Complete set of electrical equations in per unit

In the following equations, two q-axis amortisseur circuits are considered, and the subscript 1q
and 2q are used to identify them. Only one d-axis amortisseur circuit is considered, and it is
indentified by the subscript 1J.
Per unit stator voltage equations:
c
d
= pV
d
V
q

R
u
i
d
8.1
c
q
= pV
q
+V
d

R
u
i
q
8.2
c
o
= pV
o
R
u
i
o
8.3
Per unit rotor voltage equations:
c
]d
= pV
]d
+R
]d
i
]d
8.4
u = pV
1d
+R
1d
i
1d
8.5
u = pV
1q
+R
1q
i
1q
8.6
u = pV
2q
+R
2q
i
2q
8.7
Per unit stator flux linkage equations:
V
d
= (I
ud
+I
I
)i
d
+I
ud
i
]d
+I
ud
i
1d
8.8
V
q
= (I
uq
+I
I
)i
q
+ I
uq
i
1q
+I
uq
i
2q
8.9
V
d
= I
o
i
o
8.10
Per unit rotor flux linkage equations:
V
]d
= I
]]d
i
]d
+I
]1d
i
1d
I
ud
i
d
8.11
V
1d
= I
]1d
i
]d
+I
11d
i
1d
I
ud
i
d
8.12
V
1q
= I
11q
i
1q
+I
uq
i
2q
I
uq
i
q
8.13
V
2q
= I
uq
i
1q
+I
22
i
2q
I
uq
i
q
8.14
Per unit air-gap torque:
I
c
= V
d
i
q
V
q
i
d
8.15
In the above equations, we have assumed that the per unit mutual inductance I
12q
= I
uq
. This
implies that the stator and rotor circuits in the q-axis all link a single mutual flux represented by
I
uq
. This is acceptable because the rotor circuits represent the overall rotor body effects, and the
actual winding with physically measurable voltages and current do not exist.
For power system stability analysis, the machine equations are normally solved with all
quantities expressed in per unit, with the exception of time. Usually time t is expressed in
seconds, in which case the per unit p in above equations is replaced by (
1

busc
, )p.
Synchronous Machine Representation in Stability Studies
Simplifications essentials for large-scale studies
For stability analysis of large system, it is necessary to neglect the following from Equations
(8.1) and (8.2) for stator voltage:
The transformer voltage terms, pV
d
onJ pV
q
.
The effect of speed variations.
The reasons for and the effects of these simplifications are discussed below.
Neglect of Stator pT term
Transformer voltages are lesser than speed voltages, and only due to transformer voltage terms
the voltage equation (8.1) and (8.2) are differential equations. If we neglect transformer voltage
terms, then stator voltage equation become algebraic equation.
Stator pV term represents stator circuit transients. Stator is usually connected to transmission
line and transmission line has very low time constants i.e. associated transients quickly dies out,
so in stability studies, so we generally ignore transmission line transients. On the other hand, if
we consider stator transients and ignore transmission line transients than it is inconsistent,
therefore we also neglect the stator transient pV
d
onJ pV
q
.
Neglecting the Effect of Speed Variations on Stator Voltages
Another simplifying assumption normally made is that the per unit value of

is equal to 1.0 in
the stator voltage equations. This is not the same as saying that speed is constant; it assumes that
speed changes are small and do not have a significant effect on the voltage.
The assumption of per unit

= 1.u (i.e.,

=
0
roJ s ) in the stator voltage equations does
not contribute to computational simplicity in itself. The primary reason for making this
assumption is that it counterbalances the effect of neglecting pV
d
, pV
q
terms so far as the low
frequency rotor oscillations are concerned.
With per unit

= 1.u, the stator voltage equations reduced to

c
d
= V
q
R
u
i
d
8.16
c
q
= V
d
R
u
i
q
8.17
Relationship between per unit P
e
and T
e

The terminal electric power in per unit is given by
P
t
= c
d
i
d
+c
q
i
q

Substituting for c
d
and c
q
from Equations (8.16) and (8.17) gives
P
t
= ( V
q
R
u
i
d
)i
d
+ (V
d
R
u
i
q
)i
q

