Society for French Historical Studies

The Religious Beliefs of Alexis de Tocqueville Author(s): Doris S. Goldstein Source: French Historical Studies, Vol. 1, No. 4 (Autumn, 1960), pp. 379-393 Published by: Duke University Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/286138 . Accessed: 27/10/2013 22:23
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THE RELIGIOUS BELIEFS OF

ALEXIS DE TOCQUEVILLE
BY Doms S. GoLDsIN

The question of the precise nature of Alexis de Tocqueville'sreligiousbeliefs has long been of interest,not only from the biographical point of view, but because of its direct bearon facets of his work. Among the numerousreing many is the need to relate mainingtasksof Tocquevillescholarship his philosophy of history,' his sociological analyses of the function of religion in modern society, and his connection with the French liberal Catholicmovement, to his personal religious outlook. From the time of Tocqueville'sdeath, however, the probhas lem of the natureand extentof his religiouscommitments tended to become clouded by special pleading and sectarian apologetics, so that at present, one hundred years after the death of Tocqueville, argument and counterargumentare still rife. At a recent centenarymeeting of Tocqueville specialists,for example,one of the symposiadealt with the question of whether Tocqueville was a Catholic, and sharp disagreementwas revealed. The fact that controversystill existshas promptedthe followinginvestigation,one in which the results can be at best tentative, since the as yet unpublished volumes of the new CEuvres completes may bring to light relevantnew material. of Tocqueville'sreligiousoutlookmust Any understanding realization that his family backgroundbound with the begin him to the old traditions,to Catholicismas well as to monarchy. Antoine Redier has ably pointed out how pervasive these influenceswere, how the young Alexis was broughtup amidmen and memoriesof the ancien regime.2Traces of his early environmentremained,and help to explain what John
"On the question of the religious elements in Tocqueville's philosophy of history, see Georges Lefebvre's remarks in the introduction to the new edition of L'ancien regime et la Revolution. (CEuvres completes, new edition, Tome II, V. 1, pp. 23-24). Unless otherwise noted, all references to the CEuvres completes are to the old Beaumont edition. 2 Antoine Redier, Comme disait M. de Tocqueville (Paris, 1926), pp. 32-34.

1379]

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Stuart Mill described as Tocqueville's tendency to cling "beaucoup3 plus que moi au passe, surtout par son c6te religieux." Probably the most important single factor of his youth that bound Tocqueville to the religion of his fathers was the example of the Abbe Lesueur, who was in charge of his education. It is the evidence of Tocqueville himself that tells us how great a mark this priest left upon his pupil. In a letter written to his brother shortly after Lesueur's death, Tocqueville spoke of the Abbe's selflessness and devotion, and testified to his deep affection and respect for Lesueur.4 This man lived only to do good, "je rai prie comme un saint,"' concluded Tocqueville. It was probably in no small degree due to the efforts and example of Lesueur that Tocqueville's life was permeated with an intense spiritual and religious quality. He was an idealist, if one defines idealism as belief in the possible perfecton of life in harmony with a spiritual ideal. He strove after the things of the spirit; always endeavoring to rise to a higher level of spiritual and moral understanding. Restlessness and discontent followed,8 and dogged him throughout his life. He spoke of it in a letter to Kergorlay in 1838,7 and analyzed it most clearly during the fifties in a letter to Mme. Swetchine. This letter merits lengthy quotation because of the insight it provides into Tocqueville's character.
Je crois que mon sentiment et mon desir sont plus hauts que ma puissance. Je crois que Dieu m'a donne le gout naturel des grandes actions et des grandes vertus, et que le desespoir de ne pouvoir jamais saisir ce grand objet qui flotte devant mes yeux, la tristesse d'habiter dans un monde et dans un temps qui repondent si peu i cette creation ideale au milieu de laquelle mon Ame aime ces impressions, que ge n'att6nue en i vivre, je crois, dis-je, rien, sont une des grandes causes de ce malaise interieur, dont je n'ai jamais pu me guerir.8 'Letter of Mill to Tocqueville, December 15, 1856, (Euvres complates, new edition, Tome VI (Correspondanceanglaise), p. 350. 'Tocqueville, letter to ldouard de Tocqueville, September 10, 1831, (Euvres completes,VII, 58. 6 Ibid., p. 61. ' Pierson has noted the similarity between this and the romantic "mal de
siecle." George W. Pierson, Tocqueville and Beaumont in America (New

