteristics and Ratings
88 First Edition
November 1995
88
Performance Ratings:
Logging Speed STD: 600 ft/hr in sandstone mode; 300 ft/hr in carbonate mode
HIRS: 200 ft/hr in sandstone mode; 100 ft/hr in carbonate mode
Depth of Investigation 0.5 in. Blind Zone (2.5% point)
1.0 in. Radial 50% point (most often quoted D.O.I.)
1.5 in. Radial 95% point
Vertical Resolution 6 in. measurement aperature;
9 in. vertical resolution, HIRS logging with 3-level averaging
18 in. vertical resolution, STD logging with 3-level averaging
CMR
1.0 pu @ 25C, 3 level averaging
FF
0.5 pu @ 25C, 3 level averaging
Nominal Raw S/N 25 - 27 db
Pulse-to-Echo Spacing 160 s
Operating Ratings:
Temperature -25C to 175C
Pressure 20 kpsi
Mud Type & Salinity Unlimited
Telemetry & Power Requirements:
Telemetry DTS (500 kbits/s)
Telemetry Bandwidth 1.6 kbits/s (min.: Sandstone depth log without raw echoes)
14.0 kbits/s (max.: Carbonate depth log with raw echoes)
Power 30 watts (AC MAIN); 75 watts (AC AUX)
Table 3. CMR-A performance and operating specifications.
Cartridge (CMRC-A) Sonde (CMRS-A)
Shipping Length
(including thread protectors)
11.05 ft (132.54 in.) 6.02 ft (72.23 in.)
Shipping Weight
(including thread protectors)
213 lbs. 140 lbs.
Restrictions for all Air
Shipments
None CMRS sonde must be shipped in the
CMRS Shipping Box (H549555). Box
is 6.6 ft long and weighs 135 lbs.
Table 4. CMR-A shipping data.
CMR Training Manual
Safety, Handling and Transportation
-89- First Edition
November 1995
89
B. Safety, Handling and Transportation
Be aware of electrical and mechanical sources of hazards in the tool.
Electrical hazards
The cartridge and sonde upper head pins contain voltages sufficient to shock personnel.
Upper head pins #1 and #4 contain the 250 VAC power for the tool.
Securely ground all equipment during test and repair. Suitable ground jumpers (with a clip at
each end) can be made from the materials shown in Table 1-1.
Table 0-1 Ground Clip Jumper Components
Quantity Part Num-
ber
Description
2 B-09100 Battery Clip
As
required
H-031716 #11-1 Flexible wire
12 Inches E-019888 Shrinkable tubing
2 E-08630 25 Amp Solder Lug
Sonde power is delivered to the upper head of the tool string on cable wires 2, 3, 5, 6 with
armor return. This is the standard sonde power path and the use of armor return makes it dou-
bly important that the tool body be adequately and independently grounded with a jumper.
This is because, if for some reason, the armor return path became open while sonde power
was on, the tool housing would rise to the sonde head voltage. Within the telemetry cartridge
the power on cable wires 2, 3, 5, 6 are joined and passed to the tools on head pin 2 and re-
turned on pin 10. Sonde head voltage can vary between 200 and 350 Vrms depending on
the length of the cable.
Mechanical hazards
The bellows used in the Antenna Cradle Assembly of the CMRS-A sonde can easily be
punctured when cleaning this area of the sonde. Be very careful if using a screw driver or
punch to remove any mud that may be caked in this area.
The Antenna Cradle Assembly of the sonde is pressure balanced and is therefore filled with
oil. The oil may be under pressure so be very careful when removing the filler plugs from the
assembly.
DO NOT place the CMRS-A sonde next to a tool that uses sodium iodide crystals or photo-
multiplier tubes. The strong magnetic field may permanently damage the tool.
The accelerometers, inclinometers and magnetometers in the dipmeter tools (MEST, FMS,
GPIT, OBDT, HDM) may become magnetized if transported too close to the permanent mag-
nets in the CMRS sonde.
CMR Training Manual
-90- First Edition
November 1995
90
Danger to personnel
Never work alone on a tool when it is powered up.
Stand on a dry floor or a rubber mat when possible.
Avoid touching the tool when it is powered up. If touching the tool is necessary, do not touch
more than one part of the tool at a time.
Follow proper lifting procedures when handling the tool.
Nickel Chloride crystals are used to make the liquid solution for topping off the Calibration
Fixture. Be very careful when mixing the NiCl crystals with distilled water. The NiCl material
is irritating to the skin, eyes and mucous membranes. It is also harmful if swallowed. When
storing the Nickel Chloride, the three labels shown in Figure 3 should be affixed to the con-
tainer.
In addition to the standard electrical hazards of high voltage (250 VAC cartridge power and 200-
600 VDC in the sonde power system), the CMRS contains two extremely powerful magnets that
require special handling. The primary areas of danger from the high static magnetic fields are:
Pacemakers
The high magnetic fields surrounding the sensor could conceivably interfere with the sensitive
electronics used in some devices.
Flying objects
Magnetically permeable items (most commonly used metal instruments), such as spanner
wrenches, spring to life when the tool is brought near. A finger or hand between the wayward
spanner and the magnet could be severely injured.
Also, if the magnet is being carried from one place in the shop to another and you walk too
close to a metal object, i.e., file cabinet, your hand could be pulled up against the cabinet.
Loose magnets
The magnets themselves can become ambulant during removal or installation (a rare occur-
rence). The biggest danger occurs if the magnets come close to each other, as they will pivot
and snap together with alarming speed. This could cause severe injury if a hand or finger
were pinched by the magnets. SFTs may be required.
Keep loose magnets at least three feet apart.
Navigation
If the tool or magnets are transported in a carrier that uses compasses as navigational aids,
special shielded carry cases that meet government guidelines are be required.
Danger to equipment
Be sure that all power to the tool is off before uncoupling the CMRC-A from the telemetry
cartridge, CMRS-A sonde, or any test cable.
Extreme care should be taken when removing any multi-layer ceramic modules and pin grid
arrays of the DHC and the CMRC-A. Pull the circuit evenly and slowly out of its socket using
CMR Training Manual
-91- First Edition
November 1995
91
special tools such as E047413 (Advanced Interconnections Universal Push-off Blade Type
Extraction Tool)
Follow the SMC (Surface Mounted Component) maintenance procedures as documented in
the maintenance manual.
When soldering, respect the following recommendations:
Use a low voltage (24V output) soldering iron.
Use a solder sucker to clean up IC leads.
Do not energize the cartridge with any sub-chassis removed from the cartridge or sonde.
Because of the large quantity of electronic components mounted on the circuit boards and the
chassis of the CMRC-A cartridge and the CMRS-A sonde, it is best to turn the cartridge
power OFF before attaching any test equipment to the terminals. This will reduce the possi-
bility of short-circuits. When in doubt, solder-tack a short length of wire to the terminal before
attaching the test equipment.
Do not scratch the protective coating on the quartz windows of the programmable compo-
nents, such as EPROM, EPLD and PAL.
The Antenna Cradle Assembly oil level must be checked prior to every job. If the assembly
becomes low on oil, the Antenna could be damaged.
CAUTION
Use only DC-111 on O-Rings. All other grease that has graphite, teflon or other filler should never be used.
These other fillers will allow water to seep under the O-Ring.
Other hazards
The static magnetic field created by the magnets can cause damage to:
Analog watches;
Do not wear your watch when working on the sonde as the magnetic field created by the
magnets is large enough to ruin a watch.
Magnetic data tapes or disks;
The magnetic field created by the magnets is strong enough to wipe data tapes or disks
clean.
Credit cards;
The magnetic strips used on credit cards and ATM cards can be erased by the magnetic field
created by the magnets.
Special Shipping Instructions
The current International Air Transport Association's (IATA) Dangerous Goods Regulations
document defines a magnetized material as any material, when packed for air transport, that has a
magnetic field strength of 0.159A/m (0.002 gauss) or more at a distance of 2.1 m (7 ft) from any
point on the surface of the assembled package.
This regulation also governs the loading of magnetized materials in aircraft. This includes;
CMR Training Manual
-92- First Edition
November 1995
92
1. Magnetized material must not be loaded in such a position that it will have a significant effect
on the direct-reading magnetic compasses or on the master compass detector units.
2. The minimum stowage distance of the magnetized materials from the aircraft compasses or
compass detector units will depend upon the intensity of the magnetized materials field
strength and varies from 1.5 m (5 ft) for those materials which just meet the threshold level of
the magnetized material definition (see 1 above), to 4.6 m (15 ft) for materials which pos-
sess the maximum field strength permitted;
a. 0.418 A/m (0.00525 gauss) at 15 ft. or,
b. produces a magnetic compass deflection of 2 degrees or less at 15 ft.,
multiple packages may produce a cumulative effect.
1. For carriage by aircraft, any package that has a magnetic field of more than 0.418 A/m
(0.00525 gauss) at 15 ft. or, produces a magnetic compass deflection of more than 2 degrees
at 15 ft. from any surface of the package, is considered Forbidden and must not be shipped
by air freight. It must be shipped by ground transportation.
NOTE
Some pressure housing used on tools are made of material that may become magnetized
after running in a well.
A shipping container, CMRS Shipping Box, (H549555) has been designed which complies with
IATA requirements. All air shipments must use this container.
IMPORTANT
Do Not discard this shipping container. It is reusable.
The magnetic shield located inside the CMRS Shipping Box is made of iron and could cause
compass deviation even though it does not emit a magnetic field and it does meet all IATA re-
quirements.
When shipping the sonde by helicopter, if the shipping box is too large to be placed in the
helicopter then the magnetic shield should be removed from the box and placed directly over the
magnets on the sonde.
The label shown in Figure 1 must be placed on the shipping box (or on the magnetic shield if
being shipped by helicopter) in several places so that it is clearly visible from all directions. In
addition, a Dangerous Goods Manifest must be completed and provided to the courier. An
example of the manifest is shown in Figure 2.
Surface shipment does not require any special container as there are no special handling require-
ments for magnetic material by D.O.T.
The latest information on shipping dangerous goods related to magnetics is found in IATA
Dangerous Goods Regulations. Each district that will be shipping tools by air freight (including
helicopter) should have a set of the regulations available. The regulations are revised and re-
issued annually. There are several places from which the regulations may be obtained. Two are
listed below:
Lab Safety Supply - Telephone 1-800-356-0783
CMR Training Manual
-93- First Edition
November 1995
93
Labelmaster - Telephone 1-800-621-5808.
Figure 1. Label that must be applied to the shipping container when
magnetic material is being shipped by air freight. The minimum size
of the label is 110 cm X 120 cm.
In summary, the shipping instructions include:
1. Sonde must be shipped in CMRS shipping container.
2. Magnetic labels must be placed on the shipping container.
3. A Dangerous Goods Manifest must accompany the shipment.
As can be seen in Figure 2, the manifest must include:
Proper Shipping Name which is Magnetized Material.
Class or Division which is 9
UN or ID No. which is UN2807
Packing Inst. which is 902
CMR Training Manual
-94- First Edition
November 1995
94
Figure 2. Dangerous goods manifest example.
CMR Training Manual
-95- First Edition
November 1995
95
Figure 3. Nickel chloride labels.
CMR Training Manual
Mud Doping Procedures
-96- First Edition
November 1995
C. Mud Doping Procedures for
Residual Oil Determination
General procedures
Manganese can be added to the drilling mud to shorten the T2 of the filtrate and separate the
filtrate and oil signals. When the signals are separated, the volume of oil can be quanitified by
applying a cutoff to the T2-distribution.
**** Note: use MANGANESE, not magnesium ****
Manganese EDTA is preferred for shaly sandstones and bentonitic drilling muds. Manganese
chloride (MnCl
2
) is cheaper, but the manganese exchanges with other ions (usually sodium)
on clay surfaces. See Paper Q, 1995 SPWLA Symposium, Paris.
Manganese additives can change the mud properties. It is important to test a sample of mud
before adding it to the entire mud system.
The required manganese concentration is partly determined by the crude oil T2-distribution at
formation temperature. The oil may have significant signal amplitude at low T2.
The T2-distribution can be measured on a sample, or estimated from the oil viscosity and b y
using the crude oil distributions shown in Section 7.
The oil T2-distribution is also important for determing the wait times for logging, which should
be sufficiently long for complete polarization. Station logging is used when long wait times are
required and to improve the precision of the CMR measurement.
A sample calculation for determining the concentration of manganese is shown below.
The concentration depends on formation temperature and whether manganese EDTA or man-
ganese chloride is used.
The T2 of a doped filtrate sample can be measured with the CMR tool. Also, compare the
amplitude of the filtrate signal to the amplitude of the calibration bottle signal (the manganese
may shorten the filtrate T2 below the sensitivity of the CMR). The flitrate sample must be
sufficiently large to fill the CMR sensitive volume (use a plastic bottle similar in size to the
master calibration bottle).
The initial spurt loss is responsible for the majority of filtrate invasion. Diffusion is too slow for
effective invasion. It is necessary to add the manganese solution prior to drilling the zone of
interest. A reasonable overbalance is required (~ 100 psi). On the other hand, a large over-
balance (> 500 psi) can cause viscous stripping which results in misleadingly low values of
oil volume.
Consult with the client to determine optimum mud properties and drilling procedures. Logging
for residual oil determination requires careful pre job planning.
CMR Training Manual
-97- First Edition
November 1995
Example calculation
The following example calculation determines the amount of manganese EDTA required to shorten
the fitrate T2 to 10 msec, at a temperature of100 C.
Figure C.1. shows T2 versus temperature, for various manganese concentrations.
1
1 0
100
0 5 0 100 150
T
2

