Chapter 1 - Introduction To Geology PDF

Geologi Kejuruteraan - BFC 3013
Introduction to Geology
Chapter 1 Introduction to Geology

INTRODUCTION What is Geology and Engineering Geology? Geology is the study of this planet Earth, its origin, history, composition, structure and dynamics of how it changes. The word geology is derived from Greek word (geo - earth; logos - discourse). Geology is an event formed during geological time which involves interpretation and also observation of the event that occurred and is still occurring at present in our earth; Geological processes that takes place during the very large span of geological time, left their record in the rocks. One of the unique features of Earth is that the Earth is not a static body but is in constant motion and changes continually. In sciences study, engineering geology is the application of the geological principal in civil engineering (and as a subdivision of the mining engineering). Engineering geology in practice are responsible in civil engineering projects that involve the earth or earth materials which include (1) The identification and evaluation of the physical environment of the site and (2) The analysis of the impact of the geologic processes on the proposed project. As a result, it is important to the civil engineers to understand about history, nature and the variety behavior of the soil and rock. The knowledge of the application engineering is also important for the geologist who works together with the engineer. Engineering geology is a subfield of geological study concerning about the geological inputs and the uses of the information to solve the engineering problems. It exists solely to serve art and science of engineering through description of the structure and attributes of rocks connected with engineering works (Goodman, 1993). Some engineering works that need understandings/related to geological aspect are construction of dam, landslide, rock as aggregates and construction material, hydro geological and Etc.
UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA
1.1 The Universe and Solar System Our solar system consists of an average star we call the Sun, the planets Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto. It includes the satellites of the planets such as numerous comets, asteroids, and meteoroids and the interplanetary medium. The Sun is the richest source of electromagnetic energy (mostly in the form of heat and light) in the solar system. The nine major planets including our earth and their moons are revolving around the Sun.
Figure 1.1
The solar system
Figure 1.2 The composite above shows the Sun and the 5 largest planets at a scale of 3200 km/pixel. (Earth is the tiny spot between Jupiter and the Sun)
Figure 1.3
Planets
1.1.1 The Terrestrial and Jovian Planets The terrestrial planets are the four innermost planets in the solar system, Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. They are called terrestrial because they have a compact, rocky surface like the Earth's. The planets, Venus, Earth, and Mars have significant atmospheres while Mercury has almost none.
Figure 1.4
The Terrestrial Planets
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are known as the Jovian (Jupiter-like) planets. They are called jovian because they are all gigantic compared with Earth, and they have a gaseous nature like Jupiter's.
Figure 1.5
The Jovian Planets
1.1.2 Satellites, Asteroids, Comets and Meteors Satellites or Moons: are those celestial bodies, each of which is revolving around any of these nine planets. Asteroids are the minor planets generally situated between orbits of Mars and Jupiter. Comets are the heavenly bodies having along tail pointing approximately away from the sun and a brighter head section (coma) that contains a small bright nucleus. Meteors are smaller solid bodies moving through the space, and getting illuminated while entering earths atmosphere.
Figure 1.6
Asteroids
Figure 1.7
Comet
Table 1.1
Distance (AU) Radius (Earth's)
The characteristics for the entire planet

Mass (Earth's) Rotation (Earth's) # Moons Orbital Inclination Orbital Eccentricity Obliquity Density (g/cm3)
Sun Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Pluto
0 0.39 0.72 1.0 1.5 5.2 9.5 19.2 30.1 39.5
109 0.38 0.95 1.00 0.53 11 9 4 4 0.18
332,800 0.05 0.89 1.00 0.11 318 95 17 17 0.002
25-36* 58.8 244 1.00 1.029 0.411 0.428 0.748 0.802 0.267
9 0 0 1 2 16 18 15 8 1
--7 3.394 0.000 1.850 1.308 2.488 0.774 1.774 17.15
--0.2056 0.0068 0.0167 0.0934 0.0483 0.0560 0.0461 0.0097 0.2482
--0.1 177.4 23.45 25.19 3.12 26.73 97.86 29.56 119.6
1.410 5.43 5.25 5.52 3.95 1.33 0.69 1.29 1.64 2.03
1.2 Earth The largest of four planets of inner group solar system i.e. Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars and third closest to the sun. Shape - spherical Polar radius - 21 km shorter than equatorial radius Average radius - 6378 km (3965 miles) Surface Area - 510 x 106 km2 (29% is land) Overall Density - 5.5 g/cm3 Mount Everest is 8.8 km above sea level Ocean floor is an average 3.7 km below sea level Average height above sea level is 7 km
1.2.1 The Origin of the Earth Based on observational facts cosmologist have developed classes of hypothesis which try to explain the origin of the earth. One of them is The Big Bang Theory. At 13.7 billion years ago, the entirety of our universe was compressed into the confines of an atomic nucleus. Known as a singularity, this is the moment before creation when space and time did not exist. According to the prevailing cosmological models that explain our universe, an ineffable explosion, trillions of degrees in temperature on any measurement scale, that was infinitely dense, created not only fundamental subatomic particles and thus matter and energy but space and time itself. Cosmology theorists combined with the observations of their astronomy colleagues have been able to reconstruct the primordial chronology of events known as the big bang.
