ThePsychologyofCriminalBehavior: TheoriesfromPasttoPresent AristaB.

Dechant FortHaysStateUniversity,Kansas

TableofContents PersonalRelevancePreface.page3 Abstract..page4 HistoryofCriminalBehavior...page5 RationalChoiceTheory...page6 EysencksTheoryofPersonalityandCrime....page6 TraitTheory.page9 PsychodynamicTraitTheorypage10 SocialStructureTheorypage11 SocialProcessTheorypage12 SocialConflictTheorypage13 Conclusion...page13 References...page15

PersonalRelevancePreface Ihavebeeninvolvedinextensiveresearchsinceundergraduateschoolsurrounding

criminalsandhowtheyoperate.Therearemanyideassurroundingthecauseofantisocial behaviorandcriminality.ThroughthisindependentstudyclassforFortHaysStateUniversitys JusticeStudies(Graduate)Program,IfeltIwouldhavetheperfectopportunitytoexploremany oftheorieswhichhavedeveloped,overtime,toexplaincriminalbehavior. Itismyhopethatthisresearchpaperwillprovideanextensiveandeducationallookat

howthepsychologyofacriminalimpactstheactivitywhichisproduced.Itseemsthatevery yearbringsnewideas,butIfeelthatthefollowingisaconclusivelookofresearchcompiled fromthebeginningofcriminalitytothepresent. Ihavealsoprovidedahistoryofcriminalityandhowithasdevelopedintowhatwenow

understandasforensicpsychology.Thisfieldwillalwaysremainfluidwithdiscovery,andmy greatestpleasurewouldcomefrombeingpartofitinthefuture.

Abstract Thisadvancedresearchprojectexaminesthehistoryandtheoriessurroundingcriminal behavior.Thehistoryandtheoriesofcriminalbehaviorcontinuetoinfluencetheworkof todaysForensicPsychologist.Manytheoriesusedarecontinuingtobemodified;however,the informationprovidedisasaccurateanduptodateaspossible.Iuseamixtureofprimaryand secondarysourceswithonegraphforexample.

History TheHistoryofForensicPsychology Theapplicationofpsychologyinthecriminalandciviljusticesystemisknownas forensicpsychology.HugoMunsterberg(18631916),aGermanAmericanpsychologistwas thefirsttopioneeredtheapplicationofcriminalpsychologyinresearchandtheories.His researchextendedtowitnessmemory,falseconfessions,andtheroleofhypnosisincourt (http://ezinearticles.com). In1889,psychologystudentswerebeginningtotakecoursesrelatedtolawsuchas CrimeandModernTheoriesoftheCriminal,butforthemostpart,Americanpsychologistsdid notimmediatelyembracethestudyoflegalissues(Bersoff,Ogloff,&Tomkins,1996).For reasonsunstated,thestudyofpsychologyandlawbegantowaneafterWorldWarII(Bersoff, Ogloff,&Tomkins,1996).Inthe1960s,psychologistswerebeginningtobecalledontomake predictionsofdangerousness,makeclinicalassessmentsrelevanttoinsanitydefensepleas,and makeassessmentsand/oroffertestimonyaboutothermentalhealthissuesinthecourts (Bersoff,Ogloff,&Tomkins,1996).Intheearly1980slaw,criminaljustice,andsocialscience wouldbecomeembracedinlegaleducation.Interdisciplinaryandspecializedtrainingwas introducedatthedoctoral,internship,postdoctoral,andcontinuingeducationallevels. Textbooksbegandevotingthemselvestoforensictestimonyandassessment.(Bersoff,Ogloff,& Tomkins,1996).Nearlythreequartersofacentury,fromthetimethatMunsterberghadcalled foranapplicationofpsychologytolaw,hiscallhadbeenanswered(Bersoff,Ogloff,&Tomkins, 1996).