(
m
s
e
c
)
T (C)
0.1 moles/liter
0.01 moles/liter
0.02
951030- 02
0.05
Figure.1. Filtrate T2 versus temperature for various manganese
concentrations. (Chart is for manganese EDTA solutions.
See Figure.2. for manganese chloride solutions).
At 100 C, a manganese concentration of 0.05 moles per liter of mud is required for a T2 of 10
msec.
Managnese is available in the form of MnCl
2
.4H
2
O. Note the four waters of hydration, which
must be accounted for when weighing the solid.
MnCl
2
.4H
2
O <=> 198 grams/mole
EDTA is available as Na
2
.EDTA.2H
2
O.
Na
2
.EDTA.2H
2
O <=> 374 grams/mole
Note: A 20% excess of EDTA is required to prevent precipitation of 2Mn.EDTA.
For each liter of mud add:
10 grams of MnCl2.4H
2
O and 22 grams of Na
2
.EDTA.2H
2
O (this includes a 20% excess).
1 barrel is equal to 159 liters, for each barrel of mud add:
CMR Training Manual
-98- First Edition
November 1995
1.6 kg of MnCl
2
.4H
2
O and 3.5 kg of Na
2
.EDTA.2H
2
O (this includes a 20% excess).
Figure C.2. shows T2 versus temperature, for various manganese concentrations. Use this
chart if manganese chloride is added to the mud.
24
28
20
16
10 20 30 40 50
Temperature (C)
T
2

