Steel Plastic Analysis

CE3155 Structural Analysis II
Assistant Professor: QIAN Xudong Office: E1A 02 11 E1A-02-11 Tel: 6516-6827 Email: cveqx@nus edu sg cveqx@nus.edu.sg
Semester II 08/09
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Objectives j
Thi part of This f the h module d l aims i to introduce i d
Topic I: Plastic analysis of beams and 2-D frames es
Topic II: Structural behavior, modeling and concepts for f tall ll buildings b ildi
References
Topic I: 1. Bruneau, , M., , Uang, g, C-M. and Whittaker, , A. ( (1998). ) Ductile Design g of Steel Structures. TA684 Bru 1998 2. Horne, M. R. and Morris L. J. Plastic Design of Low Rise Frames, Granada, U.K., 1981 (out of print). TA 652 Hor 3. Moy, S. S. J. Plastic Methods for Steel and Concrete Structures, Macmillan, U.K., 1981. TA652 Moy 4. Neal, B. G. The Plastic Methods of Structural Analysis, Chapman & H ll U. Hall, U K K., 1985 1985. TA652 Nea N 5. Jirasek, M. and Bazant Z. P. Inelastic Analysis of Structures, Wiley, N. Y., 2002. TA652 Jir 2002 T i II: Topic II 1. Bryan, S. S. (1991). Tall building structures analysis and design. TH1611 Smi 2. B l d T. Balendra, T (1993). (1993) Vib Vibration ti of f buildings b ildi to t wind i d and d earthquake th k loads. TA658.48 Bal 3. Bungale, S. T. (1997). Steel, concrete and composite design of tall buildings TH1611 Tar buildings. 4. Taranath, B. S. (1988). Structural analysis and design of tall buildings. TH845 Tar 4
Continuous Assessment
1-Hour Closed-Book Quiz 10% (9th April, 2009) Homework 5% (Submit your solutions to the following questions one week after t t i l class) tutorial l )

Tutorial 1 Q2 Tutorial 2 Q1 Tutorial 3 Q2 Tutorial 4 Q1 Tutorial 5 Q2 Tutorial 6 Q2

5
A Small Assignment g
Identify, through literature search or otherwise, a case of structural failure, and g the knowledge g of discuss the case using plastic analysis that you have learned (failure mechanism preventive measures/reinforcing mechanism, schemes to avoid such structural failure, etc.)

Font 12, 1.5 line spacing, < 2 pages Deadline: upload to IVLE by 10pm, 3rd Apr, 2009 CA contributions
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1. Plastic Analysis y of Steel Frames
The elastic design (that we have learned so far) li i the limits h capacity i of f the h structure at the h first fi yielding in any of the structural member or connection. connection What happens if the load (incidentally) exceeds the elastic capacity p y of the structure?

Will the structure just collapse? Or will the structure sustain further loading? If so, what h t is i the th true t capacity it of f the th structure? t t ?
Plastic Analysis y of Steel Frames
Understanding the mechanism of plastic frame collapse and computation of limit loads of beams and simple frames Basis for limit analysis and plastic design Applications:

Direct application to steel structures Bending analysis of reinforced concrete beams, retaining t i i walls ll and d concrete t slabs l b Offshore platforms
8
Topics p To Be Covered
Mechanical properties of steel Elastic-plastic bending of beams MomentMoment curvature relation
Fundamental concept: Plastic Hinge
Plastic analysis
Principle of virtual work Theory of limit analysis Static approach Kinematics method
Why y Plastic Analysis? y
Represents the actual behavior of steel structures, t t which hi h experience i local l l plasticity caused by residual stresses, secondary stresses induced by discontinuities (e.g., (e g misfit) of the structure Provides a uniform margin of safety for a structure and structural members Simplifies the analysis and design Increased load capacity of members, members structures savings for material and fabrication costs
r upto y
1 3
r = residual stress y = yield stress

tension
compression
Residual stress in hot-rolled I-sections
applied
elastic
applied plastic
10
Elastic Analysis y vs. Plastic Analysis y (1) ( )

Elastic analysis w = 15 kN/m EI L = 12 m d 4u y dx
4 2 Plastic analysis wL = Mp wL 12 = Mp B 12 Plastic hinge 2
= w
concept
wL L2 = Mp 12
Why??
wL2 = My 12 wL2 < My 24
wL2 = My 12
Bending moment diagram (BMD)
1. Yielding first occurs at points A and C. 2. As the load further increases, the cross sections at A and C become fully plastic plastic hinges p g form at A and C. The cross sections at A and C lose the ability to resist further loading. But the material in the beam elsewhere have not yet reached the plastic moment capacity and therefore is able to sustain further loads. 3. Any additional loading is redistributed to point B until another plastic hinge develops at B, forming a collapse 11 mechanism for the entire beam.
Elastic Analysis y vs. Plastic Analysis y (2) ( )

El ti analysis Elastic l i
Continuity
Pl ti analysis Plastic l i
Mechanism
Equilibrium
Mc
Moment Capacity
Plastic moment
Mp
12
Plastic Design g
Utilize an important property of steel, namely ductility the ability to withstand substantial plastic deformation without the danger of f fracture f t . Based on the assumption that premature failure does not occur until sufficient ffi i t (plastic) ( l ti ) deformations d f ti have h developed d l d to t produce d a failure f il mechanism formed by plastic hinges.
Local buckling P The width-to-thickness ratio of the flange and web should be large enough to avoid local buckling of the cross section
Yi ldi Yielding
Other design factors, e.g., buckling, deflection limits, fatigue, etc., do not dominate the design. Limited applications to statically determinant beams and effectively pin-connected structures.
13
1.1 Elastic-Plastic Bending g of Beams

Mechanical properties of steels
(MPa) u 410 Strain hardening Failure Perfectly plastic
y 250
y: yield stress u: ultimate stress E: Youngs modulus 205 GPa
Elastic with slope E 0.0012 0.014 0.25
Fig. 1.1 Uni-axial stress-strain relationship for mild steels obtained from tension test
14
Yield Strength g in BS 5950

Design grade Thickness (mm)
16
Minimum yield strength Ys (MPa)

275 265 255 245 355 345 3 5 335 325 460 430 430 415
Minimum ultimate strength Us (MPa)

410 410 410 410 490 490 90 490 490 550 550 550 550
Minimum elongation
S 275
40 63 80 16 40 0 63 80 16 40 63 80
20-22%
S 355
20-22%
S 460
19%
15
Idealization of Stress-Strain Curve

An elastic-perfectly plastic model:
(MPa) y 250 = E for < y = y for y y = y/E 0.0012
Fig. 1.2 Idealized, uni-axial stress-strain curve for mild steels ignoring strain-hardening
16
Behavior of A Beam
Beams experience mainly bending and shear!
P How will the beam (with the elastic-plastic material) respond with increasing loads? 1. How to describe the loading conditions along the beam (or at least at critical locations of the beam) including the elasticplastic material properties? a) We already know the elastic solutions. But what happens beyond the elastic limit? b) When the beam section at Mmax reaches Mp, will the beam be able to resist additional loads? p of a beam section? Will 2. How to describe the load-response the moment acting on a section increase infinitely? Or will the deformation of the beam section increase infinitely?
17
Solving g Boundary y Value Problems
Objective: to solve for unknown forces (axial, shear and bending moment) and displacements along the entire structure
Equilibrium condition (from free-body free body diagram): describes the transmission of forces within the structure
F = 0
M = 0
Strain-displacement p relationship p Stress-strain relationship p: relate the description p of forces to the description of deformation Compatibility and boundary conditions
18
A Beam Under Bending g

P Euler-Bernoulli hypothesis: plane sections remain i plane l and d perpendicular di l to t the th midid plane after deformation A plane section L y x N.A. (original) the mid-plane PL/4 N.A. (deformed)
Bending g moment diagram g Fig. 1.3 Simply supported beam subjected to point load at the mid-span
19
Euler-Bernoulli Hypothesis yp
Leonhard Euler, 1707 1783 Swiss mathematician and physicist
Daniel Bernoulli, 1700 1782 Dutch-born mathematician
The Euler-Bernoulli hypothesis implies that the strain, x, follows a linear variation over the beam depth. depth The stress distribution over the beam depth derives from the corresponding strain value based on the stress-strain relationship and remains linear when < y, where y is the yield strain.
20
Stress/Strain Distribution over the Beam Depth

distr. distr. distr.
y0
distr.
distr. distr.
Centroidal axis E l area axis Equal i
N.A.
N.A. c
+y
y0
< y < y
(a) Linear-elastic case
> y
= y
= y
(b) Elastic-plastic case
(c) Fully plastic case
Increasing load N. A. = Neutral Axis Axis of zero strain Fig. 1.4 Fig 1 4 stress/strain distribution over the depth of a beam under bending (without axial load)
21
Elastic-plastic p case (1) ( )

dA = N = 0
A
(1a) (1b)
ydA = M
A
distr.
distr.
Elastic-plastic case:
y0 N.A. y0 +y
=y
y y0
for y y0
(2)
=y y
y0
for y y0
Substitute Eq. (2) into Eq. (1a)
Ae
ydA + dA = 0
y Ap
Define: Ze =
Ap =
> y
= y
Ae
ydA
Ap
Ze + AP = 0 y0
dA
22

y
Ze + AP = 0 y0
Ze + AP = 0 y0
(3)
Z = ydA
A
First moment of area Plastic modulus of elastic p portion of the cross section Area of elastic portion of the cross section Area of plastic portion of the cross section
Ze = Ae = Ap =
Ae
ydA y
Ae
dA
Ap
dA
23

dA = N = 0
A
(1a) (1b)
=y
=y
y y0
for y y0
for y y0
ydA = M
A
(2)
Substituting Eq. (2) into Eq. (1b), we obtain:
y
y0
Ae
dA = M y dA + ydA
2 y Ap
D fi Define:
Ie =
Ae
y dA
2
and d Zp =
Ap
dA ydA
M=
y
y0
Ie + y Z p
(4)
Ie: second moment of area for elastic portion of the cross section Zp: plastic modulus of plastic portion of the cross section
Remarks: Eq. (3) locates the neutral axis (at zero strain) Eq. (4) gives M as a function of y0 which indicates the degree of yielding
24
Stress/Strain Distribution over the Beam Depth

y0
distr.
distr. distr.
N.A.
N.A. c
+y
y0
< y < y
> y
= y
= y
Increasing load
N. A. = Neutral Axis Axis of zero strain Fig. 1.4 Fig 1 4 stress/strain distribution over the depth of a beam under bending (without axial load)
25
Linear-Elastic Case (1) ( )

dA = N = 0
A
(1a) (1b)
distr. distr.
ydA = M
A
y
y0
Ae
ydA + dA = 0
y Ap
Centroidal axis C E l area axis Equal i
N.A.
Ze + AP = 0 y0
c
(3)
For linear-elastic case, Ap = 0, Ae = A.