Figure 1.8
The Big Bang Theory
Figure 1.9
Earth
Figure 1.10 Earth with other Planets
1.2.2 Principal Division of Earth (a) Atmosphere
Gaseous portion of the Earth extending upwards for hundreds of miles above sea level. It is a mixture of 98% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, carbon dioxide, eater vapour and minor amount of other gases. The atmosphere is divided into two parts. Troposhere is the closest to the Earth ~ 13 km. It contains almost all of the water vapour, clouds and storms. Stratosphere is the overlying layer ~ 55 km above the surface, contains the ozone layer. It acts as an insulating agent protecting us from the heat and ultra violet radiation of the sun and makes possible the evaporation and precipitation of moisture and is thus of crucial important to organisms on surface of Earth. The atmosphere is an important geologic agent and is responsible for the processes of weathering which are continually at work on the Earth's surface. (b) Hydrosphere
Total mass of water or the surface of our planet. The hydrosphere includes about 98% of water in the oceans and 2% in lakes, rivers as well as ground water which exist in the pores and crevices of the crustal rocks and soils. 71% of Earth covered by oceans to average depth of 4 km. Water is essential to man and of geologic important. All of Earth's weather patterns, climate, rainfall and the extremely important carbon dioxide content of atmosphere are influenced by the seas and oceans. Hydrosphere is in constant motion - evaporating through atmosphere, precipitating as rain and returning to Earth. As water moves over the Earth's surface it erodes, transports and deposits weathered rock material, constantly modifying the Earth's landscape.
(c)
Lithosphere
Lithos means rock. The solid portion of the Earth composed of crust and upper mantle. It is a layer of rocks about 70 km thick, that rests upon soft weak material and is broken into about 12 major plates which is slowly moved by the flow of material in a layer that directly underlies the lithosphere called the asthenosphere. There are three basic types of rock: Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic.
1.2.3 Physical Features of the Earth
Major Concepts Earth is segregated and concentrated into layers according to density. The major internal layers based on physical properties are: (a) lithosphere (c) mesosphere (b) asthenosphere (d) core
Material within each of these units is in motion, making Earth a changing dynamic planet. Continents and ocean basins are the principal surface features of Earth.