(
m
s
e
c
)
0.00104 moles/liter
0.00077 moles/liter
Figure 2. Filtrate T2 versus temperature for various manganese
concentrations. (Chart is for manganese chloride solutions.
See Figure1. for manganese EDTA solutions).
CMR Training Manual
Signal Processing Algorithms.
-99- First Edition
November 1995
addressee. It must not be shown to or discussed with anyone outside the SCHLUMBERGER organization.
99
D. CMR Signal Processing Algorithms
CMR Spin Echo Pulse Sequence
A very brief discussion of the pulse sequence
used by the CMR is given here. Other sections of this
document should be referred to for more detail.
The CMR tool makes pulsed NMR
measurements at frequencies close to 2 MHz by using
the Carr-Purcell-Meiboom-Gill (CPMG) pulse sequence
to produce wave forms consisting of hundreds to
thousands of spin echoes. At the end of each CPMG,
the proton magnetization is practically zero. Therefore,
each CPMG must be initiated by a wait time. During
the wait time, the magnetization is allowed to recover
towards its equilibrium value in the magnetic field
produced by a permanent magnet in the tool. Following
the wait period, which for depth logging is typically
about a second, a 90-degree radio frequency pulse is
applied. This pulse rotates the magnetization vector into
the plane transverse to the direction of the magnetic
field. Following the initial 90-degree pulse, a sequence
of evenly spaced 180-degree pulses is applied at odd
multiples of the Carr-Purcell time ( t
cp
), e.g., at the
times,

