INITIAL RESULTS OF WEB BASED BLENDED LEARNING IN THE FIELD OF

AIR CARGO SECURITY

Philipp Sury Sandrina Ritzmann Adrian Schwaninger, Prof. Dr.

University of Applied University of Applied University of Applied
Sciences and Arts Sciences and Arts Sciences and Arts
Northwestern Switzerland Northwestern Switzerland Northwestern Switzerland
(FHNW), School of Applied (FHNW), School of Applied (FHNW), School of Applied
Psychology (APS) Psychology (APS) Psychology (APS)
Institute Humans in Institute Humans in Institute Humans in
Complex Systems (MikS) Complex Systems (MikS) Complex Systems (MikS)
Riggenbachstrasse 16 Riggenbachstrasse 16 Riggenbachstrasse 16
4600 Olten, Switzerland 4600 Olten, Switzerland 4600 Olten, Switzerland
philipp.sury@fhnw.ch sandrina.ritzmann@fhnw.ch adrian.schwaninger@fhnw.ch
and and and
Center for Adaptive Center for Adaptive Center for Adaptive
Security Research and Security Research and Security Research and
Applications (CASRA) Thurgauerstrasse Applications (CASRA) Thurgauerstrasse Applications (CASRA) Thurgauerstrasse
39 39 39
8050 Zurich, Switzerland 8050 Zurich, Switzerland 8050 Zurich, Switzerland

Abstract – With the currently implemented high standards in
passenger screening, air cargo is being perceived as the
security chain’s weakest link in civil aviation and therefore
becomes an attractive target for terrorists. Detailed regulations
exist to harden air cargo against terrorist attacks. Blended
learning training methods can be used to enable screeners to
detect suspicious consignments even in situations when
technical measures (e.g. x-ray) do not indicate any threat. In
this study, blended learning was conducted at a handling
agent’s premises at a Swiss airport in three courses (seven
trainees in total) and evaluated subsequently. Results show a
very high satisfaction with the training and very high scores in
the final exam. However, trainees repeatedly skipped text
inside the web based training (WBT) leading to the conclusion
that the WBT has to be optimized in terms of presentation
modes. Suggestions on how to create even more engaging
WBT content can be found in various methods of classification
of computer based training (CBT) and are discussed in this
paper.
Index Terms — airport security, web-based training, blended
learning, training evaluation.
I. INTRODUCTION
Although the aviation industry currently experiences a
suboptimal period (freight ton kilometer growth was down -2.2%
in May 2012 compared to May 2011) [1] due to the recent
global economic conditions, air cargo is still a major facilitator
according to the International Air Transport Association (IATA).
While air cargo is relatively small in volume in comparison to
freight shipped on the sea, it delivers disproportionally highly
valuable goods and is expected to grow with the continued
emergence of the BRICS economies (Brazil, Russia, India,
China, South Africa) [2]. In this context, terrorist attacks on air
cargo pose a major security threat to an important pillar of the
world economy. On top of that, according to TIME [3], 42% of
the total weight of 7.3 billion pounds of air cargo annually
shipped to the USA are being transported on passenger flights,
so threats against air cargo are not only a threat against the
global economy, but also a threat against the lives of air
travelers worldwide. As a matter of fact, TIME reports in the
same article [3] that the bombs in the famous printer bomb plot
traveled as cargo in two passenger flights before being
discovered. In October 2010, two parcels, each containing a
used desktop printer with an improvised explosive device (IED)
inside the printer cartridge, traveled from Yemen to the United
States until they were discovered in Dubai and the United
Kingdom. US authorities believe that these two IEDs were
targeting the planes that carried them and not the two locations
in Chicago they were addressed to. It is evident that the case of
secure air cargo is of uttermost importance.
In order to reach the required level of security, extensive
security measures need to be implemented involving
sophisticated equipment, standardized processes, high quality
training, and continuous quality control. As there is always a
human operator at the end of the decision process, whether an
object is secure or not, high quality training of screening officers
still is a key factor for success despite the high standards of
modern technology. In Sury, Nef & Schwaninger [4], blended
learning [5] in combination with systematic training evaluation
[6] was suggested as an efficient approach to training in the
field of securing air cargo. In this approach, computer based
training (CBT) or web based training (WBT) is combined with
training by an instructor in face to face settings (FTF). This
approach allows drawing from the strengths of both CBT/WBT
and FTF to create an efficient and comprehensive learning
experience.

