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Introduction
D.J. Allan

The New Millennium is a time of change for the Electric Power Industry; new trading blocks have been formed, transnational mergers of manufacturers are being consolidated and key European utilities are all introducing unbundling programmes to split the generators from the transmission network and distributors, often by privatisation of nationalised undertakings. The European Community has introduced the Single Market and the Utilities Directive has changed the way that purchasers and manufacturers are making commercial contracts within the Community. The widespread use of power electronics to control large items of power plant, and to replace conventional high voltage devices, is revolutionising the control of high-voltage networks, allowing operators to redirect power flow through under-utilised parts of a network in order to maximise power flow in a system while minimising capital investment. At the same time new testing techniques are evolving where microprocessors and computers are used for the on-line manipulation and enhancement of recorded signals to provide better information regarding equipment under test. During the 1980s and 1990s there was reduction in popularity of power engineering amongst students, and many high-voltage laboratories at universities and polytechnics were closed down. The equipment was sold and the space converted to provide laboratories for light-current engineering. In the United Kingdom the industrial base shrank due to mergers and closures, and many industrial high-voltage laboratories were closed or mothballed. Few young engineers saw a future in the area of high-voltage engineering and the remaining high voltage laboratories are largely staffed by older although well experienced engineers. There is a clear need to redress the situation. Industry needs young engineers to work in the design offices and in high-voltage research, development and testing laboratories. Few British universities are able to

2 High voltuge engineering and testing

offer undergraduate courses with a substantial high-voltage engineering content. Young graduates in industry need further training in this area, and with the ramifications introduced by European Community Directives, courses of this type are needed to ensure the future of the Electric Power Industry. This book, and the vacation school on which it is based, provides essential information for the engineer engaged in high-voltage engineering and testing, and for those wishing to start a career in that area. It addresses changes in practices and procedures and the introduction and adoption of new technical advances. It is essential that the industry is able to progress at a fast rate, and to achieve this aim it is necessary to encourage and develop the expertise of engineers and to nurture and support the flow of new ideas.

1.1 History of high voltage engineering

Serious high-voltage engineering began with the induction coils constructed in 1836 by Nicholas Callan, a priest-scientist who was Professor of Natural Philosophy at Maynooth College, near Dublin. Callans Great Coil induced voltages of above 100 kV, but it was of academic interest only. In 1882, Lucien Gaulard and John Dixon Gibbs patented the first systems using alternating current, and in 1886 Karoly Zipenowski, Miska Deri and Otto Blathy. engineers from Ganz in Hungary, patented the first transformer. The invention of the transformer was the key that opened the door leading to efficient and effective power systems working at high-voltages. High-voltage power systems were installed throughout the world, based on Zipenowskis transformer invention. Systems were introduced in the United Kingdom at 132 k V (in the 1920s), 275 kV (in the 1950s) and at 400 kV (in the 1960sbhigher voltage systems were introduced overseas at 750 kV (in the 1960s) and 1100 kV (in the 1970s). The development of equipment was rapid up to UHV levels. Unfortunately, equipment at the higher voltages was introduced before the principles were fully understood. The first equipment installed at 132 kV was prone to fail due to lightning impulse activity, the first transformers installed in early 500 kV systems failed due to part-winding resonance, and the failure rate of transformers installed at 750 kV is recognised to be twice that for transformers operating at 400 kV. The lightning impulse failures in the 1920s led to a better understanding of transient voltage distributions within windings and to the introduction of lightning impulse tests. The analysis of later failures also led to the introduction of new dielectric tests in order to achieve acceptable levels of reliability and dependability of the installed equipment. New causes of failure are being investigated at present, including the effect of Very Fast Transients (VFT) initiated by disconnect switches in