TheoriesofCriminalBehavior RationalChoiceTheory Dr.WilliamGlasser,MDcoinedthetermchoicetheory.Accordingtomany criminologists,choicetheoryisperhapsthemostcommonreasonwhycriminalsdothethings theydo.Thistheorysuggeststhattheoffenderiscompletelyrationalwhenmakingthedecision tocommitacrime(Siegel,2005,p.73).Thevarietyofreasonsinwhichoneoffendscanbe basedonavarietyofpersonalneeds,including:greed,revenge,need,anger,lust,jealousy, thrills,andvanity.Therationalchoicetheoryhasitsrootintheclassicalschoolofcriminology whichwasdevelopedbyItaliansocialthinkerCesareBeccaria(Siegel,2005,p.74).Classical criminologysuggeststhatpeoplehavefreewilltochoosecriminalorconventional behaviorsandthatcrimecanbecontrolledonlybythefearofcriminalsanctions(Siegel,2005, p.74). Insidetherationalchoicetheorytherearethreemodelsofcriminalbehavior:rational

actor,predestinedactor,andvictimizedactor.Therationalactorproposedthatindividuals choosewhethertocommitacrime.Withthisbelief,crimecouldsimplybecontrolledby increasingthepenaltyofoffending(Burke,2001).Thepredestinedactorproposesthatcriminals cannotcontroltheirpersonalurgesandenvironment,thus,inducingthemtocommitcrime.The waytosolvethisproblemwouldthenbetochangethebiological,sociological,and psychologicalenvironmentoftheoffender(Burke,2001).Finally,thevictimizedactormodel proposesthatcrimeistheresultoftheoffenderbeingavictimofanunequalsociety.Thus,the crimecouldbecontrolledbyreforminglegislation(Burke,2001). EysencksTheoryofPersonalityandCrime ThelateHansJ.Eysenck,Britishpsychologist,ismostwellknownforhistheoryon personalityandcrime.Histheoryproposedthatcriminalbehavioristheresultofaninteraction

betweencertainenvironmentalconditionsandfeaturesofthenervoussystem(Bartol&Bartol, 2005,p.99).Thisiscertainlynotoneofthecontemporarytheoriesofcrime,rather,Eysencks emphasisisplacedonthegeneticpredispositiontowardantisocialandcriminalbehavior. Followersofhistheorybelievethateachindividualoffenderhasauniqueneurophysiological makeupthatwhenmixedwithacertainenvironment,therefore,canthelpbutresultto criminality(BartolandBartol,2005,p.99).ItisimportanttonotethatEysenckwasnot suggestingthatcriminalsareborn,ratherthatthecombinationofenvironment,neurobiological, andpersonalityfactorsgiverisetodifferenttypesofcrimes,andthosedifferentpersonalities weremoresusceptibletospecificcriminalactivity.Tofurtherunderstandthistheory,Eysenck explainsitasfollows: Itisnotitself,orcriminalitythatisinnate;itiscertainpeculiaritiesofthecentraland autonomicnervoussystemthatreactwiththeenvironment,withupbringing,andmany otherenvironmentalfactorstoincreasetheprobabilitythatagivenpersonwouldactin acertainantisocialmanner(Eysenck&Gudjonsson,1989,p.7).
Table1SummaryTableofEysencksTheory(Bartol&Bartol,2005,p.100) PersonalityTrait NeurobiologicalInfluence HighScores LowScores Extraversion RAS,CNS StimulationSeeking StimulationAvoidance Neuroticism Autonomic.NS Nervous,unstable Stable,calm Psychoticism Excessiveandrogen Toughminded Tenderminded

Whenlookingattheabovetable,Eysenckshowsthreemainfactorsfortemperament,being extraversion,neuroticism,andpsychoticism.Alargemajorityofcrimeresearchtodayfocuses preciselyonthefirsttwotraits.Eysenckdidnotactuallyidentifypsychoticismuntillater,when hefoundaneedtoidentifybehaviorthatcannotbeexplainedasextraversionandneuroticism. Eysencksstudiesshowedthatthetypicalextraverttendstolosehistemperquickly,