1
 The objective of the present pilot study was to put the
approach suggested by Sury and colleagues [4] into practice by
designing, implementing and evaluating a blended learning
program in the field of air cargo screening.
II. METHOD
A. Participants
To start its air cargo screening business, a handling agent
located at one of Switzerland’s major airports had a training
need for a total of five trainees. Trainees #1 to #4 were male,
trainee #5 was female.
Trainees #1 and #2 were experienced professionals in the
field of handling air cargo, but did not have any experience in
the screening of freight. Their goal was to obtain a Swiss
certificate for cargo screening which would permit them to work
as cargo screening officers. Trainee #5 already was a certified
cargo screening officer, so participation in the study counted
towards her mandatory recurrent training. Trainees #3 and #4
are members of the handling agent’s management and
participated in the initial training as a precondition for their
additional training as prospective instructors. Since they had no
intention to work as cargo screening officers themselves, they
had no need for the cargo screening certificate.
B. Training
The training goals are defined in a confidential document of
the Swiss Federal Office of Civil Aviation (FOCA) [7] and are
consistent with EU regulations [8]. The FOCA basically requires
two types of training: one type of training for the recognition of
objects shapes in x-ray images, and a second type of training
covering all other theoretical (e.g. knowledge of terrorist
incidents in recent aviation history) and practical (e.g. how to
operate x-ray machines) topics.
To learn the shapes of forbidden objects in air cargo, the
trainees used the X-Ray Tutor (XRT) software [9]. XRT uses an
adaptive algorithm to automatically match a trainee’s skill level,
so learning the shapes of forbidden objects is very efficient.
For the theoretical and practical training, the WBT part of the
blended learning was designed according to Gerson’s [10]
guidelines for online classes (Table I). The WBT was performed
on the CASRA Learning System (CLS) platform, a Learning
Management System (LMS) that allows the creation,
implementation, and evaluation of web based courses. The
FTF parts were designed according to Murphy, Neequaye,
Kreckler & Hands [11] where applicable to the learning content
(Table II).
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TABLE I
THE E-CLASS STRUCTURE OF A BLENDED LEARNING LESSON
Step Action
Explain Used to motivate the trainees by explaining the
lesson’s purpose and connected benefits.
Clarify The main part where theory and the learning
content in general is being presented.
Look In this part, one or several examples are being
presented to illustrate what was previously
discussed in theory.
Act & Share In this part, trainees are supposed to act and work
with the learning content, for example by solving
problems, write summaries, give presentations,
engage in groups discussions, etc.
Self- In the self-evaluate part, trainees solve test
Evaluate questions autonomously to verify whether they have
reached the lesson’s learning objectives or not.
Based on this verification, they are supposed to go
back and restudy relevant parts or move on to the
next chapter.
Summary The summary provides a “take home message”, in
other words the most important parts of the lesson
condensed into a few short sentences to be more
easily remembered.
TABLE II
THE FOUR STEPS COGNITIVE MODEL FOR FTF INSTRUCTION
Step Instructor and trainee behavior
1 The instructor silently performs the task.
The trainee silently observes.
2 The instructor performs the task and continuously
provides comments.
The trainee silently observes.
3 The instructor silently performs the task.
The trainee continuously provides comments.
4 The trainee performs the task and continuously provides
comments.
The instructor corrects the trainee where needed.
C. Quality Control
For the purpose of getting feedback from the trainees on the
perceived quality of the blended learning program, a
questionnaire was designed based on Kauffeld, Brennecke &
Strack [12]. The questionnaire covered the following five topics:
Overall success, basic conditions, training sessions, instructors,
and software products. Trainees provided ratings concerning
the quality of the course on a five point Likert scale [13]. A
sample question can be found in Table III.
TABLE III
SAMPLE QUESTION OF THE BLENDED LEARNING PROGRAM
EVALUATION QUESTIONNAIRE
Please state how satisfied you are with the instructor’s ability to help
you during this training.
 Very dissatisfied
 Dissatisfied
 Unsure
 Satisfied
 Very satisfied
This questionnaire corresponds to the first level (“Reaction”)
in Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick’s training evaluation taxonomy [6].
To collect the data, trainees filled in an online questionnaire
where they could anonymously rate their learning experience at
the very end of the blended learning program.
 Every instance of the blended learning program also ended
with a mandatory written and practical exam [7]; their results
were later used for evaluation purposes according to Kirkpatrick
& Kirkpatrick’s [6] second level of evaluation (“Learning”). See
Table IV for an overview on Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick’s four
training evaluation levels.