Introduction

Gas Insulated Systems (GIs). VFTs with front times measured in nanoseconds lead to highly non-linear voltage distributions in power transformers, often causing winding failure in service. In order to demonstrate that equipment would be reliable in service, manufacturers and purchasers have formed third party bodies to develop standards. In Britain, the British Standards Institution was formed to undertake this work and has developed a series of Internationally accepted British Standards. Similar bodies were founded in other countries, and as early as 1906, the International Electrotechnical Commission was founded in order to prepare the common International Standards that were needed to facilitate international trade. The IEC prepared standards based on current practice. In a fast moving technology it was shown to be inefficient to carry out the pre-standardisation activity within IEC, and in 1921 the International Conference on Large High-Voltage Electric Systems (CIGRE) was founded to promote free discussion on research and on current investigations into the application of developing technologies, as a feeder organisation to IEC. CIGRE has since developed into a large, well structured organisation with 15 Study Committees, each charged with steering research and investigation on an International scale into the design, construction and operation of large high-voltage power systems. However, a key section of the CIGRE mission is still to provide the pre-standardisation input to IEC in the field of power generation and transmission systems. It became apparent that even CIGRE was not the appropriate body to organise basic research in high voltage engineering. In 1972 the first International Symposium on High Voltage Engineering (ISH) was held. ISH linked basic research in universities with the equipment-based research in industry. Formal links exist between the Technical and Subcommittees of IEC and the Study Committees of CIGRE, and between the CIGRE Study Committee responsible for high voltage techniques and ISH. Regional Standardisation Groups have also been formed to rationalise standardisation within geographical areas. Within Europe the European Committee for International Standardisation (CENELEC) was established in 1973 to take over the work started in 1959 by CENELCOM. CENELEC Standards are based, wherever possible, on IEC Standards but exist as Harmonised Documents (HDs) or European Norms (Ens), which are common standards adopted by all CENELEC countries. ENS, in particular, are strong mandatory documents enshrined in European Law. In North America, the equivalent regional group is ANSI, which generally adopts standards prepared by IEEE Technical Committees. In the past, there have been major differences between ANSI and CENELEC standards, but in future years it is expected that these differences will

High voltage engineering

and testing

be gradually harmonised, as all Regional Standardisation Groups endeavour to adopt IEC Standards as the basis of both Regional and National Standards.

1.2 High voltage power networks

IEC Standards are performance standards, which include the description of dielectric tests to be carried out on high-voltage equipment; the test methodology is prescribed together with selection charts relating test levels to system highest voltages. Most high-voltage networks operate at 330-500 kV with a much smaller number operating at 700-800 kV. Where power is to be wheeled between networks operating at different frequencies or operating at different phase angles, d.c. links are a successful method of providing a channel for power flow. The link may be hundreds of kilometres in length, with intermediate booster stations between the rectifier and converter terminals, or it may be a short back-to-back link between adjacent networks. Where power is required to flow through a specific channel in an a.c. network, phase-shifting transformers, quadrature booster transformers or other types of equipment controlled by power electronics are being proposed to force power to flow along paths that would not be taken without the intervention of these devices. The technology covers Flexible a x . Transmission Systems (FACTS) and employs power electronics devices to provide dynamic load brakes, modular series capacitors, static VAr compensators, all at high-voltage. During the early 1990s, the utility responsible for generation and transmission in England and Wales was privatised. The generation and transmission areas of the Central Electricity Generating Board (CEGB) were unbundled and two generating companies sold into private ownership. The twelve distributors, previously the Area Boards, were also sold into private ownership and the transmission system formed yet another company, owned initially by the distributors, but later sold to investors. Previously, the CEGB operated one of the largest interconnected power systems in the world, including generation and transmission in England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland within their control. Post-privatisation, the separate generators, distributors and the transmission network operate independently with their own design teams, purchasing specifications and technical specifications. Whereas these documents previously existed as common technical specifications to cover all equipment, the separate companies have now developed independent technical requirements. Whereas CEGB was a technically strong organisation, the new

Introduction

companies exhibit strong commercial attributes. Problems concerning high-voltage plant were previously handled by a single team; each successor company now has its own technical experts. The result can lead to diverging technical requirements and a lack of interactive discussion concerning common problems. This book will address the situation by providing tutorial information to those engineers who are taking new assignments involving high-voltage equipment and will encourage discussion of common problems within a learned society framework. It is important to differentiate clearly between standards and specifications. Standards may be mandatory, or voluntary, in which case the purchaser may nominate them in a contract. Specifications are the corpus of technical requirements adopted by a purchaser and are supplementary to the standards. The difference can be clarified by examining the triangle in Fig. I. 1, representing the hierarchy of needs. The triangle represents all the technical requirements for a contract; the requirements become more specific to a particular contract towards the apex of the triangle. The band at the base of the triangle represents those horizontal standards that apply to all electrical power plant, eg. insulation co-ordination, EMC and safety. The next band represents the vertical standards that apply to a particular range of equipment, e.g. the transformer or switchgear standards issued by IEC, CENELEC, BSI or ANSI. The next band represents the customers specifications for a particular range of equipment, e.g. the transformer or switchgear specifications or NGC, YEB, EDF or ENEL. The upper band represents particular site requirements defined in customer specifications, e.g. voltage and power ratings, installation limitations or seismic requirements.

