1

1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 1 Stefan Williams

Introduction to Mechatronics
Mech-1540
Systems and Control
1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 2 Stefan Williams
Systems and Control
A Systemis a device or process that takes a
given input and produces some output:
A DC motor takes as input a voltage and produces
as output rotary motion
A chemical plant takes in raw chemicals and
produces a required chemical product
System
Input Output
1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 3 Stefan Williams
What is a Control System
A Process that needs to be controlled:
To achieve a desired output
By regulating inputs
A Controller: a mechanism, circuit or algorithm
Provides required input
For a desired output
Required
Input
Desired
Output
Process
Output
Controller
1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 4 Stefan Williams
Closed Loop Control
Closed-loop control takes account of actual
output and compares this to desired output
Measurement
Desired
Output
+
-
Process
Dynamics
Controller/
Amplifier
Output Input
Open-loop control is blind to actual output
2
1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 5 Stefan Williams
Feed-Back Control
A Measurement of actual output is taken
A comparison between measured and desired
output is made
A controller uses this comparison to provide
input to the process
The input is designed to make desired and
measured values the same
Called a Feedback Controller
1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 6 Stefan Williams
What is a Control System ?
A process to be controlled
A measurement of process output
A comparison between desired and actual output
A controller that generates inputs from comparison
Measurement
+
-
Process Controller
Output
Desired
Output
Comparison
1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 7 Stefan Williams
Example: DC Motor Speed Control
Desired speed
d
Actual speed
Tachometer measurements plus noise
Control signal is a voltage
Variations in Load Torque
Actual Speed Measurement
+
-
Load Torque
Power
Amplifier
Controller
Motor
Tacho

d
1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 8 Stefan Williams
Example: DC Motor Speed Control
Feedback provides insurance against:
Motor Non-linearities
Changes in Load Torque
Actual Speed Measurement
+
-
Load Torque
Power
Amplifier
Controller
Motor
Tacho

d
3
1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 9 Stefan Williams
Example: Batch Reactor
Temperature Control
Goal: Keep Temperature at desired value Td
If T is too large, exothermic reaction may cause explosion
If T is too low, poor productivity may result
Feedback is essential because process dynamics are not
well known
Controller
Steam
Water
Measured Temperature
Coolant
Reactants
Desired
Temperature
1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 10 Stefan Williams
Example: Aircraft Autopilot
Standard components in modern aircraft
Goal: Keep aircraft on desired path
Disturbances due to wind gust, air density, etc.
Feedback used to reject disturbances
GPS/Inertial
Path controller
Rudder
Elevons
Measured path Route
Sensors
Actuators
Disturbances
1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 11 Stefan Williams
Block Diagrams
Formalise control systems as pictures
Ascribes mathematical models to system
components
Components can be combined to produce an
overall mathematical description of systems
Interaction between elements is well defined
1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 12 Stefan Williams
Block Diagrams: Summation
Ideal, no delay or dynamics
Two inputs:
( ) ( ) ( ) z t d t y t
Three or
more:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) z t f t g t y t +
( ) z t
( ) z t
( ) y t
( ) y t
( ) d t
( ) f t
( ) g t
+
+
+

4
1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 13 Stefan Williams
Block Diagrams: Transfer
Functions
Transfers input to output:
( ) y t
( ) x t G
. y G x
A constant gain (K)
A differential equation
A look-up table
1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 14 Stefan Williams
Time Out: The Laplace Transform
In this course, the Laplace operator or
Laplace variable is a useful notation:
d
s
dt

2
2
2
d
s
dt
etc
And logically:
1
.dt
s

1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 15 Stefan Williams

For Example I
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
p p
dy
mc y t u t sY s mc Y s U s
dt
+ +
p
m c
( ) Q u t
&
( ) T y t
Physical model
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
1
( ) ( )
p
p
p
sY s mc Y s U s
s mc Y s U s
Y s U s
s mc
+
+
1

1
+
1
]
1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 16 Stefan Williams
For Example I
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
p p
dy
mc y t u t sY s mc Y s U s
dt
+ +
p
m c
( ) Q u t
&
( ) T y t
Physical model
1
p
s mc +
( ) U s ( ) Y s
Block Diagram
model
5
1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 17 Stefan Williams
For Example I
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
p p
dy
mc y t u t sY s mc Y s U s
dt
+ +
p
m c
( ) Q u t
&
( ) T y t
Physical model
( ) G s
( ) U s ( ) Y s
Transfer Function
1
( )
p
G s
s mc