1.2.3.1 Major Structural Units of Earth
The constituents of Earth are separated and segregated into layers according to density. The denser materials are concentrated near the center, the less dense near the surface. The internal layers are recognized on the basis of composition and physical properties. Composition layers are: Crust Mantle Core Layers based on physical properties are: Lithosphere Asthenosphere Mesosphere Core
Table 1.2
Layers of the Earth Based on Composition
Outer Crust
Mantle
Outer Core Inner Core
Outer layer of the Earth, extending from solid surface down to the first major discontinuity in seismic wave velocity in the lithosphere. Thickness of crust varies from about 8 km under the oceans to about 35 km under the continents. There are two kinds of earth crust classified according to two different kinds of rock they contained where each with its own general composition, thickness and density. (a) Continent Crust: 35 - 60 km thick relatively low density granitic rock average density: 2.8 g/cm3 (b) Oceanic Crust : thickness rarely exceed 5 km denser material basaltic composition average density: 2.9 g/cm3 The next major compositional layer of the Earth which covers the core and this zone constitute 82% of its volume and 68% of mass of the Earth (Earth largest layer). The mantle has a property called "plasticity" (where a solid has the ability to flow like a liquid). You might call the mantle "partially molten". Remember that the temperature of the mantle increases the deeper you go. This difference in temperature causes CONVECTION CURRENTS to form. This type of current forms when hot things rise and cooler things sink. These convection currents tumble throughout the mantle. They cause the Lithospheric plates floating on the mantle to move around. These currents cause our continents and oceans to change location slightly each year. The currents are the driving force for Plate Tectonics or Continental Drift, which we will discuss in more detail in a later section. The forces which drive continental drift seem to come from the mantle. The hot rock, which boils up at mid-ocean ridges, comes from the upper mantle. This rock spreads out forming new oceanic plates. When these meet the continents they plunge back down into the mantle, sometimes going down as far as the outer core. In addition there are hot spots, which start at the outer core and rise up through the mantle to form islands such as Hawaii or Iceland. The mantle is composed of iron and magnesium silicate rock, and it goes down to about 2900 km from surface of Earth. Average density: 4.5 g/cm3 It is speculated that the thickness is about 2250 km and it is made of molten iron and nickel. Average density: 10.7 g/cm3 The thickness' is about 1300 km and probably consists of mostly iron and nickel. Average density: 17.0 g/cm3
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Figure 1.11 The Lithosphere
Figure 1.12 The layer of Lithosphere and Asthenosphere
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Figure 1.13 The Convection Currents in the Mantle
Figure 1.14 The Outer Core and The Inner Core
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Table 1.3
Internal layers of the Earth based on Physical Properties
Lithosphere (rock sphere)
The top of the asthenosphere is about 100 km below the surface. Above the asthenosphere, the material is solid, strong and rigid. This layer is called lithosphere. Contains the continental crust of the uppermost part of the mantle.
Asthenosphere (weak sphere)
A major zone within the upper mantle where temperature and pressure are just the right balance so that part of the material melts. The rocks lose much of their strength and become soft plastic and easily deformed. The asthenosphere is the part of the mantle that flows and moves the plates of the Earth. The thickness is about 200 km.
Mesosphere
The rock below the asthenosphere is stronger and more rigid than the asthenosphere because the high pressure at this depth offsets the effect of high temperature. The region between the asthenosphere and the core-mantle boundary is called the mesosphere.
Core
The core of the Earth marks a change in both physical properties and composition. It is composed mostly of iron and is therefore distinctly different from the silicate (rocky) material above. On the basis of physical properties, the core has two distinct parts - a solid inner core and liquid outer core. Heat loss from the core and the rotation of the Earth probably causes the liquid outer core to circulate and generate the Earth's magnetic field.
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(a)
(b)
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(c) Figure 1.15 (a), (b) and (c) Composition and Physical Properties Layers of the Earth
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Figure 1.16 The Compositional and Mechanical Layers of Earth
Figure 1.17 The Internal Structure of Earth
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1.2.3.2 The Structure of Earth Continents and ocean basins are the principle surface features of the Earth. Both are distinctly different in composition, density, rock type, structure and origin. (a) Continental Masses
This part of the earth covers about 29% of the earths surface and has an average elevation of about 5 km above the floors of the ocean basins and about 1 km above sea level. It composed largely of rocks known as granite. The continents rise above the ocean basins as large platforms. The highest mountain on the continental surface is Mount Everest which is 29000 feet above sea level but the deepest part of the ocean is about 35000 feet below sea level at Pacific Ocean. (b) Ocean Basins
The greatest part of the hydrosphere is the ocean basin which covers about 70% of the earth's surface. The ocean floors are also as irregular and posses many deep trenches and mountain ranges as the continental masses. The rocks of the ocean are rather dense, dark basaltic rock.
