Haripriya Bellam AP Euro Brewer/Period 2 23 September 22, 2013 Chapter 13: The Reformation and Religious Warfare in the

Sixteenth Century Prelude to Reformation o Second half of the 15th cent. = the new classic learning that was part of Italian Ren humanism spread to northern Europe and spawned a movement called Christian or northern Renaissance humanism whose major goal was the reform of Christianity. o Christian or Northern Renaissance Humanism Nor. humanist made a knowledge of the classics (bond that united humanists into an international fellowship Nor. humanists (Christian humanists) focused on sources of early Christianity, the Holy Scriptures, and the writing of church fathers like Augustine, Ambrose, and Jerome. Covered a simple religion that came to feel had been distorted by complicated theological arguments of the middle Ages. Most important characteristic was its reform program Convinced that human abilities to reason and improve themselves = education in classical, and esp. Christian, antiquity, they could allow a true inner piety or an inward religious feeling that would bring about a reform of the church and society. Supported schools, new editions of the classics, and new editions of the Bible and the writings of the church fathers Belief in the power of education remained a characteristic of Euro In order to change society, must change human beings who make it Optimistic o Ruined by turmoil of the Reformation o Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536) Formulated and popularized reform program of humanism Born in Holland Educated in the Brothers of the Common Life (Chapter 11) Traveled and conversing in classical Latin (sometimes the mother tongue) Handbook of the Christian Knight reflected his preoccupation with religion (printed in 1503) Conception of religion called, the philosophy of Christ, which meant Christianity should be a guiding philosophy for the guidance of daily life Emphasized inner piety and de-emphasized external forms of religion (sacraments, pilgrimages, fasts, veneration of saints, and relics)

To return to simplistic church, people must understand the original meaning of the early church fathers Thought the standard Latin Bible , the Vulgate, had errors= edited Greek text of the New Testament from the available manuscripts and published in 1516 Reform of the church= a understanding of philosophy of Jesus, providing education in early Christianity, and commonsense criticisms of the church The Praise of Folly in 1511, Erasmus engaged in funny, effective criticism Harsh on the abuses within the ranks of the clergy Didnt achieve what he wanted Moderation and emphasis on education overwhelmed by passions of the Reformation Work helped prepare the path for Reformation o Thomas More (1478-1535) Son of a London lawyer, received a good education While trained in law, he loved classical learning and Latin/Greek Embarked on a career that took him to the highest reaches of power as lord chancellor of England Career in government= didnt keep More from intellectual and spiritual interests Acquainted in other English humanists and a friend of Erasmus Translated Greek authors and wrote prose and poetry in Latin Contemporaries praised household as a shining model of Christian life Utopia (1516) is an account of the idealistic life and intuitions Reflects Mores concerns with economic, social, and political problems New social system where cooperation and reason replace power Based on communal ownership than private property Orderly world where social relation, recreation and travel are controlled for the moral welfare of society Willingly gave up his life to oppose Englands break with the Roman Catholic Church over the divorce of King Henry VIII. o Church and Religion on the Eve of the Reformation Corruption= another factor that aroused people to reform Failure to give spiritual leadership affected spiritual life of Christendom Preoccupation with finances strongly impacted the clergy Highest position held by nobles or wealthy members of bourgeoisie In order to increase profit, church officials used pluralism and absenteeism o The Search for Salvation People disputed for religious expression and certainty of salvation Sought certainty of salvation through veneration of relics Frederick the Wise Elector of Saxony and Martin Luthers prince