t
cp
, 3t
cp
,L , (2J 1)t
cp
. A set of J spin echoes
at times,

2t
cp
, 4t
cp
,L , J 2t
cp
, is produced. The echo
spacing, 2t
cp
, for the CMR tool is nominally set at
320 sec.
The basic unit of measurement is a phase
alternated pair (PAP) of CPMG wave forms. A PAP
wave form is computed from two successive CPMGs.
The two CPMGs have identical pulse sequences except
that the phases of the initial 90-degree radio frequency
pulses are shifted with respect to each other by 180
degrees. Subtraction of the two CPMGs results in a
PAP spin-echo wave form. This procedure removes
baseline shifts and antenna ringing effects that can be
produced by the 180-degree pulses.
The Signal Processing Problem
The decay of the envelope of a CPMG
spin-echo sequence in a rock can be characterized by an
intrinsic T
2
-distribution, P(T
2
), of single exponential
decays. This distribution accounts for the proton spin
relaxation produced by spin-spin interactions with
magnetic impurities on the rock pore surfaces. Under
some plausible assumptions, the decay time distribution
of a rock can be shown to be isomorphic to its pore size
distribution. Inasmuch as all of the CMR log quantities
of interest are computed from this distribution, the
estimation of P(T
2
) in the presence of random noise
defines the signal processing problem. Since the decay
times in rocks can span several decades, it is also useful
to define the logarithmic distribution, P
a
(logT
2
) ,
which is used to display the T
2
-distributions on a
logarithmic scale. The two distributions are related
mathematically by
P(T
2
)
cP
a
(logT
2
)
T
2
, (1)
where c (ln10)
1
. One of the challenges of the signal
processing is that the signal-to-noise ratios (SNR)
during logging are frequently less than one.
Formulation of the Problem
The raw CMR spin-echo signals are acquired
by a phase sensitive detector (PSD) in two channels.
The acquired signals are 90 degrees out of phase with
one another, but the signal phase with respect to a
reference signal in the tool is unknown. A
preprocessing algorithm estimates the signal phase and
then transforms the raw data into "in-phase,"
A
j
( +)
, and
"quadrature,"
A
j
( )
,