becomingaggressiveandunreliable(Bartol&Bartol,2005,p.102).Hethenbelievedthat

extravertsneedahigherlevelofexcitementandstimulation,knownasarousaltheory.The needforhighamountsofstimulationthenleadtomorelikelyencounterswiththelaw.They enjoypranksandpracticaljokesandfindchallengeinopportunitiestodotheunconventional, oreventoengageinantisocialbehavior(Bartol&Bartol,2005,p.102).Thephysiologicalbases ofextraversionarerelatedtotheReticularActivatingSystem(RAS).TheRASarousesthe cerebralcortexandkeepsitalerttoincomingstimuli(Bartol&Bartol,2005,p.103). Thebaseofneuroticismisfrequentlylinkedtotheemotionalareaofthebrain.This

dimensionreactstohowonesuccessfullydealswithstressfulevents.Whereastheextraversion centerofthebrainislinkedtothecentralnervoussystem,neuroticismrelatestotheautonomic nervoussystem(Bartol&Bartol,2005,p.105).Neuroticindividualsarebelievedtoachievean emotionallevelquicklyandthenremainatthatlevelforalongeramountoftimethannon neuroticindividuals(Eysenck&Gudjonsson,1989,p.13). Asmentionedearlier,Eysenckusedthewordpsychoticismasawordtoidentify

behaviorsthatarenotexplainedbyneuroticismandextraversion.Eysenckusedhisresearchto categorizeindividualswhoexhibitedcold,cruel,unemotional,andinsensitivecharacteristics, nottheclinicaldefinitionofpsychoticwhichmeansoutoftouchwithreality(Bartol&Bartol, 2005,p.107). TosumuptheEysencksTheoryofCriminality,offendersasawholewilldemonstrate

lowlevelsofextraversion(corticalarousal),highlevelsofneuroticism(autonomicarousal),and aremoretoughmindedinthepsychoticsense.Althoughthereismuchresearchthatrefutes thistheory,researchersbelievethatifnewdataweremodified,thetheoryasawholemaystill bepromisinganduseful(Bartol&Bartol,2005,p.111).

TraitTheory TraittheoryisamoreextremeversionofEysenckstheory.Theviewisthatcriminalityis

aproductofabnormalbiologicalorpsychologicaltraits.Therootoftraittheorycanbetraced backtoItaliancriminologistCesareLombroso.Hisresearchregardingtraittheoryisstill consideredhistoricalcuriosity,notscientificfact,butitisatheorynonetheless(Siegel,2005,p. 98).Lombrosobelievedthatoffenderswereatavists.Thewordatavismreferstoanancient, ancestraltraitthatappearsinmodernlife.Hestated,[Criminalswere]Neanderthallikebeings born,bysomeunexplainedevolutionaryglitch,intothemodernworld(Schechter,2003,p.248). Becauseoffenderswereconsideredthrowbackstotheprehistoricpast,therewerecertain characteristicsthatweresupposedtobeidentifiable.Thesefeatureswereconsideredtolook moreprimitiveandapelike.Thesedistinguishingcharacteristicswere:smallskulls,sloping foreheads,juttingbrows,protrudingears,badteeth,barrelchests,disproportionatelylong arms,andvariousothertraits(Schechter,2003,p.248).Unfortunately,Lombrosostraittheory hasbeencomparedtothenineteenthcenturypseudoscienceofphrenology(Schechter,2003, p.248).Weknowtodaythatcriminalscomeinallshapesandsizes. Contemporarytraittheoristsdonotsuggestthatasinglephysicalorbiologicalattribute

explainsallcriminality.Rather,eachcriminalhasauniquesetofcharacteristicsthatexplain behavior.Theunderstandingisnowsplitamongmanypossibilities.Somemayhaveinherited criminaltendencies,somemayhaveneurologicalproblems,andyetotherresearchshowssome criminalsmayhavebloodchemistrydisorderswhichheightenantisocialactivity(Schechter, 2003,p.98).Thereisadefinitelinkbetweenbehaviorpatternsandchemicalchangesinthe brainandnervoussystem. Biocriminologistsbelievethatcriminalsaregeneticallypredetermined.Theymaintain