Figure 1.18 A graph of the Elevation of the Continents and Ocean Basins
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1.2.3.3 The Geologic Processes that Change the Earth's Structure Geologic Forces: Earth has undergone great changes over million of years. Generally processes of gradation, tectonism and volcanism. (a) Gradation
Degradation: Erosion results from wearing of rocks by water, air and ice. Aggradation: Deposition results in accumulation of sediment and ultimate building up of rock strata. (b) Tectonism
Plate tectonics is a dynamic process of the lithospheric plate which moves over a weak plastic layer in the upper mantle known as asthenosphere. These plates interact with one another along their boundaries. Indicative of crustal instability, produce faulting (fracture and displacement), folding, subsidence and uplift of rock formation. Responsible for formation of mountain ranges. Earths lithosphere is composed of seven large plates (Figure 1.19) with thickness ranging from 75 to 125 km. Table 1.4 Pacific Plate Antartic Plate Indian Plate Africian Plate Earths Lithosphere Plates Eurasian Plate North America Plate South American Plate 20 other small plates in between
(c)
Volcanism
A volcano is a vent in the earth's crust through which molten rock materials within the earth, lavas, ashes, steam and gas are ejected and responsible for the formation of plutonic rocks, once solidified at great depth. Majority of volcanoes are located along the margins of tectonic plates.
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Figure 1.19 Major Plates of the Lithosphere
1.2.3.4 Geologic Time Scale
The Earth's crust is known to be at least 40 million centuries old. The time span of the earth is called eras and subdivided into periods (Table 1.5). Rocks have been created and destroy throughout geologic time. Rocks which are created during that particular period for example Cambrian are said to belong to the Cambrian system. The nature of rocks created or formed during various eras can actually reveal about its strength and condition, for example rocks from the Precambrian era are known to be very hard, crystalline materials but often with many fractures and microstructures, whereas sandstone formed from Pilocene series tends to be porous as soil and easily excavated without blasting.
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Table 1.5 Era Cenozoic Tertiary
Geologic Time Span Period Holocene Pleistocene Pilocene Milocene Oligocene Eocene Palaeocene Cretaceous Jurassic Triassic Permian Carboniferous Devonian Silurian Ordovician Cambrian Absolute (million years 0.012 2 7 26 38 54 65 135 195 225 280 345 395 440 500 570 4600
Mesozoic
Upper Paleozoic
Lower Paleozoic
Proterozoic and Archaeozoic
1.3
Plate Tectonic
1.3.1 What is a Tectonic Plate?
A tectonic plate (also called lithospheric plate) is a massive, irregularly shaped slab of solid rock, generally composed of both continental and oceanic lithosphere. Plate size can vary greatly, from a few hundred to thousands of kilometers across; the Pacific and Antarctic Plates are among the largest. Plate thickness also varies greatly, ranging from less than 15 km for young oceanic lithosphere to about 200 km or more for ancient continental lithosphere. How do these massive slabs of solid rock float despite their tremendous weight? The answer lies in the composition of the rocks. Continental crust is composed of
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granitic rocks which are made up of relatively lightweight minerals such as quartz and feldspar. By contrast, oceanic crust is composed of basaltic rocks, which are much denser and heavier. Most of the boundaries between individual plates cannot be seen, because they are hidden beneath the oceans. Yet oceanic plate boundaries can be mapped accurately from outer space by measurements from GEOSAT satellites. Earthquake and volcanic activity is concentrated near these boundaries.
1.3.2 The Theory of Tectonic Plate
The theory of tectonic plate states that the Earth's outermost layer is fragmented into a dozen or more large and small plates that are moving relative to one another as they ride atop hotter, more mobile material. The present is the key to the past, the geologic forces and processes - gradual as well as catastrophic - acting on the Earth today are the same as those that have acted in the geologic past. Continental Drift - introduced by a 32 year old German meteorologist named Alfred Lothar Wegener. He contended that, around 200 million years ago, the supercontinent Pangaea began to split apart. Alexander Du Toit, Professor of Geology at Johannesburg University, proposed that Pangaea first broke into two large continental landmasses, Laurasia in the northern hemisphere and Gondwanaland in the southern hemisphere. Laurasia and Gondwanaland then continued to break apart into the various smaller continents that exist today.
