Chapter 2: Fundamentals of Semiconductor Theory

2013. 09. 23

Presenter: Saransh Malik

School of Electronics and Computer Engineering Chonnam National University

Contents

2.1 2.2

Semiconductor Theory N-Type Semiconductors

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2.1 Semiconductor Theory

Elements of Atomic Theory

Ancient philosopher Democritiuss Hypothesis all matter compose of ATOMS Atoms Smallest unit of Matter.

Atoms combined to form molecules.

Non-Element Atoms compose of same molecules. Substance Atoms compose with different molecules.

Electrons Negatively charged particles orbiting the nucleus with fixed numb
er for each element. Discovered by JJ Thompson Nucleus Extremely massive central core part contains subatomic particles Protons (positive charge) and Neutrons (Neutral Charge). Protons - Positive charge particles with charge of +1.602x10-19 C; Mass 1.643x10-27 Kg. Discovered by Ernest Rutherford Electromagnetic Forces and Gravitational forces were better known for holding the structure of Atom.
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Elements of Atomic Theory

H Yucawa in 1935 discovered existences of Nuclear Force. Neil Bohr In 1813 discovered the spherical approximated model for Atom as shown in figure below . Sum of total +ve charge is equal to total sum for negative charge in an atom; which makes an atom electrically neutral.

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Elements of Atomic Theory

Based on Atomic Number periodic table elements are assigned based on Hydrogen. Atomic Weight Sum of total no. of Protons and neutrons in the nucleus of atom

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Elements of Atomic Theory

Niels Bohr uses the emission spectrum of hydrogen to develop a quantum model

for H.
Central idea: electron circles the nucleus in only certain allowed circular orbitals. Bohr postulates that there is Coulombic (C) attraction between e- and nucleus. Electrons orbit the nucleus in circular paths of fixed energy (energy levels). Indicates main energy levels

n = 1, 2, 3, 4
The maximum number of electrons in a principal energy level is given by: Max no. of electrons = 2n2 , n= the principal quantum number Shell closest to nucleus have lowest energy, labelled as K,L,M K is closest to nucleus
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Elements of Atomic Theory

Bohr model for the H atom is capable of reproducing the energy levels . The electrons in an atom as per Schrdinger are given as quantum numbers Energy of the emitted photon=Difference in energy between two states.

Example , n =1 shell contains one orbit with one or two

electron

Thus the 3rd sub shell contains 18 electrons and the 4th contains 32 electrons.

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Elements of Atomic Theory

Force of attraction between electrons and protons within atom
F: Force of attraction; qn & qp: mass of neutron & proton, respectively.

Valence Shell : The valence shell is the outermost shell of an atom.

Electrons in this shell make up its valence electrons, these electrons

determine how the atom chemical properties will be. Relationship between Position of Shell in Atomic model and the number of electrons occupying Shell is given as
Ne: Maximum no. of electrons; n: Position of shell in the atom.

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Elements of Atomic Theory

Example 2-1 Calculate Maximum number of electrons occupying each of the four shells in a balanced atom

Solution:
First Shell: Second Shell:
Thus, Maximum number of electrons occupying the first energy orbit is two. Thus, the max. number of electrons occupying the second orbit is eight.

3rd orbit, by 18 electrons and 4th by 32 electrons. Shell which has electrons less than max. is valance shell.

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Elements of Atomic Theory

Example of Atomic model of Silicon(Si) and Germanium(Ge) are shown below in Figure 2-4 and 2-5.

Figure 2-4 An atomic model of silicon (Si)

Si : 14 Protons & 14 Neutrons in nulceus, surrounded by 14 electrons shell.

Figure 2-5 An atomic model of Germanium (Ge)

So, the first and second shell are complete, but only 4 electrons are there in valence

In fig 2-5 for Germanium , composed of 32 Protons in nucleus and 32 electrons,

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Elements of Atomic Theory

Electrons belonging to the same shell occupy different energy levels as shown in Table 2-1 At a specific temperature the atom of element is said to be neutral Atoms absorbs thermal energy The electrons in this valence shell absorbs energy. If the energy level is higher than the threshold energy electron leave the atom and become a free electron

If atom deprive and electron it gains positive charge and if it gains one it attains
negative charge.