York, 1938) p. 743, note. 7 Tocqueville,letter to Kergorlay, March 21, 1838, op. cit., V, 353, '
Redier, op. cit., p. 282,

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RELGIOUS BELIEFS OF TocQUEVILLE

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intensespirituality had as its obversea sovTocqueville's scorn for all it was the crude whether materialism, ereign "enrichessez-vous" era or the attitudeof the Louis-Philippe various formsof philosophical materialism. Justas he fought the idea of narrow as the basisof politicallife, self-interest so he hadnopatience of Buckle withthe mechanistic theories

which, he said, reduced men to beasts and automatons.9 Tocqueville also criticized Hegelian philosophy,saying that its doctrineshave given rise to anti-Christian and anti-spiritual schoolsof philosophy.10 He held that theorieswhich make man into a beast at the mercy of his instinctswere gross perversionsof the nature of man. Systemsof pure materialism,of physical well-being as the goal of life could not, Tocqueville was convinced, gain permanent ascendency in any society.1' Higher aspirations would inevitablybreakthrough,and if they did not, it would Proof that man has a be both surprisingand unfortunate.l2 is towards values furnishedby the fact ideal strongtendency that the bookswhich have had the greatestinfluenceover the humanmind are those "oules grandsprincipesdu beau et du bon, les hautes et salutairestheories de l'existence de Dieu et de l'immortalite de l'ame ont le plus profondement
penetre." 13

It shouldbe noted that in the above statementTocqueville goes beyond a vague orientationtowards the predominance of the spiritualelement in life, and enters the realm of religion. He introducesbelief in God as one criterionof antimaterialism. This leads directlyto one of the prevailingmotifs of his thought: the idea that spiritualaspirationscould only be defined in religious terms. In other words, concernwith fundamental philosophicaland metaphysicalproblemsmeant concern with religion.l4Tocqueville explainedin one of his
'Tocqueville, letter to Edward Childe, July 19, 1858, Quelques corresponde Mr. et Mrs. Childe (London, 1912), pp. 75-76. dants w Tocqueville, letter to Corcelle, July 22, 1854, (Euvres completes, VI, 260-261. ' Tocqueville, letter to Beckwith, September 7, 1858, op. cit., VII, 610. 1Ibid., VII, 510. letter to Beaumont, April 22, 1838, op. cit., VI, 84. sTocqueville, 4 This was probably to a great extent due to his early training. The anti-religious idealism of Michelet, or the vague mysticism of the followers of Saint-Simon, seem not to have interested him, although both were strong in the years between 1830 and 1848.

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letters to Gobineauwhy he believed this relationshipto be necessaryand inevitable.Religioninculcatesbelief in another world, and when faith in immortalitywanes, this life, with

its goods and interests, becomes of central importance.15 Philosophies then come forward to rationalize the new point of view, and produce doctrines of "self-interest".'6Conversely, religious asceticism and abstinence are useful counter-forces to the human propensity for purely material happiness.17 By assuming the identity of spiritual and religious attitudes, Tocqueville converted the idealistic, but not necessarily religious, dictum that "man cannot live by bread alone" into a definite statement of the human need for religion. He was convinced that it was only through religious belief that the spiritual problems which beset human beings could be solved.18It is true that his remarks on this subject are of a general psychological or sociological nature, rather than statements of personal religious commitment. Nevertheless, it is evident that Tocqueville cannot be numbered among those who preach religion as the panacea for "man," while reserving to themselves scepticism or even disbelief. He did not feel himself to be exempt from the common human need for faith, and spoke of doubt as "le plus insupportable des maux de ce monde,... pire que la mort." 9 But the crucial point is that Tocqueville was afflicted with doubt. In a letter written to Mme. Swetchine in 1857 he described his despair when, at the age of sixteen, he began to question the teachings of the Church.20The shock and suffering which this experience apparently caused Tocqueville betrays his previous depth of belief. Pierson mentions the same incident, stating that in 1820 Tocqueville read some
16Tocqueville, letter to Gobineau, October 2, 1843, (Euvres completes, new edition, Tome IX (Correspondance d'Alexis de Tocqueville et d'Arthur de Gobineau), p. 58. 'Ibid. It is probable that Tocqueville is referring to Bentham's philosophy, since both he and Gobineau were studying Bentham at this time. 21 Tocqueville, conversation of Tocqueville and Senior, February 4, 1851, Correspondence and Conversations of Alexis de Tocqueville with Nassau William Senior (London, 1872), II, 207. 8Tocqueville, (Euvres completes, Tome I, vol. 1 (De la democratie en Amerique), p. 310; vol. 2, pp. 27-28. References are to the new edition. 1"Tocqueville, letter to Corcelle, August 1, 1850, (Euvres completes, VI, 152. 2Redier, op. cit., pp. 287-288, quoting from unpublished letter of February 26, 1857 to Mme. Swetchine.

