A DISCOURSE

ON A SUBJECT PROPOSED BY THE ACADEMY OF DIJON:

WHAT IS THE ORIGIN OF INEQUALITY AMONG MEN, AND IS IT AUTHORISED BY NATURAL LAW?
Jean Jacq e! R" !!ea #$%& 3e #ho"ld con#ide! &hat i# nat"!al not in thin*# de'!aved ("t in tho#e &hich a!e !i*htl o!de!ed acco!din* to nat"!e- A!i#totle, Politics, B)- i, ch- 4

DEDICATION TO THE REPUBLIC OF GENE'A MOST HONOURABLE, MAGNIFICENT AND SOVEREIGN LORDS, convinced that onl a vi!t"o"#
citi$en can con%e! on hi# co"nt! hono"!# &hich it can acce't, I have (een %o! thi!t ea!# 'a#t &o!)in* to +a)e + #el% &o!th to o%%e! o" #o+e '"(lic ho+a*e, and, thi# %o!t"nate o''o!t"nit #"''le+entin* in #o+e de*!ee the in#"%%icienc o% + e%%o!t#, I have tho"*ht + #el% entitled to %ollo& in e+(!acin* it the dictate# o% the $eal &hich in#'i!e# +e, !athe! than the !i*ht &hich #ho"ld have (een + a"tho!i#ation- Havin* had the ha''ine## to (e (o!n a+on* o", ho& co"ld I !e%lect on the e."alit &hich nat"!e ha# o!dained (et&een +en, and the ine."alit &hich the have int!od"ced, &itho"t !e%lectin* on the '!o%o"nd &i#do+ ( &hich (oth a!e in thi# State ha''il co+(ined and +ade to coincide, in the +anne! that i# +o#t in con%o!+it &ith nat"!al la&, and +o#t %avo"!a(le to #ociet , to the +aintenance o% '"(lic o!de! and to the ha''ine## o% individ"al#/ In + !e#ea!che# a%te! the (e#t !"le# co++on #en#e can la do&n %o! the con#tit"tion o% a *ove!n+ent, I have (een #o #t!"c) at %indin* the+ all in act"alit in o"! o&n, that even had I not (een (o!n &ithin o"! &all# I #ho"ld have tho"*ht it indi#'en#a(le %o! +e to o%%e! thi# 'ict"!e o% h"+an #ociet to that 'eo'le, &hich o% all othe!# #ee+# to (e 'o##e##ed o% it# *!eate#t advanta*e#, and to have (e#t *"a!ded a*ain#t it# a("#e#I% I had had to +a)e choice o% the 'lace o% + (i!th, I #ho"ld have '!e%e!!ed a #ociet &hich had an e0tent '!o'o!tionate to the li+it# o% the h"+an %ac"ltie#, that i#, to the 'o##i(ilit o% (ein* &ell *ove!ned1 in &hich eve! 'e!#on (ein* e."al to hi# occ"'ation, no one #ho"ld (e o(li*ed to co++it to othe!# the %"nction# &ith &hich he &a# ent!"#ted1 a State, in &hich all the individ"al# (ein* &ell )no&n to one anothe!, neithe! the #ec!et +achination# o% vice, no! the +ode#t o% vi!t"e #ho"ld (e a(le to e#ca'e the notice and 2"d*+ent o% the '"(lic, and in &hich the 'lea#ant c"#to+ o% #eein* and )no&in* one anothe! #ho"ld +a)e the love o% co"nt! !athe! a love o% the citi$en# than o% it# #oilI #ho"ld have &i#hed to (e (o!n in a co"nt! in &hich the inte!e#t o% the Sove!ei*n and that o% the 'eo'le +"#t (e #in*le and identical, to the end that all the +ove+ent# o% the +achine +i*ht tend al&a # to the *ene!al ha''ine##- And a# thi# co"ld not (e the ca#e, "nle## the Sove!ei*n and the 'eo'le &e!e one and the #a+e 'e!#on, it %ollo&# that I #ho"ld have &i#hed to (e (o!n "nde! a de+oc!atic *ove!n+ent, &i#el te+'e!edI #ho"ld have &i#hed to live and die %!ee1 that i#, #o %a! #"(2ect to the la&# that neithe! I, no! an (od el#e, #ho"ld (e a(le to ca#t o%% thei! hono"!a(le o)e1 the ea# and #al"ta! o)e &hich the ha"*htie#t nec)# (ea! &ith the *!eate! docilit , a# the a!e +ade to (ea! no othe!5

