CDA10101

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
Data Networks
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services. Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramcos employees. Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Communication File Reference: CDA10101
For additional information on this subject, contact J.S. Phillips on 874-6163
Communication Data Networks
Content
Page
WHAT IS A DATA NETWORK?........................................................................................ 1 Peer-to-Peer Network................................................................................................ 3 Client-Server Network .............................................................................................. 3 Host (Mainframe) Network ....................................................................................... 4 DATA NETWORK TOPOLOGIES ..................................................................................... 5 Point-to-Point Networks............................................................................................ 5 Multipoint and Multidrop Networks.......................................................................... 6 Dedicated and Dial-Up Access Networks.................................................................. 7 Bus Networks ........................................................................................................... 8 Ring Networks .......................................................................................................... 9 Star Networks ..........................................................................................................11 THE OSI MODEL...............................................................................................................12 LAN EQUIPMENT.............................................................................................................18 PCs/Workstations/Servers.......................................................................................18 Servers .........................................................................................................18 PC Hardware Components............................................................................19 BIOS ............................................................................................................19 Operating System .........................................................................................20 Networking Protocols ...................................................................................21 Network Interface/Adapter Card (NIC) ....................................................................21 Media.......................................................................................................................23 Cables ..........................................................................................................23 Transceiver/Media Filters .............................................................................23 Repeater...................................................................................................................23 Hubs ........................................................................................................................24 IBM Multistation Adapter Unit (MAU) ........................................................24 IBM Lobe Access Unit (LAM) .....................................................................24 IBM Controlled Access Unit (CAU).............................................................24 Switching Hubs/Concentrators .....................................................................26 Fiber Optic Interface ................................................................................................27 Bridge ......................................................................................................................27
Router......................................................................................................................27 Switch......................................................................................................................29 Modem ....................................................................................................................30 Host Computer Systems ...........................................................................................30 Gateway .......................................................................................................31 Front End Processors (Communications Controllers)....................................31 Cluster Controllers (Multiplexers) ................................................................31 Backbone Cable Systems .........................................................................................31 NUMBERING SYSTEMS ..................................................................................................34 Decimal Number System (Base 10)..........................................................................35 Binary Number System (Base 2) ..............................................................................36 Octal Number System (Base 8) ................................................................................36 Hexadecimal Number System (Base 16) ..................................................................37 DATA CODES USED FOR INFORMATION TRANSFER................................................38 Code Levels .............................................................................................................38 Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)..................................................................................39 EBCDIC ..................................................................................................................40 ASCII ......................................................................................................................41 Formatting Effectors ................................................................................................43 The Escape (ESC) Character ....................................................................................43 ERROR DETECTION AND CORRECTION......................................................................44 Backward Error Correction...........................................................................44 Forward Error Correction .............................................................................44 Parity (Layer 6)........................................................................................................45 Cyclical Redundancy Check (CRC) (Layer 2) ..........................................................45 WORK AID 1: CONVERTING BETWEEN NUMBER SYSTEMS ..................................47 Decimal to Binary/Binary to Decimal Conversion....................................................48 Binary to Octal/Octal to Binary Conversion .............................................................48 Binary to Hexadecimal/Hexadecimal to Binary Conversion .....................................49 Application ..............................................................................................................50
Table of Figures
Page
Figure 1. PC-Based Data Network ........................................................................... 1 Figure 2. Machinery Protection System Using A PLC .............................................. 2 Figure 3. Client-Server Network .............................................................................. 3 Figure 4. Host (Mainframe) Network ....................................................................... 4 Figure 5. Point-to-Point Network ............................................................................. 6 Figure 6. Multidrop or Multipoint Link Network...................................................... 7 Figure 7. PC and Modem.......................................................................................... 8 Figure 8. Bus Network Topology ............................................................................. 9 Figure 9. Token-Passing Ring Network Topology ...................................................10 Figure 10. Star Network Topology ..........................................................................11 Figure 11. The OSI Model.......................................................................................13 Figure 12. Application, Presentation and Session Layers .........................................15 Figure 13. Transport and Network Layers ...............................................................16 Figure 14. Data Link and Physical Link Layers .......................................................17 Figure 15. Network Interface Card (NIC) Connectors .............................................22 Figure 16. IBM 8228 MAU.....................................................................................24 Figure 17. IBM 8230 CAU/LAM ............................................................................25 Figure 18. BYTEX 7760 Concentrator ....................................................................26 Figure 19. Cisco 7000 Router..................................................................................28 Figure 20. Modem...................................................................................................30 Figure 21. LAN Backbone ......................................................................................32 Figure 22. LAN Collapsed Backbone ......................................................................33 Figure 23. Numbering Systems ...............................................................................35 Figure 24. Binary Coded Decimal ...........................................................................39 Figure 25. EBCDIC.................................................................................................40 Figure 26. 7-Bit ASCII Code Set.............................................................................41 Figure 27. 8-bit Character Code (ISO 8859)............................................................42
WHAT IS A DATA NETWORK? A data network is a system of computers or computer based systems and their peripherals connected by communication lines (Figure 1). In its simplest form, a Personal Computer (PC) connected to a printer is a data network. The PC is an input/output (I/O) device and the printer (also called a peripheral) is an output only device. The printer is usually connected to the PC through a serial data cable.
Figure 1. PC-Based Data Network In a plant environment, Distributed Control Systems (DCS) and Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) interface with their peripherals (process analyzers, monitors, sensors, equipment control systems, etc.) through data networks (Figure 2).
PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER DIGITAL INPUTS & OUTPUTS
PRODUCT MIXING TANK T-1