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RELIGIOUS BELIEFSOF TOCQUEVILLE

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sceptical or agnosticworkswhich shookhis faith but did not make him atheistic.21 There is no evidence that Tocqueville firm those and fixed religiousconvictionswhich he regained so earnestly desired. In a letter to Kergorlayhe wrote that when he saw a truly religious person he felt "une envie extreme d'arriver a penser et a sentir de meme, avec l'evidence 22 cela m'est que impossible." The most preciseand significantstatementon this question is to be found in a letter in the new editionof the TocquevilleGobineaucorrespondence, which containsthe following pasne suis sage: "Je pas croyant(ce que je suis loin de dire pour me vanter) mais tout incroyantque je sois, je n'ai jamaispu me defendre d'une emotionprofondeen lisant l':vangile." 23 Since this letter was written in 1843, one must conclude that Tocquevilledid not merely go througha temporaryreligious crisis in youth, certainly a not uncommon experience, and then returnto the Church.In all likelihood,he was an "incroyant"from 1820 until at least 1843. If Tocqueville was indeed an unbelieverfor twenty three years, any attempt to show that he became a convinced Catholic after 1843 must be supported by evidence as precise and documentaryas that containedin the letter to Gobineau. Another interesting aspect of the above quotation is the mannerin which Tocquevillerevealed to Gobineauhis lack of belief. There is a rueful and regretful quality about the phrase "ce que je suis loin de dire pour me vanter."It seems to indicate that Tocqueville'sattitude toward his "incroyance"was not one of pride or satisfaction,but ratherthat it was a source of unhappiness.This confirmsthe point which
2Pierson, op. cit., p. 17. Pierson mentions in a note on this page, as though to bear out his statement that this incident "shook his (Tocqueville's) Catholic faith irreparably," a remark made by Tocqueville to Lesueur: "Je crois, mais ne puis pratiquer." The quotation is from a letter of Lesueur to Tocqueville of September 8, 1824. Since we do not know the context, it is probably safest to interpret the remark as Pierson does, as evidence of Tocqueville's estrangement from Catholicism. On the other hand, "Je crois" written to a priest may be interpreted as meaning belief in Catholicism. 22Tocqueville, letter to Kergorlay, June 25, 1834, (Euvres completes, V, 321. " Tocqueville, letter to Gobineau, October 2, 1843, (Euvres completes, new edition, Tome IX (Correspondance d'Alexis de Tocqueville et d'Arthur de Gobineau), p. 57. In the Schemann edition of the Tocqueville-Gobirieau correspondence, published in 1908, only the words "je n'ai . . . l'Pvangile" appear.

