Ict-Bs 2 3-1

Information & Communication Technology
Module ICTBS2.3 Optical Fiber Communications

Unit ICTBS2.3/1 Optical Fibred Communications Systems and Networks
ICTBS2.3/1

Optical Fiber Communications Systems and
Networks
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Optical Fiber Communications
Code
Modules L P
ICT-BS-2.3/1 Optical Fibred Communications Systems and Networks 6 0 6
ICT-BS-2.3/1/1 Light and Electromagnetic Waves 1
ICT-BVF-2.3/1/2 Optical Propagation in Fiber 3
ICT-BVF-2.3/1/3 Splices, Connectors and Couplers 2
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Learning Content:

Electromagnetic spectrum
Advantages of using optical fiber in communication applications
Ray theory
Optical propagation in fiber
Modes in optical fiber propagation
Transmission characteristics in optical fiber communication
Optical fiber connections; splices and connectors

ICTBS2.3/1 Optical Fibred Communications Systems and Networks
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Recommended Books:

Optical Fiber Communications: Principles and Practice, 3rd Edition
John M. Senior and M. Yousif Jamro
Published by Prentice Hall.
Copyright 2009, Pages: 1075

Optical Fiber Communications, 4th Edition, Gerd Keiser
Published by Tata McGraw-Hill.
Copyright 2008, Pages: 580

ICTBS2.3/1 Optical Fibred Communications Systems and Networks
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What is a communication system?
Communication : transferring information from one point to another.
Generally, information is transferred by superimposing / modulating with a
electromagnetic wave (modulating carrier).
At the receiver, the original information is obtained by demodulating the carrier
modulated signal.

Source
Modulator
Transmission
Medium
Demodulator Destination
Communication System
Figure: General communication system.
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What is a communication system? (Contd.)
Above electromagnetic carrier waves can be operated in
- radio frequencies.
- microwave or millimeter frequencies.
- optical range of frequencies .

0 10
2
10
4
10
6
10
8
10
10
10
12
10
14
10
18
10
16
10
20
10
22
Long wave
Radio frequencies
Short
wave
Standard
Broadcast
VHF
UHF
Microwave
Millimeter
wave
Far infrared
Infrared
Ultraviolet
X-rays
Gamma
rays
Cosmic rays
1.7m 0.8m
Optical fiber communication
Visible spectrum
Red
~0.7m
Violet
~0.4m
Frequency(Hz)
Wavelength 3000 km 30 km 300 m 3 m 3 cm 0.3 mm 3 m 30 nm 0.3 nm 3 pm 0.3 pm
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More Attractively.
Figure: Electromagnetic spectrum.
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Optical Fiber Communication System
When it is operated at optical range of frequencies
Optical fiber communication

Figure: Optical fiber communication system.
Electrical Signal
Input
Modulator
Optical
Source
Output Signal
Demodulator
Optical
Detector
Transmission path
(Optical Fiber)
Transmitter
Receiver
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Optical Fiber Communication System (Contd.)
The major components of an optical fiber communication system;
Optical source
helps the electrical input signal to be modulated by a light wave carrier
(electrical-optical conversion).
e.g; Light emitting diodes (LEDs), laser diodes (LDs)
Transmission medium
An optical fiber which provides the transmission of optical wave from the
transmitter to the receiver.
Optical detector
Provides demodulation of the optical carrier (optical-electrical conversion).
e.g; Photodiodes, photo transistors and photo conductors.
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Enormous potential bandwidth
Small in size and weight
Electrical isolation
Increased signal security
Immunity to electrical interference and crosstalk
Low transmission loss
Ruggedness and flexibility
System reliability and ease of maintenance
Stable performance
Standardization
Advantages of Fiber Optic Communication
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Enormous potential bandwidth
- Optical fiber carrier frequency range 10
13
to 10
16
Hz
- For coaxial cable up to around 500 MHz
- For millimeter wave radio systems 700 MHz
- Higher bandwidth allows, several optical signals to be transmitted in parallel by
using the same center wavelength wavelength division multiplexing (WDM)
and DWDM
Advantages of Fiber Optic Communication (Contd.)
Figure : Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM).
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Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM) represents the latest fiber
optic transmission technologies. DWDM provides increased carrying capacity,
speeds, flexibility and reliability at a lower cost of service.