+y
Z e = Z = ydA = 0
A
< y < y
This determines the position of the neutral axis, which coincides with the centroid (C in the Figure) of the cross section section.
26
Linear-Elastic Case (2) ( )

From the elastic-plastic case, we have derived:
M=
y
y0
Ie + y Z p
(4)
Since Ap = 0, we have,
Zp =
Ap
ydA = 0
M=
y
y0
Ie
At the yield moment, My, y0 = c, Ie = I.

My = I = yS c y0: distance from the N. A. to the first yield fiber S: elastic section modulus (=I/c) c: distance from the N. A. to the extreme fiber
(5)
I = y 2dA
For M < My,
A
second moment of area of the cross section
M=
Remarks: you can also reach the same conclusion by substituting the linear-elastic stress 27 distribution into Eqs. (1a) and (1b). Try it!
Fully y Plastic Case

From Eq. (1a), we have: (6) Ac = At y dA + dA = 0 A At c This requires that the N. N A. A divides the area of cross section into two parts with equal areas.
distr. distr.
From Eq. (4),
M=
y
y0
Ie + y Z p
With Ie = 0 for fully plastic case, case
M = M p = yZp = yZ
(7)
Mp denotes the fully plastic moment or simply the plastic moment or the moment capacity of the cross section
= y
Z = ydA dA
A
= plastic l ti modulus d l of f the th cross section ti

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Example p 1.1
Determine Mp and Z for a rectangular cross section with width b and depth d.
y
d/2 d/4 d/4
y b
d 2
dd dd d2 M p = yb y b = yb 24 2 4 4
Z=
Mp
d/2 +y b Geometry
=b
d2 4
yb
d 2 +y distr. distr
Alt Alternatively, ti l
Z = ydA = 2 ybdy =
A d /2
bd 2 4
M p = yZ = y
bd 2 4
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Sign g Convention
1. Ap is +ve in tension, -ve in compression y is +ve in towards the tension side Or: 2. is +ve ve in tension and -ve ve in compression
+ve ve M
For the previous example,
Z=y ydA =
A
y( dA) + ydA y =
A
d / 2
d/2
ybdy y y+
ybdy y y
= b
y 2
2 0
+b
d / 2
y 2
2 d /2
=b
d2 4
30
Shape p Factor
The shape factor, , is defined as the ratio of the plastic section modulus over the elastic section modulus, or,
Mp My
yZ Z = yS S
(8) ( )
Example: compute the shape factor a for a rectangular cross section with width b and d.
1 3 I 12 bd bd 2 = S= = c d /2 6 d2 Z =b 4
Z bd 2 / 4 = = 1.5 S bd 2 / 6
31
Example p 1.2a
d d/2
y y1
Consider a WF section,
d Z = 2 Z ST = 2 AST y = 2 AST y1 2 Z 1.14 Approximate values for all WF beam sections S

Steel design manuals typically list values for I, S, d, and y1 of WF sections
32
Example p 1.2b (Contd) ( )

Determine Z for the I-section shown below.
200 40 400 40 40
Method 1: Use the approach in Example 1.2a!
DIY!!
All Units: mm
33
Factors Affecting g the Bending g Capacity p y
Effect of axial loads Effect of shear forces Effect of biaxial bending g Strain hardening and residual stresses Local stability
??
34
Factors Affecting the Plastic Bending Capacity: Effect of Axial Loads

b
y
d y0
2d y0
2y0
2 y0 d y0
Reduced plastic moment capacity Mpc considering the effect of axial compression P 1. The axial load is assumed to be resisted fully by P = 2 by y0 = y 0 2 y b the centrally y located p portion under y 2. The bending moment is assumed to be resisted by the top and bottom portions under compressive y and tensile y. Substitute (9) into (10), with
2
(9) (10)
M pc = y b ( d y0 )( d + y0 )
= yb d y
2 2
2 0
P = 1 2 y bd y bd 2
M pc
M p = y bd and Py = 2 y bd ,
M pc
P = 1 Py Mp
35
Factors Affecting the Plastic Bending Capacity: Effect of Axial Loads (2)
10 1.0 0.8 0.6 M Mp 0.4 0.2 0
x x x x x x
0.2
0.4 P Py
0.6
0.8
1.0
36
Factors Affecting the Plastic Bending Capacity: Effect of Shear Forces

The lower-bound solution satisfying the Von Mises yield criterion:
b d
2 2 + 3 2 y
Von Mises yield criterion
x y
=y y
y
3
2y d
1 2 M ps = y bd 2 = M p 6 3
V= 2 y 2 bd = V p 3 3 3
y
Improved solution:
b d
VQ Ib
y
y0 y0
x y
1 2 y0 2 M = M p 1 3 d
M ps
y
3
V=
4 y 4 y0 by0 = V 3 3 3 d p
3 V + Mp 4 Vp
=1
Mps: plastic moment capacity under the effect of shear forces
37
Factors Affecting the Plastic Bending Capacity: Effect of Shear Forces

M ps
V = 1 Vp Mp
1.0 08 0.8 0.6 0.4 02 0.2 0 M /Mp
Druckers approximation for rectangular sections
02 0.2
04 0.4
V / Vp
06 0.6
08 0.8
10 1.0
38
1.2 Moment-Curvature Relation

Describes the bending-deformation behavior at a point along the beam The Th elastic-plastic l ti l ti M- forms f the th basis b i for f the th plastic l ti hinge hi concept. t
Curvature:
=
d w dx 2
(9)

Curvature = change of slope
y
1
Euler-Bernoulli hypothesis
=
dx = 1
d 2w dx 2
Strain displacement Strain-displacement
For linear-elastic case,
/E
y
(10) dx = 1
y
N A (deformed) N.A. N.A. (original)
E =
39
Moment-Curvature Relation (2) ( )

= 1
E =
distr.
distr.
N.A. (deformed) E
y
N.A. (original)
dx = 1
Since = My/I,
d 2w dx 2
E =
M I
d 2w M = EI = EI 2 dx
(11)
40
Moment-Curvature Relation for WF Section (1)

(a) Elastic domain
M = EI
At yield moment, My,
(11) (12)
M y = EI y
Non-dimensionalizing Eq. (11) by Eq. (12), we obtain,
M = My y
Let,
m=
M and = My y
for 0 < < 1 (13)
m =
41
Moment-Curvature Moment Curvature Relation for WF Section (2)

(b) Elastic-plastic domain i) Yielding in flanges only ii) Yielding in flanges and web i) Yielding in flanges only Li i i cases Limiting
d/2
y0 y0
E Ey E
d/2
d/2 - t
y
42
Fig. 1.5 Stress distributions in WF sections

i) Yielding in flanges only From Fig Fig. 1 1.5, 5
E =
E y = E ' =
y
y0
(14a) (14b)
=
y
d /2
y
d /2t
E yd / 2 d /2t
(14c)
Limiting g cases
y
t
d/2
y0 y0 E Ey E d/2 - t
d/2
43

i) Yielding in flanges only From the h elastic-plastic l i l i stress distribution di ib i in i a general l beam b cross section i (Fig. ( i 1.4b), we have derived,
M=
y
y0
Ie + y Z p
y0 d y0 t
Determination of Ie and Zp
Ie = I I p
Ip = 1 1 3 bd 3 b ( 2 y0 ) 12 12
d 1 3 b d 3 8 y0 2 12 y bd 2 d d 2 by0 Z p = 2 b 2 by0 0 = 4 2 4 2 Ie = S
M=
y d
bd 2 1 2 3 3 2 S bd + by + by0 0 y 3 y0 2 12 4
(15)
44

From Eq. (14a), y d 1 3 2 3 bd 2 2 M= S bd + by + by0 0 y 3 y0 2 12 4
for
d d t y0 2 2
(15)
E =
y
y0
y0 =
E
for y y
d /2 d /2t
Ed M= 2
2 d2 y bd 2 S + b y 2 2 6 4 3E
(16)
Non-dimensionalizing Eq. (16) by
M y = EI y = S y
2 y M EdS bd 2 y b d 2 4 m= = + 1 1 2 2 2 M y 2 EI y 6S y S 4 3E d
y = EI y / S
I= Sd 2
EI = EI y
2 EI y bd 2 bd 2 4 1 6 S + 4 S 1 3 E 2 2 S 2d 2 2 2 bd bd 1 d /2 + m = 1 1 2 for 1 6 S 4 S 3 d /2t
(17)
45

bd 2 bd 2 + m = 1 6S 4S 1 1 3 2
for 1
d /2 d /2t
(17)
Recall: for the linear-elastic domain, , m = , or, ,

m= 1 d 2w y dx 2
The h elastic-plastic l i l i moment-curvature relation l i for f WF section i yields i ld a nonlinear li differential equation. Note: a differential equation is linear if each term in the equation has only one order of derivative, e.g., no term has both w and the derivative of w. Also, no derivative is raised to a power.
Online math resource: www.sosmath.com www sosmath com