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has been made above: to Tocquevillereligious faith was an ardently sought after desideratum.He was an "incroyant" who did not look upon unbelief as a breakingof shackles,a liberationinto the world of free thought, and whose spiritual and emotionalattitudeswere thereforevastly differentfrom those of eighteenth-century rationalscepticismor nineteenth it is possible that in using these Indeed, centurypositivism. words Tocqueville wished to disassociatehimself from the usual connotations,at least in nineteenth-century France, of that unbeliever meant To Tocqueville,being an "incroyant." he was unable to accept the doctrinesof the RomanCatholic Church, but there is no indication of estrangement from Christianethical and philosophicalconcepts, as will be seen below. The nature of his beliefs can be determined more precisely by examiningthem vis-a-vissome of the basic tenets of Christianity.Tocqueville'sattitude towards the doctrine of the immortality of the soul, certainlyone of the fundamentals of the Christianreligion, strikinglyreveals some of the distinctive featuresof his religiousthinking.A letter written to his brotherafter the Abbe Lesueur'sdeath in 1831 tells us that Tocqueville had been reading and thinking about the The Abbe's death, he writes, has problemof the after-life.24 persuadedhim more completelythan ever before of the immortality of the soul, for he cannot bear to think that the This goodness of this man will not receive its just reward.25 was not merely a temporaryand superficialresponseto the shockof Lesueur'sdeath, for twenty-fiveyears later Tocqueville disclosed to Mme. Swetchinehis convictionthat the injustices and inconsistenciesof this world would be rectified in another.26 The idea of retributionfor good and evil was one pillar of his belief in this doctrine.A second was the consolation
2 Tocqueville, letter to Edouard de Tocqueville, September 10, 1831, (Euvres completes, VII, 61. 26Ibid. The quotation is as follows: "Que celui qui, comme notre bon ami, n'a vecu que pour bien faire, subisse le meme sort que les plus grands criminels, voila contre quoi ma raison et mon coeur se soulevent avec une violence que je n'avais jamais sentie." 2 Tocqueville, letter to Mme. Swetchine, December 29, 1866, op. cit., VI, 360.

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RELIGIOUS BELIEFS OF TOCQUEVILLE

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which belief in an after-life affordedto human beings.27 At one point he stated bluntly that "il n'y a, apres tout, que la religionqui apprennea mourir.28

Some significant facts emerge. First, Tocqueville did not simply accept immortality of the soul as a divinely revealed dogma. Nor did he appeal to the verdict of logic or history. It was rather in his own nature that he found the most irrefutable proof of the after-life: He as a human being rebels against the possibility that there is no ultimate judgment of good and evil. Also, man needs belief in immortality in order to endure the knowledge of death with courage and nobility. Here again is evidence of Tocqueville's tendency to consider religion from the point of view of man's secular well-being. Released from dogmatic adherence to Catholicism by the inroads of doubt, he looked for verification of its basic principles to the psychological realities of human existence. One of the strongest ties that bound Tocqueville to Christianity was respect for its spiritual and ethical elevation. This constituted its essential difference from the pagan religions: by its glorification of man's highest potentialities Christianity rose to hitherto unattained heights. Only in the Gospel can be found "cette sorte d'aspiration libre que cause une atmosTocqueville criticized phere morale plus vaste et plus pure".30 the Koran for being merely a compromise between spiritualism and materialism, saying that although the Koran was an advance over polytheism, it was far inferior to the Gospel.31 In a letter written to Corcelle shortly after his own father's death Tocqueville affirmed the connection between religious belief and an ethical life. His father's deeds and thoughts, his entire character, were purified by that devotion to Christianity which permeated his life.32As a result, writes Tocqueville, his father's life and death have provided him with the great" Tocqueville, letter to Bouchitte, January 15, 1836, op. cit., VII, 146-147. See also, Tocqueville, Extrait du Journal des Debats, May 18, 1837. 8 Tocqueville, letter to Comtesse de Grancey, October 4, 1835, op. cit., VII, 143. " Tocqueville, letter to Gobineau, October 2, 1843, (Euvres completes, new edition, Tome IX (Correspondance d'Alexis de Tocqueville et d'Arthur de Gobineau), pp. 57-59. Ibid., p. 57. a Tocqueville, letter to Kergorlay, March 21, 1838, (Euvres completes, V, 354. " Tocqueville, letter to Corcelle, June 18, 1856, op. cit., VI, 310.