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Principle of Semiconductor Theory : Insulators, Conductors and Semiconductors

Energy Bands
Basic categories of elements : Insulators : Dont conduct Electric current Conductors : Conduct Electric current

The conduction band is the range of electron energies enough to free an electron from binding with its atom to move freely within the atomic lattice of the material as a 'delocalized electron. The valence band is the highest range of electron energies in which electrons are normally present at absolute zero temperature. Fig 2-6a: Energy gap of an insulator is very large and of very high energy order 3eV will have to be absorbed by an electron order to elevate it from the valence band to conducting band. Fig 2-6b: In conductors some electron move freely from valence bond to conducting band at room Temp. .

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Principle of Semiconductor Theory : Insulators, Conductors and Semiconductors

Energy Gap: Amount of energy required by an electron to be able to transfer from valence band to conducting band. Band Gap Width : Band Gap energy (Eg) is based on the temperature. Given by equation (2-3)
where Eg : band gap energy at Tx; Eg (T0) is the band gap energy at 0 K and

(,) are coefficients.

Band gap Energy of silicon is higher than germanium as in Table 2-3. Also, with an increase in operating temperature, the band gap energy is correspondingly decreases, thus increasing probability that electrons from the valence band will transfer to the conducting band to become free electrons.

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Principle of Semiconductor Theory : Insulators, Conductors and Semiconductors

Table 2-3 Band Gap Energy
Semiconductor Germanium (Ge) Silicon (Si) Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) Eg/0K(eV) 0.7437 1.170 1.519 Eg/300K(eV) 0.66 1.12 1.42 (eV/K) 4.774x10-4 4.73x10-4 5.405x10-4 /K 235 636gAllirum Ars 204

Table 2-4 Band Gap Energy Levels for Si, Ge and GaAs at differencet temp.

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Principle of Semiconductor Theory : Insulators, Conductors and Semiconductors

Band Gap Energy :
Conductor : 0.1 eV Insulator : Larger than 5 eV. Semiconductor: approx. 1eV.

Example 2-2 Cal. Band gap energy (eV) of silicon, germanium and GaAs for temperature ranging from 0K to 400K, and plot the corresponding graphs

Sol.: At

At

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Principle of Semiconductor Theory : Insulators, Conductors and Semiconductors

The Fermi Dirac Distribution : This distribution helps to get the hole density in the valence band and the electron density in the conduction band in a semiconductor material , given by equations

Pc(E) : Density of state function in the conduction band

Pv(E) : Density of state function in the valence band

fn(E) : Fermi Dirac Distribution function in electrons in conduction band fp(E) : Fermi Dirac Distribution function in holes in valence band.

The density state function for both conducting and valence bands are given as-

Ev : Energy at the top of the valence band; Ec : Energy at the bottom of the conducting band me :Density of state effective mass of electrons ; mh : Density of state effective mass of holes
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Principle of Semiconductor Theory : Insulators, Conductors and Semiconductors

Fermi Dirac Functions are given by :
Probability that electron occupies available energy (E)

Probability that Hole occupies available energy (E)

Where, EFn : Fermi Energy for electron; EFp : Fermi Energy for hole;

K: Boltzman Const.; T: Absolute Temperature

Evident sum of probabilities =>1, In terms of eV reference to kT,

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Principle of Semiconductor Theory : Insulators, Conductors and Semiconductors

The Concentration of Electrons and Holes in Intrinsic Semiconductors
Electrons and hole distribution in an intrinsic semiconductor material is defines as product of density of state and Fermi Distribution.

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Principle of Semiconductor Theory : Insulators, Conductors and Semiconductors

Electron Concentration in the Conducting Band
It is defined by the Fermi Dirac density of state distribution function

Substituting this into Equation (2-14) and solving yields (2-15)

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Principle of Semiconductor Theory : Insulators, Conductors and Semiconductors

Differentiating both sides, gives Substituting, (2-17) to (2-16), gives (2-18)

Fermi Efficiency F,

(2-20)

F0.5 (F) is Fermi integral of half order; Nc is given by:

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Principle of Semiconductor Theory : Insulators, Conductors and Semiconductors

An approx. solution is required for F much larger than one.