= (V
d
i
q
V
q
i
d
) R
u
(i
d
2
+ i
q
2
) 8.18
= I
c
R
u
i
t
2

The air-gap power, measured behind R
u
, is given by

P
c
= P
t
+ R
u
i
t
2
8.19
= I
c
8.20
The per unit air gap power P
c
so computed is in fact the power at synchronous speed and is equal
to the per unit air-gap torque I
c
. Normally, P
c
=

I
c
, however, the assumption of

= 1.u pu
in the stator voltage equation is also reflected in the torque equation, making P
c
= I
c
. This fact is
often overlooked.
Simplified Model with Amortisseurs Neglected
The first order of simplification to the synchronous machine model is to neglect the
ammortisseur effects. This minimizes data requirements since the machine parameters related to
the amortisseurs are often not readily available. In addition, it may contribute to reduction in
computational effort by reducing the order of the model and allow large integration steps in time
domain simulations.
With the amortisseurs neglected, the stator voltage Equations (8.16) and (8.17) are unchanged.
The remaining equations (8.4) to (8.15) simplify as follow.
Flux linkages:
V
d
= I
d
i
d
+I
ud
i
]d
8.21
V
q
= I
q
i
q
8.22
V
]d
= I
ud
i
d
+I
]]d
i
]d
8.23
Rotor voltage:
c
]d
= pV
]d
+R
]d
i
]d

pV
]d
= c
]d
R
]d
i
]d
8.24
Equation (8.24) is now the only differential equation associated with the electrical characteristics
of the machine. In the above equation all quantities, including time, are in per unit.
Alternative form of machine equations
In the literature on synchronous machines, Equations (8.21) to (8.24) are often written in terms
of the following variables:
E
I
= I
ud
i
]d
= Voltage proportional to i
]d

E
q
i
=
L
cd
L
]]d
V
]d
= Voltage proportional to V
]d

E
]d
=
L
cd
R
]d
c
]d
= Voltage proportional to c
]d

In the terms of new variables, Equation (8.21) becomes
V
d
= I
d
i
d
+E
I
8.25
Multiplying Equation (8.23) by I
ud
I
]]d
throughout and expressing in terms of the new
variables, we get
E
q
i
=
L
cd
2
L
]]d
i
d
+E
I
8.26
Since,
I
d
i
= I
I
+
I
ud
I
]d
I
ud
+I
]d

= (I
d
I
ud
) +
L
cd
L
]d
L
cd
+L
]d

= I
d

L
cd
2
L
]]d

Then
I
d
I
d
i
=
I
ud
2
I
]]d

Substituting in Equation (8.26) gives
E
q
i
= E
I
(I
d
I
d
i
)i
d
8.27
Multiplying Equation (8.24) by
L
cd
2
L
]]d
throughout, we have
p _
L
cd
2
L
]]d
V
]d
] =
L
cd
R
]d
R
]d
L
]]d
c
]d

R
]d
L
]]d
I
ud
i
]d

Expressing this in terms of the new variables gives
pE
q
i
=
1
1
dc
|
(E
]d
E
I
) 8.28
Where I
do
i
is the open circuit transient time constant.
The following is the summary of the alternative form of machine equations:
V
d
= I
d
i
d
+E
I

V
q
= I
q
i
q

E
q
i
= E
I
(I
d
I
d
i
)i
d

pE
q
i
=
1
1
dc
|
(E
]d
E
I
)
The above form is used to represent synchronous machines in many stability programs,
particularly the older programs. In this formulation, E
q
i
is the state variable instead ofV
]d
. In a
way, this is a carryover from the techniques used in the network analyzer days. As seen in the
following development of the phasor diagram, E
q
i
is the q-axis component of the voltage behind
transient reactance X
d
i
. Therefore, the use of E
q
i
as the state variable allows a simple
enhancement to the classical model to account for the field circuit dynamics. It should, however,
be recognized that the parameters I
d
, I
q
, L
d
i
and T
do
i
which appear in this formulation are
function of magnetic saturation.
Phasor diagram for transient conditions:
As we account for only the fundamental frequency components of stator quantities, we can use
phasor representation to illustrate the transient conditions. In order to do this, it is first necessary
to express E
q
, E
I
and E
q
in terms of d- and q- axis components of terminal voltage and current.
Since in per unitX
d
= I
d
, from Equations (8.17) and (8.21)
c
q
= V
d
R
u
i
q