LSH 4
PSHH 3 LSL 1 Zs1/0 s PSH 2
PRODUCT STORAGE FV1

TSH 2 s
TANK T-2
Zs2/0
FV2
P-1
Figure 2. Machinery Protection System Using A PLC
PC users require a data network for several purposes including: Peripheral sharing (such as a common printer) File transfer Electronic mail (E-mail) Centralized data storage Centralized data backup Multimedia (such as voice and video)
Peer-to-Peer Network A peer-to-peer network involves the connection of two or more computer-based components and their related peripherals. Users configure their PCs (through the operating system (OS)) to share files and access to connected peripherals. In this manner, each PC can act as both a client and a server. (See clientserver below.) Peer-to-peer networks are usually small networks connecting less than 20 PCs. The Windows 95 and Macintosh (AppleTalk) operating systems support peer-to-peer networking of PCs. Client-Server Network As the network grows, a more robust type of network system is required. Instead of accessing files on individual user PCs, the files are stored in a central location on a powerful PC (or minicomputer) called a server (Figure 3).
Server Client
Figure 3. Client-Server Network A server is typically a fast mini or micro-computer with large hard disk storage capacity, lots of RAM and a data backup system -- although any PC can be designated as a network server. In setting up a client-server network, you should select your best PC to be the server as it is a device that can a bottle neck in your system. All network users who have access to the server are called clients.
Network operating systems such as Novell NetWare and Windows NT, have special software for the server. Server software usually contains additional features for account setup, directory management, and network monitoring. These operating systems can support hundreds of users on each server. Host (Mainframe) Network Computer networks were originally centered around a large main frame computer system. Terminals were connected directly to the mainframe or remotely (Figure 4).
Host Computer
Front-End Processor or Communications Controller
Figure 4. Host (Mainframe) Network Devices called front end processors (FEPs) or communications controllers provide the interface between the terminals and the mainframe computer. At the center of the Saudi Aramco data communications network is an IBM CMOS mainframe computer system located in the Tower Building in Dhahran. Although once seen in abundance throughout Saudi Aramco facilities, the aging IBM 3270 data terminals that provided the I/O to the IBM mainframe are now being replaced by direct PC access via the local area network and associated backbone communications system.
DATA NETWORK TOPOLOGIES A network topology is the physical and logical interconnections of devices called Data Terminal Equipment (DTEs) which include PCs and other data processing equipment and Data Communication Equipment (DCEs) which include items such as, repeaters, bridges, routers, etc. A network topology is influenced by many factors, such as equipment capability, economy, efficiency, response time, and reliability. Saudi Aramco uses a variety of network topologies, as outlined in the following paragraphs. The overall layout (topology) of a data communications network depends largely on the type of equipment utilized as the host computer or controller. The configuration may include many different circuit configurations in the same network. Mainframe computers are typically star networks, with the host computer the focus of all other computer equipment connected to the network. Minicomputer and microcomputers, on the other hand, may function in a bus or ring network configuration. Point-to-Point Networks The simplest form of data networking is the direct connection of DTEs through a dedicated transmission link. The advantage of such an arrangement, shown in Figure 5, is that the failure of any link will only affect one terminating DTE. The main disadvantages of point-to-point networking are its high cost of running individual cables and low efficiency. Each link requires two DCEs and two DTEs and usually does not generate enough usage to keep the dedicated circuit fully busy. One method of improving efficiency is to add a multiplexing function to the DCE, which allows more than one DTE to share the DCE and data transmitting capacity (bandwidth) of the transmission link. These arrangements are also shown in Figure 5.
DCE DTE DCE Point-to-Point Links DCE
DTE DTE
DCE Point-to-Point Links DTE DCE DCE
DTE
DTE Multi-station
DTE
DCE Terminal Controller
DTE DTE DTE DTE
Figure 5. Point-to-Point Network
Multipoint and Multidrop Networks Multipoint (also known as multidrop) networks are configured as shown in Figure 6. These arrangements permit the sharing of the host DCE and a transmission link. A line discipline is imposed that allows only one terminal to transmit at a time, although more than one terminal may receive information at one time. The line discipline involves a combination of selecting and polling. Each terminal is assigned a unique address, and the terminal only responds to (selects) messages that carry its particular address. The host DTE also polls each terminal in a predefined sequence to determine if that terminal has data it wishes to transmit.
Multipoint networks are used where transmission links are expensive or in short supply, or where the volume of data transmitted by individual terminals is low. The two main disadvantages of this network configuration are: The loss of a link or the originating DCE could result in the loss of service for a large number of DTEs. An increase in traffic can seriously degrade response time for all users connected through the shared link.
Multidrop or Multipoint Link DTE DCE DCE DTE DCE DTE DCE DTE DCE DTE
Multidrop or Multipoint Link DTE DCE
DCE Terminal Controller DTE DTE DTE
DCE Terminal Controller DTE DTE DTE
DCE DTE
DCE DTE
Figure 6. Multidrop or Multipoint Link Network
Dedicated and Dial-Up Access Networks Another aspect of overall network layout and design is whether the transmission links are reserved exclusively for the use of a single network or shared by two or more networks. Shared networks are generally accessed through modems connected to the telephone network and may operate entirely through voice (telephone) switches, or in packet mode through packet assemblers/disassemblers (PADs) and special packet (data) switches.
Dedicated links may be owned or leased by the user. They have the advantage of being secure from unwanted access and may be modified (conditioned) for higher data transfer rates. Cost may be a disadvantage for dedicated links if they are lightly loaded. Dial-up networks have the advantages of economy (for lightly loaded links) and universal access. By connecting a modem to a PC, the user can use the telephone system to dial-up the host computer system. With modern telephone switches, it is possible to create closed user groups which restrict incoming calls to a specified list of telephone users. This feature has not been widely implemented, however.
DTE
DCE Modem
Figure 7. PC and Modem
PC
Bus Networks The simplest local area network (LAN) is based on a shared bus, as illustrated in Figure 8. No central node controls channel access, so all network nodes have equal access. The most common forms of bus networking are the Token-Passing Bus and Carrier-Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) (e.g., Ethernet). For Token-Passing Bus, a control data frame (the token) is passed from node to node in a logical-ring method. Its operation is then similar to a TokenPassing Ring.
For CSMA/CD or Ethernet, a node with a message to send monitors (senses) the bus and waits for it to become idle; that is, no other node is transmitting. When the bus is clear, the node transmits its message with the address of the intended receiver. All idle nodes monitor the channel for messages, and the correct receiving node accepts the message and returns an acknowledgment. Because of the propagation delay in the network, two nodes can simultaneously transmit a message on the bus and the messages can collide and produce data errors. If an acknowledgment is not received by the transmitting station, it assumes a collision has occurred, waits a random length of time, and retransmits its message. Typically, a station will retransmit up to 16 times before concluding that the message cannot be sent because of a busy condition or the lack of a terminating node on the network. An advantage of the bus network is that it can be simple to install. A disadvantage is that the bus cannot be too long or the likelihood of collisions increases dramatically because of the time it takes signals to pass over the network. Collisions will also occur more frequently as the network load increases, causing considerable delay to network users. Bus networks also support baseband transmission (a single channel) and broadband transmission (multiple frequency division multiplexed channels).
DTE DCE Terminator
DTE DCE
DTE DCE Terminator
Data Bus DCE DTE DCE DTE DCE DTE DCE DTE
Figure 8. Bus Network Topology
Ring Networks In a ring network, such as the IBM Token Ring LAN, each station or node breaks the ring with an input and output. A ring network as shown in Figure 9. A data "token" circulates around the network, passing each DTE node on a regular basis.
If a DTE has a message to be sent on the network, it captures the token, attaches its message (including the address of the destination node), and sends the token down the ring. Each node checks the address on the token as it circulates. When the intended destination node recognizes the address, it accepts the token, removes the message, and attaches an acknowledgment signal. When this token is received by the originating node, the acknowledgment signal is removed and the token is released. The token circulates and the process is repeated. One of the stations in a token ring network is designated as the active monitor to initiate recovery action if a token is mutilated or lost, or an information frame is not removed from the ring. This could occur if a station loses power or otherwise fails while it possesses the token. A variation on the simple token ring described above is the Cambridge or slotted ring network. In a slotted ring network, a certain number of fixed-length slots circulate around the ring, instead of one token, and more than one node can use the network at a time. An advantage of the token ring network is that its maximum data throughput can be calculated, and service does not degenerate until the maximum throughput is reached. One disadvantage is that a break in the ring will disrupt data flow. This problem is addressed in some networks, such as the fiber distributed data interface (FDDI), by providing two rings and a means of healing the network if a break occurs.
DTE DCE Direction of Data Flow
DTE DCE
DTE DCE
Circulating Data Token
DCE DTE
DCE DTE
DCE DTE
Figure 9. Token-Passing Ring Network Topology
10
Star Networks A star network configuration, as shown in Figure 10, is the traditional arrangement for mainframe computers and the preferred installation arrangement for LANs. It is also encountered in other forms of networking, such as telephone and message switching, where dumb terminals are used as remote DTEs. The advantage of a star network is that it operates entirely from a central DTE, allowing the network to be easily controlled and administered. A star network can employ inexpensive dumb terminals effectively, with the central DTE providing overall network intelligence. This can also be considered a major disadvantage, however, as the loss of the central DTE equipment or site disables the entire network. For this reason, large star networks usually have a disaster recovery plan associated with them. There are two sub-types of star networks used in LANs - (1) a star-wired ring network for Token Rings LANs and (2) a star-wired bus system used for Ethernet LANs.
DTE DTE DCE DCE DTE DTE DTE DTE DTE DCE Central (Host) Computer or DTE DCE DCE DTE DCE
DCE
DCE
DCE DCE DCE DTE DCE Terminal Controller DTE DTE DTE
DCE DCE DTE
DCE
DTE
DCE DTE
Figure 10. Star Network Topology
11
THE OSI MODEL The foregoing pages have discussed concepts and alternatives in creating a data communications network. The actual operation of a network connection is defined by its architecture. The architecture is more than just hardware/software design. It must also include the entire sequence of operations for effective data communication to occur. Consider the following steps in moving data from one DTE to another: Data to be transmitted. What information must be moved between DTEs? If an entry is to be made in a database, what particular fields are to be displayed, and in what sequence? How is the data going to appear at each end, that is, what will be its transmitted and received format? Data code. What kind of code will be used in transmitting the data? Will 6, 7, or 8 bits per character be used? Will some form of encryption be used to keep the data secure? Will data compression be used to reduce transmission time? Logon and authorization. How will the logical connection be made? Will some form of log-on and log-off be required? Will this use IDs or passwords? Flow control. How will the amount of data flowing between DTEs be controlled, so that one DTE doesn't transmit more than the other can receive? Will data need to be divided up into smaller pieces so it is transmitted more efficiently? How will incorrectly received data be retransmitted? Network connections. How will the end-to-end network connection be set up? Will it be necessary to send some form of address with each block of data, so that the data can be routed correctly? Or will some form of dedicated connection be made through the network, similar to the way a telephone call is made? Error control. How will an error be detected, that is, what form of error checking will be done? What additional information have to be sent to check for errors? How will this be added to the data that will be sent. How will the terminating DTEs and DCEs indicate if data has been received correctly or incorrectly? Physical connections. How will DTEs and DCEs be connected? Will a particular kind of cable be required? What kind of physical equipment will be used? What kinds of voltages and waveforms will be transmitted across the network? Will signals be analog or digital? Will microwave, fiber optics, satellite, or copper cables be used?
It is common to refer to these seven levels or procedures as data protocols. Protocols are a set of rules which govern how we communicate.
12
The International Standards Organization (ISO) is devoted to the creation and promotion of worldwide standards. The ISO developed and proposed the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model as a standard for the development of communications network architectures. Like the seven levels or protocols just listed, the OSI model contains seven functional levels, or layers, which describe each step of the data transfer operation. Each layer has its own function, adding information to the message to ensure it reaches its correct destination without any change to its intended form or content. The seven OSI layers are identified and summarized in Figure 11.
Figure 11. The OSI Model
13
The lowest three layers are referred to as link protocols. They are concerned with each individual connection in a data network. The top four layers are referred to as end-to-end protocols, since they deal with overall end-toend control of the communications session and the high-level format and encoding of the data to be transmitted. It is important to learn the functions and relationships between these protocol layers. They are very helpful in understanding data communications. For that reason, this course will mention them many times in the remaining modules. Figures 16, 17, and 18 describe each layer in greater depth in terms of the questions that are addressed and functions performed.
14
OSI Layer 7: Application Layer

