Biology 30: The Cell Cycle Both growth and reproduction rely on cell division Asexually reproducing organisms

produce offspring that are genetically identical to the parent Sexually reproducing organisms produce offspring that are genetically different from the parents and have a unique combination of traits The combination of traits makes them either better adapted or less adapted to the environment All cells in the body originate from the original zygote During a series of cell divisions, cells increase in size and complexity A multi-cellular organism grows in size and maintains its body cells through mitosis Each kind of cell has a typical life span about 50 divisions (skin cells dont last as long as nerve cells) During a cells life, all cells undergo a cycle The Cell Cycle It is a continuous process and does not pause after each step It occurs in phases It consists of Cells spend most of the time in Division Phase The cytoplasm and the chromosomes are divided so that there are two identical cells. (Daughter cells) The division is made up of two processes: Mitosis (M) Chromosomes are duplicated and distributed evenly to each daughter cell This ensures that Cytokinesis Occurs at the end of mitosis Divides the cytoplasm and organelles equally to the daughter cells Division occupies a small amount of the cells life When the cell isnt dividing, Interphase (inter- means between the stage between mitosis) The cells spend most of the time in this phase (90% of cell cycle) Cells grow and prepare the materials (proteins) needed for growth and repair Chromosomes are Interphase consists of three phases: o G1 o S o G2 G1 (Gap 1) During Gap 1 there is: o DNA transcription-translation o Chromosomes are unduplicated o Rapid growth of cell o Replication of organelles S (synthesis) During Synthesis there is: o DNA replication (DNA synthesis) o Chromosomes are duplicated; single stranded chromosomes become double stranded G2 (Gap 2) During Gap 2 there is: o DNA transcription-translation o More growth o Structures associated with mitosis are replicated Characteristics of Interphase When a cell is in Interphase: o Chromosomes are uncondensed o Nucleolus is present

Centrioles present outside the nuclear membrane (only in animal cells)

Chromosome Structure Chromosomes contain both DNA and a number of proteins The combination of DNA and protein is called chromatin During interphase the chromosomes are uncondensed Uncondensed chromosomes are long thins strands that cant be seen under a light microscope During Mitosis the chromosomes are condensed Condensed chromosomes are shorter and thicker and may be duplicated or unduplicated In a duplicated chromosome the original chromosome and its duplicate are attached by the centromere While attached, the two chromosome duplicates are called Sister chromatids contain identical genetic information and the pair is considered to be one chromosome Stages of Mitosis There are five stages of mitosis: o o o o o

Prophase (pro = startthe first stage of mitosis This is the first stage of mitosis The chromosomes condense and become visible under a microscope as they shorten and thicken The nuclear membrane starts to dissolve Tiny structures called centrioles move to opposite poles of the cell Centrioles serve as attachment structures for spindles Plant cells dont have centrioles!!!!!!!!!!!!!! Spindle fibres form and serve as guide wires, attaching to and moving chromosomes during division Collectively the centrioles and spindle fibres make up the spindle apparatus The spindle fibres attach to the centrioles and to the kinetochore (histone protein structure) on the centromere Metaphase (meta = middle) This is the second phase of mitosis Duplicated chromosomes The center of the cell The chromosomes appear as dark, thick structures Chromatids can become intertwined during metaphase