TABLE IV
TRAINING EVALUATION LEVELS ACCORDING TO KIRKPATRICK
& KIRKPATRICK
Level Focus Explanation
1 Reaction This step deals with how the trainees feel about
the training, how they liked it, whether they
found it useful or not, etc. This information is
typically being collected using questionnaires.
2 Learning This step tests how much the students retained
of the learning content. Usually they have to
perform some sort of final exam.
3 Behavior This step asks whether the newly acquired
learning content is being transferred into the
daily work routine or not. Work analysis, a
method in work psychology, is the typical tool
for this step.
4 Results This step is concerned with the training
program’s economic benefits for a company
(e.g., higher productivity, bigger profits, reduced
costs, less employee turnover, improved
quality).
Fig. 1: Illustration of the procedure used in this blended
After the training, the trainees independently continued their
learning program at the premises of a Swiss handling agent.
training with the WBT learning content and the XRT software.
After the refresher training, a team of FOCA inspectors
performed an audit of the handling agent’s premises and staff.
This federal audit was totally independent from the blended III. RESULTS
learning program, but was an additional and important source
of data to determine its validity and success.
For all items of the online reactions questionnaire, median
D. Procedure values were calculated. The median was chosen due to the
small sample size (n=7). Resulting values can be found in
The procedure including types of training, quality control, Table V. All except one reached the value of five.
federal audit and participating trainees can be seen in Figure 1. To measure the trainees’ learning progress, trainees had to
After the refresher training, the premises of the handling take a written and a practical exam. Scores of the written
agent were also audited by a federal inspection team based on exams and results of the practical exam are displayed in Table
the criteria as detailed in [7]. This mandatory audit was a crucial VI. For the theoretical test, one point was assigned for every
milestone in terms of validity of the blended learning program correct answer with a maximum of 76 points that could be
since an independent audit team assessed on whether the achieved. Trainees passed the written exam when they
mandatory learning goals were met or not. In order to screen air achieved 66% (i.e. 50 points) or more of the maximum 76
cargo, trainees #1 and #2 also had to pass a Swiss certification points. The practical exam was scored as pass or fail judged by
test in order to obtain their screener licenses, trainee #5 also a senior aviation security instructor who closely observed the
had to take the certification test in order to renew her existing trainees performances during the practical exams.
screener license.
As explained in A. Participants, a total of five trainees
participated in the blended learning program. However, trainees
#1 and #2 participated in both the basic training and the
refresher training (see Figure 1), contributing twice to quality
control with their questionnaire and examination data. For the
purpose of analysis, their contributions were treated as being
from independent observers, therefore resulting in a sample
size of n=7 rather than n=5. This approach is justified by the
argument that there was an eight month gap between the basic
and the refresher training when those trainees did not work as
security screening officers as they were still lacking their cargo
screening certifications. By the time they did the refresher
training, it was almost as if they were new to the training again.