What information must be moved? Converts the message to digital format and adds a header identifying the sender and How will data appear at each end, that receiver. is, what will be its transmitted and received format, and in what Through peer-to-peer communication, sequence will the data be sent? establishes labels to identify the receiver and source. Between which DTEs in the data network will the data be transmitted? Sends the message on to the Presentation Layer.
OSI Layer 6: Presentation Layer

What kind of code will be used in transmitting the data? Will some form of encryption be used to keep the data secure? Will data compression be used to reduce transmission time? Establishes a data code set and converts the data to the established code set. Adds information about the code set to the header. Sends the message to the Session Layer.
OSI Layer 5: Session Layer

Will some form of log-on and log-off be required? How will the logical connection be made? Will this use IDs or passwords? Opens a communications path between the sender and the receiver. Establishes transmission modes such as halfor full-duplex. Brackets the message to show the beginning and the end. Adds a header identifying agreed-upon protocols. Sends the message to the Transport Layer.
Figure 12. Application, Presentation and Session Layers
15
OSI Layer 4: Transport Layer

Will data need to be divided into smaller pieces so it can be transmitted more efficiently? * How will the amount of data flowing between DTEs be controlled, so that one DTE doesn't transmit more than the other can receive? How will incorrectly received data be recognized and retransmitted? Breaks the message down into smaller segments. Assigns each segment a checksum for error checking and appends the checksum to the header. Makes backup copies that are kept until receipt of the message at the destination is acknowledged. Adds a header to each of the segments and sends them to the Network Layer.
OSI Layer 3: Network Layer

How will the end-to-end network connection be set up and released? Will it be necessary to send some form of address with each block of data, so that the data can be routed correctly? Maintains and terminates the connection for transmission. Divides the segments of the message into smaller units called "packets." Packets are recorded, including the total number of packets and their sequences, to each packet's header. Sends the message packets, with their headers, to the Data Link Layer.
Figure 13. Transport and Network Layers
16
OSI Layer 2: Data Link Layer

How will an error be detected, that is, what form of error checking will be used? What additional information has to be sent to check for errors and to assure proper routing? How will this be added to the data to be sent? How will the terminating DTEs and DCEs indicate if data has been received correctly or incorrectly? Calculates a checksum for each packet. Adds a header to each packet containing the address of the destination, and marks the end of each packet with a trailer containing the packet's checksum. Agrees with the destination Data Link Layer (its peer layer) on the method of acknowledging receipt of data. Makes a copy of each packet and keeps them until receipt at destination is acknowledged. Sends the packets to the Physical Layer.
OSI Layer 1: Physical Layer