thatthebodyneedsastableamountofmineralsandchemicalsfornormalbrainfunctioningand

growth.Chemicalandmineralimbalanceleadstocognitiveandlearningdeficitsandthese factorsinturnareassociatedwithantisocialbehavior(Schechter,2003,p.100).Researched studieshavelinedhypoglycemiatoviolenceandabnormallevelsofmalesexhormonesproduce aggressivebehavior(Schechter,2003,p.100).Otherphysiologicalcorrelatesofcrimeand antisocialbehaviorarelowserotonin,lowautonomicarousal,andimpairedprefrontalcortical functioning.Manyofthegenesassociatedwithcrimeaffecttheneurotransmittersystems.A genethatconferssensitivitytodopaminemayincreasesensationseekingwhichisa characteristicofantisocialbehavior(Wiebe,2004). PsychodynamicTraitTheory Psychodynamic(Psychoanalytical)therapywasdevelopedbySigmundFreudinthelate 1800sandhasthenbecomeasignificanttheoryinthehistoryofcriminality(Siegel,2005,p. 111).Freudbelievedthateveryindividualcarries[the]residueofthemostsignificantemotional attachmentsofourchildhood,whichthenguidesourfutureinterpersonalrelationships(Siegel, 2005,p.111).Thetheoryisathreepartstructuremadeupoftheid,theego,andthesuperego. Theidisconsideredtheunderdevelopedorprimitivepartofourmakeup.Itcontrolsourneed forfood,sleep,andotherbasicinstincts.Thispartispurelyfocusedoninstantgratification.The egocontrolstheidbysettingupboundaries.Thesuperegoisinchargeofjudgingthesituation throughmorality(Siegel,2005,p.112). Psychodynamictheoristsbelievethatoffendershaveiddominatedpersonalities.In

otherwords,theylosecontroloftheegoandtheidsneedforinstantgratificationtakesover. Thiscausesimpulsecontrolproblemsandincreasedpleasureseekingdrives.Otherproblems associatedwithadamagedegoareimmaturity,poorsocialskills,andexcessivedependenceon others.Theideaisthatnegativeexperiencesinanoffenderschildhooddamagestheego, therefore,theoffenderisunabletocopewithconventionalsociety.(Siegel,2005,p.113).

Otherpsychoanalyticaltheoristsbelievethatmanycriminalsaredrivenbyan

unconsciousneedtobepunishedforprevioussins(eitherrealorimaginary).Therefore,crime isamanifestationoffeelingsofoppressionandpeoplesinabilitytodeveloptheproper psychologicaldefenseandrationalestokeepthesefeelingsundercontrol(Siegel,2005,p.113). SocialStructureTheory Ifbiologycouldexplaincriminality,thenwhyisthemajorityofcrimeandviolencein

poor,underdevelopedneighborhoods?Toignoreenvironmentalandsocialaspectscontributing tocrimewouldbeamistake.PeoplewholiveintheUnitedStatesliveinwhatiscalleda stratifiedsociety(Siegel,2005,p.126.)Stratificationrefersto,ahierarchical arrangementcompromisingthreemainlayers:upperclass,middleclass,andlowerclass (www.wikipedia.com).TherearethreeminitheorieswhichfallundertheSocialStructure Theorywhichattempttoexplainhowonesenvironmentandsocialcirclecanaidtocrime.The followinginformationcanbefoundinCriminology,(2nded.)onpage138: Socialdisorganizationtheory:focusesontheurbanconditionsthateffectcrimerates.A disorganizedareaisoneinwhichinstitutionsofsocialcontrol,suchasfamily, commercialestablishmentsandschoolshavebrokendownandcannolongerperform theirexpectedorstatedfunctions.Indicatorsofsocialdisorganizationincludehigh unemploymentandschooldropoutrates,deterioratedhousing,lowincomelevelsand largenumbersofsingleparenthouseholds.Residentsintheseareasexperienceconflict anddespair,andasaresult,antisocialbehaviorflourishes. Straintheory:holdsthatcrimeisafunctionoftheconflictbetweenpeoplesgoalsand themeanstheycanusetoobtainthem.Straintheoristsarguethatalthoughsocialand economicgoalsarecommontopeopleinalleconomicstrata,theabilitytoobtainthese goalsisclassdependentmembersofthelowerclassareunabletoachieve[symbolsof]

