MH9100: Advanced Investigations In Calculus I.

Solutions to Homework Assignment #1.

Problem 1:
Given that lim
x0
(sin x)/x = 1, evaluate the following limits.
(a) lim
x0
xsin x
1 cos x
.
(b) lim
x1
sin(x
2
1)
x 1
.
(c) lim
x1
(x
2
1)
3
sin
_
1
x 1
_
3
.
Solution. (a) All the limits below exist:
lim
x0
xsin x
1 cos x
= lim
x0
x
2
1 cos x
lim
x0
sin x
x
= lim
x0
x
2
(1 + cos x)
(1 cos x)(1 + cos x)
1
= lim
x0
x
2
(1 + cos x)
sin
2
x
= lim
x0
(1 + cos x) lim
x0
x
2
sin
2
x
= 2
_
lim
x0
x
sin x
_
2
=
2
_
lim
x0
sin x
x
_
2
= 2.
(b) We have
lim
x1
sin(x
2
1)
x 1
= lim
x1
sin(x
2
1)
x
2
1
(x + 1)
= lim
x1
sin(x
2
1)
x
2
1
lim
x1
(x + 1)
= 2 lim
x1
sin(x
2
1)
x
2
1
.
1
Let > 0 be arbitrary. By denition, there is some

> 0, such that

if 0 < |y| <

, then |sin y/y 1| < . Since x

2
1 is continuous at
1, there is some > 0, which we may take it to be less than 1 as
well, such that if 0 < |x 1| < then

x
2
1

<

. Since < 1, we
will denitely have x = 1, hence we actually have 0 <

x
2
1

<

for those x, therefore we also have

sin(x
2
1)
x
2
1
1

< . This shows

that for every > 0 there is > 0 such that if 0 < |x 1| < then

sin(x
2
1)
x
2
1
1

< . This yields lim

x1
sin(x
2
1)
x
2
1
= 1, thus the given
limit is equal to 2.
(c) For all x = 1 we have

(x
2
1)
3
sin
_
1
x 1
_
3

x
2
1

3
,
or equivalently,

x
2
1

3
(x
2
1)
3
sin
_
1
x 1
_
3

x
2
1

3
.
Now,
lim
x1

x
2
1

3
= lim
x1

x
2
1

3
= 0,
since these expressions are continuous, so we just replace x by 1 in
order to evaluate the limits. By the squeeze theorem, the given limit
must also be equal to zero.
Problem 2:
Prove that
lim
x0
+
f(1/x) = lim
x
f(x).
Proof. Let lim
x
f(x) = l. By denition, for every > 0 there is some
M > 0, such that if x > M then |f(x) l| < . This shows that whenever
0 < y < 1/M, then 1/y > M, hence |f(1/y) l| < . Therefore, for every
> 0 there is = 1/M > 0 such that if 0 < x < then |f(1/x) l| < .
This precisely proves that lim
x0
+ f(1/x) = l, as well.
Conversely, if lim
x0
+ f(1/x) = l, then for every > 0 there is some
> 0 such that if 0 < x < then |f(1/x) l| < . This shows that if
2
y > 1/, then 0 < 1/y < and hence |f(y) l| < . Therefore, for every
> 0 there is M = 1/ > 0, such that whenever x > M then |f(x) l| < ,
proving that lim
x
f(x) = l as well.
The above show that when one of these limits exists, then the other one
exists, too, and they are equal. This is also true, when these limits are
innite.
Problem 3:
Dene lim
x
f(x) = l.
(a) Find lim
x
a
n
x
n
+ + a
0
b
m
x
m
+ . . . + b
0
.
(b) Prove that lim
x
f(x) = lim
x
f(x).
(c) Prove that lim
x0

f(1/x) = lim
x
f(x).
Proof. The denition is the following: for every > 0 there is some M > 0
such if x < M then |f(x) l| < .
(a) Using parts (b) and (c), we have
lim
x
a
n
x
n
+ + a
0
b
m
x
m
+ . . . + b
0
= lim
x
x
n
_
a
n
+
a
n1
x
+ +
a
0
x
n
_
x
m
_
b
m
+
b
m1
x
+ . . . +
b
0
x
m
_
= lim
x
x
nm

lim
x
_
a
n
+
a
n1
x
+ +
a
0
x
n
_
lim
x
_
b
m
+
b
m1
x
+ . . . +
b
0
x
m
_
= lim
x
(x)
nm

lim
x0

(a
n
+ a
n1
x + + a
0
x
n
)
lim
x0

(b
m
+ b
m1
x + . . . + b
0
x
m
)
= (1)
nm
a
n
b
m
lim
x
x
nm
.
So, if n < m, the above limit is zero, if n = m, then it is equal to
an
bm
.
If we have n > m, then the limit is ; it is when (1)
nm an
bm
is
positive and when (1)
nm an
bm
is negative, since lim
x
x
nm
=
when n > m.
3
(b) Assume that lim
x
f(x) = l, and consider the function g(x) =
f(x). Let > 0 be arbitrary. Then, there is M > 0 such that if
x > M then |f(x) l| < , or equivalently, |g(x) l| < . Putting
y = x, we get that for every > 0, there is M > 0 such that if
y < M, then |g(y) l| < . This satises the denition of the limit to
given in the beginning, hence lim
x
f(x) = lim
y
g(y) =
l, so the two limits are equal. The proof is identical if we assume
lim
x
f(x) = l, or if one of the limits is .
(c) Combining the results from Problems 2 and 3(c) we have
lim
x
f(x) = lim
x
f(x) = lim
x0
+
f(1/x).
We put g(x) = f(1/x) for all x = 0, so it remains to prove that
lim
x0