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est proofs of religion.33Conversely, he was contemptuous of those who called themselves good Christians, although their particular brand of religion did not deter them from evil and violence.. The pseudo-religiosity of the early years of the Louis-Napoleon era produced many such "Christians"and to them Tocqueville raged: "Soyez plutot paiens avec la conduite pure, lIame fiere et les mains nettes, que chretiens de cette fagon-la."34Whether this outburst is to be taken quite literally is open to question. Nevertheless, it does serve to point out the extent to which Tocqueville was concerned with the spiritual and ethical values to be derived from Christianity. We are again led to take note of the pragmatic "human"

quality of his religiousthought. He finds the soul of Christianity revealed most splendidly in its superior conception of

man s nature and goals. Unlikemanywho have lost their early religiousfaith, Tocqueville did not find it necessaryto wander into the devious paths of philosophicalspeculation.On the contrary,he explicitly stated that nowhere in philosophyhad he been able to find fruitful answers to basic metaphysical and ethical It was in Revelation that he found the clearest problems.35 ideas aboutthe originand purposeof the world, free will and responsibility.36 Analysisof Tocqueville'sphilosophicalposiBelief in a tion does indeed revealits affinityto Christianity. First Cause providedthe foundation;from thence he moved on to
des lois fixes que le monde physique laisse voir et qu'il faut supposer dans le monde moral; i la providence de Dieu, par consequent a sa justice; i la responsabilit6 des actions de lhomme, auquel on a permis de connaltre,qu'il y a un bien et un mal, et, par consequent, a une autre vie.37

This passage has been quoted at length because it is most detailedstatementof his essentialphilosoTocqueville's
3 Ibid. "'Tocqueville, letter to Gobineau, January 24, 1857, CEuvres completes, new edition, Tome IX (Correspondance d'Alexis de Tocqueville et d'Arthur de Gobineau), p. 278. Tocqueville, letter to Bouchitte, January 8, 1858, (Euvres completes, VII, 476. 6Ibid., VII, 476. 3"Ibid., VII, 476.

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RELIGIOUS BELIEFS OF TOCQUEVILLE

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those tendencies phicalideas. It may be said to crystallize as as whichhavebeen previously well noted, pointtowarda

For example,his assumption that more generalinterpretation. there were areas of human life in which it was wisest to accept dogmatic,absolute explanations,is perceptible when he speaks of fixed morallaws which one must assume.Even more fundamental is his acceptance of the philosophical It was in the same spirit in which postulatesof Christianity. he had assentedto the doctrineof the immortalityof the soul and the ethical grandeurof the Gospel, that he admitted not upon authorthe philosophicalsupremacyof Christianity: ity, nor even wholly upon faith, but rather because of their efficacyin furtheringthe noblest impulsesof man. It is significant that although in the above letter and elsewhere Tocqueville openly expressedhis agreementwith the ethical and philosophicalideas expressedin the Gospel, he nowhere denor to claredhis adherenceto the dogma of the Incarnation, doctrines of Catholic of the specifically theological any Christianity. which maintainthat Nevertheless,there are interpretations during the last decade of his life Tocqueville gravitated towards complete acceptance of Catholicism,and ended his life a convincedmemberof the Church.The Abbe Baunard, writing in the eighteen-eighties,was the firstto take up this position, which was reinforcedby Antoine Redier, and has recently been restatedby John Lukacs.38 Accordingto the Abbe Baunard's Tocqueville'srestudy,39 turn to Catholicismwas brought about by his progressive disillusionmentwith secular programsand governments,as It was only his diswell as by his weak physical condition.40 of conduct the the with clergy under Louisobsequious gust from final and total acceptance,the Napoleon that kept him
38 Tocqueville, "The European Revolution" and Correspondence with Gobied. and tr. by John Lukacs, New York, 1959. (Anchor Books). neau, s Baunard, Abbe (Louis), La foi et ses victoires dans le siecle present (2 vols.; Paris, 1884). This interpretation is marred by a tendency to judge rather than to understand. For example, instead of sympathetic analysis of Tocqueville's religious ideas there is merely the regretful admission that during a good part of his life Tocqueville was only "halfCatholic" (II, 287). It is however precisely the elements of this "half-Catholicism" which must be examined if we are to clarify Tocqueville's religious position. Ibid., p. 327.

