Changes of meaning

A special chapter of word-formation is represented by what in lexicology is known as changes of meaning, that is the preservation of the form and, in most cases, of the grammatichal function of a word, with a more or less marked change of meaning or lexical value. The life of words in a language is very complex: they are subjected to various changes during their history, out of people's need to express new notions or shades of meaning in various ages of history. Causes determining the change of meaning Words faithfully reflect the evolution or change of the notion, phenomenon, etc. they denote, in close connection to the development of the world. One such change is the process of passing from concrete to abstracte, characteristic to human thinking, which very frequently affacts the change of meaning in various words. For instance, the noun ''road'' was originally used only in its concrete meaning. Lather on, it was used also in its abstracte sense of ''way'' or ''method of achieving someting'', as in ''the road to capitalism''. The verb ''to grasp'' initially meant ''to seize'', ''to clutch''; lather on it also acquired the meaning of ''to understand'', as in ''I don't quite grasp what you are saying''. Other examples: fabric = 1.woven material 2. structure, framework. eg. ''the fabric of society'' frame = 1. border of wood or other material 2. state of mind. eg. ''he was in a very happy frame of mind'' sour = 1. having an acid taste 2. bad-tempered. eg. ''Why is he so sour today?'' light = 1. the antonym of darkness 2. aspect. eg. ''They viewed his behaviour in a favorable light''. Another aspect that causes words to change their meaning is the change in a people's history and culture, its ever deeper knowledge of objective reality, the new discoveries and inventions, etc. Thus, the noun ''mill'', once meaning exclussively ''building with machinery for grinding grain into flour'', came to be applied to a ''factory'' (textile mill, paper mill, etc.) Other examples: press = 1. a machine for pressing (wine-press) 2. a machine for printing (printing-press) pencil = 1. a small hair brush for painting 2. an instrument to write with pen = 1. a quill-feather 2. a writing instrument with a nib

A number of words belonging to a specific field are often transformed to a new field, with a change of mill in this way, a series of words connected with aviation have appeared by changing the meaning of certain nautical terms: e.g. pilot, cabin, cockpit, navigation, stern, etc. Many changes of meaning are closely connected with the process of associations, materialized in the semanthic evolution of words by metaphor, metonymy, etc. Compare the pairs of meanings below, of which the second represents a semantic change, based on association: box = 1. a container made of wood, cardboard, metal, etc. 2. anything similar in shape to a box: case, chest, a small hut or wooden shelter, a small compartment in a theatre, a witness box in a court of law, etc pipe = 1. a whistle 2. a tube for conveying water, gase, etc. nose = 1. part of the face 2. anything that sticks out like a nose: the front part of a ship, airplane, etc. lame = 1. suffering from an injury or a defect, especially in a leg or foot 2. (of an excuse, argument, story) unsatifactory, uncovincing Context also exercises a significant influence on the change in the meaning of words. Words are not isolated in human speech; they are connected and interconnected within the framework of sentences, and the lexical-grammatical ''neighbours'' of a word in a sentence are always apt to influence it to a greater or lesser extend. Here are a few examples of semantic changes in the verb ''to show'' depending on the context: He showed the painting to his friend. (basic meaning) The State Farm won prizes for the fruits it showed. (display at an exibition) Why would you show off? (why would you want to impress people by making a display of your abilities?) He showed his teeth. (he was angry) They showed him the door. (they asked him to leave) Show me how to do it. (teach me...) The dog showed signs of intelligence. (manifested intelligence)