+
1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 18 Stefan Williams
For Example II
( ) x t
( ) u t M
C
K
2
2
[ ( ) ( )]
d x dx
M C K x t u t
dt dt
+
2
2 2
2
2 ( ) ( )
d x dx
x t u t
dt dt
+ +
2
C
M

2
K
M

K
M

2
C
KM

1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 19 Stefan Williams
For Example II
( )
2 2 2
2 ( ) ( ) s s X s U s + +
2
2 2
2
2 ( ) ( )
d x dx
x t u t
dt dt
+ +
2 2 2
. ( ) 2 . ( ) . ( ) ( ) s X s s X s X s U s + +
Laplace Transform
2
2 2
( ) ( )
2
X s U s
s s

1
+ +
]
1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 20 Stefan Williams
For Example II
2
2 2
2 s s

+ +
( ) X s ( ) U s
( ) x t
( ) u t M
C
K
Physical Model
Block Diagram model
6
1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 21 Stefan Williams
Block Diagrams:
Transfer Functions
Transfer Function G(s) describes system
component
An operator that transfers input to output
Described as a Laplace transform because
( ) Y s
( ) X s
( ) G s
( ) ( ) ( ) Y s G s U s ( ) ( ) ( ) y t g t u t
1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 22 Stefan Williams
Single-Loop Feedback System
Desired
Value
Output
Transducer
+
-
Feedback
Signal
error
Controller Plant
Control
Signal
( ) C s ( ) G s
K
( ) d t ( ) e t ( ) u t ( ) y t
( ) f t
Error Signal
The goal of the Controller C(s) is:
To produce a control signal u(t)
Which drives the error e(t) to zero
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) e t d t f t d t Ky t
1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 23 Stefan Williams
Controller Objectives
Controller cannot drive error to zero
instantaneously as the plant G(s) has dynamics
Clearly a large control signal will move the plant
more quickly
The gain of the controller should be large so that
even small values of e(t) will produce large
values of u(t)
However, large values of gain will cause
instability
1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 24 Stefan Williams
Why Use Feedback ?
Perfect feed-forward controller: G
n
( ) y t ( ) d t
G 1/
n
G
( ) l t
+

Output and error:

n
G
y d Gl
G

1
n
G
e d y d Gl
G
_
+

,
Only zero when:
n
G G
0 l
(Perfect Knowledge)
(No load or disturbance)
7
1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 25 Stefan Williams
Why Use Feedback ?
1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 26 Stefan Williams
Why Use Feedback ?
u d y
l
e
+
+

K G
unity feedback
controller plant
demand output
A sensor
load
, ( ), e d y y G u l u Ke
No dynamics
Here !
( ) ( ) e d y d G u l d G Ke l
So:
1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 27 Stefan Williams
Closed Loop Equations
e d GKe Gl +
( ) 1 KG e d Gl + + Collect terms:
1
1 1
G
e d l
KG KG
+
+ +
Or:
Demand to Error
Transfer Function
Load to Error
Transfer Function
1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 28 Stefan Williams
Closed Loop Equations
1
G
KG +
K
d
l
y
+
+
Equivalent Open Loop Block Diagram
1 1
GK G
y d l
KG KG
+
+ +
Similarly
Demand to Output
Transfer Function
Load to Output
Transfer Function
8
1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 29 Stefan Williams
Rejection of Loads and
Disturbances
1
G
y l
KG

+
Load to Output
Transfer Function
If K is big:
1 KG >>
1
0
G
y l l
KG K

If K is big:
Perfect Disturbance Rejection
Independent of knowing G
Regardless of l
1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 30 Stefan Williams
Tracking Performance
1
GK
y d
KG

+
Demand to Output
Transfer Function
If K is big:
1 KG >>
GK
y d d
KG

If K is big:
Perfect Tracking of Demand
Independent of knowing G
Regardless of l
1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 31 Stefan Williams
Two Key Problems
u d y
l
e
+
+

K G
( ) u K d y
Power:
Large K requires large
actuator power u
1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 32 Stefan Williams
Two Key Problems
u d y
l
e
+
+

K G
( ) u K d y n +
Noise:
Large K amplifies
sensor noise
u Kd
In practise a Compromise K is required
+n
9
1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 33 Stefan Williams
Control Criteria
Speed of Response
Robustness to unknown
plant and load
Stability
1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 34 Stefan Williams
Response of a First-Order
System
1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
dy
ay t x t Y s X s
dt s a
+
+
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
Time
O
u
tp
u
t
Response of First Order Lag to Impulse Input
0
( )
at
y t y e