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Abbe maintains.4' He adduces as proof of his theory the fact that in a letter to Reeve of 1856 Tocquevilledefended Catholicism.42 In this letter Reeve is cautioned against an antiCatholic spirit, but this seems merely evocative of that sympathyand respect for Catholicismwhich was consistent Thereis no personaltestimony life.43 throughout Tocqueville's in this letter, nor is there any Catholicism of a thorough-going in the other letter which Baunardcites. This is the letter to Corcelle written after Tocqueville'sfather's death, in which he speaks of the vital role played by religion in his father's life.44 Thereis no change in attitudehere from that which we noted in Tocqueville's response to Lesueur's death in the thirties: a sensitive and spiritualnature which cannot bear to think of death without the solace of immortality. NeitherRediernorLukacsprovidesany proofthat Tocqueville became a convinced Catholicduring the fifties. Lukacs does indeed assert that Tocqueville's letters to Gobineau "especiallyafter 1852 indicate that he was then a believing but there is no supportingdocumentation.The Christian",45 those magniwith Gobineau,and particularly correspondence ficent letters in which Tocquevillerejects the philosophyof the Essai sur rinegalite des races humaines,certainlyis imbued with Christianethical and philosophicalvalues. This is surely not identical with belief in RomanCatholicism,however. The fact that Tocqueville apparentlydied as a Catholic, asking for and receiving extreme unction, is of course the strongpoint in the Baunardargument.Differencesof opinion even on this matterhave neverthelessnot been lacking. In a conversationwith Senior and Mignet, Beaumont explained
lbid., p. 327. *Ibid., pp. 328-329, quoting from Tocqueville, letter to Reeve, November 7, 1856, (Euvres completes, VII, 351-54. " The same attitude is shown in a letter to Corcelle in which Tocqueville explains that he prefers not to speak of his disapproval of the clergy to the enemies of Catholicism. Tocqueville, letter to Corcelle, November 15, 1854, op. cit., VI, 280-81. "Baunard, op. cit., p. 331, quoted from Tocqueville, letter to Coreelle, June 18, 1856, op. VI, 310. ' Tocqueville, "The European Revolution" and Correspondence with Gobineau, ed. and tr. by John Lukacs, p. 25. Since in the preceding sentence Mr. Lukacs speaks of the letters to Gobineau representing "the Catholic Christian Tocqueville," we are assuming that "believing. Christian" should be taken to mean "believing Catholic."

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that Tocquevillereceived the last sacrament"nonparce qu'il but in orderto avoid scandaland at croyaita leur efficacite" his wife's behest.46Both Baunard and Redier counter this with evidence of the sincerityof Tocqueville'sdesire to die a professedCatholic.47 Until recently, it has seemed that in the absence of more the Beaumontinterpretation, precise evidence corroborating account of Tocqueville'sdeath must be the Baunard-Redier accepted. For, as Lukacs has aptly remarked,we have no right to "assertthe sincerityof [their] faith or the lack of it 48 from our own attributionof [their] unexpressedmotives." With the publicationof the new edition of the TocquevilleGobineau correspondence, however, a reappraisal is clearly indicated. In his excellent introduction to the correspondence, J.-J. Chevallier quotes from an unpublished Beaumont document in which there is a moving account of the circumstances surrounding Tocqueville's acceptance of the last rites. According to Beaumont, when Mme. de Tocqueville first mentioned the subject of confession to her husband he replied negatively, stating that he would not lie to himself "et faire des grimaces de foi quand la foi me manque."49 When his wife persisted, Tocqueville again refused, explaining:
Ce n'est point la confession en elle-meme qui me repugne; au contraireelle me serait douce; c'est une des plus belles et admirables choses de la religion chretienne que cette humiliation de l'orgueil humain, avouer ses faiblesses, et cet epanchement du coeur qui se verse tout entier dans une autre ame pour s'y purifier; mais la premiere condition de la confession catholique, c'est la foi dans tous les dogmes de l'Eglise catholique; et ce sont ces dogmes, toujours contestes par ma raison, que je ne veux pas reconnaitre ni approuver lorsqu'en realite je persiste a ne les pas admettrel 50

After his wife repeatedly returned to the subject, convincing him that in order to receive the last rites he need only be
'"D'Eichthal, Eugene, Alexis de Tocqueville et la democratie liberale (Paris, 1897), p. 216. 47 Baunard, op. cit., pp. 348-354; Redier, op. cit., pp. 292-297. 8 Tocqueville, "The European Revolution" and Correspondence with Gobied. and tr. by John Lukacs, p. 26. neau, ' Tocqueville, (Euvres completes, new edition, Tome IX (Corresponddnce d'Alexis de Tocqueville et d'Arthur de Gobineau), intro., p. 13. Ibid., pp. 13-14.