For Non degenerate Semiconductors: Fermi Level Within Band Gap

First approx. Limitation: This shows : Fermi Level must lie within the gap and away from the bottom of the conducting band by several kT. By applying Second Approx.
2-26 is evident of the reason why, semiconductors electrical props. Are similar to that of conductors.
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Principle of Semiconductor Theory : Insulators, Conductors and Semiconductors

First Approximation : Intrinsic properties of semiconductors, so based on Maxwell-Boltzman Statistics.

Hole Concentration in the Valence Bond

Hole: Empty space that e- leaves behind at valence bond anf provides +ve charge.

Hole concentration uses same procedure as with the electrons in the

conduction band is applied. So, Integrating Fermi-Dirac distribution function of equation (2-5) from in valence band yields (2-28)

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Principle of Semiconductor Theory : Insulators, Conductors and Semiconductors

pv(E) and fp(E) Equation (2-28) yields Equation (2-29)

Differentiating both sides

Equation (2-29) and (2-30).

Fermi Efficiency
Nv Effective density of states in valence bonds

Fermi Integral of Half Order

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Principle of Semiconductor Theory : Insulators, Conductors and Semiconductors

As, (2-33) is not closed so a relationship is required for Fermi Efficiency.

For Non Degenerate Semiconductors: Fermi Level Within the Band

Gap
By using the approximation,
This shows Fermi level must be within the band gap and must be away from
the top of the valence band (kT)

Hole concentration in the valence band is given as:

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Principle of Semiconductor Theory : Insulators, Conductors and Semiconductors

A new kind of material that show electrical property of both conductors and insulators. The band gap energy level is higher than conductor and lower than insulator.

Basic Semiconductor materials are Silicon and Germanium. In germanium, electrons occupying the valence shell are at higher energy levels thus absorbs less energy.

In Silicon, it is opposite as in case of germanium.

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Principle of Semiconductor Theory : Insulators, Conductors and Semiconductors

The figure shows Silicon structure as crystalline form, held together by a covalent bond which is formed when electrons occupy valence shell, as in fig 2-9.

Crystalline structure share e- with adjacent atom makes it more chemically stable. When e- at valence shell acquires enough thermal energy/electric field, it can transfer from the valence shell to conducting band
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Principle of Semiconductor Theory : Insulators, Conductors and Semiconductors

After losing the thermal energy it also retrieve back to its valence shell make it neutral again. This process continues as long as the right conditions external to the atom continue to exist this is referred as electron hole generation.

At absolute temp. 0K , Si exists in crystalline structure. Crystalline structure exists in a neutral state: no free electrons.

At room temp. : No. of free electrons and holes remains constant for a condition that
makes it best for fabrication.
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Principle of Semiconductor Theory : Insulators, Conductors and Semiconductors

Other Semiconductors used are as: Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) & Iodium Phoshide (InP). Intrinsic semiconductor : At state of equilibrium, The concentration of electrons and holes is equal. With the injection of certain impurities in molecular structure, the extrinsic properties can be altered, this can be done through doping.

The new types of Semiconductors then produced are : N- type and P-Type varying
with Conductivity.

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2.2 N-Type Semiconductors

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2.2 N-Type Semiconductors

N-Type semiconductor is created by adding pentavalent impurities like :

Phosphorus (P), Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb), Bismuth (Bi).

4 As (DONOR) valence electrons are used to make covalent bond with Si (ACCEPTOR) atom, while the 5th electron becomes free.
This free electron contributes to the conducting properties.

Since electrons are negative charge carriers, the resultant material is called Ntype (or negative type) .
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2.2 N-Type Semiconductors

In N-type semiconductors materials that ratio of majority (Electrons) and Minority (Hole). The product of electron and hole can be defines by the relation: Intrinsic Semiconductor n is equal to p, thus, above equation can be In an intrinsic Semiconductor, Ec-Ev=Eg. Thus , the above equation can be given as,

Ec: Conducting band energy level, Ev : Valence band energy level, Eg : band gap energy level.

Product of electron/hole density is independent of the Fermi Level and

dependent on the operating temperature.

Eg For Si at room temperature 300K electron/hole density is 2.4x1017 carriers/m3 for Ge it is1.51017 carriers/m3 32 / 33

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