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 TABLE V IV. DISCUSSION
OVERALL MEDIAN VALUES FOR ALL ITEMS OF THE
REACTIONS QUESTIONNAIRE (INITIAL TRAINING AND
Median values in Table IV report a high satisfaction among
RECURRENT TRAINING COMBINED)
Median Questionnaire Item trainees with the blended learning program concerning its
5 Overall success overall success, its basic conditions, training sessions,
instructors, and quality of the software products used. The only
Basic Conditions
aspect where trainees expressed less than maximal
5 Organization satisfaction was the course handbook (Table V). At this point it
5 Room has to be mentioned that the course handbook was kept rather
5 Infrastructure short and concise because all trainees have full access to all
4 Handbook web based learning material for an entire year after the training.
Rather than having them read an extensive handbook, it was
Training Sessions the idea that they would go back online and redo the learning
5 Length of training sessions modules, exercises, and tests in order to refresh their
5 Time management
knowledge. However, the reduced satisfaction with the
5 Variety of learning content
5 Well defined learning objectives
handbook hints at trainees still needing a paper handbook as a
5 Level of difficulty tool of reference in case of later questions. Concerning the
5 Quality handbook, the next step is to go back to the handling agent and
5 Orientation to practical relevance more carefully assess trainees’ expectations and needs
5 Atmosphere concerning the handbook. After that, these insights have to be
fitted into the existing psychological, educational, and
Instructors methodological framework and then the blended learning
5 Competence program revised as necessary in order to have a better
5 Didactics
implementation of the handbook in a given course.
5 Ability to help
An important piece of insight stems from instructors’
5 Organization
5 Friendliness
observations during the course as they repeatedly saw trainees
skipping pages inside the WBT. It turned out that the trainees
Software Products do not like to read text so they are increasingly tempted to skip
5 X-Ray Tutor (x-ray training) it if the amount of text surpasses a certain individual threshold.
5 CLS (e-learning platform) Although the WBT was designed with the rule “as much text as
necessary, as little text as possible” in mind, the trainees
TABLE VI apparently still considered the text passages as too long. In
FINAL SCORES AND GRADES OF THE WRITTEN AND other words, in order to continue the improvement of the WBT
PRACTICAL EXAMS OF ALL PARTICIPANTS (n=7). SCORE RANGE
and create more engaging learning content, a solution has to
FOR THE WRITTEN EXAM IS 0 TO 76 POINTS.
be found to the question of how the same amount of
Trainee Training Written Written Practical information can represented in a different, entertaining, yet
# Type Score Exam Grade Exam Grade
easy to memorize form. A solution to this problem might be
#1 Initial 76/76 Passed Passed
found in Schulmeister’s taxonomy [14] on the interactivity of
#2 Initial 75/76 Passed Passed
#3 Initial 70/76 Passed Passed
multimedia (Table VIII).
#4 Initial 65/76 Passed Passed
#1 Recurrent - Passed Passed TABLE VIII
#2 Recurrent - Passed Passed SCHULMEISTER’S TAXONOMY ON THE INTERACTIVITY OF
#5 Recurrent - Passed Passed MULTIMEDIA.
Level Degree of Interactivity: Trainees can…
1 …look at objects
In order to pass the corresponding certification tests for 2 …look at objects in various presentations
security screeners working in Switzerland, trainees #1, #2, and 3 …vary the forms of representation of objects
#5 also trained with the X-Ray Tutor (XRT) software [9] for 4 …modify the objects in a certain form of representation
cargo. Table VII shows their progress in XRT prior to the 5 …create the objects in a certain form of representation
certification. 6 …create the objects in a certain form of representation
and receive intelligent feedback from the system based
TABLE VII on their actions.
XRT TRAINING DATA OF TRAINEES PREPARING FOR THE X-
RAY SCREENING CERTIFICATION. In Table VIII, level 1 corresponds to a task like for example
Trainee Current Time on Images analyzed Image looking at a static website whereas level 6 corresponds to an
# Level course at current level Library elaborate simulator. Levels 2 to 5 are steps with increasing
#1 5 08:21:00 48 Cargo complexity in between. Currently the WBT of the existing
#2 6 22:27:00 4457 Cargo blended learning program corresponds to level 2. Learning
#5 6 40:59:00 4456 Cargo content is presented in various forms in order for trainees to be
more easily able to memorize it. Interestingly, Craik and
The handling agent passed the audit by the federal Lockhart [15] developed a theory called levels of processing
inspection team. All screening officers also passed their (LoP) that deals with the question how trainees are able to
certification tests. memorize learning content better. Craik and Lockhart argue