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sincerelyrepentent,and that no professionof belief in Catholic doctrines was necessary, Tocqueville finally agreed.5' Beaumontgoes on to relate that when Tocqueville spoke to him about this a short time later "il me peignait en termes admirablesle bonheur qu'il avait eprouve par cette communion chretienne,qui avait etabli entre sa chere femme et
lui un lien de plus, le seul qui manqu&ta leur union pour etre
complete." 52

The Beaumont document reveals the same set of attitudes that has been noted above: a deeply sincere and serious involvement with matters of faith, respect for, and even affirmation of, some aspects of Christian teaching, but an inability to accept all the doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church. If we accept its veracity, this account would seem to provide almost conclusive proof that Tocqueville was no closer to being a convinced Catholic at the time of his death than he had been throughout his adult life. Nor can the document be disposed of as a piece of special pleading, since it does not merely relate Beaumont's opinions about Tocqueville's religious convictions. To a large extent it consists of quotations purporting to be Tocqueville's own words, as in the first and second citations above, and unless new evidence to the contrary appears there would seem to be no reason to doubt their authenticity. In tone and manner, as well as in content, they have a quality of almost desperate honesty and of psychological acumen with which the reader of Tocqueville is familiar.53 Those who are sceptical of Beaumont's disinterestedness and objectivity will tend to attach less weight to his paraphrases of Tocqueville's remarks, and particularly to those stances surrounding Tocqueville's acceptance of the last rites. Whether or not the reader chooses to accept these passages at face value, however, would not seem to alter the net effect
Ibid., p. 14. The passage in which Tocqueville speaks of confession as one of the most admirable of Christian institutions because of its beneficial effects upon human beings, is certainly typical. One recognizes here the same tendency toward seeing religion "sous un point de vue purement humain" ((Euvres completes, Tome I. Vol. 1, new edition, p. 310) which is to be found so consistently in Tocqueville's writings.

sentences in which Beaumont is himself relating the circum-

a Ibid., p. 14.

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of the document, since the evidence of Tocqueville's own words is so direct and conclusive.As a result, it is no longer possible to conclude that his acceptanceof the last rites was an act of faith, and the only significantargumentsupporting the Baunard-Redier interpretationbecomes untenable. One of the soundestand most perceptiveinterpretations of Lacwas that forward by Tocqueville'sreligiousposition put ordaire,the FrenchliberalCatholic priest, shortlyafter Tocqueville's death. In a speech delivered upon his acceptance of Tocqueville'sseat in the Academie Frangaise,Lacordaire spoke with sympathyand understandingof his predecessor's noble and spiritualnature,and of his profoundreligiousfeeling. Tocqueville'sreason,his moralearnestnessand integrity, had shown him "le Dieu actif, vivant, personnel, qui regit toutes choses."64 This was the ChristianGod, the God of the Gospel, but nevertheless he did not always love God as a discussionof this point proved that Lacordaire's Christian.55 than mere a he was more apologist, for he did not try to fit Tocqueville into the pattern of orthodoxCatholicism,as did Baunard.Lacordaireadmitted that in this respect Tocqueville's faith left much to be desired; it was a faith of reason rather than of "coeur;"it lacked the true Christian'sardor and love.58 Implicithere is the same point which has been emphasized above: The dependence of Tocqueville's religious beliefs uponhis convictionthat faith was necessaryto humanbeings. This was not a coldly practical decision that because belief was useful he would believe, but a deep emotionalneed for religionas the solutionto man'sbesetting spiritualproblems. Hence, it was rationalin the sense that it was a faith consciously sought after in the nature of man. Ultimately, however, Tocqueville's creed rested on his innate religiousfeeling, for only the man who is himself profoundly spiritualcan understandthe need for faith. We have seen that the loss of certitude could not deliver Tocqueville to atheism;his instincts and the trainingof his youth would
Lacordaire, Pere, Discours prononces dans le seance publique tenue par I'Academie franqaise pour la reception de M. Lacordaire (Paris, 1861), p. 24. Mbid., pp. 4, 24. Ibid., p. 24.