Anaphase (Ana = backwardsthe chromosomes are pulled backwards) Is the third phase of mitosis Centromeres divide Once sister chromatids are separated they are referred to as chromosomes (unduplicated) The same # and type of chromosomes should be found at each pole, if division occurs as it should Telophase (telo = endthe end of mitosis) This is the last phase of mitosis Chromosomes reach the opposite poles of the cell and begin to lengthen Spindle fibres dissolve and the nuclear membrane begins to form around each set of chromosomes Division of the nucleus is done. it is the end of mitosis Now we must divide the cytoplasm Cytokinesis (cyto=cell; kinesis= movement) After Telophase, cytokinesis begins It involves the division of the cytoplasm and provides organelles for each new cell In: o A cleavage furrow forms near the equator of the cell that pinches inwards and eventually separates The mother cell is now two daughter cells In: o A cell plate grows in the middle of the cell o The plate will eventually grow into a cell wall and separate the two cells A Cell Clock Research indicates that a biological clock may regulate the number of cell divisions (the telomeres) There is an internal memory of the number of cell divisions cells had undergone Cells always complete a total of fifty divisions Not all cells have the same ability to undergo mitosis Skin cells, which are unspecialized, reproduce more often than nerve cells There are only two types of cells that divide endlessly: o o Applications of the Cell Cycle In mitosis, two identical daughter cells are formed that have the same number and type of chromosomes as the mother cell Mitosis is used in growth, repair, and asexual reproduction Cloning Is the process of forming identical offspring from a single cell or tissue It It can be used to generate tissue and replace damaged tissue in burn victims E.g. Organisms such as the hydro reproduce by budding (using mitotic divisions) Strawberries reproduce by runners In humans, the only individuals that share identical DNA are monozygotic twins (identical Twins) Identical twins originate from a single zygote (it splits in two during cleavage) Dizygotic twins (fraternal twins) are formed from two different eggs that are fertilized by different sperm Animal Cloning A cell that no longer contains a nucleus is referred to as an enucleated cell Steps: Remove a nucleus from an unfertilized egg so that it becomes enucleated Remove nucleus from cells in the blastula stage from the organisms to be cloned (they have not differentiated yet) Put blastula nucleus (from organism to be cloned) into the enucleated cell (unfertilized egg) Cell with transplanted nucleus divides by mitosis and produces an organism that is genetically identical It is important to remove the nucleus from cells that have not differentiated / specialized yet otherwise cloning will not work (gastrula stage is too late) Cloning Adult Mammals Cloning from adult mammalian cells is more difficult because the cells are highly specialized

 Steps Dolly

The cells must be taken before the 8 cell stagebecause they have not differentiated, or specialized Cells from early embryo are isolated and cloned The nucleus of these cells are extracted and put in an enucleated unfertilized egg from the recipient The newly created cells are cultured and implanted in the recipient The recipient gives birth to the clone

Was the first animal to be successfully cloned The nucleus was extracted from an adult Finn Dorset and placed into the enucleated egg from a Poll Dorsett sheep. The cells developed in a petri dish and then were placed in the womb of a Scottish Blackface Dollys DNA was identical to the Fin Dorsett (dolly was a clone) In experiments the effectiveness of drugs are often difficult to interpret because of the genetic variation among the individuals Cloned animals could benefit research by providing clearer results In agriculture the best livestock could be cloned possibly increasing yield Stem cells can be used to make clones of neurons, and pancreatic cells. Helping people with neural diseases and diabetes What are some moral and ethical problems with this technology? Mitosis and Telomeres Telomeres are caps at the end of chromosomes Each time the cell goes through the cell cycle and divides telomeres reduce in length Dr. Blackburn showed that yeast cells that lack the enzyme telomerase undergo telomere shortening and eventually die Aging As human cells age the telomere length is reduced A 70 year old has much shorter telomeres than a 20 year old Dolly was cloned from a 6 year old sheep and began life with shorter telomeres and showed early signs of aging Telomeres serve as a molecular clock that may regulate the number of times a cell goes through the cell cycle. Meiosis Occurs in sexually reproducing organisms This is a type of cell division In males, it In females, it It involves The process The chromosome number in the daughter cells is half of the parent cell Human spermatogonium or oogonium has 46 chromosomes (diploid number or 2n) They undergo meiosis to produce a gamete that has 23 chromosomes (haploid number or n) Each gamete produced contains the same number and type of chromosomes During fertilization: A haploid (n=23) sperm cell A diploid (2n = 46) Then through mitotic divisions and differentiation the zygote becomes a multicellular human baby Offspring carry genetic information from each parent A diploid organism has one set of chromosomes from the egg and one set from the sperm All the somatic cells of the body are derived from the zygote so all the body cells have two set of chromosomes and are 2n The 23 chromosomes that you receive from your father has a match; the 23 you receive from your mother The paired chromosomes are called homologous chromosomes Homologous Chromosomes Are similar in size, shape, and the genes they carry Body cells have 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes. Which is 46 chromosomes in total Each parent donates one chromosome from each pair The 1st 22 pairs are The 23rd pair are An X and a Y= male (XY) An X and a X = female (XX) If you are male the 23rd pair is not homologous