Amasses 19,000 relics were attached indulgences reduced ones time in purgatory nearly 2 million years Others used the Modern Devotion, which downplayed religious dogma and stressed the need to follow the teaching of Jesus Thomas a Kempis Author of Imitation of Christ o We are judged by what we do, not what we read o Calls for Reform Franciscans, Dominicans, and Augustinians asked to reform religious orders Members emphasized preaching to laypeople Johannes Geiler of Kaisersberg introduced the corruption of clergy The Oratory of Divine Love (1497 in Italy) was an informal group of clergy and laymen who worked to foster reform by emphasizing personal spiritual development and outward acts of charity Included # of cardinals who favored church reform Cardinal Ximenes, a Spanish archbishop, had a # of writings Martin Luther and the Reformation in Germany o Martin Luther Deeply religious man, found an answer on how to be saved that didnt fit traditional teaching of the late medieval church. Destroyed the unity of Western Christendom Religion was with social, economic, and political forces o The Early Luther Born in Germany on Nov. 10, 1483 Enrolled at Unv. of Erfurt, where he received a bachelors degree in 1502 Became a master of liberal arts, and studied law In monastery, Luther focused on the assurance of salvation Confession is the sacrament of penance Allowed people to have ones sins forgiven Received a doctorate in theology (1512) and was a professor in theology at the Unv. of Wittenburg, lecturing on the Bible Catholic Doctrine Emphasized faith and good works required to achieve personal salvation Luther believed no one could do enough good works to achieve. Believed that humans were saved from their faith in the promises of God, not their good works Doc. of justification through faith became the primary of the Protestant Reformation. o Justification- the act by which a person is made deserving of salvation Justification and the Bible were the twin pillars of the Reformation as the sole authority in religious affairs

o Indulgence Controversy In 1517, Pope Leo X issued a jubilee indulgence to finance the ongoing construction of St. Peters Basilica. Johann Tetzel a energetic Dominican hawked the indulgences in Germany Luther was distressed by Sale of Indulgences Result= Posted Ninety Five- Theses on church door Pope Leo X didnt take the issue seriously and reported Luther as some drunken Herman who will amend his ways when he sobers o The Quickening Rebellion Leipzig Debate in 1510, Johann Eck forced Luther to move beyond indulgences and deny the authority of popes and councils. Identified Luthers ideas as well as John Hus Three pamphlets published in 1520 Address to the Nobility of the German Nature- political tact where Luther asked German princes to overthrow the papacy in Germ. and est. a Germ. church (German) Babylonian Captivity of the Church- Attacked the sacramental system as means by which pope and church has held the real meaning of the Gospel. Called for the reform of monasticism and for clergy to marry (Latin) On the Freedom of a Christian Man- short argument on doctrine of salvation. Faith = salvation to Jesus but doesnt free from doing good works Church excommunicated Luther in Jan. 1521. Summoned to appear before the Reichstag, imperial diet of the Holy Roman Empire (Emperor Charles V (1519-1556)) Martin Luther mad an outlaw by Charles o The Rise of Lutheranism 1522, Organized a reformed church Translated the New Testament into German Lutheranism spread rapidly but only 4-5% were literate Sermon based on return to original message of the Bible Arrival of preachers presenting Luthers teachings were followed by a public debate which the new preachers were victorious Reform of the church instituted by state authorities Pamphlets illustrated vivid woodcuts portraying the pope as a hideous Antichrist and titled with catchy phrases Luther insisted on the use of music to teach the Gospel and composition o The Spread of Luthers Ideas Spread to princely and ecclesiastical states in northern and central Germany. Nuremberg, where a city council led by the city secretary Lazarus Spengler, brought a conversion as early as 1525, was the first imperial city to convert to Lutheranism