General Solution:
1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 35 Stefan Williams
Step Response
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
O
u
tp
u
t
Time
Response of First Order Lag to Step Input
( ) (1 )
at
f
y t y e

1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 36 Stefan Williams
Speed of Response
u
x
y
e
+

K
1
s a +
, ( )
dy
ay u u K x y
dt
+
Equations:
( )
dy
ay K x y
dt
+ ( )
dy
a K y Kx
dt
+ +
1 0
1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 37 Stefan Williams
System Descriptions
( ) ( )
( )
K
Y s X s
s a K

+ +
( )
K
s a K + +
( ) X s ( ) Y s
( )
dy
a K y Kx
dt
+ +
( )
0
( )
a k t
y t y e
+

1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 38 Stefan Williams

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
Time (s)
O
u
tp
u
t
Speed of Response
( )
0
( )
a k t
y t y e
+

0
( )
at
y t y e

Increasing K increases Speed of Response

1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 39 Stefan Williams
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
O
u
tp
u
t
Time (s)
Speed of Response to Step
( )
( )
0
( ) 1
a k t
y t y e
+

0
( ) (1 )
at
y t y e

Increasing K increases Speed of Response
1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 40 Stefan Williams
The Time Constant of a System
The time constant of a system is defined as the
time taken to reach 1/e of the final value
( )
0
( )
a k t
y t y e
+

0
( )
at
y t y e

1 dy
y x
dt T
+
The time-constant of a system
characterises its speed of response
Reach 1/e when
1
t T
a K

+
@
1
t T
a
@
1 1
1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 41 Stefan Williams
Tracking Response
A system with dynamics takes time to respond
(like e
-at
for example)
If the demand also changes, the output will lag.
For example a ramp demand:
1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 42 Stefan Williams
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
Time (s)
Tracking Error
Steady-State Error
Initial Response
Input
Output
1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 43 Stefan Williams
Characterising
Tracking Errors
Tracking Errors are characterised by
considering the response of the system to
sine waves of different frequencies
1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 44 Stefan Williams
Low Frequency Response
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
Time (s)
In
p
u
t/O
u
tp
u
t
Input
Output
Lag
1 2
1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 45 Stefan Williams
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
In
p
u
t/O
u
tp
u
t
Time (s)
High Frequency Response
Input
Output
Lag
Bigger lag
Diminished
Amplitude
1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 46 Stefan Williams
Frequency Response
For most physical systems:
When input varies slowly, output tracks input
closely (small lag, similar amplitude)
When input varies quickly, output does not track
input well (large lag, reduced amplitude)
The speed of input changes that can be tracked
is a universal measure of system performance
1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 47 Stefan Williams
Example I
sin
dy
ay t
dt
+
1
( ) sin( ) y t t
a

+
+
1
tan
a

1
]
Plot amplitude of output
Against input frequency
Plot phase lag of output
Against input frequency
1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 48 Stefan Williams
10
-2
10
- 1
10
0
10
1
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
Frequency (rad/s)
A
m
p
lit
u
d
e
Amplitude
Amplitude Falls by half
Bandwidth
1 3
1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 49 Stefan Williams
Bandwidth Calculation
Definition of Bandwidth:
Frequency at which input
Amplitude is half DC value
1
A
a

+
0
a
1
A
a

1
2
A
a

Bandwidth here is
a rads/second
1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 50 Stefan Williams
Phase Lag
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
P
h
a
s
e

(
r
a
d
s
)
Frequency (rad/s)
1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 51 Stefan Williams
Increased Gain Increases
Bandwidth
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
- 2
10
- 1
10
0
Bandwidth
is (a+k)
1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 52 Stefan Williams
Bandwidth and Time-constants
The Bandwidth and Time -constant of a
system are the inverse of each other:
1 1
bw
T
a

1
bw
a
T

1
bw
a K
T
+
1 1
bw
T
a K

+
1 4
1540 Introduction To Mechatronics: Slide 53 Stefan Williams
A Word About Stability
0 1 0 20 30 4 0 5 0 60 - 1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 1 0 20 30 4 0 5 0 60 - 1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
Start here
G
180
o
phase
inversion
0 1 0 20 30 4 0 5 0 60 - 1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
Bigger here
K

Another phase inversion

If G is such that input is phase reversed
(180
o
out of phase) for any frequency,
then input will be back in phase
If loop gain >1 then
system will be unstable
BANG !
If System is unstable for one input,
it will be unstable for all inputs