What kind of physical equipment will be used? How will the DTEs and DCEs be connected together? Will a particular kind of cable be needed? What kinds of voltages and waveforms will be transmitted across the network? Will signals be analog or digital? Will microwave, fiber optics, satellite, or copper cables be used? Is the electronic link to the transmission medium. Agrees with its "peer" physical layer at the destination on voltage levels and any other physical parameters needed for transmission. Transmits the message, as a stream of bits, to the receiver's Physical Layer.
Figure 14. Data Link and Physical Link Layers
17
LAN EQUIPMENT The following are the most common equipment items found in the Saudi Aramco data communications network. A brief description of the function of each these items is provided. PCs/Workstations/Servers There are approximately 25,000 personal computers and workstations in use within Saudi Aramco, including: Intel processor based micro-computers (PCs) Apple Macintosh/Power PCs Sun Workstations DEC Alpha Servers Integraph CAD stations HP workstations
A workstation is a generic term applied to desktop computers, terminals or data processing systems located at the users location. Servers Networks are for sharing. The devices that share their resources over the network are called servers. There are three general categories of servers: File Servers Print Servers Communication Servers
A file server is a computer whose function is to be a central storage device for files and programs that can be accessed by multiple users over a network. This approach is also called client-server, server-centric or dedicated server file service. Specialized software in the client (user) computer makes the file servers hard disks, CD-ROMs or other storage devices appear to be local drives on the client computer. The centralized nature of file servers offers a single location where critical files can be backed up and archived, file access control and accounting, and high performance system components. The drawbacks are that when the server is down, the data becomes unavailable. And in heavy network use areas, where demand on the network is high, file access may be slower.
18
Print servers make printers available for sharing across the network. The print server queues the jobs, usually on a hard disk, and then sends them to the printers in an orderly manner. Although, since most printers can now be accessed directly from the LAN, there is little need to have a print server. The print server is often literally, the printer itself, instead of being attached to a computer. Communications servers make off-LAN communications links available to users of the LAN. These computers can act as gateways to mainframes or as asynchronous communications servers, access servers for dial-in, bulletin board systems, electronic mail (e-mail), etc. PC Hardware Components All personal computers tend to have similar internal components. The internal components include: BIOS When an Intel processor based PC is started, it must have enough information to begin the bootup process. This information is contained in the Basic Input/Output System (BIOS). This information is stored in erasable-programmable ROM (EPROM). Motherboard with microprocessor Read Only Memory (ROM) (stores the BIOS) Random Access Memory (RAM) (measured in mega bits) Disk Controller Board (may be built-in to the Motherboard) Video Controller Board (may be built-in to the Motherboard) Serial/Parallel Interface Board Sound Card/CD-ROM controller (may be built-in to the Motherboard) Hard Disk Drive (measured in giga byte capacity) Floppy Disk Drive CD-ROM Drive Network Interface or Adapter Card (NIC) Monitor Keyboard Mouse
19
The BIOS contains information about the PC hardware such as Processor type and speed, disk drive configuration, monitor type, etc. It activates the keyboard and other devices in the system to start the boot-up process. BIOS information is changeable through a built-in setup sequence accessible usually by pressing the DEL key during start-up. Operating System Regardless of the size of a computer, be it main frame or PC, it has an operating system (software). Operating systems control the movement of data into, throughout, and out of a computer. The original Intel processor PC operating system was called MS-DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System). All programs and data files are stored either on floppy disk, hard disk, or other storage system (tapes, external drives, etc.). DOS allows the user to access the stored data files and run (execute) programs. The DOS system moves the data from the disk to RAM where the program/data can then be accessed by the microprocessor. DOS was a text based command system with commands such as COPY, DELete, DIRectory, etc. Apple Macintosh computers were the first PCs to use a graphical user interface (GUI) instead of text based commands as an operating system. Using a mouse, files could be moved by dragging and dropping. Programs could be started by simply clicking on a related icon. The Macintosh operating system also included the AppleTalk networking system. Allowing Macintosh users to interconnect their PCs through an AppleTalk network which is a form of CSMA/CD (similar to Ethernet). Microsoft developed the Windows operating systems as the GUI for Intel processor based PCs. Windows NT was the first Microsoft operating system to include networking features built-in. Add-in networking software, such as Novell NetWare adds networking features and capabilities to the PCs operating system.
20
Operating systems being used within Saudi Aramco include: Windows (Windows 95, NT, Workgroups) MacOS (System 7) Novell NetWare SUN/OS Integraph UNIX AIX HPUX DEC VMS Solaris Network
Networking Protocols Networking protocols are the rules of how to devices connected to a network will communicate. Networking protocols in use within Saudi Aramco include: Novell IPX/SPX AppleTalk NetBIOS Systems Network Architecture (SNA) TCP/IP APPC DECnet
Network Interface/Adapter Card (NIC) A network interface card (NIC) is a PC circuit board that is installed in a computers expansion slot. NICs are the devices most commonly used to connect computers to networks. NICs incorporate a transceiver, which can service several types of connectors. With the exception of thick Ethernet, NICs are available to connect directly to all types of networks.
21
Token Ring NICs are equipped with one or both of the following: DB-9 connector for STP with Media Filter RJ-45 connector for UTP
Ethernet NICs are equipped with one, two, or possibly all three of the following: RJ-45 connector for UTP Ethernet BNC connector for thin coax Ethernet DB-15 AUI connector for thick coax Ethernet
Figure 15. Network Interface Card (NIC) Connectors
22
Media The term media refers to the cables and connectors that interconnect LAN equipment. Cables Common types of LAN cables include (most economical to most expensive): Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) cable Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) cable Coaxial (coax) cable Fiber Optic (FO) cable
The construction and characteristics of media will be discussed in greater detail later in the course. Transceiver/Media Filters Some Ethernet configurations require an external transmitter/receiver (transceiver) to provide the interface between the NIC and the Ethernet cable. AppleTalk networks also use an external transceiver. Some Token Ring networks use a media filter to provide the electrical interface between the NIC connector and STP (or UTP) cable. Repeater Repeaters are used to physically extend the length of a LAN by connecting two like LAN segments together. Repeaters are used when there isnt much traffic on either segment, and when equipment cost and not connection cost is the primary consideration. For high traffic segments, a bridge is used to maintain segment traffic isolation. Some repeaters simply amplify the signal (noise and all), but more advanced repeaters can amplify and regenerate the signal. Signal regeneration involves analyzing the signal and reconstructing it to its original form. This amplifies the signal, reduces the noise, and clears up any distortion that might be present. It would be nice if repeaters could extend the length of LANs forever, but all network designs have limits. The most important limit for length is signal propagation delay (the time it takes the signal to travel from end-to-end). If the maximum propagation delay interval expires and no signals are encountered, a network error condition is assumed. Repeaters operate at the Physical Layer of the OSI model.
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 23
Hubs The term hub is a generic term applied to any device that forms the center of a star network. The Saudi Aramco network contains over 500 hubs. IBM Multistation Adapter Unit (MAU) The IBM MAU (Figure 16) forms the center of a star-wired Token Ring. This is a passive device (no active electronics). Up to 8 stations can be connected into a Token Ring using one MAU. MAUs can be interconnected to increase the size of the Token Ring. MAUs operate at the Physical Layer of the OSI model.
Figure 16. IBM 8228 MAU
IBM Lobe Access Unit (LAM) The IBM LAM (Figure 17) also forms the center (hub) of a star-wired Token Ring. The LAM is an active device that allows a network controller to monitor ring activity and enable/disable individual ports. Each LAM provides Token Ring access for up to 8 stations. LAMs operate at the Physical Layer of the OSI model. IBM Controlled Access Unit (CAU) The IBM CAU (Figure 17) provides the network control interface for up to 8 LAMs. The CAU is an active device. CAUs operate at the Physical Layer of the OSI model.
24
Figure 17. IBM 8230 CAU/LAM
25
Switching Hubs/Concentrators In addition to the IBM equipment described above, Saudi Aramco also uses Bytex (Figure 18), Bay Networks (SynOptics), and Cabletron intelligent/multi-protocol switching hubs or concentrators. These microprocessor based devices allow individual port configuration and segment definition, and support multiple LAN protocols including Token Ring, Ethernet (CSMA/CD), FDDI, and ATM. Concentrators operate at the Data Link and Physical Layer (some hubs may also operate at the Network Layer by performing network routing operations).
Figure 18. BYTEX 7760 Concentrator
26
Fiber Optic Interface The fiber optic interface provides multimode to singlemode fiber interface for connecting hubs to a fiber optic backbone system. Fiber Optic interfaces operate at the Physical Layer of the OSI model. Bridge Bridges are used to link LANs, either locally or remotely, where there is concern about loading a LAN segment with unnecessary traffic. Bridges discriminate among frames, moving only frames that are addressed to nodes on the other LAN segment and blocking frames with addresses within the segment. A bridge is analogous to a traffic policeman,. It monitors all the packets on LAN A and LAN B. If it detects a packet addressed to a computer on LAN B, it lets that packet through (forwards it), while stopping (filtering) all others. Bridges use programmable look-up address tables to determine routing. On older bridges, this was a manual setup. Newer bridges, called learning bridges, automatically update their address look-up tables as devices are added to the network. When a message is received from a device, the learning bridge associates the devices address with that port, and adds it to its address table. Like repeaters, bridges can move frames between different kinds of media, and similarly, this action is invisible to anyone using the network. The client computers do not need any special software or hardware to benefit from the operation of repeaters and bridges. Although bridges are mostly used to segment LANs, a bridge can also link an Ethernet LAN segment to a Token Ring LAN segment. This is referred to as translational bridging (also see Gateways). Intelligent bridges can strip from the transmission frame the packets generated by one protocol and reinsert them into a frame of a different protocol. Bridges operate at the Data Link and Physical Layers of the OSI model. Router A router provides frame routing through a network. A router keeps track of all other routers in the network and the network configuration. It can determine the best or an alternate path to route data through a network. Routers are very intelligent devices and can perform protocol conversions. The Saudi Aramco data network has over 450 routers connected.
27
Cisco 7000
Figure 19. Cisco 7000 Router
Bridges can be intelligent, but are still relatively single-minded. They either pass the traffic or ignore it, and they can typically only handle data in similar packets like those carrying IPX or NetBIOS addressing information. Routers are smarter and more discriminating. The software in a router reads complex addressing information and makes decisions on how to route the data across multiple internetworking links. Routers have two important advantages over bridges, first they are more efficient than bridges. Second they have the power to control and manage the connectivity process between networks. Routers are more efficient than bridges for three reasons. First, if there is more than one path between two computers, routers can select the best way to get data from one computer to another. This selection can be done on the basis of price and/or performance. Second, when one path between the source and destination fails, routers can pick an alternate path. Thus, routers are able to maintain communications even when a network link goes down. And third, routers can prevent unnecessary traffic from clogging links between LANs. This also improves network performance and lowers costs. (Some router programs always pick the shortest path between two points; these are known as static routers.)
28
Protocol independent routers do not rely on the communicating computers to tell them where to send the LAN packets. These routers discover that by themselves and without any assistance from the LAN users, computers, or LAN administrators. Each router monitors the LAN packets on the LAN or LANs to which it is directly connected. As it monitors it learns which computers are located on those LANs. It builds an address table for all the LANs two which it is directly connected. Once done, (which only takes a few seconds), each router share its information with other routers in the network. Thus each router knows where (on which network) every computer is located. This is all done automatically by the routers. The routers make packet-by-packet decisions based on the information they obtain from other routers and network devices about efficiency (time and cost) and reliability of different routes between source and destination nodes. Also, protocol independent routers dont care what format a packet or frame is in; they merely read the subnetwork address, decide on the route, perhaps wrap the packet or frame in an appropriate envelope, such as an X.25 or Frame Relay packet. But the data packets or frames sent to the router must conform to specific network-layer protocols. The network control and management features of routers also give them an advantage over bridges. Routers can partition networks in such a way as to control who can talk to whom. Entire departments or individual users can be restricted from certain network resources. In addition, routers can prioritize communications for certain computers or LAN protocols. Routers also aid in the detection and diagnosis of network problems. And some routers allow network managers to track network usage on a department or user basis. Companies like Cisco, Proteon, and Wellfleet Communications sell protocol independent routers that allow the combination of different protocols on the same network. Saudi Aramco is using both the Cisco Model 4000 and 7000 series multiprotocol routers. Routers operate at the Network, Data Link and Physical Layers of the OSI model. Switch A switch provides point-to-point connections between connected devices. Switches allow network nodes to use the maximum bandwidth available within a network and can be used to relieve network congestion problems. The new Asynchronous Mode Transmission (ATM) technology is a switched based technology. Switches operate at the Data Link and Physical Layers of the OSI model.
29