4
that the more deeply a given piece of information is being
analyzed by a human observer, the more likely the piece of
information will be retrieved from memory. At this point it can be
argued that Schulmeister’s taxonomy of multimedia nicely
corresponds with Craik and Lockhart’s LoP. It is assumed that
the more interactively the multimedia learning content is
designed, the more deeply it is being processed by a trainee
and the more likely will be the trainee in remembering the
content later, e.g. while working on the job or being asked
questions by a federal inspection team. Therefore, in order to
create improved and more engaging WBT learning content, a
next step could be to move on to level 3 or above with the
existing blended learning program. This is especially true if a
handling agent is aiming at creating a course that is completely
computer based in order to save expenses for instructors. Well-
trained, experienced instructors in aviation security are able to
create a motivating, interesting and engaging learning
environment that drives a trainee forward based on the social
interactions with the instructor. If the FTF part with the
instructors were to be left away, e.g. in an attempt to cut costs,
a decline of the trainees’ learning performances would be
observed unless the interactivity of the WBT is increased in
order to receive the same effects of training. Ideally, however,
training involves a highly interactive CBT/WBT in combination
with FTF training by an instructor just like e.g. in the case of
airline pilots’ training.
Last but not least, the fact that the handling agent’s
employees passed their certification exams and the company
successfully passed a federal inspection can be seen as an
additional piece of evidence for the effectiveness of the blended
learning program.
The interpretation of the results is limited due to the small
sample size and it is evident that further data has to be
collected as new screening officers are being trained for their
new jobs. However, it is expected that the observation where
trainees skip text is fairly constant. It can be argued that even
people who like to read enjoy reading short and concise texts,
so the reduction of text is not only beneficial for people who
have a hard time reading, but also for those who are very
skilled at it. Likewise it can be argued that a WBT developed
along Schulmeister’s taxonomy [15] of interactive multimedia
will be enjoyed by both proficient and less proficient readers as
it satisfies their needs to explore, test, and play. The biggest
challenge for this type of improvement arguably is the cost to
develop interactive multimedia features. This is especially true if
one came to the conclusion that the current blended learning
program is “good enough” to allow a company to pass the
federal inspection. Based on the ideas connected with LoP [16],
it is evident that smartly designed interactive multimedia would
continue to enhance the blended learning program’s training
efficiency. However, this will only start to become economically
feasible at a certain point where the number of trainees and the
related rise in expenses for instructors justifies the cost of
designing high quality interactive multimedia learning content.
Redesigning the WBT part by adding new interactive
multimedia features would also automatically include a redesign
of the FTF parts of the training since the benefits of blended
learning can only be harvested if the WBT and FTF are
streamlined.
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V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
To this day, civil aviation is a key facilitator for the global
economy, which is one reason why it is an attractive target for
terrorists. In order to prevent terror attacks, security staff has to
be carefully trained as training is a prerequisite to successfully
identify the clues hinting at a potential attack. At the 2011
ICCST conference, the framework for a blended learning
program was introduced for training screening officers [4]. In
the meantime, the blended learning program has been put to
test in a pilot study at the premises of a handling agent at a
major Swiss airport in order to provide initial training for novice
screening officers and recurrent training for certified screening
officers. Initial results based on Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick’s
taxonomy on training evaluation [6] look promising, especially if
seen in combination with the results of a federal inspection.
Future improvements of the blended learning program could be
achieved by increasing the level of interactivity of the web
based training (WBT) in order to increase the efficiency of the
trainees’ learning process.
VI. REFERENCES
[1] IATA Press Communications (2012, Jul. 02). Demand
growth slows [Online]. Available:
http://www.iata.org/pressroom/pr/Pages/2012-07-02-
01.aspx
[2] G. Hughes (2011, Dec. 01). Air cargo sustainability
[Online]. Available:
http://www.iata.org/pressroom/facts_figures/Documents/c
argo-sustainability-dec2011.pdf
[3] TIME (2010, Nov. 02). The Weak Spot in Air Security:
Cargo Screening [Online]. Available:
http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,2028872,0
0.html
[4] Ph. Sury, J. Nef, A. Schwaninger, Improving secure
handling of air cargo by means of web based blended
learning. Proceedings of the 2011 IEEE International
Conference on Security Technology (ICCST), pp.1-3. doi:
10.1109/CCST.2011.6095940, 2011.
[5] C.J. Bonk, C.R. Graham, The handbook of blended
learning: global perspectives, local designs, San
Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer, 2006.
[6] D.L. Kirkpatrick, J.D. Kirkpatrick, Evaluating training
programs: The four levels, San Francisco, CA: Berret-
Koehler, 2006.
[7] Federal Office of Civil Aviation, National civil aviation
security programme, Bern: Swiss Federal Government,
2010.
[8] European Commission, “Commission regulation (EU) No
185/2010 of March 2010 laying down detailed measures
for the implementation of the common basic standards on
aviation security,” Official Journal of the European Union,
 2010.
[9] A. Schwaninger, Computer based training: a powerful tool
to the enhancement of human factors, Aviation Security
International, no. 2, pp. 31-36, 2004.
[10] S.M. Gerson. (2000, Dec.). E-CLASS: creating a guide to
online course development for distance learning faculty.
Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration
[Online]. Available:
http://www.westga.edu/~distance/ojdla/winter34/gerson34
.html
lectured at the Embry Riddle Aeronautical University, campus
Berlin (“Aviation Psychology” & “Memory and Cognition”),
and supervised students at the University of St. Gallen.
Sandrina got her degree in Psychology from the University of
Berne, Switzerland, in 2007 (work and organizational
psychology, neuropsychology) and recently finished her PhD
on crew resource management training at the University of
Duisburg-Essen, Germany. She was granted a fellowship for
prospective researchers from the Swiss National Science
Foundation and spent ten months as a visiting PhD student
at the University of Aberdeen, Scotland, at the Industrial
Psychology Research Centre led by Prof. Rhona Flin.