The reformation in Germany was largely an urban phenomenon of the early converts to the movement, were from the clergy, many from the upper class Series of crises in mid 1520s made it hard to spread the word of God Andreas Carlstadt wished to initiate a more radical reform by abolishing all relics, images, and the Mass. Luther faced defection from the Christian humanists Many supported him, but when it became apparent that Luthers movement threatened the unity of Christendom, the older generation of humanists, many broke off the reformer Younger gen. = played a sig. role in Lutheranism o Philip Melanchthon (1497-1560) arrived in Wittenburg in 1518 to teach Greek and Hebrew- immediately attached to Luthers ideas and became a staunch supporter o The Peasants War Greatest challenge for Luther = Peasants War Dissatisfaction in Germany stemmed from several sources. Many peasants had not been touched by the economic improvement of the early 16th century. Esp. southwestern Germany, influential local lords cont. to abuse their peasants and demand taxes and other services Social discontent became entangles with religious revolt as peasants looked to Luther for support. The radical Thomas Muntzer, an ex-follower and pastor, inflamed the peasants against their rulers with his language. o Revolt first erupted in southwestern Germany in June 1524 Luther reacted quickly and vehemently against the peasants. Pamphlet Against the Robbing and Murdering Hordes of Peasants, he called on the German princes to smite, slay and stab the peasantry To him, the state and rulers were ordained by God and given the authority to maintain peace and order necessary for the spread of the Gospel By May 1525, German princes ruthlessly suppressed the peasants Luther found himself more dependent on state authorities for the growth and maintenance of his reformed church o Organizing the Church Justification by faith was the starting point of most of Protestantisms major doctrines Luther downplayed the role of good works in salvation = the sacraments had to be defined Sacraments were viewed as divinely est. signs signifying the promise of salvation

Based on his interp. Luther kept only two of the seven Catholic Churchs sacraments- baptism and the Lords Supper Baptism- rebirth through grace Lords Supper- denied the Catholic doctrine of transubstantiationtaught that the substance of the bread and wine consumed is transformed into the blood and body of Jesus Emphasis on imp. of Scripture led him to reject Catholic belief that the authority of the Scripture must be supplemented by the traditions and decrees of the church Word of God- sufficient authority in religious affairs He considered the true church to be an invisible entity, where the difficulties est. a reformed church led him to make an organized church. Relied increasingly on the princes or state authority to organize and guide new Lutheran reform churches Secular authorities played an imp. role in church affairs By 1530, in the German states that converted to Lutheranism, princes and city councils hired officials who visited churches in their territories and regulated matters of worship Lutheran churches in Germany (later in Scadinavia) quickly became territorial or state churches in which the state watched and disciplined church members As part of the dev. of state-dominated churches, Luther instituted new religious services to replace the Mass o Worship service (vernacular liturgy that focused on Bible reading, preaching the word of God, and song) Following his denunciation of clerical celibacy, he married Katherina von Bora (a former nun) in 1525 Union provided a model of married and family life for the new Protestant minister. o Germany and the Reformation: Religion and Politics From the beg. , the fate of Luthers movement was tied to political affairs In 1519, Charles I, king of Spain and grandson of Emperor Maximilian, was elected Holy Roman emperor as Charles V (1519-1556) Ruled over an immense empire Extent of his possessions reflected in the languages he used Politically, he wanted to maintain his dynastys control over his entire empire Religiously, he hoped to preserve the unity of the Catholic faith Despite his strengths, he spent a lifetime to earn his futile goals o French, papacy, Turks, and Germanys internal situation- cost him both his dream and his health