= X
d
i
d
+X
ud
i
]d
R
u
i
q

= X
d
i
d
+E
I
R
u
i
q

Therefore, E
I
= c
q
+X
d
i
d
+R
u
i
q

Multiplying by j, we have
]E
I
= ]c
q
+]X
d
i
d
+]R
u
i
q

In terms of phasor notation,
E

I
= c
q
+]X
d
t
d
+R
u
t
q
8.29
From equation (8.27) withX
d
= I
d
i
,
E
q
i
= c
q
+X
d
i
d
+ R
u
i
q
X
d
i
d
+X
d
i
d

= c
q
+X
d
i
d
+R
u
i
q

Multiplying by j gives
]E
q
i
= ]c
q
+]X
d
i
d
+ ]R
u
i
q

In terms of phasor notation,
E

q
i
= c
q
+]X
d
t
d
+ R
u
t
q
8.30
We see that phasorsE

I
and E

q
i
both lie along the q-axis and E

q
i
also lies along q-axis.
w.k.t. the following Equation and substituting E
I
for X
ud
i
]d
, we get
E

I
= E

q
+](X
d
X
q
)t
d
8.31
Figure (8.1) shows the phasor diagram representingE

q
i
, E

I
and E

q
given by equations (8.29),
(8.30) and (8.31).
E

t
= c
d
+]c
q
= c
d
+c
q

E

i
= E

t
+(R
u
+]X
d
i
)I

t

E

q
i
=q-axis component of E

i

= c
q
+ R
u
t
q
+]X
d
i
t
d

E

I
= E

q
+](X
d
X
q
)t
d



Figure (8.1) Synchronous machine phasor diagram in terms of F
q
i
, F
q
and F
I

Constant flux linkage model (Classical model):
For studies in which the period of analysis is small as compared to I
do
the machine model is
often simplified by assuming E
q
i
(or V
]d
) constant throughout the study period. The assumption
eliminates the only differential equation associated with the electrical characteristics of the
machine.
A further approximation to simplify the machine model is to ignore transient saliency by
assumingX
d
i
= X
q
i
, and to assume that the flux linkage V
1q
also remains constant. With these
assumptions, the voltage behind the transient impedance R
u
+]X
d
i
has a constant magnitude.
The per unit flux linkages identified in the d-axis are given by
V
ud
= I
ud
i
d
+ I
ud
i
]d
8.32
V
d
= V
ud
I
I
i
d
8.33
V
]d
= V
ud
+ I
]d
i
]d
8.34
From Equation (8.34)
i
]d
=
+
]d
-+
cd
L
]d
8.35

Figure (8.2) Thed- and q-axis equivalent circuits with one rotor circuit in each axis
Substitute in Eq. (8.32) gives,
V
ud
= I
ud
i
d
+
L
cd
L
]d
(V
]d
V
ud
)
V
ud
= I
ud
i
_i
d
+
+
]d
L
]d
]
Where, I
ud
i
=
1
1
L
cd
, +
1
L
]d
,
= I
d
I
I

Similarly, for the q-axis
V
uq
= I
uq
i
_i
q
+
+
1q
L
1q
]
Where, I
uq
i
= I
d
I
I

From Equation (8.16), the d-axis stator voltage is given by
c
d
= R
u
i
d
V
q

= R
u
i
d
+ (I
I
i
q
V
uq
)
Substituting for V
uq
from equation (8.35) gives
c
d
= R
u
i
d
+ I
I
i
q
I
uq
i
_i
q
+
+
1q
L
1q
]
= R
u
i
d
+ (I
I
+I
uq
i
)i
q
I
uq
i
_
+
1q
L
1q
] 8.36
= R
u
i
d
+ X
q
i
q
+ E
d
i