[11] M.A. Murphy, S. Neequaye, S. Kreckler, L.J. Hands,
“Should we train the trainers? Results of a randomized
trial”, Journal of the American College of Surgeons, vol.
207, no. 2, pp. 185-190, 2008.
[12] S. Kauffeld, J. Brennecke, M. Strack, „Das Massnahmen-
Erfolgs-Inventar (MEI) zur Bewertung von Trainings,“ in
Handbuch Kompetenzentwicklung. Stuttgart, Germany:
Schäffer-Poeschel, 2009, pp. 55-78.
[13] R. Likert, “A human organizational measurement
approach”, Financial Analysts Journal, vol. 27, pp. 75-84,
1971.
[14] R. Schulmeister, Taxonomie der Interaktivität von
Multimedia - Ein Beitrag zur aktuellen Metadaten-
Diskussion [Online]. Available: http://www.zhw.uni-
hamburg.de/pdfs/interaktivitaet.pdf
Prof. Dr. Adrian Schwaninger lectures at the University of
Zurich since 1999 and at the University of Applied Sciences
and Arts Northwestern Switzerland since 2008. He is the
head of the Center for Adaptive Security Research and
Applications (www.casra.ch) in Zurich and the head of the
Institute Humans in complex Systems (MikS) at the School of
Applied Psychology, University of Applied Sciences
Northwestern Switzerland (www.fhnw.ch/miks). His areas of
expertise are aviation security, human factors, scientifically
based software development, applied cognitive psychology,
and human-machine interaction. Adrian is a member of the
ECAC Training Task Force, the ECAC Technical Task Force,
the ICAO Working Group on Training. Adrian is recognized
as a leading authority on aviation security. He has more than
80 publications and more than 150 invited presentations. In
1999 he has received the Young Researcher Award in
Psychology. In 2003 he has received the ASI International
Award of Excellence in Aviation Security: Enhancement of
Human Factors.

[15] F. M. Craik, R. S. Lockhart, “Levels of processing: a

framework for memory research”, Journal of verbal
learning and verbal behavior, vol. 11, pp. 671-684, 1972.

I. VITA

Philipp Sury works as a research scientist at the University

of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland
(FHNW) and the Center for Adaptive Security Research and
Applications (www.casra.ch) in Zurich. He is a member of the
security research team led by Prof. Dr. Adrian Schwaninger
and strives to define a blended learning concept in aviation
security based on scientifically proven best practices. He also
lectures at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in
Zurich on human vision and product innovation. Philipp Sury
finished his studies in psychology (work psychology and
media psychology) at the University of Bern (Switzerland) in
2006 and is currently completing his PhD.

Sandrina Ritzmann works as a research scientist at the

University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern
Switzerland (FHNW) and the Center for Adaptive Security
Research and Applications (www.casra.ch) in Zurich. She is
also a member of the security research team led by Prof. Dr.
Adrian Schwaninger. Her research interests include human
factors in aviation in general and in aviation security in
particular, training in high reliability organizations, and
teamwork in complex sociotechnical systems. She has