A DWDM optical fiber combines multiple signals and transmits the signals
simultaneously over the same DWDM fiber.

An example would be a multiplex eight OC-48 signal which is carried over a
single DWDM optical line allows for an increase of carrying capacity from 2.5
Gbps to 20 Gbps.

OC-48:

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OC-48:

Optical Carrier transmission rates are a standardized set of specifications
of transmission bandwidth for digital signals that can be carried on
Synchronous Optical Networking (SONET) fiber optic networks.

Transmission rates are defined by rate of the digital stream of the digital
signal and are designated by hyphenation of the acronym OC and an
integer value of the multiple of the basic unit of rate, e.g., OC-48.

The base unit is 51.84 Mbit/s. Thus, the speed of optical-carrier-classified
lines labeled as OC-n is n 51.84 Mbit/s.

51,84 Mbit/s * 48 ~ 2,5 Gbit/s

Figure : Dense Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM).
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An example would be a multiplex eight OC-48 signal which is carried over a
single DWDM optical line allows for an increase of carrying capacity from 2.5
Gbps to 20 Gbps.

DWDM optical lines are to carry 400 Gbit/s and new technologies in DWDM
are aimed at reaching speeds up to 1 Terabit per second.

DWDM optical lines can transmit data over IP, SONET/SDH, ATM and Ethernet
network technologies allowing for greater network compatibility and flexibility.

Small in size and weight
- Very Small diameters (0.10-100 m), normally not greater than the diameter of
human hair.
Electrical isolation
- Do not suffer from earth looping and interfacing problem because mostly optical
fibers are fabricated with electrical insulating materials; glass or plastic polymer.
Increased signal security
- It is not possible to obtain a part of a transmitted optical signal, without drawing
the total optical power from the fiber, because optical signals do not create any
magnetic field.
- Useful in military applications.

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Immunity to electrical interference and crosstalk
- No electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio-frequency interference (RFI)
due to the dielectrical nature of optical fibers no shielding is required.
- Not susceptible for lighting strikes when cables are used overhead rather than
underground.
- Crosstalk is negligible even when cables are bundled together.

Figure : Noise immunity in fiber transmission.
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Low transmission loss
- Losses are low as 0.2 dB/km.
- Facilitates larger repeater spacing in long distance communication thus
reduces the system cost and also complexity.

Copper pair
Microwave
Fiber
Figure : Low transmission loss in fiber facilitates larger repeater spacing.
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SAS-1
SAS-1:
Operational since 2003 .
Point-to-point, 333Km long repeater-less cable system linking
Jeddah with Sudan .
1.28Tbps capacity .

Ruggedness and flexibility
- Developed to have flexibility, compactability and ruggedness (able to bend in
small radii and to twist without damaging)
- Storage, transportation, handling and installation purposes are much easier
due to small in size and weight.

System reliability and ease of maintenance
- The lifetime of optical components are very high (20 to 30 years).
- Fewer repeater stations reduces the maintenance tasks.

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Figure: Pipes for fiber cable, air pressure installation
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Figure: fiber cable

International undersea network of fiber-optic cable
systems in the year 2000
Code
Modules L P
ICT-BS-2.3 Optical Fibred Communications Systems and Networks 6 0 6
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Fiber waveguide consists of
- A transparent core with a refractive index
- Core is surrounded by a transparent cladding with a refractive index

Cladding should be thick enough to support the waveguide to reduce radiation
losses to the surrounding air.
Introduction Fiber optics
1
n
2
n
1 2
- n n >
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Ray theory model with Snells law of reflection is used to assess the propagation of
light in an optical fiber.
Refractive index of the dielectric medium is used as the fundamental optical
parameter.

Therefore, this implies that a light ray travels slowly in more optically dense medium
than a less dense medium.
Basic Optical Laws
velocity of light in a vacuum
Refractive index
velocity of light in the medium
=
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Reflection at boundary layers
When a light beam impinges on the boundary layer between an
optically dense and optically rare medium, the beam is partly refracted
and partly reflected.