Site requirements: power and voltage ratings, installation limitations,SFsetc Customers specificabkns: NGC, LEB. EDF, ENEL etc Vertical o r equipment standards. IEC, EN, HD, BS, ANSI etc
Horizontalstandards: quality, EMC, safety, insulation coordination etc

Figure I. I

A hierarchy of needs-stundards and specificutions

High voltcige engineering und testing

1.3 EC Directives

European standardisation is part of Community law, and must provide the framework and detail to verify that Directives issued by the EC are followed. The Utilities Directive, prepared following the introduction of the European Single Market in 1993, had specific requirements that must be followed by all utilities in placing orders for all electrical equipment above a certain value. The intention is to remove barriers to trade between member states. In order to achieve a level playing field, it is essential that each member state adopts the Directives in the same form, and ensures that they are followed by even policing in the same manner. It appears at present that the playing field is far from level; different member states are interpreting the Directives differently and the way in which they are followed varies between countries. The main directives associated with high voltage engineering are:
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The Utilities Directive The Electromagnetic Compatibility Directive (EMC) The Certification Directive.

The EMC Directive was adopted in 1996, but the current situation is far from clear. It is difficult to see how it can apply to high voltage electric power systems or to railway systems. The requirements of the Directive are that electromagnetic emission from the system should not affect the working of other equipment, and the system should be immune to the electromagnetic interference from other equipment. Clearly, there is a problem where power systems with overhead lines and with power electronic equipment is concerned. The Department of Trade and Industry originally advised that the Directive would cover electric power systems; other European member states advised utilities that they would be excluded. The present situation has softened, but the original UK legislation is still in place. The Utilities Directive, linked to the Public Procurement Directive, includes requirements concerning quality assurance certification of manufacturers. Certification of a manufacturer includes the operation of its high-voltage test laboratory, and at present it is necessary to validate the calibration of the instruments used for third party testing (on behalf of other manufacturers), and legislation will require the validation of test systems, including the in-situ calibration of high-voltage dividers used to measure a.c., d.c., lightning or switching impulse voltages. Again, there are substantial differences in the ways that these requirements are being interpreted in different Member States. Some require much stronger qualification than others, and the result may well be a barrier to trade rather than a level playing field. The goalposts are

Introduction 7

constantly moving and it is important that all engineers engaged in highvoltage engineering, or equipment design, develop a strong, up-to-date grasp of the legislation in place.

1.4 The future of HV engineering

In some countries there is an evident change in demand for the type of power station envisaged. The ordering of new large coal-fired or nuclear stations is in decline due to the long manufacturing and building times. More Combined Cycle Gas Turbine (CCGT) power stations are being ordered and embedded in lower voltage sectors of the electricity networks. CCGT stations have become viable in Europe since the EC changed rules to allow gas to be burned in power stations. However, the move towards gas-fired stations has stretched gas supplies and the price of gas may yet make CCGT stations uneconomic to operate. The traditional roles of T&D in utilities and manufacturers is changing. Utilities are splitting the T and D interests, and manufacturers are focusing on transmission plant or distribution plant rather than on a joint manufacturing operation. It is certain that in the future there will still be a demand for large power stations operating at high-voltage. High-voltage transmission lines will still be required, operating under both a.c. and d.c. conditions to take power from where it is generated to the centres of load, perhaps many hundreds of kilometres away. Components and plant will be needed for the new stations and transmission lines, and to replace ageing equipment. All the high voltage components and equipment will require to be validated by testing. At the same time, new test techniques are being developed and new tests proposed. It is important that as much information as possible is extracted from the test results, and that tests give a true insight into the reliability and dependability of the equipment manufactured and tested. The progress in power electronics will allow new concepts in equipment design to be trialled and installed. The use of microprocessor-based instrumentation when testing equipment in the factory, and in monitoring the condition of equipment in service, will offer new opportunities for high voltage engineers to develop novel instrumentation, new techniques and to change and replace existing test procedures with new methods that are both searching and successful in establishing the quality, reliability and dependability of the components and equipment used in the high-voltage electric power networks. There has never been a more opportune moment for engineers to take up high-voltage engineering as a career. There is a shortage of engineers qualified in high voltage technology in the industry, and the age spectrum of those engineers in place indicates the need to have newly trained

High voltuge engineering and testing

engineers ready and able to replace many of the existing engineers within the next decade. The opportunities are available, and with the surge in new computer-controlled instrumentation, there will be a most interesting career available that will require engineers with a bias to both heavy and light current engineering, and with experience in both high-voltage engineering and electronics. The situation will demand the emergence of both managers and technical experts to undertake the research, development and industrial testing of equipment and of high voltage power systems for the future.