successthroughconventionalmeans.Lowerclasscitizenscanbothaccepttheir conditionsandlivesociallyresponsibleortheycanchooseanalternativemeansof achievingsuccess,suchastheftorviolence. Culturaldeviancetheory:combineselementsofbothstrainandsocialdisorganization theories.Becauseofthisviewauniquelowerclassculturedevelopsindisorganized neighborhoods.Criminalbehaviorisanexpressionofconformitytolowerclasssub culturevaluesandtraditions,notarebellionagainsttraditionalsociety. SocialProcessTheory Socialprocesstheoristsbelievethatcriminalityisafunctionofindividualsocialization,

andtheinteractionspeoplehavewithorganizations,institutions,andprocessesofsociety (Siegel,2005,p.155).Perhapsthemostcommonapproachtothesocialprocesstheoryis learningtheory.AlbertBandura,aninfluentialpsychologistofthetwentiethcentury,wasthe firsttoexperimentwiththisidea.Hisobservationsbeganwithanimalsandshowedthatshowed thattheydonothavetoactuallyexperiencecertaineventsintheirenvironmenttolearn effectively(Barlow&Durand,2006,p.59).Inrelationtocriminality,onecanlearntobe aggressivebyobservingothersactingaggressively.Anexamplebeing:ifAbeatsupother childrenontheplaygroundandstealsmoneyfromthevictims,hislittlebrotherBisobserving thissituation.WhenAthenusesthemoneytobuytoys,Bwitnesseshisbigbrothergetting rewardedfortheviolentactthroughpurchasingfunthingstoplaywith.Inreality,itdidnt matterthatAwaswrong;hisbehaviorresultedinapositiveresult. Therearetwootherapproachestosocialprocesstheory.Socialcontroltheoryiswhen

onesbehaviorisgroomedthroughthecloseassociationsofinstitutionsandindividuals.The secondissocialreactiontheory.Ifanindividualisalreadyviewed(labeled)asacriminalfroman

earlyage,thenitismorelikelythatthispersonwillseebecomingacriminalasfulfillinga prophecy,thusbeginninghiscriminalcareer(Siegel,2005,p.159). SocialConflictTheory Socialconflicttheoristsbelieveaperson,group,orinstitutionhasthepowerandability

toexerciseinfluenceandcontroloverothers(Farrington&Chertok,1993).Conflicttheoristsare concernedwith: 1.Therolegovernmentplaysincreatingacrimogenicenvironment, 2.Therelationshipbetweenpersonalorgrouppowerandtheshapingofcriminallaw, 3.Theprevalenceofbiasinjusticesystemoperations,and 4.Therelationshipbetweenacapitalist,freeenterpriseeconomyandcrimerates Theydefinecrimeasapoliticalconceptdesignedtoprotectthepowerandpositionofthe upperclassesattheexpenseofthepoor(Siegel,2005,p.186).Theideaisthateachsociety producesitsowntypeandamountofcrime.Theyhavetheirownwayofdealingwithcrime,and thus,gettheamountofcrimethattheydeserve(Siegel,2005,p.186).Inotherwords,tocontrol andreducecrime,societiesmustchangethesocialconditionsthatpromotecrime. Conclusion Althoughtherearedifferencesinthemanytheorieswhichhavebeenpresented,they

allshareacommonbelief.Criminalbehaviorisinmanyaspectsofsociety,anditneedstobe addressed.Throughtheories,researchershopetodevelopadeeperunderstandingofhowone canpreventcriminalbehaviorbeforeitreachesadolescentageorolder.Choicetheoriesreally focusontheindividualsdecisionandcontroloverwhotheyareandwhattheywillbe.Trait theoriesrelyonresearchwhichprovesthatonesneurologicalprocessandconditioningisa largecontributingfactortothecriminalaffect.Socialtheoriesleantowardtheideaof environmentalinfluenceswhichgovernonesstateofbeing.Together,eachoneofthese

theorieshasrelevantresearchandvalidity.Certainly,therearepeoplewhorecognizeeachof theseideasanddevelopacombinationtheoryofwhichtoeducateanddirecttherapyfrom. Overall,theorieswillcontinuetobedeveloped,tested,andresearched.Thefieldofcriminalityis alargeoneofwhichmanycanandwillcontinuetocontribute.

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