I #ho"ld have &i#hed then that no one &ithin the State #ho"ld (e a(le to #a he &a# a(ove the la&, and that no one &itho"t #ho"ld (e a(le to dictate #o that the State #ho"ld (e o(li*ed to !eco*ni#e hi# a"tho!it - Fo!, (e the con#tit"tion o% a *ove!n+ent &hat it +a , i% the!e (e &ithin it# 2"!i#diction a #in*le +an &ho i# not #"(2ect to the la&, all the !e#t a!e nece##a!il at hi# di#c!etion- And i% the!e (e a national !"le! &ithin, and a %o!ei*n !"le! &itho"t, ho&eve! the +a divide thei! a"tho!it , it i# i+'o##i(le that (oth #ho"ld (e d"l o(e ed, o! that the State #ho"ld (e &ell *ove!nedI #ho"ld not have cho#en to live in a !e'"(lic o% !ecent in#tit"tion, ho&eve! e0cellent it# la&#, %o! %ea! the *ove!n+ent, (ein* 'e!ha'# othe!&i#e %!a+ed than the ci!c"+#tance# o% the +o+ent +i*ht !e."i!e, +i*ht di#a*!ee &ith the ne& citi$en#, o! the &ith it, and the State !"n the !i#) o% ove!th!o& and de#t!"ction al+o#t a# #oon a# it ca+e into (ein*- Fo! it i# &ith li(e!t a# it i# &ith tho#e #olid and #"cc"lent %ood#, o! &ith tho#e *ene!o"# &ine# &hich a!e &ell ada'ted to no"!i#h and %o!ti% !o("#t con#tit"tion# that a!e "#ed to the+, ("t !"in and into0icate &ea) and delicate con#tit"tion# to &hich the a!e not #"ited- 6eo'le# once acc"#to+ed to +a#te!# a!e not in a condition to do &itho"t the+- I% the atte+'t to #ha)e o%% the o)e, the #till +o!e e#t!an*e the+#elve# %!o+ %!eedo+, a#, ( +i#ta)in* %o! it an "n(!idled licen#e to &hich it i# dia+et!icall o''o#ed, the nea!l al&a # +ana*e, ( thei! !evol"tion#, to hand the+#elve# ove! to #ed"ce!#, &ho onl +a)e thei! chain# heavie! than (e%o!e- The Ro+an 'eo'le it#el%, a +odel %o! all %!ee 'eo'le#, &a# &holl inca'a(le o% *ove!nin* it#el% &hen it e#ca'ed %!o+ the o''!e##ion o% the Ta!."in#- De(a#ed ( #lave! , and the i*no+inio"# ta#)# &hich had (een i+'o#ed "'on it, it &a# at %i!#t no (ette! than a #t"'id +o(, &hich it &a# nece##a! to cont!ol and *ove!n &ith the *!eate#t &i#do+, in o!de! that, (ein* acc"#to+ed ( de*!ee# to (!eathe the health7*ivin* ai! o% li(e!t , +ind# &hich had (een ene!vated o! !athe! (!"tali#ed "nde! t !ann , +i*ht *!ad"all ac."i!e that #eve!it o% +o!al# and #'i!it o% %o!tit"de &hich +ade it at len*th the 'eo'le o% all +o#t &o!th o% !e#'ect- I #ho"ld, then, have #o"*ht o"t %o! + co"nt! #o+e 'eace%"l and ha'' Re'"(lic, o% an anti."it that lo#t it#el%, a# it &e!e, in the ni*ht o% ti+e1 &hich had e0'e!ienced onl #"ch #hoc)# a# #e!ved to +ani%e#t and #t!en*then the co"!a*e and 'at!ioti#+ o% it# #"(2ect#, and &ho#e citi$en#, lon* acc"#to+ed to a &i#e inde'endence, &e!e not onl %!ee, ("t &o!th to (e #oI #ho"ld have &i#hed to choo#e + #el% a co"nt! , dive!ted, ( a %o!t"nate i+'otence, %!o+ the (!"tal love o% con."e#t, and #ec"!ed, ( a #till +o!e %o!t"nate #it"ation, %!o+ the %ea! o% (eco+in* it#el% the con."e#t o% othe! State#1 a %!ee cit #it"ated (et&een #eve!al nation#, none o% &hich #ho"ld have an inte!e#t in attac)in* it, &hile each had an inte!e#t in '!eventin* it %!o+ (ein* attac)ed ( the othe!#, in #ho!t, a Re'"(lic &hich #ho"ld have nothin* to te+'t the a+(ition o% it# nei*h(o"!#, ("t +i*ht !ea#ona(l de'end on thei! a##i#tance in ca#e o% need- It %ollo&# that a !e'"(lican State #o ha''il #it"ated co"ld have nothin* to %ea! ("t %!o+ it#el%, and that, i% it# +e+(e!# t!ained the+#elve# to the "#e o% a!+#, it &o"ld (e !athe! to )ee' alive that +ilita! a!do"! and co"!a*eo"# #'i!it &hich a!e #o '!o'e! a+on* %!ee+en, and tend to )ee' "' thei! ta#te %o! li(e!t , than %!o+ the nece##it o% '!ovidin* %o! thei! de%enceI #ho"ld have #o"*ht a co"nt! , in &hich the !i*ht o% le*i#lation &a# ve#ted in all the citi$en#, %o! &ho can 2"d*e (ette! than the o% the condition# "nde! &hich the had (e#t d&ell to*ethe! in the #a+e #ociet / Not that I #ho"ld have a''!oved o% 6le(i#cita, li)e tho#e a+on* the Ro+an#, in &hich the !"le!# in the State, and tho#e +o#t inte!e#ted in it# '!e#e!vation, &e!e e0cl"ded %!o+ the deli(e!ation# on &hich in +an ca#e# it# #ec"!it de'ended, and in &hich, ( the +o#t a(#"!d incon#i#tenc , the +a*i#t!ate# &e!e de'!ived o% !i*ht# &hich the +eane#t citi$en# en2o edOn the cont!a! , I #ho"ld have de#i!ed that, in o!de! to '!event #el%7inte!e#ted and ill7conceived '!o2ect#, and all #"ch dan*e!o"# innovation# a# %inall !"ined the Athenian#, each +an #ho"ld not (e at li(e!t to '!o'o#e ne& la&# at 'lea#"!e, ("t that thi# !i*ht #ho"ld (elon* e0cl"#ivel to 8