o Emperors problems gave Luthers movement time to grow and organize before facing the concerted onslaught o The French and the Papacy Political concern was his rivalry with the Valois king of France, Francis I (1515-1547) Encircled by the possessions of the Habsburg Empire, he became angered in a series of conflicts with Charles over disputed territories Conflicts (Habsburg-Valois Wars) were fought intermittently for 24 years (1521-1544), preventing Charles from concentrating on the Lutheran problem in Germany. Charles had two other enemies, papacy and Ottoman Turks Pope Clement VII (1523-1534) joined Francis I in the second war (1527-1529) in fear of Charless power, which had horrible results o April 1526, Spanish-imperial army of Charles V went berserk while attacking Rome and gave the capital of Catholicism a fearful and bloody sacking. o Clement came to terms with the emperor and by 1530, Charles V stood ruler over much of Italy. o The Ottoman Empire Charles V faced the Ottoman Turks in the eastern part of his empire 15th cent. , Ottoman had overrun Constantinople and est. control over much of the Balkans in southeastern Europe Beg. of 16th cent. = Ottoman armies had taken much control of the North African coast and captured the Christian island of Rhodes New leader Suleiman the Magnificent (1520-1566) = defeated and killed King Louis of Hungary, Charless brother-in-law, at the Battle of Mohacs After, the Ottomans overran most of Hungary, moved to Austria, and advanced to Vienna, where they were repulsed in 1529 o Politics in Germany By the end of 1529, Charles was ready to deal with Germany Internal political situation in the Holy Roman Empire was not in his favor Germany- land of hundred territorial states: princely states, ecclesiastical principalities, and free imperial cities Germanys medieval development enabled the states to become quite independent of imperial authority His attempt to settle the Lutheran problem at the Diet of Augsburg in 1530 was completely inadequate, and the emperor wound up demanding that the Lutherans return to the Catholic Church by April 15, 1531 In February 1531, fearful of his intentions, eight princes and eleven imperial cities (all Lutheran) formed an alliance known as the Schmalkaldic League. o Vowed to assist each other when attacked

o Religion was dividing the empire into two armed camps Renewed threat of the Turks against Vienna made Charles to seek compromise instead of war with the Protestant authorities 1532-1535, Charles was forced to fight off Ottoman, Arab, and Barbary attacks on the Mediterranean coasts of Italy and Spain Habsburg-Valois wars (1535-1538 and 1542-1544) followed and kept Charles occupied with military campaigns in south. France and the Low Countries Charles made peace w/ Francis in 1544 and the Turks in 1545 Fifteen years after the Diet of Augsburg, Charles was free to resolve his problem in Germany Luthers death in February 1546 = all hopes were lost Charles brought an imperial army to battle the Protestants First phase Emperor forces defeated the Lutherans at the Battle of Muhlberg He was at the top of his power, and Protestant cause was doomed Schmalkaldic League was reestablished and German Protestant princes allied with the new French king, Henry II (1547-1559) in order to revive the war of 1552 Charles became less fortunate and forced to make a truce o Charles abandoned German affairs to his brother Ferdinand, gave his titles in 1556, and retired to his country estate in Spain to spend his last two years in solitude End to religious warfare in Germany came in 1555 with the Peace of Augsburg, which marked the climax in the history of the Reformation Division of Christianity formally acknowledged, with Lutheranism granted equal standing with Catholicism Peace settlement accepted the right of each German ruler to determine the religion of his subjects His hope for a united empire was gone, and the ideal of medieval Christian unity was lost The Spread of the Protestant Reformation o Luthers heresy raised the question of what constituted the correct interpretation of the Bible o Lutheranism in Scandinavia In 1397, Union of Kalmar brought the unification of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden under the rule of the king of Denmark Failed to achieve any social or political unification of the three states, esp. since the independent nobles worked to frustrate ant increase in monarchical centralization. Beg. of the 16th cent, union was about to disintegrate In 1520, Christian II (1513-1523) of Denmark was overthrown by Swedish barons led by Gustavus Vasa