Where, E
d
i
= I
uq
_
+
1q
L
1q
] 8.37
Similarly, the q-axis stator voltage is given by
c
q
= R
u
i
q
+ X
d
i
d
+ E
q
i
8.38
Where, E
q
i
= I
ud
_
+
]d
L
]d
] 8.39
With transient saliency neglected (X
d
i
= X
q
i
) the stator terminal voltage is
c
d
+]c
q
= (E
d
+]E
q
) R
u
(i
d
+]i
q
) +X
d
(i
q
]i
d
)
= (E
d
+]E
q
) R
u
(i
d
+ ]i
q
) ]X
d
(i
d
+ ]i
q
)
Using phasor notation, we have
E
t

= E

(R
u
+]X
d
)I
t

8.40
Where, E

= E
d
+]E
q

= I
ud
_
+
1q
L
1q
+ ]
+
]d
L
]d
]
The corresponding equivalent is shown in figure (8.3)

Figure (8.3) Simplified transient model
With rotor flux linkages V
]d
and V
1q
constant, E
d
i
and E
q
i
are constant. Therefore the magnitude
of E is constant. As the rotor speed changes, the d- and q-axes move with respect to any general
reference coordinate system whose R-I axes rotate at synchronous speed, as shown in figure ( ).
Hence, the components E
R
i
and E
I
i
change.

Figure (8.4) The R-I and d-q coordinate system
This model offers considerable computational simplicity; it allows the transient electrical
performance of the machine to be represented by a simple voltage source of fixed magnitude
behind an effective reactance. It is commonly referred to as the classical model, since it was used
extensively in early stability studies.
8. SMALL SIGNAL STABILITY OF A SINGLE MACHINE INFINITE BUS SYSTEM:
Small signal stability is the ability of the power system to maintain synchronism when subjected
to small disturbance. The small perturbation continuously occurs in any power system n due to
small changes in load and generation. For analyzing the small signal stability of any system the
system model can be linearized around an operating point i.e the disturbances are considered to
be so small or incremental in nature so that we can develop a linear model of the system around
an operating point. Once we develop the linear model of the system we can understand behavior
of the system under small perturbation, various parameter of the system which affects the
stability of the system. Further the moment we have linear model of the system we can apply the
linear control system theory for designing the controllers. The controllers particularly are
excitation control system (i.e voltage regulator) and power system stabilizer. But as we can see
that in any power system the actual system is somewhat complex and it is not as simple as a
machine connected to an infinite bus. In multi machine system there are different modes of
oscillations such as control mode of oscillation, local modes of oscillations, inter-area modes of
oscillations. Primary requirement of the system to have stability is that system should have the
positive synchronizing torque, positive damping torque. The system stability gets affected if any
of these two torques becomes negative.
So to start with we should first study a simple model considering the constant flux linkages in
the field winding. Next we will include field dynamics i.e changes of flux linkage in the field
winding. It is here first considered that the field winding is manually controlled. Then we will
include the automatic field voltage regulator (AVR) and we will study the parameter of the
excitation system and gain setting of the automatic voltage regulator on stability of the system.
Then next step will be we include the auxiliary control of the controller that is the power system
stabilizer (PSS). Then we will extend the model with amortisseurs. So that the step by step study
will give the complete insight into the small signal stability of the system.
8.1. Generator represented by the classical model:
With the generator represented by the classical model and all resistances neglected, the
system representation is as shown in fig. 8.1.

Fig.8.1
Here E
i
is the voltage behind X
d
i
. Its magnitude is remains constant at the pre-disturbance value.
Let the be the angle by which E
i
leads the infinite bus voltage E
B
.As the rotor oscillates during
a disturbance, changes.
With E
i
as reference phasor,
I
t

=
L
|
<0
0
-L
B
<-6
]X
T
=
L
|
-L
B
(cos 6-] sIn6)
]X
T
8.41
Where E
i

= E
to

+]X
d
i
I

to

X
t
= X
d
i
+ X
L

The complex power behind X
d
i
is given by
S
i
= P +]
i
= E

=
L
|
L
B
sIn6
X
T
+]
L
|
(L
|
-L
B
cos 6)
X
T
8.42
With stator resistance neglected, the air gap power (P
c
) is equal the terminal power(P). In per
unit, the air gap torque is equal to the air gap power. Hence,
I
c
= P =
L