46

ii) Yielding in flanges and web t
y 1 3 t w ( 2 y0 ) 12
y0 d tw y0
E
Ie =
2 Z p = Z Z e = Z t w y0
b For elastic-plastic bending (Fig. 1.4b),
M=
E =
y
y0
1 2 2 2 2 I e + y Z p = y t w y0 + y Z t w y0 = y Z t w y0 y0 3 3
E y =
2 2 y tw yd / 2 1 M = y Z tw 2 2 = y Z E 3 3
d /2
47
(18)
Moment-Curvature Relation for WF Section (8)

2 2 y tw yd / 2 1 M = y Z tw 2 2 = y Z 3 E 3
(18)
With M y = y S ,
m= twd 2 1 M Z t d2 1 = w = 12 S 2 M y S 3 4S 2
for
d /2 d /2t
(19)
For , F
m= Mp Z = = mp = S My
a for WF sections equals approximately to 1.14
48
Moment-Curvature Relation for WF Section: Summary (1)

m= M My
(a) Elastic domain:

m =
for 0 < 1
(13) ( )
(b) Elastic-plastic domain: i) Yielding i ldi in i flanges fl only l

bd 2 bd 2 m = 1 + 6S 4S twd 2 1 12 S 2 1 1 3 2
for 1
d /2 d /2t
(17)
ii) Yielding in flanges and web

m =
for
d /2 d /2t
(19)
49
Moment-Curvature Relation for WF Section: Summary (1)

m =
for 0 < 1
(13) (17) (19)
bd 2 bd 2 d /2 1 for 1 m = 1 + 1 2 d /2t 6 S 4 S 3 t d2 1 d /2 m = w f for 2 12 S d /2t

m Elastic domain (i) mp = =1.14 =1 14 my = 1.0 Eq. (13) Eq. (17) Eq. (19) Elastic-plastic Elastic plastic domain (ii)
=
m=
y M My
d /2 d /2t
Fig. 1.6 Moment-curvature relationship for WF sections
50
Moment-Curvature Relationship for Various Sections

m 2.0
diamond circular 1.5 rectangle circular hollow section wide flange 1.0 2.0 1.7 1.5 1.27 1.14
0.5
1.0
51
Moment-Curvature Relation for WF Section: Idealization

m mp = my = 1.0 1 1
m = m = mp
y p
for 0 p for p
p =
Mp My
(a)
M Mp My EI 1 y p
y = M = EI Mp = Mp
My EI Mp EI
for 0 p for p
p =
(b) Fig. 1.7 Idealized (a) m- curve; and (b) M- curve; for WF sections
52
Moment-Curvature Relation for WF Section
Figure 1.6 indicates that the moment-curvature relation for the elastic-plastic elastic plastic bending of WF section is nonlinear, nonlinear i.e., governing equations are analytically intractable Figure 1.7 shows that the actual m- curve can be approximated by the idealized elastic elastic-perfectly perfectly plastic bilinear curve without losing too much accuracy. At Mp, infinite deformation occurs!
53
1.3 Concept p of Plastic Hinges g

M Mp
Plastic hinge: M = Mp
Actual hinge: M = 0
p
Spread of yielding El ti zone Elastic Elastic zone
Hinge length My Mp
Mp My
= 1.5 for rectangular sections
BMD
Plastic Hinge: the th yielding i ldi spreads d out t to t other th fibers away from the section of maximum moment the hinge length depends on the loading condition and member cross section for a simply supported beam under a point load at the mid-span, the hinge length extends for 1/3 of the span for a rectangular cross section, and approximately 1/8 for a WF section (depending on the shape factor) plastic hinge g is assumed the effect of p to be concentrated at one section for analysis purposes the locations of plastic hinges divide the beam into segments of elastic domains
54
Evolution of Yield Zone

Stresses reach the yield stress at extreme fibres. Pi refers to the load level causing My at the mid-span. The yield Th i ld zone extends t d towards t d the th neutral axis. Po denotes the load corresponds to Mp at the mid-span. The two yield zones join. The crosssection at the mid-span is fully plastic f formation ti of f plastic l ti hinge. hi The plastic hinge causes collapse of the beam. No increment in the load resistance with further deformation. The beam behaves as if a hinge is inserted in the mid-span. id
55
A Plastic Hinge g vs. A Real Hinge g

M Mp Formation of plastic hinge
Mp
Bending moment
Plastic hinge
Mp
Forms when M reaches Mp Constant, nonzero moment capacity
Mp
Physical hinge
Bending moment
Inserted by designer Zero moment capacity
56
Requirement q on Section Compactness p

The plastic hinge requires development of Mp with a large rotational capacity (ductility requirement on the material) However, beam sections with high width-to-thickness ratio restrict the development of plastic moment in the section, e.g., BS 5950 classifies the beam sections into different classes. Plastic hinge only develops in Class 1 (plastic) section.
Tables bl A: For sections i other than CHS and d RHS

Compression element
Outstand element of flange (rolled) Outstand element of flange (welded) Flange under axial compression
b T r D t d
Class 3 Semicompact
Liming values Ratio Class 1 Plastic Class 2 Compact
b/T b/T b/T
9 8
10 9
15 13 40 B
Not Applicable
275 = p y
0.5
57
Requirements q for Connections

Sufficient strength Adequate rotation capacity Adequate overall stiffness in the elastic range Economical fabrication and ease of erection
M
A Connection A: acceptable Connection B: insufficient rotation capacity Connection C: insufficient strength Connection D: insufficient strength and rotation capacity
Idealized behavior
Mp
B D
C
Required R i d hinge rotation
58
Example p 1.3
W = wL a c
Constant cross section constant Mp along the beam
W
(4) (3) (2) (1) (5)
Displacement diagram
u1
u2
c
u3 u4 u5
u5-u4
59
Example p 1.3 (cont ( d) )

W = wL
a c
Constant cross section constant Mp
-Ma -M Mp (1)
(2) (3) (4) (5)
M- relation l ti at t point i ta Mp Mp
(4) (5) (1) p (1) (2) (3) Mc Mp (2) ( ) (3)
(4) (5)
Evolution of bending moment
M- relation at point c
60

W = wL
a c
Load-displacement c -Ma W
Bending moment diagram
M- relation at point a
Mp Mp
Mc
M- relation l ti at t point i tc
61

W = wL
a c
(1) Load-displacement c -Ma
u1
(1) M- relation at point a
Mp Mp
(1) ( )
Mc
(1)
62

W = wL
a c
W (2) (1) Load-displacement c -Ma
u1
(2) (1) p Mc (2) (1) -M Mp
u2
Mp Mp
(1) ( )
(2)
63

W = wL
a c
W (2) (1) (3) Load-displacement c -Ma
u1
(2) (3) (1) p Mc (3) (2) (1) -M Mp
u2 u3
Mp Mp
(1) ( )
(2)
(3)
64

W = wL
a c
W (2) (1) (4) (3) Load-displacement c -Ma
u1
(2) (3) (4) (1)
u4
-M Mp
u2 u3
p Mc Mp (2) (4) (3) (1) p
Mp Mp
(1) ( )
(2)
(3)
(4)
65

W = wL
a c
W (2) (1) (4) (3) Load-displacement c -Ma
u1
(5)
(2) (3) (4) (5) (1)
u4 u5
-M Mp
u2 u3
p Mc Mp (2)
Mp Mp
(1) ( )
(2)
(3)
(4) (5) (3) (1) p M- relation l ti at t point i tc

66
(4)
(5)
From Example p 1.3

The concept of plastic hinge! The development of plastic hinges in a beam example Apparently: the beam is able to resist additional loading even when the most critical location (from the elastic analysis) along the beam reaches the plastic moment capacity of the beam section. the maximum load capacity p y of the beam in example p 1.3 corresponds p to the formation of three plastic hinges along the beam.
How to analyze a structure adopting the concept of plastic hinges? How many hinges are required to achieve the maximum load capacity of a structure? How to determine the maximum capacity of a structure? Is there more than one collapse mechanism of a structure? If so, what will be the correct load capacity of the structure for the correct collapse mechanism?
67
From Plastic Hinges to A Collapse Mechanism
From the M- relationship, the plastic hinge will rotate infinitely upon onset t of f Mp. However, redundancy in the structure holds back this infinite rotation t ti by b developing d l i plastic l ti hinges hi at t other th critical iti l locations l ti under d increasing loads. Once th O the external t l load l d forms f sufficient ffi i t number b of f plastic l ti hinges hi in i the th structure, i.e., when no more redundancy is available in the structure to hold back the infinite deformation, the structure will deform infinitely, e y, or, o , collapse! co apse!
68
1.4 Principle p of Virtual Work

If the displacements corresponding to the exact solution to the problem, with the stresses satisfying the equations of equilibrium, is perturbed by adding arbitrary virtual displacements, then the work done by the external forces along these virtual displacements equals the work done by the stresses along the corresponding virtual strains t i .
w
Equilibrium state A perturbed state u Another perturbed state
L
Wext = w ( x ) u ( x ) dx
0
Wint = M ( x ) ( x ) dx
0
Note: N t The Th perturbed t b d state t t can take t k an arbitrary bi f form, b but t has h to t satisfy ti f the th boundary b d conditions and the compatibility condition.
69
Principle p of Virtual Work