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Figure 1.20 According to the continental drift theory, the supercontinent Pangaea began to break up about 225-200 million years ago, eventually fragmenting into the continents as we know them today
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Figure 1.21 Major plates of the lithosphere are broken into a dozen or so rigid slabs that are moving relative to one another
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(a)
(b)
Figure 1.22 These two maps showing the American and African continents may once have fit together, then later separated. (a) The formerly joined continents before their separation. (b) The continents after the separation.
Wegener's theory was based in part on what appeared to him to be the remarkable fit of the South American and African continents, the matching animal fossils found on coastlines of South America and Africa, and the evidence of dramatic climate changes on some continents. For example, the discovery of fossils of tropical plants (in the form of coal deposits) in Antarctica led to the conclusion that this frozen land previously must have been situated closer to the equator, in a more temperate climate where lush, swampy vegetation could grow. Other mismatches of geology and climate included distinctive fossil ferns (Glossopteris) discovered in now-polar regions, and the occurrence of glacial deposits in present-day arid Africa, such as the Vaal River valley of South Africa.
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Figure 1.23 As noted by Snider-Pellegrini and Wegener, the locations of certain fossil plants and animals on present-day, widely separated continents would form definite patterns (shown by the bands of colors), if the continents are rejoined
1.3.3 Developing the Theory of Continental Drift
Four major scientific developments spurred the formulation of the plate-tectonics theory: a) The ruggedness and youth of the ocean floor b) Repeated reversals of the Earth magnetic field in the geologic past c) Developing of the seafloor-spreading and associated recycling of oceanic crust d) The world's earthquake and volcanic activity is concentrated along oceanic trenches and submarine mountain ranges.
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1.3.3.1 The Ruggedness and Youth of the Ocean Floor Ocean floor mapping shows the ruggedness and youth of the ocean floor. The sediment layer on the floor of the Atlantic was much thinner than originally thought. Scientists had previously believed that the oceans have existed for at least 4 billion years, so therefore the sediment layer should have been very thick. Why then was there so little accumulation of sedimentary rock and debris on the ocean floor? The answer to this question, which came after further exploration, would prove to be vital to advancing the concept of plate tectonics. The discovery that a great mountain range on the ocean floor virtually encircled the Earth. Called the global mid-ocean ridge, this immense submarine mountain chain - more than 50,000 kilometers (km) long and, in places, more than 800 km across - zig-zags between the continents, winding its way around the globe like the seam on a baseball. Rising an average of about 4,500 m above the sea floor.
Figure 1.24 The mid-ocean ridge (shown in red) winds its way between the continents much like the seam on a baseball
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1.3.3.2 Repeated Reversals of the Earth Magnetic Field in the Geologic Past
Using magnetic instruments (magnetometers) adapted from airborne devices to detect submarines, began recognizing odd magnetic variations across the ocean floor. This finding, though unexpected, was not entirely surprising because it was known that basalt - the iron-rich, volcanic rock making up the ocean floor contains a strongly magnetic mineral (magnetite) and can locally distort compass readings.
Figure 1.25 A theoretical model of the formation of magnetic striping. New oceanic crust forming continuously at the crest of the mid-ocean ridge cools and becomes increasingly older as it moves away from the ridge crest with seafloor spreading (see text): a. the spreading ridge about 5 million years ago; b. about 2 to 3 million years ago; and c. present-day.
Rocks generally belong to two groups according to their magnetic properties. One group has so-called normal polarity, characterized by the magnetic minerals in the rock having the same polarity as that of the Earth's present magnetic field. This would result in the north end of the rock's "compass needle" pointing toward magnetic north. The other group, however, has reversed polarity, indicated by a polarity alignment opposite to that of the Earth's present magnetic field. In this case, the north end of the rock's compass needle would point south. How could this be? This answer lies in the magnetite in volcanic rock. Grains of magnetite - behaving like little magnets - can align themselves with the orientation of the Earth's magnetic field. When magma (molten rock containing minerals and gases) cools to form solid volcanic rock, the
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alignment of the magnetite grains is "locked in," recording the Earth's magnetic orientation or polarity (normal or reversed) at the time of cooling. 1.3.3.3 Seafloor Spreading and Recycling of Oceanic Crust
Why there is so little sediment accumulation on the ocean floor, and why oceanic rocks are much younger than continental rocks? At or near the crest of the ridge, the rocks are very young, and they become progressively older away from the ridge crest. The youngest rocks at the ridge crest always have present-day (normal) polarity. Stripes of rock parallel to the ridge crest alternated in magnetic polarity (normal-reversed-normal, etc.), suggesting that the Earth's magnetic field has flip-flopped many times. When the ages of the samples were determined by paleontologic and isotopic dating studies, they provided the clinching evidence that proved the seafloor spreading hypothesis.