Modem A modem (modulator/demodulator) (Figure 20) allows data networks to use analog communications equipment, such as the public switched telephone system (PSTN), for data transmission. Modems convert (modulate) digital signals into analog signals for transmission, and convert (demodulate) received analog signals back into a digital format.
Figure 20. Modem Current technology modems also perform data compression and error detection/correction, and operate at speeds up to 56 kbps over ISDN lines (up to 33.6 kbps over standard telephone lines). Modems operate at the Physical Layer of the OSI model. Host Computer Systems A host computer is another name often used for mainframe computers. A discussed earlier, a mainframe computer is a large computer such the IBM and Cray systems used in Saudi Aramco. They can execute millions of instructions per second, access large data storage system (disk and tape) and provide a faster level of processing than micro and mini-computers. In Saudi Aramco, the Cray supercomputer is used within the Exploration and Producing business line to perform 3D reservoir modeling and other drilling/exploration related functions which require the processing of very large amounts of data. An IBM CMOS mainframe system is used for executive functions within the Company such as accounting and payroll, and also supports the large company-wide databases such employee records, material supply system records, hospital patient records, etc. .
30
Gateway A gateway is network device that has been configured to provide the interface between a LAN and a mainframe computer system. Within Saudi Aramco, the most common gateways is between the IBM mainframe computer network, using System Network Architecture (SNA) and Synchronous Digital Link Control (SDLC), and the other types of LANs in use throughout the network. Typically within Saudi Aramco, a gateway is a PC or Macintosh with an IRMA card and a LAN NIC card, and the associated software installed. Gateways operate at all seven layers of the OSI model. Front End Processors (Communications Controllers) FEPs or Communications Controllers provide the interface between a main frame computer and external DTEs. FEPs operate at the Data Link and Physical Layers of the OSI model. Cluster Controllers (Multiplexers) Cluster Controllers or multiplexers provide an interface between an FEP and several remote DTEs. The cluster controller or multiplexer allow several devices to share a single data interface link. Cluster Controllers operate at the Data Link and Physical Layers of the OSI model. Backbone Cable Systems A building with many users may contain many LAN segments that require interconnection. These segments can be connected directly together via a bridged/cable system, but are usually connected via a centrally located Hub/Concentrator.
31
The cable system that interconnects several LAN segments is called a backbone cable (Figure 21).
Hub Backbone Cable
Hub
Hub
Figure 21. LAN Backbone Within Saudi Aramco, building backbone cables are typically multimode fiber optic cables. Multimode cables support transmission distances up to 2 km. To interconnect the various buildings within the Saudi Aramco facility/community, a campus backbone cabling system is used. This is done using singlemode fiber optic cable which provides greater transmission distances (up to 40 km). With many LANs in the same facility (building or campus), a backbone network is often used for connecting all LANs. A backbone is nothing more than a LAN cable with a number of internetworking devices connected to it. Each internetworking device connects one or more LANs (subnetworks) to the backbone cable. LAN packets destined for computers on other subnetworks are switched from a subnetwork to the backbone by an internetworking device (bridge, hub, concentrator, etc.) The backbone acts as a data highway carrying LAN packets to other internetworking devices which select those LAN packets that are addressed to computers connected to their own subnetworks and switch them accordingly. If multiple LANs are connected through hubs, concentrators or bridges via a backbone cable or in a serial cascade, then extraneous traffic must pass through one or more segments as it moves to its destination. This puts an unnecessary load on the intervening segments.
32
For high traffic environments, the collapsed backbone ( Figure 22) arrangement using hubs and routers is more efficient. Recent advances in intelligent switching hubs have produced a new virtual LAN design that improves even further on the traditional backbone approach.
Hub Fiber Optic Backbone Cables Hub
Hub Backbone Hub
Router
WAN Backbone
Figure 22. LAN Collapsed Backbone
33
NUMBERING SYSTEMS Computing machinery is designed to work with only two possible states - on/off, yes/no, 1/0. This two-state operation is referred to as binary. Binary is the language of data communications. The term bits refers to the number of 1s and 0s transmitted. Thus bits per second (bps) equals the number of 1s and 0s transmitted per second. Eight bits is called a byte. Data file sizes and media storage devices are typically stated in the amount of bytes they can store (e.g. gigabytes). Baudot was the first binary code created for the machine encoding of alphanumeric characters. In baudot code, the letter A is represented by mark-mark-space-space-space (i.e., 11000). Note that baudot was a 5-level code (5 bits). Decimal (base 10) numbers are often encoded directly as their binary equivalent or binary coded decimal (BCD). As a data communications engineer, you will have to work with the binary (base 2), the octal (base 8) and hexadecimal (base 16) number systems. These three systems are related because it is very simple to convert between them. Plus, it is easier to work with the larger base number systems rather than with binary. The following is an example of number system equivalents: Decimal: Binary Octal Hexadecimal 15810 100111102 2368 9E16
All numbering systems are based on place notation, which means, each place or position increases the base number by a power of one as we move to the left of the decimal point, or decreases the base number by a power of one as we move to the right of the decimal point. For example, the decimal number system has the following place notation values: ... 103 + 102 + 101 + 100 . + 10-1+ 10-2+ 10-3... ... 1,000s + 100s + 10s + 1s . + 1/10s + 1/100s... So the number 1,729.23 = (1x 103) + (7x102) + (2 x 101) + (9 x 100) . + (2 x 10-1) + (3 x 10-2)
34
Figure 23 contains place notation for the four common numbering systems used in data communications. Base/ Power (n) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000 10,000,000 . . . 10n (Decimal) 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256 512 1024 Figure 23. Numbering Systems 2 n (Binary) 1 8 64 512 4,096 32,768 262,144 2,097,152 8 n (Octal) 16 n (Hexadecimal) 1 16 256 4,096 65,536 1,048,576 16,777,216 258,435,456
Decimal Number System (Base 10) The decimal number system (base 10) has 10 characters: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. In counting, once the number 9 is reached, a one is placed in the tens column (e.g. 10) and counting resumes. When 99 is reached, a 1 is placed in the hundreds column (e.g. 100) and counting again resumes. And so forth. Thus, the number 15810 is interpreted as: (1 x 102) + (5 x 101) + (8 x 100).
35
Binary Number System (Base 2) The binary number system (base 2) has 2 characters: 0, 1. In counting, once the number 1 is reached, a one is placed in the 2s column (e.g. 102) and counting resumes. When 112 is reached, a 1 is placed in the 4s column (e.g. 1002) and counting again resumes. And so forth. Thus the number 100111102 is interpreted as: (1 x 27) + (0 x 26) + (0 x 25) + (1 x 24) + (1 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (1 x 21) + (0 x 20) or 128 + 16 + 8 + 4 + 2 = 15810. Octal Number System (Base 8) The octal number system (base 8) has 8 characters: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7. In counting, once the number 78 is reached, a one is placed in the 8s column (e.g. 108) and counting resumes. When 778 is reached, a 1 is placed in the 64s column (e.g. 1008) and counting again resumes. And so forth. Thus the number 2368 is interpreted as: (2 x 82) + (3 x 81) + (6 x 80) or 128 + 24 + 6 = 15810. Octal is used in computer systems because it is very simple to convert from binary to octal and vice-versa. To convert from binary to octal, the bits are placed in groups of three beginning with the least significant bit (LSB). The group of three bits is translated into its numerical equivalent (additional zeros can be added to the most significant bit as needed). 100111102 = 010 011 110 = 2368 To convert from octal to binary is just as simple. Each octal character is converted into its threebit binary equivalent. 2368 = 2 3 6 = 0102 .. 0112 .. 1102 = 0100111102
36
Hexadecimal Number System (Base 16) The hexadecimal number system (base 16) has 16 characters: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F. Since the Arabic numbering system only supported 10 characters, alpha-characters are used for the additional 6 characters required to support the hexadecimal number system: A16=1010, B16=1110, C16=1210, D16=1310, E16=1410, F16=1510. In counting, once the number F is reached, a one is placed in the 16s column (e.g. 10) and counting begins again. When FF is reached, a 1 is placed in the 256s column (e.g. 100) and counting again resumes. And so forth. Thus the number 9E16 is interpreted as (9 x 161) + (14 x 160) or 144 + 14 = 15810. Hexadecimal is typically used in programming machine language, because like octal, it is also very simple to convert from binary to hexadecimal and vice-versa. To convert from binary to hexadecimal, the bits are placed in groups of four beginning with the least significant bit (LSB). The group of four bits is translated into its numerical equivalent (additional zeros can be added to the most significant bit as needed). 100111102 = 1001 1110 = 9 and 14 (remember 1410 = E16) = 9E16 To convert from hexadecimal to binary is just as simple. Each hexadecimal character is converted into its four-bit binary equivalent. 9E16 = 9 E (remember E16 = 1410) = 1001 1110 = 100111102
37
DATA CODES USED FOR INFORMATION TRANSFER Data is transmitted from one point to another by modulating an analog signal or by encoding a digital signal with the desired information. The actual information that is transmitted can be any of the following: Numerical data (telemetry) Alphanumerical (numbers and text) Graphics Fixed image (including facsimile) Video (freeze frame, slow scan, full motion) Voice (voice band, high-fidelity, stereo)
Encoding is an OSI Presentation Layer 6 function. Code Levels Numerical and alphanumeric data is usually character-oriented, with each character or number represented by a fixed number of bits. The arrangement of bits for each character or number is referred to as the code used for transmitting that data. For binary codes, the number of code levels, n, is simply the number of encoding elements (bits) used for each transmitted character. The maximum number of unique combinations in a given binary code is calculated by the formula: Maximum code combinations = 2 n For a seven level code there are a maximum of 27 or 128 unique data codes possible, using bit combinations from 0000000 (binary 0) to 1111111 (binary 127).
38
Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) Numerical data began to be represented by binary codes with the advent of computer machinery. Initially, numbers were converted to straight binary (base-2), octal (base-8), or hexadecimal (base-16). Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) coding used a binary representation for each decimal digit, with binary codes for decimal 11 (1011) to decimal 15 (1111) left unused. As can be seen by these numerical data codes, shown in Figure 3, there was no provision for representing alphabetic characters.
Simple Binary Coding 0 1 10 11 100 101 110 111 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111 10000 10001 10010 10011 10100 10101 10110 10111 11000 . . . 11111110 11111111 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 . . . 254 255 Binary Coded Decimal Coding 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 . . . 0100 0101 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 . . . 254 255 Octal Coding Hexadecimal Coding 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 30 . . . 176 177 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 . . . 1110 1111 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 . . . FE FF
0001 0001 0001 0001 0001 0001 0001 0001 0001 0001 0010 0010 0010 0010 0010
001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 010 010 010 010 010 010 010 010 011
0010 0101 0010 0101
011 111 011 111
000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111 000 . . . 110 111
0001 0001 0001 0001 0001 0001 0001 0001 0001
1111 1111
Figure 24. Binary Coded Decimal
39
EBCDIC A dominant vendor of computer or communications equipment can implement a system so extensively that it becomes a "de facto" standard. This is the case with the development and use of the Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC) by IBM. In one way, EBCDIC was a step forward in that it used 8 bits to represent data, which provided a total of 256 character combinations. It also made provisions for flow control characters, such as start of text (STX), end of text (ETX), and so forth. But from a communications point of view, it was a step backwards, as it did not provide any error correction capability. For this reason, although EBCDIC is widely used in mainframe computing, it is not used extensively as a communications code. The EBCDIC code is illustrated in Figure 25.
BITS b b b b 8 7 6 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 0 1 ht nl lf rs
0 1 1 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0
1 1 1 1
b4 b3 b2 b1
nul soh stx etx pf dle dc1 dc2 tm res ds sos fs byp syn pn sp & / a j b k s B K S 2 c l t C L T 3 d m u D M U 4
e n v E N V 5
lc del smm vt ff cr so si bs il can em cc cu1 ifs igs irs ius etb esc sm cu2 enq ack bel uc eot cu3 dc4 nak sub . < ( + | ! $ * ) ; . % > ? : # @ , = " f g h i o p q r w x y z F O W 6 G P X 7 H Q Y 8 I R Z 9
A J 0 1
it Sequence: b8: b7: b6: b5: b4: b3: b2: b1
Figure 25. EBCDIC
40
ASCII The next universally applied code was introduced by AT&T in 1963. It was given the name American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII). Formally known as the ANSI X3.4 standard. Some minor changes were made in the code in 1967 to accommodate special features of newer equipment. The new code was referred to as ASCII-II, but the "II" suffix has been dropped in recent years. As shown in Figure 26, ASCII is a seven-bit code, which provides 128 separate characters. The ASCII code is specifically oriented towards data communications and has both error checking capability and special characters for formatting and flow control. Only the basic Latin alphabet (A-Z) is supported in normal ASCII, but the ISO has defined an 8bit superset of ASCII (ISO Recommendation 8859) (Figure 27) that accommodates most European character sets.
BITS b b 3 2 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 nul soh stx etx eot enq ack bel bs ht lf vt ff cr so si 0 0 1 dle dc1 dc2 dc3 dc4 nak syn etb can em sub esc fs gs rs us 0 1 0 sp | " # $ % & ' ( ) * + ' . / 0 1 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 : ; < = > ? 1 0 0 @ A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O 1 0 1 P nl R S T U V W X Y Z [ \ ] ^ 1 1 0 ` a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o 1 1 1 p q r s t u v w x y z { : } ~ del b7 b6 b5
b 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
b 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
Bit Sequence: b7: b6: b5: b4: b3: b2: b1
Figure 26. 7-Bit ASCII Code Set
41
b8 b7 b6 b5 b4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 b3 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 b2 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 b1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15
0 0 0 0 00
0 0 0 1 01
0 0 1 0 02 sp ! # $ % & ( ) * + , . /
0 0 1 1 03 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 : ; < = > ?
0 1 0 0 04 @ A B C D E F G H I J K L M N 0
0 1 0 1 05 P Q R S T U V W X Y Z [ \ ] ^ _
0 1 1 0 06
,
0 1 1 1 07 p q r s t u v w x y z { | } ~
1 0 0 0 08
1 0 0 1 09
1 0 1 0 10
nbsp
1 0 1 1 11
0
1 1 0 0 12
1 1 0 1 13
1 1 1 0 14
1 1 1 1 15
a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o
SHY