Any change in the state of the structure (e.g., by applying an additional force or displacement) will change the amount of work or energy stored in the structure. structure A virtual displacement (the perturbed state) introduces virtual work done in the structure. For a structure in equilibrium, the work done by the external force will be completely absorbed by the internal work. work The reverse is also true!!
1. System of forces satisfying equilibrium 2 Strain 2. Strain-displacement displacement satisfying compatibility condition 3. External work = internal work If any two of the above 3 conditions are satisfied, the third is always true. PVW is independent of material properties Equivalent to the weak form
Why do we need PVW for the plastic analysis?
Think
70
PVW Review for Elastic Analysis y

P1 P2
Real system: N = axial load in each member L = length of each member A = cross-sectional ti l area of f each h member b E = Youngs modulus of each member
A A?
Virtual system: n = axial load in each member caused by th unit the it load l d at tA
A 1 Apply a unit, virtual load at point A
From PVW,
1 = n
Wext
NL AE
71
Wint
PVW: Applied pp to Beams and Frames

If a frame is subjected to a system of forces, Pj, in equilibrium and is given a small compatible virtual displacement, the total work vanishes, i.e., Work done at plastic hinges
k k
Work done between plastic hinges

j j
M + MdS = P u
k S j
(20) ( )
Internal work
External work
uj = virtual displacement at points of application of Pj, in the direction of Pj
M = moment at a section S = curvature at a section S k = rotation at plastic hinge k (as work done is positive definite, the sign convention of k follows that of Mk)
72
Plastic Collapse p
During a plastic collapse, define the increments of Mk, k, M, , Pj and uj by Mk, k, M, , Pj and d uj respectively. i l Substituting b i i these h variational i i l terms in i Eq. (20), we obtain,
M + MdS = P u
k k j k S j
(21)
Since a state of plastic collapse corresponds to zero increments in the external loads, loads i.e., Pj = Mk = 0. From Eq. (21),
M dS = 0
S
(22)
Eq. (22) holds only if = 0 or M = 0 or = M = 0 With Eq. (22), Eq. (20) for a state of the plastic collapse state follows,
M
k k
= Pj u j
j
(23)
73
The external virtual work done is completely absorbed by the plastic hinges!
1.5 Theory y of Limit Analysis y

Assumptions: p
1. All external loads increase in proportion to one another (proportional loading) 2 The material behavior is elastic-plastic 2. elastic plastic 3. Deformations remain small 4. Instability of structure does not occur prior to the attainment of the collapse load (column buckling, buckling lateral torsional buckling of beams beams, or local buckling) 5. The connections provide full continuity so that the plastic moment can be transmitted 6. The influences of axial and shear forces on the plastic moment capacities are neglected g is of zero length g 7. Plastic hinge
74
Three Conditions at Collapse p

At the incipient of collapse:
1. Equilibrium condition: the distribution of bending moment is in equilibrium with the applied loads 2. Yield condition: the bending moment in nowhere of the structure exceeds the plastic moment of the members (beams) 3. Mechanism condition: there exist a sufficient number of plastic hinges for the structure to become a mechanism
What is a mechanism?
Plastic hinge
75
Static Theorem
(I) Static Theorem (lower bound theorem)
For a given frame and loading, if there exists any distribution of bending moment throughout the frame which is both safe (i.e., M < Mp) and statically admissible (i.e., in equilibrium) ( q ) with a set of loads W0, then,
W 0 Wc
(24)
Wc is the p plastic collapse p load ( (or the limit load or the y yield load) )
Satisfies: Equilibrium condition Yield condition Ensure M Mp A load computed on the basis of an assumed equilibrium moment diagram, diagram in which the moments are not greater than Mp, is less than or equal to the true collapse load From equilibrium
76
Lower Bound Theorem: Proof (1) ( )

Proof: Assume that contrary to the theorem, there exists a moment distribution which is both safe and statically admissible, corresponding to a set of loading Wc with > 1.0.
Let Mk be the moment in the plastic hinge. hinge From Eq. (23), we have,
M
k
' k = Wcjj u j
j
Or,
Mk '
k = Wcj u j
j
(Hypothetical)
(a)
If the actual moment in the plastic hinge is Mk,
M
k k
= Wcj u j
j
(Actual)
(b)
(b) (a) leads to,

M
k
Mk ' k = 0
(24)
77
Lower Bound Theorem: Proof (2) ( )

M
k
Mk ' k = 0
(24)
If k > 0, Mk = Mk = +Mp and Mk/ < +Mp. Hence, Mk-Mk/ > 0.

M
k
Mk ' k > 0
>0
>0
If k < 0, Mk = Mk = -Mp and Mk/ > - Mp. Hence, Mk-Mk/ < 0.

M
k
Mk ' k > 0
<0
<0
Therefore Eq Therefore, Eq. (24) does not hold!!

78
Kinematics Theorem
(II) Kinematic theorem (upper bound theorem) For a given frame subjected to a set of loads, W*, the value of W* which is found to be corresponding to any mechanism (with sufficient plastic hinges to cause collapse), must be greater than or equal to Wc, i.e.,
(25) W * Wc When displacement is constrained (mechanism is imposed), the structure is usually stiffer and stronger. stronger 2Mp Mp Satisfies: Equilibrium condition Mechanism condition
How to draw the bending moment diagram from the assumed mechanism??
Assumed mechanism 2Mp 2Mp
M may exceed Mp of the member if the assumed mechanism is not the true mechanism
79
A load computed on the basis of an assumed mechanism will always be greater than or equal to the true collapse load
Kinematics Theorem: Proof (1) ( )

Proof: Suppose, contrary to the theorem, there exists a mechanism for which, W = Wc where 0 < < 1
In this hypothetical mechanism,
Mk* denotes the plastic moment at k corresponds to k* Mk* corresponds to Wc In the actual collapsing mechanism, Mk denotes the moment at k under the actual collapse load Wc The Mk distribution therefore corresponds p to Wc
Employing Eq. (23),
k* is the rotation of the plastic hinge at k
M
* k
k
k k
* k
= Wcj u j
j
* k
(Hypothetical) (Actual)
(c) (d)
= Wcj u j
j
(d) (c) ( )l leads d to t
( M
k
* K
* M k k =0
(26)
80
Kinematics Theorem: Proof (2) ( )

( M
k * K * M k k =0
(26)
If k* > 0, Mk* = +Mp and Mk = +Mp. Therefore,
( M
k
* K
* M k k >0
>0
>0
If k* < 0, 0 Mk* = -Mp and d Mk = -Mp. Therefore, Th f
( M
k
* K
* M k k >0
<0
<0
Hence, Eq. (26) does not hold!
81
Uniqueness q Theorem
(III) Uniqueness theorem
For a given frame and loading, only one statically admissible bending moment distribution exists corresponding to the collapse mechanism. Under this , the bending g moment at p plastic hinge g locations equals q to the fully y distribution, plastic moment. The corresponding loads under this moment distribution equal to the collapse load Wc. Satisfies simultaneously: Equilibrium condition Yield condition Mechanism condition For a real structure, shouldnt there only be one load level that initiates the collapse of the structure for a fixed loading case?
82
Theories of Limit Analysis y
Static approach
Static theorem

Equilibrium condition Yield condition Equilibrium condition Mechanism condition Equilibrium condition Yield condition Mechanism condition
F = 0;
M Mp
M = 0
Mechanism method
Kinematics theorem

F = 0;
M = 0
A unique collapse p load
U i Uniqueness theorem th

F = 0;
M Mp
M = 0
83
1.6 Static Methods for Calculating Plastic Collapse Load

General rules:
1. Find the statically admissible bending moment distribution 2. Insert plastic hinges at appropriate locations (corresponding to maximum bending moment), moment) and determine the collapse load
Possible locations for plastic hinges: 1. Plastic hinges form at restrained ends of beams 2. Plastic hinges form under point loads
A mechanism refers to the situation where sufficient numbers of plastic hinges exist in the structure to induce an infinitesimal rigid body motion
84
Example 1.4 14
Example 1.4 Determine i the h limit li i load l d P for f the h beam b shown h with i h constant cross section. i
a l b l/2 P d l/2 Mb Mb/2 c
B di moment diagram Bending di
Example p 1.4 (Cont ( d) )

The maximum bending moment occurs at b and d. To ensure safety (i.e. M Mp), set
Mb = M p Pl M b = Mp 4 2
Mb
Solving for P,
l This is a lower bound solution. Observe that 2 plastic hinges have formed at b and c respectively. These two plastic hinges become a collapse ll mechanism h i P= 6M p
Therefore P = 6Mp/l is the limit load.