A mediums optical density is indicated by its refractive index.

The reflected light component depends on the two optical medias
refractive indices the lights angle of incidence on the boundary layer

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Reflection at boundary layers
When light is no longer able to leave the boundary layer between two optical
media, due to the critical angle of incidence having been exceeded, the light is
said to undergo total reflection.

An optical fibre utilizes total reflection to conduct light signals. For this purpose,
the fibres boundary layer must exhibit homogeneous optical properties at all
points to prevent an inadvertent escape of light signals.

If moisture or another optically transmissive substance were to cling to the fibre,
the light would no longer be fully reflected at this point.

The angle from which light is fully reflected is termed critical angle. The
boundary layers optical properties are ensured and safeguarded by the
cladding. An excessively small bending radius also leads to a transgression of
the critical angle and resultant escape of light signals.

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According to the Snells law of reflection when

angle of incidence

angle of refraction
Laws of Snell
1
u
2
u
1 2
2 1
sin
sin
n
n
u
u
=
1 2
( ), n n >
1
u
2
u
Air
Glass
1
( ) n
Exit ray
(refracted ray)
Incident ray
Partial internal
reflected ray
Figure: Light ray incident on high to low refractive index interfaces.
2
( ) n
Material boundary
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If angel of reflection , the refracted ray goes through the material boundary.
This is limiting case of refraction and gives angle of incidence as critical angle

0
90
2
u =
( )
1
u ( ).
c
u
2
sin
1
n
c
n
u =
Laws of Snell (Contd.)
1 2
( ) n n >
1
( ) n
Figure: Limiting case of refraction.
c
u
2
( ) n
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If angel of incidence is greater than the critical angle , the total light is reflected
back into the first dielectric medium.
This phenomena is called as total internal reflection.
Total Internal Reflection
( )
c
u
1 2
( ) n n >
1
( ) n
Figure: Total internal reflection where
c
| u > ( ).
| |
2
( ) n
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Two interfaces (material boundaries) are considered.
- Air- core interface
The ray enters the fiber core with an angle (acceptance angle) to the fiber
axis. It should be refracted to the core of the fiber.
- Core cladding interface
Then the ray should travel through the core with total internal reflection.
Ray Transmission in the Fiber
a
u
Total internal reflection is used to transmit a light ray in a optical fiber.

m
u
c
u
0
90
c
u
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The angle of interface, is the critical angle for core cladding interface.

Using Snells law,
For core - cladding interface,

(1)
For air core interface,

(2)
c
u
0
1 2
sin sin90
c
n n u =
2 1
sin
c
n n u =
0
1
sin sin(90 )
a m c
n n u u =
1
sin cos
a m c
n n u u =
Ray Transmission in the Fiber (Contd.)
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the numerical aperture (NA) of the fiber. (i.e. incident rays over the region
will be propagated within the fiber.)
From (1) ;

From trigonometry,

Therefore, from (2) ;

where and
2
1
sin
c
n
n
u =
0
c a
u u s s
1 2
2 2
sin
a
m
n n n u =
2 2
1 2
1
cos
c
n n
n
u

=
2 2
sin cos 1
c c
u u + =
1/2
1 2
2 2
sin (2 )
a
m
NA n n n n n u = = = A
1 2
n n n A =
1 2
1
( ).
2
n n n = +
sin
a
m
n u
Ray Transmission in the Fiber (Contd.)
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Fiber are classified into two commonly used types, according to the material
composition difference core and cladding. (i.e. Refractive index difference)
- Step index (SI) fiber
- Graded index(GI) fiber
Commonly Used Fiber Types
core core
n
1
n
2
(a)
(b)
Figure : Refractive index profiles of (a) SI fiber (b) GI fiber.
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Fiber Modes Classification
When the light rays enter the fiber at different paths with different angles, the light
can follow different modes.
- Single mode : A single straight line through the fiber core

- Multimode : With a number of reflections along the fiber
Figure : Single-mode SI fiber.
Figure : Multimode SI fiber and multimode GI fiber.
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Light transmission in a fibre
An optical waveguide's core can be made to have a constant or variable
refractive index. A constant refractive index is also known as step-index,
a variable refractive index is also known as gradient index.