channels. The transformed quadrature
channel, which contains only tool electronic noise, is
used to estimate the tool rms noise on a single echo for
each wave form that is processed.
The T
2
decay time distribution, P(T
2
), obeys
a Fredholm integral equation of the first kind. That is,
the signal processing problem requires solution of the
integral equation,
A
j
( +)
dT
2
P(T
2
) f (W, T
1a
) exp(
j
T
2a
)
T
min
T
max
+ N
j
(2)
for

j 1, 2,L , J , where
A
j
( +)
are signal-plus-noise
CPMG spin-echo amplitudes of the j th echo. The
function, f (W, T
1a
) (1 exp(
W
T
1a
)) , is a polarization
correction. It accounts for the incomplete recovery of
the magnetization during the wait period ( W) that
CMR Training Manual
-100- First Edition
November 1995
100
precedes each CPMG sequence. In Eq.2, the inter echo
spacing is denoted by . The additive thermal noise
( N
j
) is zero mean uncorrelated Gaussian with known
statistical properties (i.e., < N
j
> 0 and
< N
j
N
k
>
j , k
where is the rms noise on a
single echo. Angular brackets are used here to denote
statistical averages. At room temperature 5 p.u.
for an echo on a single PAP. In practice, the noise is
reduced by stacking (averaging) PAP wave forms. The
rms noise can be reduced, ideally, by a factor N
r
if
N
r
PAP wave forms are averaged. The vertical
resolution of the log is determined by three
interdependent factors. These are: (1) the total
measurement time to acquire a PAP wave form, (2) the
number of PAP wave forms that are averaged for each
set of new log outputs, and (3) the logging speed.
The contribution of the mud filtrate to the
observed relaxation can be accounted for by a wellsite
measurement of the filtrate relaxation time (T
mf
) and
by defining apparent relaxation times, e.g.,
(T
1a
)
1
(T
2
)
1
+ (T
mf
)
1
,
(T
2a
)
1
(T
2
)
1
+ (T
mf
).
1
(3)
In Eq. 3, we have made use of an empirically based
relationship, i.e., T
1
T
2
, that relates the intrinsic
T
1
and T
2
-distributions in a rock sample for
measurements made in the 2 MHz frequency range.
Laboratory experiments were conducted at SDR to study
the parameter, , that represents the T
1
/ T
2
ratio. The
ratios were found to vary from sample to sample in the
range from roughly 1 to 3. The experimental data base
consisted of 105 samples from a wide range of
lithologies which includes carbonates, sandstones,
diatomites and shales.
The simplest CMR pulse sequence consists of
repetitions of PAP spin-echo wave forms each being
initiated by a single wait time (W). The spin echo data
obtained from single wait time pulse sequences does not
contain any information about the T
1
/ T
2
ratios of the
rock formations being logged. During single wait time
logging an assumed nominal value of the ratio is, by
necessity, used by the signal processing. For example, a
nominal value,
0
1. 5, has been used in sandstones.
It has been shown that using single pulse wait
time logging involves an uncontrolled approximation.
The root of the problem is the variability of true
T
1
/ T
2
ratios ( ) in rocks. The uncontrolled
approximation is the use of assumed ratios in the signal
processing that are not equal to the true ratios. This
assumption can lead to significant accuracy errors in the
CMR log outputs in some logging environments. The
problem is amplified in high porosity rocks with long
T
1
relaxation times (many carbonates). In rocks with
short decay times (many shaly sands) single wait time
depth logs are accurate and multi-wait time logging is
not necessary. The accuracy problem can be eliminated
by using multiple wait time CPMG pulse sequences. In
a later section, multiple wait time pulse sequences are
briefly discussed.
Discretization of the Signal, Window
Sums and Maximum Likelihood Estimation
The next step is to discretize the integral in
Eq. 2 by replacing the integral by a summation,