L
B
X
T
sino 8.43
Linearizing about an initial operating condition represented by o = o
0
yields
I
c
=
1
c
6
o =
L

L
B
X
T
cos o
0
(o) 8.44
The equations of motion in per unit are
p

=
1
2H
(I
m
I
c
K

) 8.45
po =

8.46
Where

is the per unit speed deviation, o is rotor angle in electrical radians, w

0
is the base
rotor electrical speed in radians per second, and p is the differential operator
J
Jt
, with time t in
seconds.
Linearizing Equation (8.45) and substituting for I
c
given by Equation (8.44) we obtain
p

=
1
2H
|I
m
K
s
o K

8.47
Where K
s
is given by
K
s
=
L

L
B
X
T
cos o
0
8.48
Linearizing Equation (8.46) we have
po =
0

8.49
Writing Equations 8.47&8.49 in the vector matrix form, we obtain

d
dt

o
=

2H

2H

0
u

o
+
1
2H
u
I
m
8.50
This is of the form = +. The elements of the state matrix A are seen to be
dependent on the system parameters K

, , X
1
and the initial operating condition represented by
the values of E

and o
0
. The block diagram representation shown in fig.(8.5) can be used to
describe the small signal performance.

Fig.8.6. Block diagram of a single machine infinite bus system
with classical generator model
Where
K
s
=Synchronizing torque coefficient in pu torque/rad
K

=Damping torque coefficient in pu torque /pu speed deviation

=Inertia constant in MW.s/MVA

=Speed deviation in pu = (

0
)/
0

o =Rotor angle deviation in elec. Rad
s =Laplace operator

0
=Rated speed in elec. Rad/s = 2
0


From the block diagram of fig.8.6, we have
o =

0
s

1
2Hs
(K
s
o K

+ I
m
)
=

0
s

1
2Hs
K
s
o K

s
6

0
+ I
m

Rearranging, we get
s
2
(o) +

2H
s(o) +

2H

0
(o) =

0
2H
I
m

Therefore, the characteristic equation is given by
s
2
+

2H
s +

0
2H
= u 8.51
This is of the general form
s
2
+2

s +

2
= u
Thus the undamped natural frequency is

= K
s

0
2H
roJ s
And the damped ratio is
=
1
2

2H

=
1
2

2H
0

As the synchronizing torque coefficient K
s
increases, the natural frequency increases and the
damping ratio decreases. An increase in damping torque coefficient K

increases the damping

ratio, whereas an increase in inertia constant decreases both

and .
Effect of Synchronous Machine Field Circuit Dynamics
In this case we consider the system performance including the effect of field flux variations. The
amortisseur effects will be neglected and the field voltage will be assumed constant (manual
excitation control).
Here we will develop the state-space model of the system by first reducing the synchronous
machine equations to an appropriate form and then combining them with the network equations.
Synchronous machine equations:
As in the case of classical generator model, the acceleration equations are
p

=
1
2
(T

K
D

) 8.52
p =
0

8.53
The field circuit dynamic equation is given by
p
Id
=
0
(e
Id
R
Id
i
Id
)
=
m
0
R
Id
L
adu
E
Id

0
R
Id
i
Id
8.54
In the above three equations, we can say the following statements:
(i) The left hand side terms ie

, ,
Id
are the state variables
(ii) On the right hand side the terms T

&E
Id
represent input to the system
(iii) On the right hand side the terms T

&i
Id
are neither state variables nor input variables.
Hence in order to develop the complete system equations in the state-space form, we need to
express T