Step-index fibres have a core of a constant refractive index which is
enclosed in a cladding of a lower refractive index.

In this case, light beams impinging on the boundary between fibre and
cladding are abruptly deflected. Relatively large losses occur at the
deflection points, resulting in a high degree of attenuation.

Scattered light paths result in correspondingly scattered transmission
times and tend to lower transmission rates. The advantage of step-index
fibre is its relatively low manufacturing costs.

Light transmission in a fibre
A gradient-index fibres refractive index drops continuously toward the
fibres edge.

As a result, the light beam is guided in the form of a gentle wave through
the fibre, and does not undergo any sudden reflection at the boundary
between core and cladding.

This lowers the attenuation of light inside the fibre and balances out the
travelling times of the individual light rays, hence tending to increase the
transmission rate.

Gradient-index fibre is more expensive to manufacture than step-index
fibre.

.

Fiber which consists a core with constant refractive index n
1
and a cladding of
slightly lower refractive index n
2
.

where a is the core radius.
Step Index Fiber
1
2
; (core)
( )
; (cladding)
n r a
n r
n r a
s
=

>
Figure: A multimode step index fiber.

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Does not have a constant index in the core (parabolic profile).

where n
0
is the refractive index on the axis and a is the core radius .

2
'
0
'
0
1 r < a ; (core)
( )
1 r a ; (cladding)
r
n
a
n r
n
(
| |
A (
|
\ .
( =

(
A >
'
0 2
0
-
fractional total change of the core refractive index.
n n
n
A =
Graded Index Fiber
Figure: A multimode graded index fiber.
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Comparison Basic Fiber Modes
Parameter
Single mode
SI Fiber
Multimode
SI Fiber
Multimode
GI Fiber
S
t
r
u
c
t
u
r
e

Core diameter 5 - 10 m 50 - 400 m 30 - 100 m
Cladding diameter
125 m

125 - 500 m 100 - 150 m
Buffer jacket diameter 250 - 1000 m 250 - 1000 m 250 - 1000 m
Numerical aperture 0.08 0.15 0.16 0.5 0.2 0.3
P
e
r
f
o
r
m
a
n
c
e

Attenuation
(at a wavelength of 0.85 m)
2 5 dB/km 2.6 50 dB/km 2 10 dB/km
Bandwidth > 500 MHzkm 6 50 MHzkm
300 MHzkm
3 GHzkm
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Comparison Basic Fiber Modes (Contd.)
Fiber Type Applications
Single mode SI Fiber
Very long-haul, high bandwidth applications with single mode
injection laser sources (with the absence of modal dispersion)

Multimode SI Fiber
Short-haul, limited bandwidth and relatively low cost applications
Applications in where there are lower tolerance requirements on
fiber connectors
Applications which requires easier coupling to optical sources
(larger numerical apertures and larger core diameters)

Multimode GI Fiber
Medium-haul, medium to high bandwidth applications either with
incoherent multimode sources (LEDs) or coherent multimode
sources (injection lasers)
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Practically, integrated fibers are needed depending on the application (duct, buried,
air blown, cable trays, aerial or submerged)
Two basic types of fiber cable structures are available.
- Tight buffered fiber cable
- Loose tube cable
Normally, the elongation capability of optical fiber is less compared copper cable.
Therefore, plastic strength members and high tensile strength synthetic yarn are
used to group the fiber cables.
Fiber Optic Cables
Central plastic strength member
Yarn strength member (Kelvar)
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Used in indoor applications.
Each fiber is individually encapsulated in 900 m diameter plastic buffer structure.
Enables direct plugging with connectors.
Resists for moisture and temperature effects.

Tight Buffered Fiber Cable
Glass fiber with fiber coating (250 m)
Fiber buffer (900 m)
Yarn strength member
Outer cable jacket
Figure: A simplex tight buffered fiber cable.
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Used in facilitating field operations of splicing cables.