1/4 1/2 3/4
Figure 27. 8-bit Character Code (ISO 8859)
42
Formatting Effectors Format effectors are special characters, transmitted with data, that affect the appearance (format) of data on a printing or display device. (Although these characters might be considered part of an OSI Layer 7 function, they are generally regarded part of Layer 6 because they are just the method of implementing a data display format made earlier as part of a Layer 7 decision.) Formatting characters are important because they allow data to be displayed with fixed horizontal spacing (i.e., columns) or vertical spacing (i.e., rows), without the requirement for extra characters such as multiple spaces or multiple line feeds. The common format effectors, found in both EBCDIC and ASCII character sets, are as follows: BS HT LF VT FF CR SP Backspace Horizontal Tab Line Feed Vertical Tab Form Feed Carriage Return Space Moves a printing device back one space on the same line. Moves a printing device to the next pre-determined position on a display line. Advances the printing device to the next display line. Moves a printing device to the next pre-determined display line. Moves the printing device to the next page or display screen. Moves the printing device to the left margin. Used to separate words or characters.
The Escape (ESC) Character The developers of the ASCII code did not foresee the advances in the use of graphics and color displays. Software/hardware vendors took advantage of the ASCII Escape (ESC) character to overcome this shortcoming. The ASCII ESC character (00101011) designates that the codes that follow have a specific meaning, thereby doubling the number of available codes. These special codes include graphics characters, foreign language characters, and other special applications. In 1979 the ANSI X3.64 standard was developed to standardize the addition of the Escape code sequence of characters. In a DOS based PC, these code interpretations are implemented by installing the ANSI.SYS driver in the CONFIG.SYS file. The NOTE: the ANSI X3.64 has since been replaced with the ISO 2022 standard.
43
ERROR DETECTION AND CORRECTION Information transmitted over a data channel is susceptible to transmission errors. These errors can be the result of noise (interference), attenuation (weak signal), or hardware failure in a link or DTE/DCE. The correction of data errors is a two-step process. First, the receiving party or device must recognize that an error has occurred, followed by error correction. Error detection and correction involves four layers of the OSI model. OSI Layer 6 OSI Layer 4 OSI Layer 2 OSI Layer 1 Selection of a data code that may include error checking, e.g., parity bits. Retransmission of data received in error. Separate error detection characters or codes (CRC) calculated on the basis of the transmitted block of data. Hardware-based error detection
In the case of voice transmission (i.e., telephone), it is possible to ask the speaking party to repeat a message if the message has not been understood. The listener must interrupt the speaker or wait until there is a pause in the conversation to request repetition of the misunderstood information. On very important messages the speaker might ask if the listener has understood his message, thus giving the listener an opportunity to ask for a repeat. Sometimes a listener knows an error has been made, but can understand the intent of the speaker without requesting a repeat because of the context of the message, or by what has been said before or after the error was made. Backward Error Correction Much the same process occurs in data communications. Transmitted data usually has one or more error detection methods embedded in its structure. Errors are usually corrected through retransmission of the data, which is controlled by OSI Layer 4 (flow control) and Layer 2 (data link) protocols. This form of error correction is referred to as backward error correction, since the receiving device must send a message back to the transmitting device to request a retransmission. Forward Error Correction In some cases error can be corrected through an analysis of the transmitted data in a process known as forward error correction. The ITU-T V.42bis standard used in high speed synchronous modems is a form of forward error correction.
44
Although there are several methods of error detection and correction, this module will focus on the two most common: Parity checking for asynchronous transmissions and cyclic redundancy checking (CRC) for synchronous transmissions. Both use backward error correction. Parity (Layer 6) Parity uses the addition of a single bit to a data character to force the number of 1s transmitted to be either an odd number (odd parity) or an even number (even parity). In ASCII, each transmitted character is checked for the number of logical 1s transmitted, and the parity bit is added depending on the type of parity method (even or odd) selected by the user. NOTE: it is important that both the sender and receiver agree on the parity method. Which method is used is not significant. Example: ASCII code for the letter G: Even parity: 01000111 Odd parity: 11000111 x1000111
Each received character is examined to determine if the correct number of bits (odd or even) were received. A short coming of parity is that it is useful only for single bit errors. Over time, it will only detect 50% of transmission errors. However, it remains an effective error detection tool. Error correction requires retransmission of the bad character. Parity is most often used in asynchronous (single character) transmission. Cyclical Redundancy Check (CRC) (Layer 2) CRC, also called polynomial checking, is often used in the synchronous transmission of a block of data. CRC passes the data in a block through a mathematical algorithm, and the result of that calculation (the Frame Check Sequence, or FCS) is passed to the receiving equipment at the beginning or end of the block. The receiving equipment performs the same calculation on the block data, and compares the result to that received from the transmitting equipment. If the two results are the same, the entire block of data is assumed to have been received correctly. The most common form of CRC involves the use of a binary polynomial that is divided into the data to be transmitted, which is treated as a long binary number. The remainder of this division is added to the end of original data block, forming a new data block that is exactly divisible by the binary polynomial. (This statement is true provided modulo2 arithmetic is used, that is, all additions and subtractions ignore carry bits.)
45
Four versions of CRC polynomial checking are encountered in practice: CRC-12 CRC-16 (ANSI) CRC-CCITT CRC-32 X16 + X15 + X2 + 1 (11000000000000101) X16 + X12 + X5 + 1 (10001000000100001) X32 + X26 + X23 + X22 + X16 + X12 + X11 + X10 + X8 + X7 + X5 + X4 + X2 + X + 1 (100000100110000010001110110110111) X12 + X11 + X3 + X2 + X + 1 (1100000001111)
The polynomial represents the binary number (or pattern) which is used as the data divisor. In the case of CRC-12, this would be the binary number 1100000001111. CRC-12 is used for transmitting 6-bit characters and generates a 12-bit FCS. CRC-16 and CRC-CCITT are frequently used for 8-bit codes. The CRC-CCITT polynomial is used by IBM in its data networking protocols and by public data networks following the ITU-T X.25 recommendations for packet switching. CRC-32 is used in some point-to-point synchronous standards, and is used in local area networking and some military applications. Fortunately, the CRC algorithm is easily implemented in hardware using shift registers and exclusive-or logic gates. Diagrams and explanations of how this is done are available in many texts on data communications. Experience has shown that a 25-bit CRC code added to a 1000-bit block will allow only 3 error bits in 100 million to go undetected. That is, for a redundancy of only 2.5%, the error detection failure rate is 3 x 10-8.
46
WORK AID 1: CONVERTING BETWEEN NUMBER SYSTEMS Data communications typically use four different numbering systems: Decimal (or base 10) Binary (or base 2) Octal (or base 8) Hexadecimal (or base 16)
All numbering systems use place notation to determine the value of each character.
2,356.79 1000s
Equals: (2 x 1000) + (3 x 100) + (5 x 10) + (6 x 1) + (7 x 1/10) + (9 x 1/100) For binary numbers the place notation is:
100s 10s 1s 1/10s 1/100s
101010 32s 16s 8s 4s 2s 1s