Vasa became the king of the independent Sweden (1523-1560) and took the lead in est. a Lutheran Reformation in the country 1530s = Swedish Lutheran National Church was created Christian II was deposed as the king of Denmark by the Danish nobility Succeeded by his uncle, Frederick I (1523-1533) Encouraged Lutheran preachers to spread their doctrines and introduce a Lutheran liturgy into the Danish church Christian III (1534-1559) Fredericks successor o A Lutheran church was installed with the king as the supreme authority in all ecclesiastical affairs o Instrumental in spreading Lutheranism to Norway 1540s, Scandinavia had become a Lutheran stronghold Scandinavian monarchs were the dominant force in est. state-run churches o The Zwinglian Reformation 16th cent, Swiss Confederation was a loose association of 13 self-governing states called cantons They became virtually independent in 1499 Six forest cantons were democratic republics; seven urban cantons were mostly governed by city councils controlled by narrow oligarchies of wealthy citizens Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) Product of the Swiss forest cantons Obtained both bachelor of arts and master of arts degrees Strongly influenced by Christian humanism Made a priest in 1506, he accepted a parish post in Switzerland until his appointment as a cathedral priest in the Great Minster He began the Reformation in Switzerland Caused unrest that in 1523 the city council held a debate in the town hall o Became a standard method of spreading the Reformation to many cities o Gave an advantage to reformers, since they had the power of new ideas and Catholics werent used to defend teaching o Zwinglis party was victorious o Reforms in Zurich Next two years, evangelical reforms were advertised by a city council Zwingli looked to the state to supervise the church Relics and images were abolished Mass was replaced by a new liturgy made of Scripture reading, prayer, and sermons. Music was removed from service as a distraction from the pure word of God Monasticism, pilgrimages, the veneration of saints, clerical celibacy, and the popes authority were abolished as remnants of papal Christianity

His movement spread to other cities in Switzerland A Futile Search for Unity By 1528, his reform faced a serious political problem as the forest cantons remained Catholic He feared that they would ally with the Habsburgs Taking action, he attempted to build a league of evangelical cities by making an agreement with Luther and German reformers German and Swiss reformers realized the need for unity to defend Protestant political leaders, feared Charles V would take advantage of the division between reformers, attempted to make an alliance by persuading the leaders to attend a conference at Marburg to resolve their differences Gathering splintered the interpretation of the Lords Supper He believed that the scriptural words should be symbolic not literal He refused to accept Luthers insistence on the real presence of the body and blood of Jesus Marburg conference produced no agreement October 1531 = War between the Swiss Protestant and Catholic cantons The Swiss war of 1531 was an early indication of what religious passions would lead into the 16th cent Disciples of Christianity resorted to violence and decision by force The Radical Reformation: The Anabaptists Anabaptists were radicals that were members of large variety of groups who shared common characteristics Anabaptism was attractive to peasants, weavers, miners, and artisans who were adversely affected by the economic changes of age The Ideas of the Anabaptists Felt that the true Christian church was a voluntary association of believers who went spiritual rebirth and been baptized into the church Anabaptists supported adult rather than infant baptism No one should be forced to accept the truth of the Bible Followed a strict sort of democracy where all believers were considered = Each church chose their own minister who might be in the community, since all Christians were considered priests (Women often excluded) If chosen, they had the duty to lead services Rejected theological speculation in favor of Christian living The Lords Supper interpreted as a remembrance Believed in complete separation of church and state Gov. was not to exercise political jurisdiction over real Christians Refused to hold political office or bear arms Political and religious beliefs made them regarded as dangerous people who threatened the 16th cent society. Varieties of Anabaptists Swiss Brethren in Zurich Beliefs include adult baptism