Fibers are aligned very tightly each other and then are encapsulated in a plastic
buffer.
A ribbon typically has from 4 to 12 fibers.
Ribbon Fiber Cable
Single optical fibers
Fiber buffer
Armored outer jacket
Yarn strength member
Binder
Figure: A 12x1 ribbon fiber cable.
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Used in outdoor long-haul communication applications.
One or more fibers are enclosed thermoplastic tubes.
This tube is filled by a dry water blocking gel which facilitates the fibers to be moved
freely and prevents moisture entering to the tube.
Optional copper wires are used to power in-line equipments.
Loose Tube Fiber Cable
Figure: A loose tube fiber cable.
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Transmission characteristics of optical fibers
Transmission characteristics of
the medium
Attenuation
(Transmission loss)
Dispersion
Performance of optical fiber is determined by the transmission characteristics of the
medium.
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Attenuation
Losses in fiber optic transmission
Material absorption losses
Scattering losses
Curve and fiber bending losses
Mode coupling radiation losses
Connector and splices losses
Attenuation : Loss of signal strength when optical signal travels through the fiber.
This determines the maximum possible transmitting distance of the transmission.
Therefore, repeaters have to be used in long distance transmission.

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- Signal attenuation per unit length in dB
L - Fiber Length
P
i
- Transmitted optical power into the fiber
P
o
- Received optical power from the fiber
Attenuation (Contd.)
dB
o
dB 10
i 0
L 10log (P/P ) o =
Signal attenuation in an optical fiber is expressed in decibels per unit length
(dB/km).
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Example
When the mean optical power launched in to an 8km length of fiber is 120 W, the
mean optical power of the fiber output is 3 W.
Determine the signal attenuation per kilometer for the fiber.

Signal attenuation =

=

=

= 2 dB/km
Attenuation (Contd.)
i
10
o
P
10log dB
P
8 km
16 dB
8 km
i
10
o
P
10log dB
P
L
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Attenuation Material Absorption Loss
Ranging from 3% to 5%.
This is caused
- when there are atomic defects (missing molecules and high density cluster
atom groups) in the glass material.
- as extrinsic absorption due to impurity atoms addition during fiber fabrication
process.
- as intrinsic absorption due to elementary atoms in its basic material structure.
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Attenuation Scattering Loss
Typically between 95% and 97%.
Scattering loss is the action of changing the direction of the light paths when they
are struck with some particles in the fiber structure.

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Radiation losses occurs at bends or curves of the fiber due to the velocity difference
of light in core and cladding.
When cladding tries to increase the velocity of light, it is radiated away from the
fiber.

Attenuation Fiber Bending Loss
Figure: Fiber bending loss (a) at micro bends. (b) at micro bends.
(a)
(b)
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Dispersion
Dispersion : Pulse broadening of transmitted pulse/ analog modulated signal, during
the transmission through the fiber.
Although, there is no power loss occurred due to dispersion, the spreading effect
reduces the peak power.

The amount of pulse broadening depends on the distance travelled by the pulse
within the fiber.
Therefore, units of pulse spreading is expressed by normalizing from the distance.
e.g. : ns/km
Figure: Pulse broadening due to dispersion in the output.
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Dispersion results overlapping the pulses with adjacent pulses during the
transmission.
This is called as inter-symbol interference (ISI).
ISI increases the bit error rate (BER) of the system.

Dispersion (Contd.)
Figure: ISI caused due to pulse broadening of the transmitted bit pattern 1011.
(Fiber input)
(Distinguishable fiber output)
(Indistinguishable fiber output)
(40 km) (40 km)
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Dispersion (Contd.)
Figure: Dispersion in different fiber types.
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Dispersion (Contd.)
Maximum data rate (bandwidth) of the fiber is determined by the dispersion (pulse
spreading) of the fiber.