Stages of Meiosis It involves 2 nuclear divisions, and 4 haploid cells are produced Meiosis I is the reduction division. chromosome number is reduced from 46 to 23 Meiosis II chromatids separate Like mitosis, chromosome duplication occurs prior to the start of division Interphase: Chromosomes replicate (S phase) Steps In Meiosis

Prophase I (pro=beginning) Chromosomes condense Nuclear membrane begins to dissolve Centrioles migrate to the poles Spindle fibres form The chromosomes come together in The pair is called a tetrad because The chromosomes pairing up with each other While chromosomes are paired they may become intertwined At the Chiasma crossing over occurs Crossing over is a process where genetic material is exchanged During crossing over, Metaphase I The pairs of homologous chromosomes attach to spindle fibres and line up at the equatorial plate Homologous pairs line up independently of each other, Anaphase I Reduction in chromosome number occurs Paired homologous chromosomes separate and move toward the poles; this is known as It is important to note that chromosomes are still composed of two sister chromatids Telophase I One member of the homologous pair at each pole Nuclear envelope reform Cytokinesis produces two daughter cells (haploid number)chromosomes are duplicated but still haploid number

Meiosis II Occurs at the same time in each haploid daughter cell Pairs of chromatids will separate and move to opposite poles

Prophase II The chromosomes do not pair up (no synapsis) Spindle fibres reform The nuclear membrane dissolves Metaphase II Chromosomes consisting of two sister chromatids, line up at the equatorial plate The chromatids are pinned together by the centromere Anaphase II Centromeres spit and chromatids move towards the poles Telophase II Chromosomes lengthen, nuclear envelop and nucleolus reform Cytokinesis forms 4 daughter cells o In males these are o In females this forms Meiosis combined with fertilization explains the variation in traits in sexually reproductive organisms The variation occurs: Crossing over The independent assortment of chromosomes During fertilization different combinations of genes occur when gametes unite Comparing Mitosis and Meiosis Mitosis occurs when unicellular organisms reproduce asexually or when a multicellular eukaryotic organism undergoes growth or repair Meiosis occurs when a sexually reproducing organism produces gametes

Mitosis Function Location # Cells produced Chromosome number Chromosome number compared to parent Stages

Meiosis

Other differences: Synapsis and crossing over occurs in prophase I of meiosis. Neither occurs in mitosis There is no separation of chromatids in meiosis I Development of Male and Female Gametes The formation of sex cells during meiosis is referred to as gametogenesis There are differences in meiosis between male and female There are differences in: The amount of cytoplasm in the gametes The number or viable gametes produced in spermatogenesis and oogenesis The numbers of gametes produced throughout life The cytoplasm of the female gametes does not divide equally The ooitid receives most of the cytoplasm this fuels future divisions if the egg is fertilized In sperm cells there is equal division of the cytoplasm Sperm cells have less cytoplasm than an egg cell and are designed for movement In females there is only one ovum produced. The 3 polar bodies produced die In males there are 4 sperm produced Males can produce1 billion sperm cells every day Females have 2 million primary oocytes in their ovaries at birth The oocytes are arrested in prophase I (meiosis I) until puberty each month meiosis will resume in one oocyte Cell Division and Life Cycles The simplest life cycle is found in organisms that reproduce by asexual reproduction Asexual reproduction life cycle: o A new organism is produced by mitosis o There is no change in chromosome number o The daughter cells have the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell o There is no variation In sexually reproducing species: o The life cycle involves a change chromosome number o Chromosome number changes during two events: o Meiosis o The gametes formed by meiosis have half the chromosome number as a somatic cell (body cell o During fertilization o The two gametes join to form a zygote which has the same number of chromosomes as a somatic cell Life Cycle in Plants A unique situation occurs in flowering plants called alterations of generations Sperm is found in pollen and eggs are in the ovule of the plant Both sperm and egg are haploid (n) When they unite a diploid zygote (2n) is formed The zygote undergoes mitosis to make seeds The seeds germinate and grow to make a diploid plant called the sporophyte The sporophyte cells divide by meiosis to produce haploid spores (n)