86
=
Mb
Pl/4
Mb
Pl/4-Mb/2
85
(a) (b)
-Mp Pl/4-Mb/2
+Mp
Example p 1.5
Determine the limit load P for a propped cantilever.
a l/2 P b l/ /2 Ma c

Ma/2
Ma
-Mp
Ma
Pl/4
Mp
Pl/4 Ma/2
87
This case has the same limit load P as in example 1.4, i.e., P = 6Mp/l.
Example p 1.6
Find the collapse load, W = wl.
w a b l l Mbx/l c
Bending g moment diagram g Mb
+
wlx/2 - wx2/2 w
x wl/2
x Mx
Mb
wl wx 2 x Mx = x Mb l 2 2
88

x Mx
Mx =
Mb
x Mmax = Mp
-Mp
wl wx 2 x (a) x Mb l 2 2 The maximum moment corresponds p to the condition that shear = 0, , or, , dM x wl M b = wx = 0 2 dx l M max x=
2
l Mb 2 wl
(b)
2
wl l M b w l M b M b l M b w l M b = l 2 wl = 2 2 wl 2 2 wl 2 2 wl
2 2
(c)
Setting Mb = Mmax = Mp, we obtain,

w l Mb Or = M p Or, 2 2 wl Mp Mp 1 2 3 2 + = 0 wl wl 4
(d)
89

x= l Mb 2 wl
2
(b)
Mp Mp 1 3 2 2 + =0 l l 4 wl wl Mp wl l
2
(d)
3 91 = 1.5 1.414 = 2.914 or 0.086 2
(e)
Mp/wl2 = 2.914 yields a negative x in (b). Therefore,

Mp wl
2
= 0.086
wl 2 = 11.63 M p
W = wl =
11.63 M p l
This is Thi i al lower b bound d solution. l ti Si Since each h span f forms a collapse ll mechanism, h i this is the limit load. l M l Mp x = b = 2 l = 0.414l From Eq Eq. (b) (b), 2 wl 2 wl
90

In the elastic analysis, the bending moment distribution is as shown below, where th maximum the i moment t occurs at t b, b with ith Mb = wl l2/8. /8 x = 0.375l
a b
wl2/8
c
x = 0.414l
a
Mp
b c
Mmax = 9wl2/128
Elastic
Mp
Plastic
In the elastic analysis, the load corresponding to first fiber yield equals, 8M y W y = w yl = l The ratio between the plastic collapse load and the yield load equals, 11 63 M p / l Wc 11.63 = = 1.45 = 1.45 1.14 = 1.66 Wy 8M y / l a reserve strength by shape factor = 1.14 1 14 for WF 1.45 reserve strength due to moment redistribution
91
1.7 Mechanism Method of Analysis y

Approach: pp
1. Identify plastic hinges in the structure (locations and numbers) 2. Determine the basic independent mechanisms and possible combined mechanism 3. Compute the lowest collapse load among the selected mechanisms 4. Check M Mp for the lowest collapse p load calculated
Assume mechanisms Compute the collapse load
M
k k
= Pj u j
j
(23)
Where will plastic hinge occur? What are independent mechanisms and how to combine them?
92
1.7 Mechanism Method of Analysis y

Mechanism: sufficient plastic hinges in the structure to permit a rigidb d motion body ti in i the th structure t t
There are three main types of mechanisms: (a) Independent mechanism: basic mechanisms of a member or frame panel (b) Combined mechanism: combination of independent mechanisms (c) Joint mechanism: rotation of the local joint
93
Independent p Mechanisms (1) ( )

P
P
Beam mechanism Produced by loads applied between the member ends Does not require displacement of the b ends d member
Sway mechanism Produced by racking action of the panel Plastic hinges form at the ends of member b
The number of independent mechanisms depends on - the geometry of the frame - the loading condition
94
Independent p Mechanisms (2) ( )
Loaded frame
Beam mechanism
Sway mechanism
95
Combined Mechanism
P
u Pu u
For a given frame and loading, the unique, true collapse mechanism can be obtained as some combination of a certain number of independent mechanisms. mechanisms
M
k k
= Pj u j
j
Since the mechanism method provides the upper-bound solution solution, how to find the true solution, i.e., the lowest upper-bound?
Wint
WE
We are seeking W ki the th minimum i i Pi! The Th selected l t d combined bi d mechanism h i should h ld therefore reduce Wint, or increase WE or both.
96
Joint Mechanism
2 or more plastic hinges for 3 members joining at a joint
3 or more plastic hinges for 4 members joining at a joint
involves rotation of the joint locally does not cause global deformation does not produce external work, why?? a convenient approach to reduce internal work
97
Plastic Hinge g Locations

(a) At points of maximum moments, where shear vanishes
V=
dM =0 dx
(b) At a kink in the frame, e.g., corner, or point of change of geometry (c) At the boundary constrained against rotation
How does the development of plastic hinges form the collapse mechanism?
98
Number of Independent p Mechanisms (1) ( )

If n = the number of possible plastic hinges and r = the th number b of f redundancy d d of f the th structure, t t the number of independent mechanisms (including joint mechanism) follows,
N = nr r=2
To solve all the 5 unknowns, we need 2 more conditions, or 2 more equations!
n=3
However, there are 3 possible plastic hinges along the beam. At each plastic hinge,
M = Mp
plastic hinge g in excess to N = n r = 1 The additional p resolve the unknowns form the independent mechanism.
99

Each plastic hinge provides one equilibrium equation, i.e.
M = Mp at the plastic hinge
Each independent mechanism corresponds to one linearly independent equilibrium equation. i

No. of independent mechanisms = No. of plastic hinges in excess of causing the structure to become statically determinate Therefore, for n possible plastic hinges and r redundancies, Therefore redundancies there are n r independent equilibrium equations left in accordance with (n r ) independent mechanisms.
r: number of unknowns n: number of additional equations
100

P 00 redundancy, 1 possible plastic hinge under the loading point 1 independent mechanism
10 redundancy, 2 possible plastic hinge (1 to remove the redundancy) 1 independent mechanism P 10 redundancy, 3 possible plastic hinges (1 to remove redundancy) 2 independent mechanism
101
Displacement p in a Mechanism
The displacement considered in a mechanism is measured with reference to the deflected shape of the frame at incipient plastic collapse.
W = wL a c At u4, the plastic hinge at point a is first formed. At u5, plastic hinge at point c is just to develop j p at the incipient p of collapse.
u6 u5 = virtual displacement
u4 u5 u6
Hence segments between plastic hinges remain rigid in the (virtual) displacement configuration imposed at incipient plastic collapse. (constancy of curvature during plastic collapse) p p )
102
Example p 1.7
n = No. of possible plastic hinges in the frame = 5 r = degree of redundancy in the frame = 3
N = nr = 2
There are 2 independent mechanisms: one beam mechanism and one sway mechanism, as illustrated ill t t d earlier. li
No plastic hinge??
beam
sway
C bi d Combined
Again!!: A i !! our objective bj ti is i to t seek k the th minimum i i limit li it load. l d Therefore, Th f we need d to t eliminate as many plastic hinges as possible in the combined mechanism!
103
Example p 1.8
n = 11 r=5
N = nr = 6
P1 a
w b P2 d e c P3 f P4 g
There 6 independent mechanisms as follows,
3 beam mechanisms: w
P2 d
a b
P3 e f
104

2 sway mechanisms:
1 joint mechanism:
In practice, we seek the mechanism (or combined mechanisms) corresponding to the minimum external loads among all the mechanisms considered.
105
Kinematics Approach pp
Remarks:
In I the th kinematics ki ti approach, h we are seeking ki th the collapse ll li limit it load l d by b assuming a (possible) failure mechanism, which may or may not correspond to the actual collapse mechanism. We calculate the collapse load corresponding to the assumed mechanism. If the calculated collapse load produces a bending moment distribution that satisfies the yield condition, i.e., M Mp, at any y point p in the structure, the calculated load is then the collapse load of the frame, and the assumed mechanism is the actual collapse mechanism of the frame. In design, we seek the mechanism (or combined mechanisms) corresponding to the minimum external (collapse) loads among all the mechanisms considered.
106
Combined Mechanism
The basic principle of combination is to see whether the independent mechanism can be combined to form a mechanism that gives an even lower value of collapse load. To this end, the combinations are selected i such in h a way that th t the th external t l work k becomes b a maximum i and d the th internal work becomes a minimum. Therefore, the p procedure in combination is g generally y to involve mechanism motions by as many as applied loads as possible and in the meantime to eliminate as many hinges as possible.
107
Example p 1.9
The beam shown in the following figure has a uniform I-section fabricated f from grade d S 275 steels t l (py = 275 MPa). MP ) C Compute t th the collapse ll load l d P using i the kinematic approach.
100
0.25P
3m 6.5 10
5m
5m
Units: mm
108
Example p 1.9
Plastic moment capacity of the section
M p = 94.5 kNm
0.25P
3m Possible number of plastic hinges: n = 3 Redundancy: r = 1

N = n r = 2: two independent mechanisms
5m
5m
0.25P P 02 P 0.25
(1)
(2)
109
Example p 1.9
(1)
0.25P P
M
k
k k
= Pj u j
j
M p ( 2 ) + M p = P ( 5 ) 0.25 P ( 3 ) P = 0.706 M p = 66.7 kN
(2)
0.25P
M
k
k k
= Pj u j
j
M p = 0.25 0 25 P ( 3 ) P = 1.33 M p = 126 kN
The collapse load P equals 66.7 kN

110
Example p 1.9
Check for yield condition for P = 66.7 kN 0.25P P
45.6 kN
37.8 kN
50 kNm
94.5 kNm
94.5 kNm
M Mp, therefore, th f P = 66.7 66 7 kN it the th collapse ll load l d
111
Example p 1.9: Part 2

The design engineer decided to reinforce the beam near the fixed end by welding ldi t two steel t l plates l t into i t the th I-section. I ti Determine D t i the th length l th of f reinforced section to fully utilize the plastic moment capacity of the reinforced section. Calculate the corresponding collapse load. 0.25P P x
3m 100
5m
5m
6.5 10 Units: mm 80 10 plate

112

Plastic moment capacity of the reinforced section, Mpr Mp M pr = 153.9 kNm = 0.614 M pr Consider the dominant mechanism 0.25P 5m P 5m