A
j
(+)
a
l
f
l
l1
N
s
exp(
j
T
2a,l
) + N
j
, (4)
where it is assumed that the signal has N
s
spectral
amplitudes

a
l
with intrinsic relaxation times

T
2,l
which are equally spaced on a logarithmic scale in the
closed interval (T
min,
T
max
). Note that solution of the
multi-exponential model is numerically feasible because
the relaxation times are fixed. It follows from the
discretization that

a
l
P(T
2,l
)
l
, where

l
is the width
of an integration trapezoid centered about

T
2,l
. Thus,
estimation of the decay time distribution is reduced to
determination of the spectral amplitudes (

a
l
) in Eq.4.
The J individual spin-echoes in a PAP wave
form are highly redundant. For example, in depth
logging mode where each PAP normally consists of
600 or 1200 echoes, the marginal independence of the
individual echoes is exploited to reduce the J spin
echoes to N
w
5 "window sums." The window sums
are obtained by summing the
A
j
( +)
over
non-overlapping windows. It has been shown
mathematically, that the window sums contain the same
information as the original data. The window sums have
different sensitivities to the decay times in the
spectrum. For example, the window sum obtained from
the first window is sensitive to all the spectral
components whereas the window sum computed from
the last window is sensitive only to the slowly decaying
components. An attractive feature of this data reduction
scheme is its simplicity. Also processing of the
window sums instead of the original J spin echoes
reduces the processing time by a factor proportional to
N
w
J
1
.
CMR Training Manual
-101- First Edition
November 1995
101
Unbiased estimates of the spectral amplitudes
are obtained by minimizing the negative logarithm of
the maximum likelihood function for the window sums.
Specifically, the maximum likelihood estimates are
obtained by minimizing

ln L
(
I
m
I
m
{a
l
})
2
2[N
m+1
N
m
+
m,1
]
m1
N
w
+

2
a
l
2
l1
N
s
, (5)
with respect to

a
l
subject to a positivity constraint
(i.e.,

a
l
0). In Eq.5, the
I
m
are the window sums,
which are random variables whose expectation values,

I
m
{a
l
}, are linear functions of the spectral amplitudes.
The quantities N
m
and N
m+1
are the echo numbers of
the left and right endpoints of the m th window and
m,1
is the familiar Kronecker delta function. The last
term suppresses noise artifacts in the solutions. The
parameter is called a regularization parameter.
It has been shown that minimization of Eq.5 is
equivalent to an expansion of the T
2
-distribution in
terms of the non-null space eigenfunctions of a highly
rank deficient linear operator that can be obtained by
differentiation of Eq.5. The eigenfunction analysis also
shows: (1) why only a few window sums are required
for the estimation of P(T
2
) and (2) why the estimated
distributions depend only slightly on the exact positions
chosen for the window boundaries. A nice feature of the
processing is that the logs have negligible dependence
on the regularization parameter for a relatively wide
range of values of . A mathematical algorithm is
used to compute, based on the input log data, optimal
values (
opt
) of the regularization parameters. The
optimal values depend inversely on the SNR and also
on the details of the intrinsic T
2
-distributions. As a
general rule, for a given SNR, distributions with short
decay times will have larger optimal values than
similarly shaped distributions with longer decay times.
Computation of the Logs
In depth logging mode, the primary logged
quantities are estimates of the total NMR porosity,
nmr
, free fluid porosity,
f
(T
c
) , and logarithmic mean
relaxation time, T
2, log
. A continuous T
2
-distribution is
displayed, along with T
2, log
on the field logs.
In station logging mode, data with a higher
SNR are obtained by stacking, and as a result, more
accurate logarithmic T
2
-distributions can be computed.
It is these distributions that are related to rock pore size
distributions.
The primary log quantities are expressed as
integrals over the distribution functions, e.g.,

nmr
K
tool
dT
2
T
min
T
max
P(T
2
) K
tool
a
l
l1
N
s
, (6)
where K
tool
is a factor containing various calibration
and environmental corrections such as the Curie law
temperature dependence of the signal. The free fluid
porosity
f
(T
c
) is obtained from the integral in Eq.6
by replacing the lower limit of integration by an
empirically determined cutoff T
c
which partitions
nmr
into free and bound fluid porosities,
bf
(T
c
)
nmr

f
(T
c
) .
The logarithmic mean relaxation time is
defined by T
2, log
10
m
, where m is the mean logarithm
of the logarithmic T
2
-distribution and is defined by

m
d(logT
2
) P
a
(logT
2
) logT
2
log T
min
log T
max
d(logT
2
)P
a
(logT
2
)
log T
min
log T
max
a
l
logT
2,l
l1
N
s
a
l
l1
N
s
.(7)
Computation of the Standard Deviations
In the Logs
The standard deviations in the logs due to
random noise fluctuations provide a measure of log
repeatability and confidence in the log values. Logs of
the standard deviations are computed for each of the
primary logged quantities and displayed for the porosity
estimates. The standard deviations are computed from an
exact covariance matrix for the multi-exponential
model. For example, the variance in the estimated total
porosity is by definition
2
(

nmr
) < (

nmr
)
2
> (<

nmr
>)
2
, (8)
CMR Training Manual
-102- First Edition
November 1995
102
where a "hat" is used to denote that
nmr
is an estimate
of the true porosity defined in Eq.6. In terms of the
covariance matrix,