To convert from decimal to any other number is done by dividing the decimal number by the new base number.
47
Decimal to Binary/Binary to Decimal Conversion To convert a decimal number into a binary number, divide by 2 until the quotient equals 0, as follows: 62 2 = 31 remainder 0 31 2 = 15 remainder 1 15 2 = 7 remainder 1 7 2 = 3 remainder 1 3 2 = 1 remainder 1 1 2 = 0 remainder 1 bit (MSB) When the quotient becomes 0, the remainder is the most significant The remainder is the least significant bit (LSB)
Thus the conversion of 6210 into binary = 1 1 1 1 1 02 To convert the binary number back into a decimal number, simply sum the values of the place notations containing a one (1): 1 1 1 1 1 02 = 32 + 16 + 8 + 4 + 2 = 6210
Binary to Octal/Octal to Binary Conversion To convert a binary number into octal, a group of three method is used. That is, the binary number string is divided into groups of 3 bits, beginning with the LSB. 1 1 1 1 1 02 Divide the binary bit string into groups of three: 111 110
Convert each group of three to its octal equivalent. 111 = 7 110 = 6 = 768
Answer: 1111102
48
To convert an octal number into binary, simply reverse the procedure: 768 : 7 = 111 6 = 110
Answer: 768 = 1111102 Binary to Hexadecimal/Hexadecimal to Binary Conversion To convert a binary number into hexadecimal (base 16), a group of four method is used. That is, the binary number string is divided into groups of 4 bits, beginning with the LSB. 1 1 1 1 1 02 Divide the binary bit string into groups of four: 0011 1110 (note 0s can be added to the MSB as needed) Convert each group of four to its hexadecimal equivalent. 0011 = 3 1110 = E (Note: E16 = 1410 ) Remember: The hexadecimal number system has 16 characters. Letters A through F are used in place of decimal 10 through 15. Answer: 1111102 = 3E16 To convert a hexadecimal number into binary, simply reverse the procedure: 3E16 : 316 = 0011 E16 = 1110 Answer: 001111102
49
Application Sometimes you may have to do a conversion from one number system into another to determine a value or simply a bit sequence. For example, an Internet Protocol (IP) message has a Type of Service field that contains 8 bits. Each bit(s) represents a specific status event (or flag):
3 D
4 T
5 R
6 O
7 O
PRECEDENCE
Bits 0-2: Bit 3: Bit 4: Bit 5: Bits 7-6: Precedence Delay Throughput Reliability Reserved for future use
This Type of Service field may be specified in hexadecimal such as: BC16. To determine the real value of each position, you would have to convert BC16 into its binary equivalent of 1011 1100. Thus the Precedence field has a value of 101 or 5; Delay is set to 1; Throughput is set to 1; and Reliability is set to 1.
50