Mpr M Mp
5 = ( 5 x )
= 1.316
1 (5 x) + x 2
1 (5 x) 2
Mp M pr
= 0.614
Mp
5-x
x = 1.2 m
113

M
k k k
= Pj u j
j
M p ( + ) + M p = P ( 5 ) 0.25 P ( 3 ) P = 80.7 kN
Mpr M = 60.5 kNm Mp
Mp
1.2 m
114

Alternatively, 0.25P P x
What are the collapse load and x??
115
Example p 1.10
Find the limit load Pc n=3
N = nr = 2
3P/l /l P b Mp a l
x
r=1
c
V ( x) = 0
Mp
d Mp e l/2
2 independent mechanisms
n = No. of possible plastic hinges in the frame r = degree of redundancy in the frame
116

(a) Sway mechanism Eq. (23) gives, P b
l
j
3P/l /l d
M
k
k k
= Pj u j
M p + M p = P P= 4M p l
l/2
117

(b) Beam mechanism b x Eq. q (23) ( ) gives, g , Internal work done in the plastic hinges 3P/l a c
Mp
c Mp
Mp
Mp Mp b
Mp Mp
M
k
k k
= M p + M p ( 2 ) + M p = 4 M p =2
0
l/2
External work done by the distributed load
3P udx l
where u = x
Pu
j j
=2 3
0
l/2
P 3 xdx = Pl l 4
118

Alternatively, external work done can be computed from resultant forces for each h portion. ti
3P l l 2 3P l 2 l
Mp
l/4
c Mp
3P l l 3 = Pl l 24 4
j j
Mp
Pu
j j
=2
M = Pu
k k k j
4 M p =
3 Pl 4
P=
16 M p 3 l
119

For a uniform distributed load with an arbitrary location of the plastic hinge:
Equivalent point load on L1: P1 = wL1 Equivalent point load on L2: P2 = wL2
w=
Ptotal L
1
Note: L11 = L22 L = L1 + L2
L1 L
L2
1 1 1 W E = wL1 L11 + wL2 L2 2 = w ( L1 + L2 ) L11 2 2 2 1 W E = Ptotal L11 2
120

(c) Combined sway and beam mechanisms Assumptions: High axial stiffness of bcd and small displacement, cos = cos = 1.0 b = d Consider the case where the beam rotation at b and column rotation at b are equal, such h that h bc b remains i perpendicular di l to ab b, i.e., i no plastic l i rotation i and d hence h plastic l i hinge at b.
M
k
k k
= Pj u j
j
b
b
c
=? e = ?
d
d
Since b = d, e =
= ?, ? we do not know where the

plastic hinge c is! Why isnt c at the midspan of bd?
How to find a relationship p between and ?

121

o What is the deformation pattern for each individual member? Apparently we can describe member abc by rotation about point a Apparently, and member de by rotation about point e. How about member cd? If we can find a common center of rotation for both points c and d, we have located the center of rotation for member cd.
Instantaneous center of rotation
It is the location (center) where each continuous member is rotating about at the instance of plastic collapse The point does not translate at that instance The concept serves as a simple means to establish a compatible relationship between rotations of plastic hinges p g at the incipient p of f plastic collapse
Center of rotation for rigid body abc is a Center of rotation for rigid body bod cd is o Center of rotation for rigid body de is e
122

If member cd rotates about point o, cc is perpendicular to oc. Meanwhile, c also rotates about point a (for member abc). Hence cc is perpendicular to ac. ac and co are on the same line! Or, we can say point o lies on the extension of line ac. Similarly, point o also lies on the extension of line ed. The intersection of the extensions of lines ac and ed d fi defines the th center t of f rotation t ti o for f member b cd d
Geometry and centers of rotation at incipient of plastic collapse Member Center of Rotation
c c
l/2
abc cd de
a o e
123

Procedure to identify y the centers of rotation: 1. Identify the rigid bodies in the frame 2. Identify the center of rotation for rigid bodies for which only one end rotates 3. Identify the center of rotation for rigid bodies where both ends rotates!
124

o Geometry y at incipient p of p plastic collapse p
x lx = l/2 y lx l y= x 2
due to similar triangles, acc and cdo
The horizontal Th h i t l displacement di l t at td equals,
d =
l
2
=y

a
x
x = = 2y lx
e
lx
l/2
125

Applying Eq. (23),
M
k
k k
= Pj u j
j
M
k
k k
= M p ( + ) + M p + M p = 2 M p ( + )
l x Pj u j = P + 3 P 2 2 j
Work done by the distributed load, refer to page 117

P
3P/l c d
Therefore,
l l 2 M p = P + 3 Px 2 2 lx

e
x
l/2
a
lx
126
Example p 1.10 (Contd) ( )
Combined mechanism (beam + sway)
Identify possible plastic hinges (minimum No. of plastic hinges) p g ) Find the instantaneous center of rotation establish compatible displacements Compute external work done (from both the horizontal load and the vertical load) Compute internal work done at plastic hinges
127

The value of x corresponds to the condition of zero shear force.
V ( x) = P x= 3P x=0 l
3P/l /l P
b c
l 3 From Eq. (23), we have obtained, l l 2 M p = P + 3 Px 2 2 lx 3M p P= l
3P
V ( x) = 0
l/2
e
l P Limit loads 4Mp/l 16Mp/3l 3Mp/l
2P
Mechanism
Sway Beam
Combined
The combined mechanism gives the lowest upper bound!
128

Force diagram due to P = 3Mp/l
3P 9M p = 2 l l
P=
3M p
l
Mp
c Mp
Mp
Mp
a
3M p
l
l l
e
6M p
2M p
l
129

Column de
Mp M ba
M
l/2 He
He =
=0
F
l/2
=0
for the entire frame

Mp l
2M p l
Ha = P He =
=0
Mp
Ha
M ba =
130

Check whether the combined mechanism is statically admissible -1 0.5 05 0.5 l/3 1 -1
M/Mp diagram di
131
Consider the bending moment distribution corresponding to P = 4Mp/l

4Mp/l b 12Mp/l2 d l/2
132

Column de
Mp
d
Mp
M
l/2 He Ve
=0
P=
4M p l
He =
2M p l
Ha Va l/2
Ha =
2M p l
M
Va =
=0 Ve = 8M p l
133
4M p l
1
1
-1
l/3 5/3
M/Mp diagram
134
Re-Look at the Mechanisms

(a) Independent p mechanism - involves linearly y independent p set of equations (b) Combined mechanism provides linear combination of independent set of equilibrium equations (c) ( ) Joint J i t mechanism h i is i considered id d as an independent i d d t mechanism involving an equilibrium condition at a joint
P
P
135
Gable Frame (1) ( )

Designed g with a pitched p roof Typical construction for f factory and d warehouses h Allow large clear spans It forms f an independent i d d t collapse mechanism which differs from the beam beam, sway or joint mechanism as observed in portal frames Analysis becomes more complicated
136
Gable Frame (2) ( )

n=5 r=3 N=nr=2
Two independent mechanisms, 1 sway mechanism h i 1 gable mechanism
137
Gable Mechanism (1) ( )

h
v
L
h = sin = l sin = L v = cos = l cos = L
h
=
Pu
j j
= P v = P L
M
k
k k
M p + M p ( 2 ) = 4 M p ( = 2 + M p ( + ) + )
138

P
= 2
Pu
j j
= P v = P L = M p + M p ( 2 ) + M p ( 2 + ) + M p ( 2 ) = 4 M p ( + )
139
M
k
k k

P
= 2
Pu
j j
k
= P v + P ( 2 L ) = P L
= M p + M p ( 2 ) + M p ( 2 + ) + M p ( 2 ) = 4 M p ( + )
140
k k

P P
L
= 2
Pu
j j
= P v + P ( L ) = P L
= M p + M p ( 2 ) + M p ( 2 + ) + M p ( 2 ) = 4 M p ( + )
141
M
k
k k
Example p 1.11
Find the limit load Pc acting on the frame. n = No. of possible plastic hinges in the frame r = degree of redundancy in the frame
n=7 r=3 N = nr = 4
d P P/2 Mp c e Mp f P l/2 l/2
4 independent mechanisms b
Mp a
Mp g l l l l
2l
142

P P
Pc ( l ) = 4 M p Pc ( 2l ) = 4 M p 2 Pc = Pc = 4M p l 4M p l
2 beam mechanisms P P/2 P/2 P
1 sway mechanisms
1 gable mechanisms
143

Gable mechanism Geometry and instantaneous center of rotation Member bd df fg Center of rotation b 0 g P/2 o
2l
P
f 2l
g
144

From Eq. q (23), ( )
M
k
k k
= Pj u j
j
M p + M p ( 2 ) + M p ( 2 ) + M p = 2 Pc ( l )
2l P d P
at b
3M p
l
at d
at f
at g
Pc =
P/2 b
a l l l l g
2l
145
Example 1.11 (Contd)

Combined mechanism: beam + sway Geometry and instantaneous centers of rotation Member Center of rotation abc b a cdef o fg g The h radius di of f rotation i passes through h h the h plastic l i hinges hi
o
xl
d P xl l+2l P/2 b c P e f
c
a
2 5l 2.5 l 3l
g
l 2.5l = 4l ( x + 2 ) l x=8
a g
2l
146

f = 2l = 8l c = lac1 4 From similar triangle,
l 3 1 = oc = lac 4 4
= /4
c = loc
lac 1 = loc 3
8l
loc 10l c lac

a
P/2 b
P c c
d P e f
f
2 5l 2.5 l 3l
g
a g
2l
147

Vertical displacement p at c,
loc sin = 3l 4 o
3l cy = c sin = loc sin =

4
/4
loc
Similarly, the vertical displacement at e,

l ey = 4
7.5l
c
c
cy
lac
a
2.5l
3l
148

From Eq. (23),
M
k
k k
= Pj u j
j
M
k
k k
3 1 3 = M p + M p + + M p + + M p = 4 M p 4 4 4 4
at a
at c
at f
at g
/4
8l
Pu
j j
Pc 3 3 1 ( 2l ) + Pc l + Pc l 2 4 4 4
7 P l 4 c
16 M p 7 l
P c P/2 b
/4 e
P /4 f
Pc =
a g
2l
149