C
l, k
, one finds that,

2
(

nmr
) (K
tool
)
2
C
l, k
l1
N
s
k 1
N
s
, (9)
where by definition,

C
l, k
< a
l
a
k
>. Here

a
l
a
l
< a
l
> are the deviations, produced by noise
fluctuations, of the spectral amplitudes from their
expectation values. An exact expression for C
l, k
can be
calculated because of the linearity of the
multi-exponential model. The covariance matrix is
proportional to the rms noise on a single echo in the
measurement which, as discussed above, is computed
for each measurement. The expressions for the variances
in
f
(T
c
) and
bf
(T
c
) are identical to those in Eq.9
except for obvious changes in the summation limits.
Multi-Wait Time CPMG Logging
As noted earlier, the use of single wait time
pulse CPMG sequences and an assumed value (
0
) of
the T
1
/ T
2
ratio in the signal processing algorithm
involves an uncontrolled approximation. It can produce
significant accuracy errors in the log outputs. The root
of the problem is the variability of the T
1
/ T
2
ratios in
reservoir rocks. The accuracy errors are amplified in
high porosity rocks that have long T
1
components.
Although, the errors can be lessened by using longer
wait times it has been shown that this strategy is
inefficient and leads to reduced logging speeds.
Consider a multi-wait time pulse sequence
with wait times W
p
where

p 1, 2,L , N
wt
. Studies
have shown that, N
wt
3, provides good results from
multi-wait time pulse sequences. The CMR signal
processing algorithm for multi-wait time pulse
sequences is an addition to the window processing
algorithm described above. The CMR log outputs
nmr
,
f
(T
c
),
bf
(T
c
) , etc. for multi-array pulse sequences
are arrays instead of scalars. For example, there are N
wt
output values of
nmr
, i.e., one for each wait time, etc.
Additionally, each output array contains one new
updated log output which is computed simultaneously
with an estimate of the true T
1
/ T
2
ratio. The updated
log outputs are more accurate because they are derived
using the estimated true T
1
/ T
2
ratio instead of the
assumed ratio (
0
).
The updated log outputs and true T
1
/ T
2
ratio
estimates (

) are computed by minimization of a cost
function,

C(
v
,{a
v,l
}) a
l, p

a
v,l
f
l
(W
p
,
v
)
f
l
(W
p
,
0
)
_
,
l1
N
s
p1
N
wt
2
. (10)
The apparent spectral amplitudes (

a
l, p
)
determined for each single wait time in the multi-wait
time pulse sequence assume the role of the "data" in Eq.
(10). The cost function is a function of a variable,
v
,
which represents the T
1
/ T
2
ratio. It is also a functional
of a distribution of variables,

{a
v,l
}, which represent
the intrinsic T
2
-distribution. Note that the intrinsic
distribution is a physical property of the rock and,
therefore, is independent of the wait times. The
estimates of the true T
1
/ T
2
ratios and true spectral
amplitudes are obtained by minimization of the cost
function. That is, let
v
and {a
v,l
} be the feasible
values for which the cost function attains its global
minimum. Then the true T
1
/ T
2
ratio estimates are
given by,
. Likewise, the estimated T

2
-
distributions are given by,

{ a
l
} {a
v,l
}. The updated
log outputs are computed from the estimated T
2
-
distributions. A flowchart of the signal processing
algorithm for processing multi-wait time pulse
sequences is shown in Fig. 1.
CMR Training Manual
-103- First Edition
November 1995
103
Compute Std. Devs.
In Porosity Logs
For Each Wait Time
Sonde PSD
Estimate
Signal Phases
Compute
A
(+)
A
( - ) Estimate
Rms Noise
A
(+)
A
( - )
~
R
j , p
~
X
j , p
p
~
~ ~
Compute Window Sums
~
~
Minimize
- ln L
p
a
^
Compute Log
Outputs For Each
Compute Signal
Color Maps
Distributions For
Record Logs
Construct And
a
l
{ }

opt,p
~
R
j , p
~
X
j , p

p
j , p j , p
j , p
j , p
I
m, p
l , p
N
wt
>
1 ?
No
Construct Cost Function
And Perform Minimization
Yes
Compute Updated Logs