&i
Id
in terms of the state variables as determined by the machine flux linkage
equations and network equations.
The stator and rotor flux linkages are given by

d
= L
I
i
d
+L
ads
(i
d
+i
Id
)
= L
I
i
d
+
ad
8.55

q
= L
I
i
q
+L
aqs
(i
q
)
= L
I
i
q
+
aq
8.56

Id
= L
ads
(i
d
+ i
Id
) + L
Id
i
Id

=
ad
+ L
Id
i
Id
8.57
In the above equations
ad
&
aq
are the air-gap (mutual) flux linkages, and L
ads
&L
aqs
are
saturated values of mutual inductances.
From equation 8.57, the field current may be expressed as
i
Id
=
q
Id
-q
ad
L
Id
8.58
The d-axis mutual flux linkage can be written in terms of
Id
&i
d
as follows:

ad
= L
ads
i
d
+L
ads
i
Id
= L
ads
i
d
+
L
ads
L
Id
(
Id

ad
)
= L
i
ads
i
d
+
q
Id
L
Id
8.59


Where
L
i
ads
=
1
1
L
ads
+
1
L
Id

Since there are no rotor circuits considered in the q-axis, the mutual flux linkage is given by

aq
= L
aqs
i
q
8.60
The air-gap toque is given by
T

=
d
i
q

q
i
d

=
ad
i
q

aq
i
d
8.61
With p terms and speed variations neglected, the stator voltage equations are
e
d
= R
a
i
d

q

= R
a
i
d
+(L
I
i
q

aq
) 8.62
e
q
= R
a
i
q
+
d

= R
a
i
q
(L
I
i
d

ad
) 8.63
As a first step, we have expressed i
Id
&T

in terms of
Id
, i
d
, i
q
,
ad
anu
aq
.
Network equations:

Figure 8.7

Referring to fig.8.5, the machine terminal and infinite bus voltages in terms of the d and q
components are
E
t
= e
d
+je
q
8.64
E
B
= E
Bd
+jE
Bq
8.65
The network constraint equation for the system of fig.8.6 is

Figure (8.8) SMIB system

E
t
= E
B
+(R
E
+ jX
E
)I
t

(e
d
+je
q
) = (E
Bd
+ jE
Bq
) +(R
E
+jX
E
)(i
d
+ ji
q
) 8.66
Resolving into d and q components gives
e
d
= R
E
i
d
X
E
i
q
+ E
Bd
8.67
e
q
= R
E
i
q
+ X
E
i
d
+ E
bq
8.68
Where
E
Bd
= E
B
sin 8.69
E
Bq
= E
B
cos 8.70
Using equations 8.58 & 8.59 to eliminate e
d
&e
q
in equations 8.55 &8.56 and using the
expressions for
ad
&
aq
given by equations 8.61 & 8.62, we obtain the following expressions
for i
d
anu i
q
in terms of state variables
Id
anu :
i
d
=
X
Tq
_q
Id
_
L
ads
L
ads
+L
Id
]-E
E
cos8_-R
T
E
E
sIn8
D
8.71
i
q
=
R
T
_q
Id
_
L
ades
L
ads
+L
Id
]-E
E
cos8_+X
Td
E
E
sIn8
D
8.72
Where
R
E
= R
a
+R
E

X
Tq
= X
E
+(L
aqs
+L
I
) = X
E
+X
qs

X
Td
= X
E
+(L
i
ads
+ L
I
) = X
E
+X
i
ds

B = R
2
T
+X
Tq
X
Td

Linearized system equation
For small disturbance or perturbed values
Since i
d
onJi
q
is a function of state variable
]d
onJo so after incremental change
i
d
= m
1
o + m
2

]d
8.73
i
q
= n
1
o + n
2

]d
8.74
Where
m
1
, m
2
, n
1
onJn
2
are function of synchronous machine operating condition and operating
parameters.
m
1
=
L
B
(X
Tq
sIn6
0
-R
T
cos 6
0
)

n
1
=
L
B
(R
T
sIn6
0
+X
Td
cos 6
0
)

m
2
=
X
Tq

L
cd
(L
cd
+L
]d
)
8.75
n
2
=
R
T

L
cd
(L
cd
+L
]d
)

Now linearizing
ud
onJ
uq
then we get

ud
= I

uds
_i
d
+

]d
L
]d
]
= _
1
L
]d
m
2
] I

uds

]d
m
1
I

uds
o 8.76

uq
= I
uqs
i
q

= n
2
I
uqs

]d
n
1
I
uqs
o
Now incremental change in field current
i
]d
=

]d
-
cd
L
]d

=
1
L
]d
_1
L

cd
L
]d
+m
2
I

uds
]
]d
+
1
L
]d
I

uds
o 8.77
For torque
I
c
=
d
i
q

q
i
d

=
uds
i
q

uqs
i
d

Now linearizing this equation then we get
I
c
=
ud0
i
q
i
q0

ud

uq0
i
d
i
d0

uq

Substituting fori
d
, i
q
,
]d
onJ
uq
from above equations then we get
I
c
= K
1
o +K
2