Combined mechanism: Gable + sway Geometry and instantaneous centers of rotation Member abd df fg
lad ' ld ' g = ldd ' y
Center of rotation a o g
y = 3l
P P/2
1 1
f = 2l 2 = 4l d = lad1 = ldo
2 = 2 1 =
f 3l
1
a
1
2l
2
d 2l g
150

M
k k k
= M p1 + M p (1 + ) + M p ( + 2 ) + M p 2
at a
= 8 M p1
at d
at f
at g
= M p1 + 2 M p1 + 3 M p1 + 2 M p1
P
P ( 2l )1 + Pl1 + Pl 2
Pu
j j
P/2 b
1 1
= 3 Pl
P=
8M p 3l
1
a
1
2l
2
d 2l g
151

Combined mechanism: Gable + beam Geometry and instantaneous centers of rotation Member bc cdef fg Center of rotation b o g o
d P c P/2 b e P
2l
c = lbc1 = loc =
1 = 3
2l a g
152

M
k k k
= M p1 + M p (1 + ) + M p ( + ) + M p = 10 M p
Pj u j = Pl1 + Pl
j
d P c P/2 b e P
= 4 Pl 5M p 2l
2l
P=
2l a g
153
Mechanism Sway Beam Combined (beam + sway) Combined (beam + gable) Combined (sway + gable)
Limit loads 4Mp/l 4Mp/l 16Mp/7l 5Mp/2l 8Mp/3l
154
1.9 Partial Collapse p ( (Local Collapse) p )

Remaining redundancy
If r is the original number of redundancy and m is the number of plastic hinges in the collapse mechanism, the remaining redundancy equals,
r = r ( m 1)
Note that m represents m equilibrium equations, and one equilibrium equation is used to determine Wc. Therefore, [r (m 1)] is the remaining number of redundancies. The case where r = 0 corresponds to total collapse. Hence, m = r + 1 produces a mechanism to cause total collapse.
155
Examples p
Example p 1.12
r=3 m=4 r = r ( m 1) = 0
Total collapse Example 1.13

r=6 m=3 r = r ( m 1) = 4
Partial collapse
156
Example p 1.14
Trial and error method for checking if the upper bound solution is statically admissible
P/3 P/2 M4 Mp M1 l/6 l/3 l/3 Mp P/3 P/3 M8 M5 M6 2Mp M2 l/6 l/3 2l/3 2l/3 M7 M9 3Mp 2Mp M3 l/3 P P P M10
2l
This method assumes locations of the plastic hinges (mechanisms) to compute the collapse load. The positions of assumed plastic hinges depends significantly on the g experience. p This method essentially y verifies that for the assumed designers mechanism of collapse, a safe and statically admissible bending moment distribution can be found.
157

Bending capacity of a joint
Mp 3M p 2M p 3M p 2M p 2M p
M p 3M p 2M p Mp
Mp 3M p
Mp Mp
4M p
158

F From E Eq. (23), (23)
M
k
k k
= Pj u j
j
M8 = 3Mp
M10 = 2Mp
M9 = 3Mp
l 3 M p + 3 M p ( 2 ) + 2 M p = 2 P + Pl 3 P= 33 M p 5l
Check for safety and static admissibility: trial and error

(a) (b)
r=6
m=3
r = r ( m 1) = 4
N = n r = 10 6 = 4
i.e., i e the number of independent mechanisms (equilibrium equations) is 4. 4 Out of these 4 equations, 1 is used to compute the limit load 33Mp/5l for this mechanism. The other 3 equations involve 7 unknowns, M1, M2, M3, M4, M5, M6, M7. Note: M8, M9, M10 are known for this mechanism.
159

Check for safety and static admissibility: trial and error (c) Establish 3 independent equilibrium equations (1) Equilibrium equation corresponding to joint mechanism 6-7-8
M6 + M7 + M8 = 0 M6 + M7 + 3M p = 0
M6 (a) M7
M8 = 3Mp
(2) Equilibrium equation corresponding to beam mechanism 4-5-6

P/3 P/3 P/3
M4
M6 M5
+ +
M4
5 1 1 M5 = Pl + M 4 + M 6 36 2 2
M6 (b)
5 Pl 36
160

(3) Equilibrium equation corresponding to sway mechanism
P/3 P/2 M4 P/3 P/3 P P P M10 = 2Mp
M7
M1
M 4 M 1 M2 l
M7 M2 l
M3
2M p + M3 l
2l (c)
M 4 M1 M 7 M 2 2 M p + M 3 P + + =0 l l l 2
161

P/3 P/2 M4 Mp M1 l/6 l/3 l/3 Mp P/3 P/3 M8 M5 M6 2Mp M2 l/6 l/3 2l/3 2l/3 M7 M9 3Mp 2Mp M3 l/3 P P P M10
2l
(d) In the N-1=3 independent equilibrium equations, there are still 7 unknowns, i.e. the remaining redundancy (as indicated by r ) equals 4. To find a possible solution to the 3 equilibrium equations, guess any set of 4 unknowns, and calculate the remaining 3 unknowns check whether M < kMp everywhere in the structure. (where kMp is the strength of each member)
162

Try
M 7 = 2 M p
M2 = M p
M3 = M p
M1 = M p
(a) (b) (c) ( )
M6 + M7 + 3M p = 0 M5 =
5 1 1 Pl + M 4 + M 6 36 2 2
M 4 M1 M 7 M 2 2 M p + M 3 P + + =0 l l l 2
Solving Eqs. (a)-(c), we obtain
3 17 Mp M5 = M 10 30 p Since M Mp, the upper bound P1 = 33Mp/5l is statically admissible. Hence, it is the collapse load.
M6 = M p
M4 =
163

3 2 3/10 17/30 3 1 1 M/Mp diagram 1 2 2
The exercise is simply to establish that the upper bound solution P = 33Mp/5l is also safe and statically admissible.
164

If a after te many a y trials, t a s, a statically stat ca y admissible ad ss b e moment o e t field e d cannot ca ot be found, ou d, i.e., .e., at some points, M/kMp > 1, then the solution (corresponding to the assumed mechanism, beam mechanism in this example) is indeed an upper bound. (kMp is g of each member) ) the strength In these trials, if the lowest (M/kMp)max is (>1.0), P/ is then the highest lower bound from the trials. (The loading P/ ensures that M kMp in the frame. The solution thus derived satisfies fully the equilibrium condition. It is therefore the lower bound. Since is the minimum, P/ is the highest lower bound.) Thus, the limit load Pc is bounded by, y,
< Pc < P
165
1.10 Two-Storey y Portal Frame

Example 1.15 Determine the collapse load 4P 5 12 7 P P
2Mp
n = 12
r=6
N = n r = 12 6 = 6
6 independent mechanisms: 2 beam mechanisms 2 sway mechanisms 2 joint mechanisms
L 4 2P L 1 2
Mp
Mp
3
2Mp
8P
4Mp
10 11 2P 9
2Mp
8 L L
r = r ( m 1) r = 0 implies total collapse m = r +1= 7

7 plastic hinges are required to cause total collapse
n = No. of possible plastic hinges in the frame r = degree of redundancy in the frame
166

Sway mechanism (1) P L
Mp
Mp
M
k
k k
= Pj u j
j
4 M p = 2 PL
P=
2M p
L
167

Sway mechanism (2) P L 2P L 2P P
2Mp
2Mp
M
k
k k
= Pj u j
j
4 2 M p = 2 ( 2 P ) L + 2 PL P= 4M p 3L
168

Combined mechanism (3) P
Mp

P
Mp
11 9
L 2P 4 L
8P
4Mp
11 2P 9
2Mp
2Mp
2 M p + M p + 4 M p ( 2 ) + 2 M p + 2 M p ( 2 ) + M p = 2 ( 2 PL ) + 2 PL + 8 PL
At 1
At 4
At 6
At 8
At 9
9M p 7L = 1.286
At 11
18 M p = 14 PL
P=
Mp L
169

Combined mechanism (4) P
2Mp
4P 7 8P
4Mp Mp
P 12 11 2P 9
L 2P L

11 9
2Mp
2Mp
M
k
k k
= 2 M p + 4 M p ( 2 ) + 2 M p ( 2 ) + 2 M p + 2 M p ( 2 ) + M p ( 2 ) + M p ( 2 )
At 1
At 6
At 7
At 8
At 9
At 11 At 12
Pu
j j
= 2 ( 2 PL ) + 2 P ( 2 L ) + 8 PL + 4 PL
24 M p = 20 PL
P = 1.2
Mp L
170

The four mechanisms considered give the following limit loads, Sway mechanism (1): Sway mechanism (2): Combined mechanism (3): Combined mechanism (4):
P = 2M p / L P = 1.333 M p / L P = 1.286 M p / L P = 1.2 M p / L
P = 1.2 M p / L is the lowest and therefore the most likely candidate for the
collapse load for the frame considered. P 2P 4P 7 8P 2P P
171