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not permit it. Belief was however made more difficult. Since he could no longer tranquilly accept, his faith was limited to those basic elements of religion which he believed to be necessary to all men. It has been noted above that he did retain belief in the fundamentals of Christianity: the existence of God, the immortality of the soul, fixed moral and physical laws, free will and responsibility, the high ethical standards of the Gospel. Faith in these eternal truths of religion remained fixed throughout his life. Since Tocqueville thought in terms of the God revealed in the Gospel his belief may truly be called "Christian," but further than this loose definition we may not go. Baunard recognizes this, criticizing Tocqueville for judging all the various Christian confessions equally.57 He was concerned with the Gospel and Jesus, not with the doctrinal differences that separate the Churches. To Baunard this was but a halfCatholicism, since it did not involve acceptance of all the dogmas of Catholic Christianity.58 Salomon has called it "existential Catholicism," 9 and Mayer "Christian deism." 60 Both terms adequately suggest that deep-seated belief in the fundamental philosophical and ethical tenets of Christianity which was the core of Tocqueville's religious position. To conclude here would be to give too facile and systematic an account, eliminating those doubts and problems which played so essential a part in Tocqueville's religious life. There is no question that his ambigious relationship to Catholicism caused him much distress. For he had been bor and educated in a milieu of thoroughgoing Catholicism, and preserved his respect and sympathy for it throughout his life. He had moreover a strong desire to accept all the practices of Catholicism but could not. It is in terms of his apparently unavailing inclination to embrace orthodox Catholicism that we may understand Tocqueville's despair at being unable to be truly religious. During the fifties these problems seem to have taken on a new urgency, either as a result of his weak'TBaunard, op. cit., pp. 248-250. 8Ibid. p. 287. 69Salomon, Albert, "Tocqueville's Philosophy of Freedom," Review of Politics, I (1939), 412. " Mayer, op. cit., p. 7.

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ening physicalcondition,his disillusionwith politics, or of his friendshipwith the deeply religiousMme. Swetchine. In one of his last lettersto Gobineau,Tocquevillehinted at his own abortive relationshipto Catholicism,and acknowledged his esteem for those who were capable of wholehearted faith. He warmly congratulatedGobineauupon becoming a convinced Catholic, saying that this road was not open to all those who soughtit, "et beaucoupqui la cherchent sincerement n'ont pas eu jusqu'ici le bonheur de la ren61 It contrer." may be that Tocqueville was alluding to his own situation,for in the same letter he speaks of those who have the utmostrespect and venerationfor Catholicismwithout "malheureusement" being completely convinced.62 seem At any rate,it would that in these sentencesTocqueville has set forthhis own position:deeply religiousby nature, he was neverthelessunable to accept those even a Christian, doctrines which would have made him a member of the Roman Catholic Church. These general outlines do clearly emergefrom the sourcematerial,and would seem to provide no comfortto those who choose to interpretTocqueville in termsof rigid religiousor politicalcategories. It is unfortunatethat discussion of his religious position has so frequently tended to become controversyas to the Interestnatureand extentof his commitmentto Catholicism. has to it served this question is, ing and significantthough deflect attentionfrom other aspects of his religious thinking which are of more immediateconcernto the historian.If this stateinvestigationhas succeeded in arrivingat a satisfactory ment of Tocqueville'spersonal beliefs, it will perhaps also for further servethe broaderpurposeof acting as springboard researchon relatedissues. SternCollege for Women YeshivaUniversity
' Tocqueville, letter to Gobineau, January 24, 1857, (Eurves completes, new edition, Tome IX (Correspondance d'Alexis de Tocqueville et d'Arthur de Gobineau), p. 278. "Ibid., p. 276.

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