They were expelled from the city in 1523 Teachings were spread to southern Germany, Austrian Habsburg lands, and Switzerland, where they suffered persecution, esp. after the Peasants War of 1524-1525 Munster was site of an Anabaptist uprising that decided the fate of Anabaptists o Experienced more radical mass hysteria that led to legal recognition for the Anabaptists. o Became a haven for them from the surrounding countries o Millenarianism- the belief that the end of the world was coming and they would usher in the kingdom of God By the end of Feb 1534, millenarian Anabaptists took control of the city, driven out everyone they considered godless, burned all books except the Bible, and proclaimed communal ownership of all property. John of Leiden proclaimed himself king of the New Jerusalem o Led the elect from Munster out to cover the world and purify it of evil o Believed all goods would be held in common and the saints would live without suffering A joint army of Catholics and Lutherans recaptured the city in June 1535 and executed radical Anabaptist leaders in gruesome fashion Dutch Anabaptism reverted to its pacifist tendencies, esp. evident in the work of Menno Simmons (1496-1561) was the most responsible man for rejuvenating Dutch Anabaptism o A popular leader who dedicated his life to the spread of a peaceful, evangelical Anabaptism that stressed separation from the world to truly emulate the life of Jesus o Imposed strict discipline on his followers and banned those refused to conform to the rules o Mennonites, his followers, spread from the Netherlands into northwest. Germany and eventually in Poland and Lithuania as well as the New World o The Reformation in England Initiated by King Henry VIII (1509-1547) Relied on Cardinal Wolsey to get from Pope Clement VII an annulment of the kings marriage Fired him because the pope needed to keep Catherine (his wife) to stay married with him because she was the aunt of Emperor Charles V Hired Thomas Cranmer (1489-1556) who became the archbishop of Canterbury in 1532 and Thomas Cromwell (1485-1540), the kings principal secretary after the fall of Wolsey

o Advised him to obtain an annulment in Englands own ecclesiastical courts o Most imp. was the promulgation by Parliament of an act cutting off all appeals from English church courts to Rome He no longer needed the pope In May, the archbishop and head of the ecclesiastical court in England ruled that the kings marriage was void and validated his marriage to Anne Parliament passed the Act of Supremacy, which declared that the king was accepted, and reputed the only supreme of the Church of England Parliament passed the Treason Act, making punishable by death to deny the king Thomas More challenged the order Humanist and former lord chancellor Refused to support new laws and duly tried for treason Beheaded in London on July 6, 1535 o The New Order Thomas Cromwell solved the details of the Tudor govs new role in church affairs He wished to have religious reformation as well as an administrative one Final decade of Henrys reign was occupied by foreign affairs, fractional intrigue, and a cont. effort to find the perfect wife. He was succeeded by his third wifes son, Edward VI (1547-1553) Archbishop Cranmer and others went toward Protestant doctrines to move the Church of England in a more Protestant direction. New acts passed by Parliament which allowed clergy to marry, eliminate images, and the creation of a revised Protestant liturgy o Reaction Under Mary Mary (1553-1558) fully intended to restore England to Roman Catholic She married Philip II, future king of Spain and the son of Charles V Strongly disliked in England, and Marys foreign policy of alliance aroused further hostility She managed to achieve the opposite of what she intended o John Calvin and Calvanism John Calvin (1509-1564) received remarkably diverse education in humanism and law in native France. Influenced by Luthers writing Experienced a religious crisis that determined the rest of his lifes works He was Protestant, which made him unsafe in France because King Francis I persecuted Protestants In Basel, he published, in 1536, his first edition of Institutes of the Christian Religion where he secured his position as one of the new leaders of Protestantism

o Calvins Ideas Emphasized on the absolute sovereignty of God Some ideas derived on predestination, which gave a new cast to Calvins teachings Meant God has predestined some peoples fates Practical psychological effect of predestination was to give later Calvinists a conviction that they were doing Gods work on earth Calvinism was a dynamic and activist faith, and the militant int. form of Protestantism Church was divine institution responsible for preaching the word of God o Calvins Geneva Before 1536, John Calvin became a scholar Achieved a major success in 1541 when the city council accepted his new church constitution, known as the Ecclesiastical Ordinances Created a church gov. that used clergy and laymen in service of the church Consistory was a special body for enforcing moral discipline, that set up a court to see the moral life and doctrinal purity of Genivans Enabled the city to become a vibrant center of Protestantism John Knox was the Calvinist reformer of Scotland Calvinism replaced Lutheranism as the int. form of Protestantism The Social Impact of The Protestant Reformation o The Family Catholic Churchs regard for abstinence made the celibate state of the clergy preferable to marriage This attitude persisted in the Protestant reformers Reformation brought some change to the conception of the family Clergy preached sermons advocating a more positive side Protestants were imp. in dev. the new view of family Women were to obey the husband, but also bear children Protestant reformers asked men & women to read the Bible and participate in religious services together City council of Zwickau, est. a girls school in 1525 o Designed to encourage proper values, not improve the position of women in society o Education in the Reformation Imp. effect on dev. of education in Europe. Significantly altered content of education and educators were very successful in using humanist methods Protestant school created n increased need for a semiliterate body of believers who could read the Bible themselves Martin Luther supported that children should have the opportunity of an education by the state.