Higher dispersion occurs in multimode step index fiber.
- lower transmission bandwidths (in tens of MHz range)

Lower dispersion occurs in single-mode step index fiber.
- greater transmission bandwidths (in GHz range)
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For fastest path;

For slowest path;

Pulse spreading

where C propagation velocity of the light
Example Pulse Spreading of SI Fiber
2
sin
c
L
t
C
u
=
1
L
t
C
=
2 1
1
( ) - ( -1)
sin
c
L
t t
C
t
u
= =
Fastest path
Slowest path
L
c
u
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Types of Dispersion
Dispersion can be categorise as

a) Intra-model dispersion (within one mode)
- Material dispersion
- Waveguide dispersion

b) Inter-model dispersion (among different modes)
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Intra-modal Dispersion
Occurs in all types of optical fiber.
Generally, optical sources (LEDs or LDs) do not emit light in a single frequencies, but
in a band of frequencies.
Therefore, different propagation delays may occur between different spectral
components and causes pulse broadening.
The delay differences happen due to
- Dispersion properties of the waveguide material (material dispersion).
Due to refractive index variation in the core pulses with different
wavelength arrive with different velocities.
- Guidance effects within the fiber structure (waveguide dispersion)
Optical power at different wavelengths with slightly different angles results
differences in net axial velocity.
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Inter-modal Dispersion
Occurs in multimode fibers types only.

Dispersion results from the propagation delay difference between modes
within the multimode fiber.

Therefore, this creates an output pulse of width dependant upon the
transmission times of the slowest and fastest modes.
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The total rms pulse broadening is given by

where

consists of pulse broadening due to both material and wave guide dispersion.

where

But, for a single mode fiber, there is no inter model dispersion. i. e.
Overall Dispersion
( )
2 2
T c n
o o o = +
- intra-modal dispersion
- inter-modal dispersion.
c
n
o
o
c
o
0.
n
o =
- material dispersion
- wavelength dispersion.
m
w
o
o
T m w
o o o = +
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Code
Modules L P
ICT-BS-2.3 Optical Fibred Communications Systems and Networks 6 0 6
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Optical Fiber Connections
In optical fiber communications, fiber line may require number of intermediate
connections depending on the length of the fiber link.

Basically, fiber joints can be categorized as
- Semi-permanent/ permanent joints (analogues to electrical soldered joints)
e.g. : Fiber splices
- Removable joints (analogues to electrical plugs and sockets)
e.g. : Demountable fiber connectors

Figure: A fiber connector.
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Fiber Connection Losses
Affects to the performance of the system.

Two types
a) Intrinsic factors
- There may be slight variation of fiber parameters from one fiber to
another eventhough they are designed with tolerances.
b) Extrinsic factors
- Factors caused due to the connection method applied for joining two
fibers.

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Fiber Connection Losses Intrinsic Factors
Losses inherent while joining fibers.
- Due to different core and/or cladding diameters
- Due to different numerical apertures
- Due to different refractive index profiles
- Due to fiber faults (core ellipticity, core non-concentricity)

Numerical aperture (NA) mismatch
- Occurs only when NA of the receiving fiber is not enough to receive all the rays
from the emitting fiber.

Tx fiber Rx fiber
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Fiber Connection Losses Intrinsic Factors (Contd.)
Core/cladding diameter mismatches
- When core/cladding diameter of the transmitting fiber is greater than the
corresponding diameter of the receiving fiber, some part of the light is lost.