CDA10101

Încărcat de

Informații document

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

CDA10101

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Chapter : Communication File Reference: CDA10101

For additional information on this subject, contact J.S. Phillips on 874-6163

Communication Data Networks

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Communication Data Networks

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Communication Data Networks

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Communication Data Networks

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Communication Data Networks

PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER DIGITAL INPUTS & OUTPUTS

PRODUCT MIXING TANK T-1

PSHH 3 LSL 1 Zs1/0 s PSH 2

PRODUCT STORAGE FV1

Figure 2. Machinery Protection System Using A PLC

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Communication Data Networks

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Communication Data Networks

Front-End Processor or Communications Controller

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Communication Data Networks

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Communication Data Networks

DCE DTE DCE Point-to-Point Links DCE

DCE Point-to-Point Links DTE DCE DCE

DCE Terminal Controller

DTE DTE DTE DTE

Figure 5. Point-to-Point Network

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Communication Data Networks

Multidrop or Multipoint Link DTE DCE

DCE Terminal Controller DTE DTE DTE

DCE Terminal Controller DTE DTE DTE

Figure 6. Multidrop or Multipoint Link Network

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Communication Data Networks

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Communication Data Networks

DTE DCE Terminator

DTE DCE Terminator

Figure 8. Bus Network Topology

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Communication Data Networks

DTE DCE Direction of Data Flow

Circulating Data Token

Figure 9. Token-Passing Ring Network Topology

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Communication Data Networks

DCE DCE DTE

Figure 10. Star Network Topology

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Communication Data Networks

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Communication Data Networks

Figure 11. The OSI Model

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Communication Data Networks

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Communication Data Networks

OSI Layer 7: Application Layer