 He urged citied to est. schools paid by the public Philip Melanchthon divided students into classes based on age and ability Johannes Sturm in 1538 created the most famous school in Strasbourg o Religious Practices and Popular Culture Protestant Reformation abolished indulgences, the veneration of relics, pilgrimages, monasticism, and clerical celibacy Elimination of saints was put to an end to the number of celebrations Imp. of taverns in English social life made it impossible to eradicate them The Catholic Reformation (Counter-Reformation) o By mid-16th cent, Lutheranism became est. in parts of Germany and Scandinavia, while Calvinism in Switzerland, France, eastern Europe and Netherlands o Constructive, positive forces for reform within the church gave the church new strength o Revival of the Old Revived the best features of medieval Catholicism Saint Teresa of Avila (1515-1582) A nun of the Camelite order Exp. a variety of mystical visions that she resulted in the ecstatic union of her soul with God Believed that mystical experience should lead to an active life of service Revival of religious orders were valuable to the reform of Catholicism Capuchins emerged when a group of Franciscans decided to return to simplicity and poverty They focused on preaching the Gospel directly Theatines (1524) placed emphasis on reforming secular clergy and encouraging clerics to fulfill duties among the laity They founded orphanages and hospitals to care for victims Ursulines were an order of nuns founded in Itlay in 1535, who focused attention on est. schools for the education of girls o The Society of Jesus Most imp. religious order = Society of Jesus (Jesuits) Became the chief instrument of the Catholic Reformation Founded by a Spanish nobleman, Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556) Resolved his problems by a decision to submit his will to the will of the church. Vowed to be soldier of God The Spiritual Exercises was a training manual for spiritual dev. emphasizing exercises where human will be strengthened and made to follow God Gathered a small group who were recognized as a religious order. Organization resembled the structure of military command

Special vow of absolute obedience to the pope was an imp. instrument for papal policy o Activities of the Jesuits Est. highly disciplined schools, Thorough education was crucial to combating the advance of Protestantism Propagation of the Catholic faith among non-Christians Francis Xavier (1506-1552) carried the message of Catholic Christianity to the East. Determined to carry the Catholic banner and fight Protestantism o A Revived Papacy Involvement of the Ren. papacy in finances and political and military affairs gave rise to numerous sources of corruption Pope Paul III (1534-1549) proved to be a climax in the lap of Ren. luxury Perceived the need for change and expressed it decisively In 1541, a meeting was held in Regensburg to settle the religious division peacefully Cardinal Caraffa chosen pope as Paul IV o Increased the power of the Inquisition o Rome was becoming Fortress Rome; any hope of restoring Christian unity was lost o The Council of Trent Pope Paul III took the step of calling for a general council of Christendom to solve religious differences March 1545 was when clergy met in the city of Trent and intitated the Council of Trent Council met intermittently in three major sessions Moderate Catholic reformers hoped that compromises would encourage Protestants to return to the church. Later, the Roman Catholic Church possessed a clear body of doctrine and a unified church under the acknowledged supremacy of the popes Politics and the Wars of Religion in the Sixteenth Century o Mid 16th cent, Calvinism and Catholicism became activist religions dedicated to spreading the word of God o The French Wars of Religion (1562-1598) French kings tried to stop Calvinisms spread but had little success Huguenots came from all levels of society 40-50% of the noble population were Huguenots King Henry II (1547-1559) was killed, and was succeeded by weak and neurotic sons Extreme Catholic party favored strict opposition to the Huguenots and led by the Guise family