Flowchart For Multi-Wait Time Logging
Compute
Wait Time
Compute Std. Dev.
In Logarithmic Mean T2
For Each Wait Time
Figure 1. Signal processing flowchart for multi wait time logging.
CMR Training Manual
-104- First Edition
November 1995
104
Nomenclature
This section defines the symbols used in this note.
A
j
( +)
=
"in-phase" amplitude of j-th spin echo
signal computed from raw two
channel data. Used to compute
window sums.
A
j
( )
=
"quadrature" amplitude of j-th spin
echo signal computed from raw two
channel data. Used to estimate rms
noise.

a
l
( a
l
) = true spectral amplitude (estimate) of

l th component in multi-
exponential model.

{a
l
} = set of true spectral amplitudes referred
to as the T
2
-distribution.

a
l, p
= apparent spectral amplitude estimates
for wait time W
p
computed with
assumed T
1
/ T
2
ratio (
0
).

a
v,l
= variable spectral amplitude in cost
function (see Eq. (10)).

a
v,l
= value of

a
v,l
for which the cost
function in Eq. (10) attains its global
minimum.
C
l, k
= covariance matrix used to compute the
standard deviations in the logs.

C(
v
,{a
v,l
}) = cost function which is minimized to
estimate true T
1
/ T
2
ratios and
updated log outputs from multi-wait
time pulse sequence log data.

f
l
= polarization function used to correct

l th spectral amplitude for
insufficient wait time.
I
m
= amplitude of m-th window sum.

I
m
{a
l
} = expectation value of m-th window
sum.
J = number of echoes in a CPMG wave
form.
K
tool
= tool constant used to convert from
measurement units to porosity.
m = mean logarithm of the logarithmic
T
2
-distribution.
N
s
= number of spectral components in the
multi-exponential model.
N
j
= random noise on the j-th spin-echo in
a CPMG wave form.
N
m
( N
m+1
) = left (right) echo number of m-th
window.
N
r
= number of PAPs in a stack of
spin-echo wave forms.
N
w
= number of windows used to reduce
original redundant data.
N
wt
= number of wait times in a multi-wait
time pulse sequence.
P(T
2
) = T
2
decay time distribution.
P
a
(logT
2
) = logarithmic T
2
decay time
distribution.
R
j
=
measured raw spin-echo amplitudes in
channel 1.
t
cp
= Carr-Purcell time equal to one-half of
inter-echo spacing.
T
c
= T
2
cutoff separating bound and free-
fluid porosity.
T
2
= intrinsic spin-spin relaxation time of
rock (a continuous variable).
T
2a
= apparent spin-spin relaxation time of
rock including relaxation of mud
filtrate.

T
2,l
= intrinsic spin-spin relaxation time of

l-th spectral component.
T
2, log
= logarithmic mean relaxation time.
T
1a
= apparent longitudinal relaxation time
of rock including relaxation of mud
filtrate.
T
min
(T
max
) = minimum (maximum) assumed T
2
.
T
mf
= nmr relaxation time of mud filtrate.
W = wait time preceding each CPMG in a
single wait time pulse sequence.
W
p
= the p-th wait time in a multi-wait
time pulse sequence.
X
j
=
measured raw spin-echo amplitudes in
channel 2.
(
opt
) = regularization parameter (optimal
value) computed by the signal
processing algorithm.
= inter echo spacing equal to 320 sec
for the CMR tool.
CMR Training Manual
-105- First Edition
November 1995
105
nmr
= total log porosity estimated from
CMR tool measurememts.
bf
(T
c
) = bound-fluid porosity estimated from
CMR tool measurements (a function
of the cutoff).
f
(T
c
) = free-fluid log porosity estimated from
CMR tool measurements (a function
of the cutoff).
f
(33) = free-fluid porosity estimated using a
33 msec cutoff.
0
= assumed T
1
/ T
2
ratio in a rock used
to process single wait time pulse
sequence logs.
(

)

true (estimate)

T
1
/ T
2

ratio in a rock.
v
= variable T
1
/ T
2
ratio in cost function
(see Eq. (10)).
=
value of
v
at which the cost function
in Eq. (10) attains its global
minimum.
2
(

nmr
) = variance in estimate of total porosity
due to random noise fluctuations.
( ) = variance (rms noise) on a single echo
in a spin-echo wave form.

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Figure 2.6. Application of 180 pulse.

Figure 2.7. Spins begin to rephase.

. Likewise, the estimated T

Compute Updated Logs

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