4P P L 2P L 1
V1 = 3.67 3 67P H1 = 2.67P 2Mp
For P = 1.2Mp/L, (a) The moment at 1 and 8 equals to 2Mp due to plastic hinges (b) To compute vertical reactions,
8P 2P
=0
8 H8 = 3.33P
2Mp V8 = 8.33 8 33P 2Mp
2V8 L = 4 PL + 2 P ( 2 L ) + 12 PL 4 M p 1 V8 = 8.33 P using M p = PL 1.2 Fy = 0
L
Force diagram for P = 1.2Mp/L
V1 = 12 P 8.33 P = 3.67 P
(c) To compute the horizontal reactions, consider column 8-9.
H8 2Mp
M = 0 F = 0
9
H 8 = 3.33 P H 1 = 2.67 P
172

M21
(d) Consider column 1-2,
M
2Mp
=0
H1 = 2.67P
H 1 L 2 M p M 21 = 0 M 21 = 1.2 M p
using PL = 1.2 M p
( )C (e) Consider id beam b 3-6-10, 3 6 10

M36 V1 4Mp V6L 8P 4Mp V6R 3Mp V10 M11 = Mp M10 M9 = 2Mp
M 10 = M 9 + M 11
= 3M p
V6L V6R
M F
y
10
=0
=0
3
35 V6 R = = P L 6 35 13 V6 L = 8 P = P 6 6
7M p
M45 M36 = 1.4Mp M21 = 1.2Mp
M 45 = M 21 + M 36
= 0.2 M p
173
=0
M 36 = 4 M p V6 L L = 1.4 M p

(f) Consider column 11-12,
Mp V12
12
M
V11 =
12
=0 = 5 P 3
Beam 5-7-12 4P P
1 P 3
2M p
11
V11 Mp
P 5 P 3
(g) Consider column 4-5,

M54 V5
=0 1 PL 0.2 M p = 0.2 M p 3
M 54 = V5 L 0.2 M p =
V4 0.2Mp
174

Bending g moment diagram g for
P = 1.2
Mp L Mp Mp
3M p
0 2M p 0.2 0.2 M p 2M p 0 2M p 0.2 1.4 M p 4M p 2M p 2M p 1.2 M p
Mp
2M p
175
Summary y( (1) )
Ze + AP = 0 y0
(3) (4)
To locate N.A. NA To find bending moment
M=
Ze = Zp = Ie =
y
y0
Ie + y Z p
Ae
ydA
Plastic modulus of elastic portion of the cross section Plastic modulus of plastic portion of the cross section 2nd moment of area Area of elastic portion of the cross section A of Area f plastic l i portion i of f the h cross section i
176
Ap
ydA
2
Ae
y dA
Ae =
Ap =
Ae
dA
Ap
dA
Summary (2)
y0
distr.
distr. distr.
N.A.
N.A. c
+y
y0
< y < y
> y
= y
= y
Increasing load
N. A. = Neutral Axis Axis of zero strain Fig. 1.4 Fig 1 4 stress/strain distribution over the depth of a beam under bending (without axial load)
177
Summary y( (3) )
Elastic case:
Z e = 0 N.A. coincides with the centroidal axis

Ap = 0
Plastic case:
My = yS
Neutral axis coincides with the equal q area axis y0 = 0, Ae = 0

Shape factor:
M p = yZ
fully plastic moment
Mp My
Z S
178
Summary y( (4) )
Actual moment-curvature relation for WF section ( ) Elastic (a) l i domain: d i
m = for 0 < 1 (b) Elastic-plastic Elastic plastic domain:

i) Yielding in flanges only
bd 2 bd 2 m = 1 + 6S 4S 1 1 3 2
(13)
f for 1
d /2 d /2t
(17)
ii) Yielding in flanges and web
m =
twd 2 1 12 S 2
for
d /2 d /2t
(19)
Idealized moment-curvature relation for WF section
m =
for 0 p
m = m p = p for p
179
Summary y( (5) )
m Elastic domain mp = =1.14 my = 1.0 Eq. (13) Eq. (17) (i) Eq. (19) Elastic-plastic domain (ii)
d /2 d /2 t
Fig. 1.6 Moment-curvature Moment curvature relationship for WF sections
180
Summary y( (6) )
m mp = my = 1.0 1 1
m = m = mp
y p
for 0 p for p
p =
Mp My
(a)
M Mp My EI 1 y p
y =
My EI Mp EI
M = EI Mp = Mp
(b)
for 0 p for p
p =
Fig. 1.7 Idealized (a) m- curve; and (b) M- curve; for WF sections
181
Summary y( (7) )
Lower bound theorem
If a structure with loading W0 can produce a bending moment distribution which is safe and statically admissible, W0 Wc.
Upper bound theorem
If a structure with loading W* can cause a mechanism W* Wc.

Uniqueness theorem
If a structure with loading W gives a bending moment distribution which is safe and statically admissible and causes a mechanism W = Wc.
182
Summary y( (8) )
Principle of virtual work
System of forces in equilibrium Strain-displacement satisfying compatibility Internal work = external work If any 2 of the above 3 conditions are satisfied, the 3rd is always true. At the incipient of the plastic collapse,
M
k
k k
= Pj u j
j
(23)
183
Summary y( (8) )
Possible plastic hinge locations
1. Point of maximum moment 2. At kink or change of section y point p 3. At boundary
Kinematics method
1) Determine the no. of independent mechanisms = N = n - r n: number of possible plastic hinges r: degree of redundancies 2) Select mechanisms and solve for P by Eq. (23) Choose those mechanisms which produce the larger (largest) amount of work done due to P and at the same time introduce the lower (lowest) number of p leading to lowest upper bound limit load
184
Summary y( (9) )
Kinematics method
Work kd done b by di distributed ib d load l d in i each h rigid i id member b = work k done d due d to its i resultant l acting through displacement at point of application of that resultant joints with more than 2 connecting g members, adopt p the lower value of the For j following Mp: (i) Mp of the member under consideration (ii) Summation of Mp of the remaining members 3) Check for statically admissible mechanism
r = r ( m 1) Number of remaining redundancy m: number of plastic hinges in collapse mechanism r = 0 implies total collapse r > 0 implies partial collapse
If trial and error approach does not satisfy statically admissible requirements and the lowest of (M/kMp)max in each trial equals , Pc is bounded by P/ < Pc < P
185
A Global Picture
How could we find the plastic collapse load for a given structure under a given loading?
Objective: determine the collapse load
Global behavior: the development

of the plastic hinges form the collapse mechanism of the structure
Static approach pp
Kinematic approach: principle of virtual work
Local behavior: behavior of the cross

section of the beam, i.e., at a single, zero-length segment along the beam Mp
Plastic hinges
M relationship
186

Steel Plastic Analysis

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CE3155 Structural Analysis II

Anonymous y Feedback in IVLE

Thi part of This f the h module d l aims i to introduce i d

Topic I: Plastic analysis of beams and 2-D frames es

Tutorial 1 Q2 Tutorial 2 Q1 Tutorial 3 Q2 Tutorial 4 Q1 Tutorial 5 Q2 Tutorial 6 Q2

1. Plastic Analysis y of Steel Frames

Plastic Analysis y of Steel Frames

Fundamental concept: Plastic Hinge

Why y Plastic Analysis? y

r = residual stress y = yield stress

Residual stress in hot-rolled I-sections

Elastic Analysis y vs. Plastic Analysis y (1) ( )

wL2 = My 12 wL2 < My 24

Bending moment diagram (BMD)

Elastic Analysis y vs. Plastic Analysis y (2) ( )

1.1 Elastic-Plastic Bending g of Beams

y: yield stress u: ultimate stress E: Youngs modulus 205 GPa

Elastic with slope E 0.0012 0.014 0.25

Yield Strength g in BS 5950

Minimum yield strength Ys (MPa)

Minimum ultimate strength Us (MPa)

Idealization of Stress-Strain Curve

Solving g Boundary y Value Problems

A Beam Under Bending g

Leonhard Euler, 1707 1783 Swiss mathematician and physicist

Daniel Bernoulli, 1700 1782 Dutch-born mathematician

Stress/Strain Distribution over the Beam Depth

Centroidal axis E l area axis Equal i

(b) Elastic-plastic case

(c) Fully plastic case

Elastic-plastic p case (1) ( )

Substitute Eq. (2) into Eq. (1a)

(b) Elastic-plastic case

Elastic-plastic p case (2) ( )

Elastic-plastic p case (3) ( )

Substituting Eq. (2) into Eq. (1b), we obtain:

Stress/Strain Distribution over the Beam Depth

Centroidal axis E l area axis Equal i

(b) Elastic-plastic case

(c) Fully plastic case

Linear-Elastic Case (1) ( )

Centroidal axis C E l area axis Equal i

For linear-elastic case, Ap = 0, Ae = A.

Linear-Elastic Case (2) ( )

At the yield moment, My, y0 = c, Ie = I.

second moment of area of the cross section

Fully y Plastic Case

From Eq. (4),

With Ie = 0 for fully plastic case, case

= plastic l ti modulus d l of f the th cross section ti

(c) Fully plastic case

For the previous example,

d Z = 2 Z ST = 2 AST y = 2 AST y1 2 Z 1.14 Approximate values for all WF beam sections S

Example p 1.2b (Contd) ( )

Method 1: Use the approach in Example 1.2a!

Factors Affecting g the Bending g Capacity p y

Factors Affecting the Plastic Bending Capacity: Effect of Axial Loads

Factors Affecting the Plastic Bending Capacity: Effect of Shear Forces

Von Mises yield criterion

Mps: plastic moment capacity under the effect of shear forces

Factors Affecting the Plastic Bending Capacity: Effect of Shear Forces

Druckers approximation for rectangular sections

1.2 Moment-Curvature Relation