Non-concentricity/non-circularity
- Non-concentricity : When two optical fibers do not share a common geometric
center and thus causes core-cladding diameter mismatch.
- Non-circularity : When two elliptical optical fibers do not match exactly thus
resulting a core diameter mismatch.
Tx fiber Rx fiber
Tx fiber Rx fiber
Light loss in
cladding
Tx fiber Rx fiber
Tx fiber Rx fiber
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Fiber Connection Losses Extrinsic Factors
Mechanical misalignment
- When two joined fibers are not aligned properly, the transmitting optical power is
not fully transferred into the receiving fiber.
Tx fiber Rx fiber
(a)
Tx fiber Rx fiber
(b)
Tx fiber Rx fiber
(c)
Figure: (a) Longitudinal- (b) Lateral- (c) Angular- misalignment.
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Optical Fiber Splices
A way of connecting two individual optical fibers together.
A permanent/semi-permanent joint is made between the optical fibers where frequent
connection and disconnection are not needed.
Basically, splicing is used
- to repair a damaged cable.
- to establish long-haul optical fiber links.
- to join two different cable types.
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Fiber Cleaving
Fiber cleaving : allows to obtain a perpendicular endface to the fiber axis with
minimum irregularities on the surface.
Generally, a controlled fracture technique with score-and-break method is used.
Before cleaving, the cleaving place of the fiber has to be properly cleaned.
Then, the cleaving is achieved in two steps.
- First, the cleaver is operated to create a small surface cut in the optical fiber.
- Next, the fiber is bent by applying tensile stress on the scored surface. This
causes splitting the fiber.
Figure: Control fracture procedure for fiber end preparation.
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Fiber Cleaving (Contd.)
Preparing fiber cables for splicing has to be done properly to avoid improperly
cleaved fiber ends.
Improperly cleaving results to cause misalignment losses at the fiber joints.

Figure: Longitudinal misalignment due to a hackled surface of one connecting fiber.
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Fusion Splicing
Creates a permanent and reliable splicing joint by bonding two prepared fibers
thermally.
Fiber are kept on micro-manipulatable fiber holder for pre-aligning.
Then, the fiber joins are heated either by using an electric arc or a laser fusion
welder until they get bonded together.
Electric arc/ Laser
fusion welder
Fiber 2
Fiber 1
Micro-manipulatable
fiber holder
Figure: Fusion splicing of optical fibers.
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Mechanical Splicing
Two fibers are held mechanically aligned to enable of passing the light from one fiber
to the other.
Fiber bonding is not needed.
Fibers are kept in a glass/ ceramic capillary tube
The inner diameter of the capillary tube is just enough to accept two fibers.
Transparent gel (epoxy resin) is injected to capillary bore to eliminate reflection and
losses caused by air gaps at the fiber ends.
Figure: Snug tube splice.
Fiber 2
Fiber 1
Fiber butted together with index
matching gel
Capillary tube
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Splicing Techniques - Comparison
Fusion Splicing Mechanical Splicing
Non-reflective Reflective

Permanent and highly reliable Reusable and reliable

0.01 - 0.05 dB loss per splice 0.1 - 0.3 dB loss per splice

Cost effective when number of fiber
installations are higher
Cost effective for installations involving
smaller fiber counts

Especially suitable where low
losses are required
Suitable for moderately demanding and
temporary joints (testing or repairing
purposes)
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Optical Fiber Connectors
Used instead of splices to join two optical fibers by allowing optical fibers to be
disconnected and reconnected once required.
Basically, connectors are used
- to terminate a fiber. (Thus protects the fiber end)
- to align the fibers. (Thus provides optimum optical coupling and enables long-
haul communication)
- to connect outer shells. (Thus provides adequate strength for the joint).
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Optical Fiber Connectors (Contd.)
Requirements for a good connector
- Low coupling losses (alignment losses)
Losses must not change considerably during the operation and also
performing number of iterations of connections and disconnections.
- Interchangeability
Should be compatible among different manufacturers counterparts.
- Ease of assembly and connection
Any skilled level of technician should be able to handle the installation
process easily (without adding further losses to the system).
- Low environmental sensitivity
(e.g. : temperature, dust and moisture)
- Low cost with reliable construction
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Basic Components of the Optical Fiber Connector
Ferrule : Holds the fiber exactly in the center for a proper connection.
Must be strong enough to withstand for number of iterations of mounting
and demounting the connector.
Must guarantee the low loss interconnection
Body : When any strain is placed on the connector, it is transfered to the cable rather
than the optical fiber.
Cap (coupling nut) : Used for a secure the connection and normally this acts as a
push-in, a twist-lock or a screw on connector .
Strain relief boot : Protect the body and the cable from external bends and pulls.