g(x) = lim
x0
+
g(x).
Assume that lim
x0
+ g(x) = l (the case lim
x0
g(x) = l is treated
similarly, as well as the case where one of the limits is ). Let > 0
be arbitrary. By denition, there is > 0, such that if 0 < x < then
|g(x) l| < . If we put y = x, the previous statement is equivalent
to the following: if < y < 0, then |g(y) l| < . Since > 0 is
arbitrary, we conclude that lim
x0
g(x) = l, as well.
Problem 4:
Find the following limits, when they exist.
(a) lim
x
x
3
+ 4x 7
7x
2
x + 1
.
(b) lim
x
x
2
sin
1
x
.
(c) lim
x
_
x
2
+ 2x x.
(d) lim
x
_
|x|
x
.
4
Solution. (a) By Problem 2 and the usual limit laws, we have
lim
x
x
3
+ 4x 7
7x
2
x + 1
= lim
x
x
3
_
1 +
4
x
2

7
x
3
_
x
2
_
7
1
x
+
1
x
2
_
= lim
x
x
1 +
4
x
2

7
x
3
7
1
x
+
1
x
2
= lim
x
x lim
x
1 +
4
x
2

7
x
3
7
1
x
+
1
x
2
= lim
x
x lim
x0
+
1 + 4x
2
7x
3
7 x + x
2
=
1
7
= .
(b) Again, by problem 2 and the fact that lim
x0
(sin x)/x = 1, we have
lim
x
x
2
sin
1
x
= lim
x0
+
sin x
x
2
= lim
x0
+
sin x
x
x
= lim
x0
+
sin x
x
lim
x0
+
x
= 1 0 = 0.
(c) All the limits below exist:
lim
x
_
x
2
+ 2x x = lim
x
(

x
2
+ 2x x)(

x
2
+ 2x + x)

x
2
+ 2x + x
= lim
x
2x

x
2
+ 2x + x
= lim
x
2
_
1 +
2
x
+ 1
=
2
lim
x
(
_
1 +
2
x
+ 1)
=
2
_
1 + lim
x
2
x
+ 1)
= 1.
5
(d) We have
lim
x
_
|x|
x
=

lim
x
|x|
|x|
2
=

lim
x
1
|x|
=

lim
x
1
x

= 0.
() Problem 5:
Suppose that A
n
is, for each natural number n, some nite set of numbers
in [0, 1], and that A
n
and A
m
have no members in common if m = n. Dene
f as follows:
f(x) =
_
1/n, x in A
n
0, x not in A
n
for any n.
Prove that lim
xa
f(x) = 0 for all a in [0, 1].
Proof. Let > 0 be arbitrary. We want to nd a > 0 such that if 0 <
|x a| < then |f(x)| < . First of all, we consider a natural number n
such taht 1/n < . By denition of f(x), we have |f(x)| = f(x) 1/n
precisely when x A
i
, for some i with 1 i n. Now, all these sets are
nite, therefore the set
B = {x [0, 1]|x = a, x A
i
, for some i, 1 i n}
is nite. Therefore, since a does not belong to B, we may dene as the
minimum over all expressions |x a|, where x B; since all these expres-
sions are positive and nitely many, their minimum exists and is positive
as well. Thus, if 0 < |x a| < then x / B and hence by the way B is
dened, |f(x)| < 1/n < , concluding the proof.
6
() Problem 6:
Suppose that lim
xa

f(x) < lim

xa
+
f(x). Prove that there is some > 0 such
that f(x) < f(y) whenever x < a < y and |x a| < and |y a| < . Is
the converse true?
Proof. Let lim
xa

f(x) = k and lim

xa
+
f(x) = l. Take =
lk
2
> 0. By
denition of the above limits, there is a > 0 such that when we have
< x a < 0 < y a < then |f(x) k| < and |f(y) l| <
simultaneously hold. But then
k l
2
< f(x) k <
l k
2
or equivalently
3k l
2
< f(x) <
l + k
2
whenever < x a < 0. Similarly, if 0 < y a < then
l + k
2
< f(y) <
3l k
2
.
This shows that if < x a < 0 < y a < then
f(x) <
l + k
2
< f(y),
as desired.
The converse does not always exist; a simple counterexample is f(x) = x
with a = 0. Obviously, whenever x < 0 < y we have f(x) = x < 0 < y =
f(y), but lim
x0

f(x) = lim
x0
+
f(x) = 0. More generally, a counterexample can
be constructed if we consider any continuous strictly increasing function.
() Problem 7:
(a) Prove that if f is continuous at l and lim
xa
g(x) = l, then lim
xa
f(g(x)) =
f(l). (You can go right back to the denitions, but it is easier to
consider the function G with G(x) = g(x) for x = a, and G(a) = l.)
(b) Show that if continuity of f at l is not assumed, then it is not generally
true that lim
xa
f(g(x)) = f( lim
xa
g(x)). Hint: Try f(x) = 0 for x = l,
and f(l) = 1.
7
Proof. (a) Dene G as in the hint; then G is continuous at a by denition.
As f is continuous at G(a) and G is continuous at a, then f G is
continuous at a, which shows that lim
xa
f(G(x)) = f(G(a)) = f(l).
Since G(x) = g(x) for all x = a, this limit is also equal to lim
xa
f(g(x)),
as was to be shown.
(b) Consider the function f as in the hint, and let g(x) = x + l a, for
all x. Then, for all x = a we have f(g(x)) = f(x + l a) = 0, since
x+l a = l for all such x. Hence lim
xa
f(g(x)) = 0. On the other hand,
f( lim
xa
g(x)) = f( lim
xa
(x + l a)) = f(l) = 1,
thus
lim
xa
f(g(x)) = f( lim
xa
g(x)).
8