1.3.3.4 Concentration of Earthquakes and Volcano Activity
During the 20th century, improvements in seismic instrumentation and greater use of earthquake-recording instruments (seismographs) worldwide enabled scientists to learn that earthquakes tend to be concentrated in certain areas, most notably along the oceanic trenches and spreading ridges. By the late 1920s, seismologists were beginning to identify several prominent earthquake zones parallel to the trenches that typically were inclined 40 - 60 from the horizontal and extended several hundred kilometers into the Earth. These zones later became known as Wadati-Benioff zones, or simply Benioff zones.
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Figure 1.26 As early as the 1920s, scientists noted that earthquakes are concentrated in very specific narrow zones. In 1954, French seismologist J.P. Roth published this map showing the concentration of earthquakes along the zones indicated by dots and cross-hatched areas
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1.3.4 Understanding Plate Motions Scientists now have a fairly good understanding of how the plates move and how such movements relate to earthquake activity. Most movement occurs along narrow zones between plates where the results of plate-tectonic forces are most evident. There are four types of plate boundaries: 1. 2. Divergent boundaries - where new crust is generated as the plates pull away from each other. Convergent boundaries - where crust is destroyed as one plate dives under another. It can divide into three: (1) Oceanic - continental convergence (2) Oceanic - oceanic convergence (3) Continental - continental convergence Transform boundaries - where crust is neither produced nor destroyed as the plates slide horizontally past each other. Plate boundary zones - broad belts in which boundaries are not well defined and the effects of plate interaction are unclear.
3. 4.
Figure 1.27 An illustrating the main types of plate boundaries; East African Rift Zone is a good example of a continental rift zone
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1.3.4.1 Divergent Boundaries Divergent boundaries occur along spreading centers where plates are moving apart and new crust is created by magma pushing up from the mantle. The rate of spreading along the MidAtlantic Ridge averages about 2.5 centimeters per year (cm/yr), or 25 km in a million years. Figure 1.28 The Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which splits nearly the entire Atlantic Ocean north to south, is probably the best-known and most-studied example of a divergent-plate boundary In East Africa, spreading processes have already torn Saudi Arabia away from the rest of the African continent, forming the Red Sea. The actively splitting African Plate and the Arabian Plate meet in what geologists call a triple junction, where the Red Sea meets the Gulf of Aden.
Figure 1.29 Map of East Africa showing some of the historically active volcanoes (red triangles) and the Afar Triangle (shaded, center) - a so-called triple junction (or triple point), where three plates are pulling away from one another: the Arabian Plate, and the two parts of the African Plate (the Nubian and the Somalian) splitting along the East African Rift Zone
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1.3.4.2 Convergent Boundaries The Earth's unchanging size implies that the crust must be destroyed at about the same rate as it is being created. Such destruction (recycling) of crust takes place along convergent boundaries where plates are moving toward each other, and sometimes one plate sinks (is subducted) under another. The location where sinking of a plate occurs is called a subduction zone. The type of convergence - called by some a very slow "collision" - that takes place between plates depends on the kind of lithosphere involved. Convergence can occur between an oceanic and a largely continental plate, or between two largely oceanic plates, or between two largely continental plates.
Figure 1.30 Subduction Zone and Mid-ocean Ridges
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1.3.4.2.1 Oceanic - Continental Convergence Oceanic-continental convergence (Figure 1.31) also sustains many of the Earth's active volcanoes, such as those in the Andes and the Cascade Range in the Pacific Northwest. The eruptive activity is clearly associated with subduction.