Ferrule
Strain relief boot
Cap
Body
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Geometry of Ferrule
Three basic endface geometry configurations.
- Flat endface
May have some polishing irregularities.
Therfore, suffers from end separation loss.
Also some of the light can be reflected back to the transmitting fiber (return
reflection)
- Curved endface (PC Physical Contact)
Best endface geometry with very little loss and back reflection.
- Angled endface (APC Angled PC)
Put an angle 8
0
on the endface.

Flat Curved
(PC)
Angled
(APC)
Ferrule 1 Ferrule 2
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Coupling Mechanisms used in Connectors
Butt joint connectors
- Mostly used type.
- Consists of two ferrules (stainless steel, glass, ceramic or plastic cylinders) and
an alignment sleeve to fit with ferrule precisely.
- Rely on the alignment of two connecting fibers, thus fiber axes get coincided.
Ferrules
Alignment sleeve
(Adapter)
Figure: An alignment sheme in a butt-joint connector.
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Coupling Mechanisms used in Connectors (Contd.)
Expanded beam connectors
- Lenses are either used to collimate the light from transmitting fiber or to focus
the expanded beam onto the core of receiving fiber.
- Therefore, lateral alignment is not significant.
- More useful when connecting a multimode fiber to a receiving single mode fiber
to make similar transmission characteristics between two fibers.
- In addition, beam splitters and switches can be easily added between the fibers
(into the expanded beam).
Figure: Schematic representation of an expanded-beam connector.
Receiving fiber
Transmitting fiber
Collimating/ focusing
lenses
Expanded
beam
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Basic Single-Fiber Connector Types
Connector Type Features Applications
SC
(Subscriber
Connector)

Push-in connector
Square shaped
Ceramic ferrule
Typical loss 0.2 0.45 dB

Used in Gigabit Ethernet, ATM,
LAN, WAN, MAN, Fiber channels in
telecommunication networks
ST
(Straight Tip)

Twist-lock connector with
metal connector cap
Round shaped
Ceramic ferrule

Distribution applications using either
multimode or single mode fibers
FC
(Face Contact)

Screw-on rugged metal
connector
Round shaped
LC

Push-in connector
Square shaped
Ceramic ferrule

Used in CATV, LAN, MAN and WAN
applications
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Basic Single-Fiber Connector Types (Contd.)
D4
(DIN connetor)

Screw-on heavy-duty metal
connector
Round shaped
Used for similar functions with FC
connector but requires a smaller
space than FC connector

SMA
(Sub Miniature A)

Screw-on connector
Round shaped
Stainless-steel ferrule
Used in military applications and
in the delivery of high-power laser
light
BICONIC

Screw-on connector
Round shaped
Ceramic cone shaped ferrule
Used in military applications
MINI-BNC
(Mini Bayonet
Nut Connector)

Twist-lock metal connector
Round shaped
Similar in appearance to
counterpart coaxial cable
Rarely found in new systems
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Basic Multiple-Fiber Connector Types
FDDI
(Fiber-
Distributed Data
Interface)

Push-in connector
Rectangular shaped
2 Fibers in a plastic ferrule
Used to link electronics and fiber
transmission systems
ESCON
(Enterprise
Systems
Connection)

Push-in connector
Rectangular shaped
2 Fibers in a plastic ferrule
Used to link electronics and fiber
transmission systems

SC Duplex

Push-in connector
Rectangular shaped
Two single SC connectors
joined with a plastic clip
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Basic Multiple-Fiber Connector Types (Contd.)
MPO
(Multifiber Push On)

Push-in connector
Rectangular shaped
12 Fibers in a compact ferrule
Typical loss 0.25 1 dB

Used for high-density
connections among network
equipments
MTP

Push-in connector
Rectangular shaped
12 Fibers in a compact ferrule
Typical loss 0.25 1 dB

Used for high-density
connections among network
equipments
MT-RJ

Push-in connector
Rectangular shaped
Two Fibers in one molded plastic
ferrule

MANs and LANs such as
horizontal optical cabling to
the desktop
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Pigtails
Pigtails are fiber ends with connectors so that can be directly used in future
connecting processes.
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Module ICTBS2.3 Optical Fiber Communications

Figure: A multimode step index fiber.

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