French Wars of Religion presented a big constitutional crisis for France and temporarily halted the dev. of the French centralized territorial state Polituques, a group who put politics over religion, ultimately prevailed, but not until both sides were exhausted by bloodshed o Course of the Struggle Wars erupted in 1562 when the duke of Guise massacred a peaceful meeting of Huguenots at Vassy. Saint Bartholomews Day massacre in August 1572, occurred when the Catholic and Calvinist parties had been reconciled through the marriage of the daughter of Valois king, Charles IX (1560-1574), and Henry of Navarre For three days, the mobs roamed the streets, killing Huguenots Henry, duke of Guise, seized Paris and forced Henry III to make him chief minister. However, Henry III killed Henry, duke of Guise Henry III assassinated by a monk who cooperated with a Protestant Religious problem persisted until the Edict of Nantes was issued in 1598. Acknowledged Catholicism as the official religion of France, but allowed Huguenots to enjoy all political privileges o Philip II and Militant Catholicism King Philip II of Spain (1556-1598) ushered in an age of Spanish greatness, politically and culturally First goal was to help and secure the lands he inherited from his father. Meant strict conformity to Catholicism, enforced by the Spanish Inquisition and the est. of strong, monarchical authority Managed to expand royal power in Spain Failed to distinguish between imp. and trivial matters and fell weeks behind on state correspondence Wanted to make Spain a dominant power in Europe Expenses of war were devastating to the Spanish economy He became the champion of Catholicism throughout Europe His greatest misfortune came from his attempt to crush the revolt in the Netherlands and his tortured relation with Queen Elizabeth of England o Revolt of the Netherlands Netherlands consisted of 17 provinces Philip II hoped to strengthen his control in the Netherlands, regardless of the traditional privileges of the separate provinces Resentment to Philip aroused when the residents realized the taxed were used for Spanish interests Then, religion angered them more when Philip tried to crush Calvinism A special tribunal, the Council of Troubles inaugurated a reign of terror where powerful aristocrats were executed William of Orange wanted to unify all 17 provinces, realized in 1576 by the Pacification of Ghent

Stated that all provinces should follow under Williams leadership, respect religious differences, and demand that Spanish troops withdrawn He organized the seven northern Dutch-speaking states into a Protestant union to counter the southern Catholic provinces Struggle stayed until 1609 when a twelve year truce ended the war The England of Elizabeth During Queen Elizabeths reign, England rose to prominence as she became the leader of the Protestant nations of Europe Daughter of King Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, she was imprisoned for a while and learned to hide her true feelings from sight She was intelligent, cautious, and self-confident, and solved the religious problem she inherited from Mary during her poor reign Religious Policy Based on moderation and compromise Wished to prevent England from being torn apart over religion The Act of Uniformity restored church service of the Book of Common Prayer from the reign of Edward VI with some revision to support the Catholics The Thirty-nine articles, a new confession of faith, defined theological issues between Lutheranism and Calvinism. Her religious settlement was mainly Protestant Catholics and the Puritans opposed her plan In 1587, Mary became embroiled in a serious plot, Elizabeth had her beheaded to end her threats Puritans, appeared in 1564 when it was used to refer to Protestants within the Anglican Church Proved she was adept in gov. and foreign policy as in religious affairs Sir William Cecil and Sir Francis Walsingham, held the office for thirty-two years, which ensured much of Elizabeths success in foreign and domestic affairs Foreign Policy Encouraged English seamen to raid Spanish ships and colonies She gradually became more involved with the Netherlands. This accelerated the mounting friction between Spain and England. The Spanish Armada It proved to be a disaster. The fleet didnt have the troops of ships Philip had planned This resulted that for another 16 years, that England will remain a Protestant country.