Figure 1.31 Oceanic - Continental Convergence
Figure 1.32 Volcanic arcs and oceanic trenches partly encircling the Pacific Basin form the so-called Ring of Fire, a zone of frequent earthquakes and volcanic eruptions
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1.3.4.2.2 Oceanic - Oceanic Convergence The Marianas Trench (paralleling the Mariana Islands), for example, marks where the fast - moving Pacific Plate converges against the slower moving Philippine Plate. The Challenger Deep, at the southern end of the Marianas Trench, plunges deeper into the Earth's interior (nearly 11,000 m) than Mount Everest, the world's tallest mountain, rises above sea level (about 8,854 m).
Figure 1.33 Oceanic Oceanic Convergence
Subduction processes in oceanic-oceanic plate convergence also result in the formation of volcanoes. Over millions of years, the erupted lava and volcanic debris pile up on the ocean floor until a submarine volcano rises above sea level to form an island volcano. Such volcanoes are typically strung out in chains called island arcs.
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1.3.4.2.3 Continental - Continental Convergence The Himalayan mountain range dramatically demonstrates one of the most visible and spectacular consequences of plate tectonics. When two continents meet head-on, neither is subducted because the continental rocks are relatively light and, like two colliding icebergs, resist downward motion.
Figure 1.34 Continental Continental Convergence
1.3.4.3 Transform Boundaries The zone between two plates sliding horizontally past one another is called a transform-fault boundary, or simply a transform boundary. Most transform faults are found on the ocean floor. They commonly offset the active spreading ridges, producing zig - zag plate margins, and are generally defined by shallow earthquakes. However, a few occur on land, for example the San Andreas fault zone in California. This transform fault connects the East Pacific Rise, a divergent boundary to the south, with the South Gorda - Juan de Fuca - Explorer Ridge, another divergent boundary to the north.
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Figure 1.35 Aerial view of the San Andreas Fault slicing through the Carrizo Plain in the Temblor Range east of the city of San Luis Obispo. (Photograph by Robert E. Wallace, USGS)
Figure 1.36 The Blanco, Mendocino, Murray, and Molokai fracture zones are some of the many fracture zones (transform faults) that scar the ocean floor and offset ridges. The San Andreas is one of the few transform faults exposed on land.
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1.3.4.4 Plate - Boundary Zones Not all plate boundaries are as simple as the main types discussed above. In some regions, the boundaries are not well defined because the plate-movement deformation occurring there extends over a broad belt (called a plate-boundary zone). Because plate-boundary zones involve at least two large plates and one or more microplates caught up between them they tend to have complicated geological structures and earthquake patterns.
SUMMARY
1. The major structural units of the Earth, based on composition are (a) crust, (b) mantle and (c) core. 2. The internal layers of Earth based on physical properties are lithosphere, asthenosphere, mesosphere and core. 3. The two major topographic features of Earth are (a) the continents and (b) ocean basins. 4. Geologic process that change the Earth's structure are gradation, tectonism and volcanism.
ASSIGNMENT Importance of geology and it's relation to civil engineering works. During the early nineteenth century, civil engineers were also geologists .., Assignment not more than 300 words. What is a mohorovicic discontinuities? Do you know that Himalayan mountains were formed as a result of the collision and convergence of the Indian and Eurasian plates?
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REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Draw a diagram of the internal structure of Earth and briefly describe the core, mantle, asthenosphere and lithosphere. 2. What are the major differences between continents and the ocean basins? True (T) / False (F) Questions 1. Continents and ocean basins do not differ markedly in rock type, density or chemical composition. [ ] 2. The difference in elevation of continents and ocean basins represents a fundamental difference in rock density. Continental rocks are less dense than the rocks of the ocean basins. [ ] 3. The equatorial radius is shorter by 21 km than the polar radius. [ ] ]
4. The three broad categories of rocks are formed at the lithosphere. [ 5. The core is the Earth's rigid outer layer. [ ]
6. The continental crust has a granitic layer underneath a basaltic layer. [
7. Earth is the largest of four planets of inner solar group and the third closest to the sun. [ ]
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