]d
8.78
Where
K
1
= n
1
(
ud0
+I
uqs
i
d0
) m
1
(
uq0
+ I

uds
i
q0
) 8.79
K
2
= n
2
(
ud0
+I
uqs
i
d0
) m
2
(
uq0
+I

uds
i
q0
) +
L

cd
L
]d
i
q0
8.80
K
1
o=Synchronizing torque component.
K
2

]d
=Torque component due to variation in field flux component
By linearizing equations (8.52) to (8.54) and substitute the expression fori
]d
andI
c
given by
equation (8.77) and (8.78) we obtain the system equations in the desired final form:

]d
=
o
11
o
12
o
13
o
21
u u
u o
32
o
33

]d
+
b
11
u
u u
u b
32
_
I
m
E
]d
_ 8.81

Where
o
11
=

2H
o
12
=

1
2H

o
13
=

2
2H
o
21
=
0
= 2
0

o
32
=

0
R
]d
L
]d
m
1
I

uds

o
33
=

0
R
]d
L
]d
_1
L

cd
L
]d
+ m
2
I

uds
_ 8.82
b
11
=
1
2H
b
32
=

0
R
]d
L
cdu

I
uds
onJI
uqs
Saturated value.
For field

]d
= o
32
o +o
33

]d
+ b
32
E
]d

Take Laplace transform of above equation and we get

]d
=

3
1+p1
3
|E
]d
K
4
o] 8.83
Where
K
3
=
b
32
u
33

K
4
=
u
32
b
32
8.84
I
3
=
1
u
33
= K
3
I

d0
L
cdu
L
]]d

In the above equation s is replace by p


Figure (8.9)
This is the model for synchronous machine filed winding dynamics.

Effect of field flux linkage variation on system stability
From above block-diagram; with constant field voltage (E
]d
= u), the field flux variation are
caused only by feedback of o through coefficient K
4
.
This represents the demagnetizing effect of the armature reaction.
The change in air-gap torque due field flux variation caused by rotor angle changes is given by

1
c
6
Jucto
]d
=

4
1+s1
3

K
2,
K
3
, onJK
4
usually positive.
Now we examine frequency of oscillation of rotor.
In steady state and at very low oscillation frequency.
s = ] u
I
c
Jucto
]d
= K
2
K
3
K
4
o
From above equation we conclude that I
c
(air gap torque); the field flux variation due to o
feedback (due to armature reaction) introduction a negative synchronizing torque component.
The system is unstable when
|K
2
K
3
K
4
o| > K
1
o
Steady state stability reached when
I
c
= (K
1
K
2
K
3
K
4
)
___________
ctschozg
toquc
coc]]cct
o
When field flux linkages are constant i.e.
]d
= u then synchronizing torque coefficient is
onlyK
1
.
Let rotor is oscillate with some frequency

1
c
6
Jucto
]d
=

4
1+s1
3

Put s = ] and rationalize it then we get
I
c|
]d
=

2

4
6
1+
2
1
3
2
_____
Schosgtoquc
compoct
+
]
2

4
1
3
6
1+
2
1
3
2
_________
dumpgtoquc
compoct

We put in above equation
o =

0
s

Change in electrical torque or air gap torque due to change in flux linkages only
I
c|
]d
=

4
1+
2
1
3
o +

4
1
3
1+
2
1
3
2

0

At oscillating frequency much higher than
1
I
3
, :
I
c

4
]1
3
]o
Thus, component of air gap torque due to
]d
to 9u
0
ahead of o
Or in phase with .Hence,
]d
results in a positive damping torque

r

T
s
T
e T
e
K
2

fd

Figure (8.10)

]d
result in positive damping torque and a negative synchronizing torque component .The net
effect is to reduce slightly the synchronizing torque component and increases the damping torque
component.