 The spores then undergo mitosis to produce a mature haploid plant called a gametophyte (small in size) Animal Life Cycle It has a haploid and diploid stage The gametes are haploid (n) During fertilization the haploid gametes fuse to form a diploid zygote (2n) The zygote undergoes mitosis to form a diploid adult (2n) Specialized cells in the adults gonads undergo meiosis to produce haploid gametes. Abnormal Meiosis Meiosis is not immune to mistakes Nondisjunction occurs when two homologous chromosomes fail to separate during meiosis I or chromatids fail to separate during meiosis II The result is that one of the daughter cells has too many chromosomes while other have too few Cells that lack genetic information or have too much dont function properly Nondisjunction can also occur during mitosis but it is not as serious when it occurs in meiosis In meiosis a gamete is created which is used in fertilization to create a zygote This zygote becomes an organism with too few or too many chromosomes in every somatic cell Polyploidy Organisms that have complete extra sets of chromosomes A Polyploid organism may have 3 sets of chromosomes 3n(triploid) or four sets 4n (tetraploid) Polyploidy is common in plants E.g. wheat, tobacco Nondisjunction of all chromosomes within the egg cell produces a diploid (2n) gamete If this egg is fertilized by a haploid (n) sperm the result is a triploid (3n) cell Polyploid species are important in agriculture because then tend to be larger thus creating more yield Geneticists may use chemicals to create errors in meiosis and mitosis to create Polyploid plants Nondisjunction in Humans In humans, a normal zygote should have 46 chromosomes and a gamete should have 23 chromosomes Nondisjunction can produces gametes with 22 and 24 chromosomes Trisomy If a gamete received 24 chromosomes than it gained an extra.as a result of a chromosome failing to split during meiosis If this is fertilized by a normal sperm a zygote with 47 chromosomes is produced For one of the chromosome pairs, the organism will have 3 chromosomes instead of 2 in every somatic cell This condition is called trisomy Monosomy If a gamete has 22 chromosomes than it is missing one If it is fertilized a zygote with 45 chromosomes is produced The zygote will be missing a chromosome of a homologous pair This condition is called Monosomy Nondisjunction Disorders Nondisjunction is associated with many different genetic disorders such as: o Down syndrome o Klinefelter syndrome o Edwards syndrome o Turners syndrome Down Syndrome Is a trisomy condition The zygote has 47 chromosomes It results from having three copies of chromosome 21 (an extra autosome) Also referred to as trisomy 2 Common Traits; a round face, enlarged and creased tongue, short height, and large forehead The risk of having a baby with Down syndrome increases with age and is more common in women over 40 Edwards Syndrome Trisomy 18 (extra autosome) Affects most body organs Life span is less than a year usually 10 weeks 1 in 10000 chance

Klinefelter Syndrome Is caused by sex chromosome undergoing nondisjunction in either egg or sperm It is a trisomy disorder The child has XXY for the sex chromosomes The child appears to be male at birth. but during puberty produce high levels of estrogen and progesterone Testes fail to develop and sterility results Turner Syndrome Occurs when sex chromosomes undergo nondisjunction This is a Monosomy disorder The zygote has 45 chromosomes Produces a female with a single X chromosome Why Turners Syndrome Occurs During meiosis a polar body receives two X chromosomes and the ooitid receives none The ooitid with no X chromosome is fertilized by a sperm cell with an X chromosome A zygote with 45 chromosomes is produced They appear female but do not usually develop sexually and tend to be short and have thick necks Karyotype Charts It is a tool used to detect abnormal chromosome numbers Technicians use it to determine if a person has inherited a nondisjunction disorder It is a chart that arranges chromosomes in pairs and decreasing size

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