the +a*i#t!ate#, and that even the #ho"ld "#e it &ith #o +"ch ca"tion, the 'eo'le, on it# #ide, (e #o !e#e!ved in *ivin* it# con#ent to #"ch la&#, and the '!o+"l*ation o% the+ (e attended &ith #o +"ch #ole+nit , that (e%o!e the con#tit"tion co"ld (e "'#et ( the+, the!e +i*ht (e ti+e eno"*h %o! all to (e convinced, that it i# a(ove all the *!eat anti."it o% the la&# &hich +a)e# the+ #ac!ed and vene!a(le, that +en #oon lea!n to de#'i#e la&# &hich the #ee dail alte!ed, and that State#, ( acc"#to+in* the+#elve# to ne*lect thei! ancient c"#to+# "nde! the '!ete0t o% i+'!ove+ent, o%ten int!od"ce *!eate! evil# than tho#e the endeavo"! to !e+oveI #ho"ld have 'a!tic"la!l avoided, a# nece##a!il ill7*ove!ned, a Re'"(lic in &hich the 'eo'le, i+a*inin* the+#elve# in a 'o#ition to do &itho"t +a*i#t!ate#, o! at lea#t to leave the+ &ith onl a '!eca!io"# a"tho!it , #ho"ld i+'!"dentl have )e't %o! the+#elve# the ad+ini#t!ation o% civil a%%ai!# and the e0ec"tion o% thei! o&n la&#- S"ch +"#t have (een the !"de con#tit"tion o% '!i+itive *ove!n+ent#, di!ectl e+e!*in* %!o+ a #tate o% nat"!e, and thi# &a# anothe! o% the vice# that cont!i("ted to the do&n%all o% the Re'"(lic o% Athen#B"t I #ho"ld have cho#en a co++"nit in &hich the individ"al#, content &ith #anctionin* thei! la&#, and decidin* the +o#t i+'o!tant '"(lic a%%ai!# in *ene!al a##e+(l and on the +otion o% the !"le!#, had e#ta(li#hed hono"!ed t!i("nal#, ca!e%"ll di#tin*"i#hed the #eve!al de'a!t+ent#, and elected ea! ( ea! #o+e o% the +o#t ca'a(le and "'!i*ht o% thei! %ello&7citi$en# to ad+ini#te! 2"#tice and *ove!n the State, a co++"nit , in #ho!t, in &hich the vi!t"e o% the +a*i#t!ate# th"# (ea!in* &itne## to the &i#do+ o% the 'eo'le, each cla## !eci'!ocall did the othe! hono"!- I% in #"ch a ca#e an %atal +i#"nde!#tandin*# a!o#e to di#t"!( the '"(lic 'eace, even the#e inte!val# o% (lindne## and e!!o! &o"ld (ea! the +a!)# o% +ode!ation, +"t"al e#tee+, and a co++on !e#'ect %o! the la&#, &hich a!e #"!e #i*n# and 'led*e# o% a !econciliation a# la#tin* a# #ince!e- S"ch a!e the advanta*e#, +o#t hono"!a(le, +a*ni%icent and #ove!ei*n lo!d#, &hich I #ho"ld have #o"*ht in the co"nt! in &hich I #ho"ld have cho#en to (e (o!n- And i% '!ovidence had added to all the#e a deli*ht%"l #it"ation, a te+'e!ate cli+ate, a %e!tile #oil, and the +o#t (ea"ti%"l co"nt! #ide "nde! Heaven, I #ho"ld have de#i!ed onl , to co+'lete + %elicit , the 'eace%"l en2o +ent o% all the#e (le##in*#, in the (o#o+ o% thi# ha'' co"nt! , to live at 'eace in the #&eet #ociet o% + %ello&7citi$en#, and '!acti#in* to&a!d# the+, %!o+ thei! o&n e0a+'le, the d"tie# o% %!iend#hi', h"+anit , and eve! othe! vi!t"e, to leave (ehind +e the hono"!a(le +e+o! o% a *ood +an, and an "'!i*ht and vi!t"o"# 'at!iotB"t, i% le## %o!t"nate o! too late *!o&n &i#e, I had #een + #el% !ed"ced to end an in%i!+ and lan*"i#hin* li%e in othe! cli+ate#, vainl !e*!ettin* that 'eace%"l !e'o#e &hich I had %o!%eited in the i+'!"dence o% o"th, I #ho"ld at lea#t have ente!tained the #a+e %eelin*# in + hea!t, tho"*h denied the o''o!t"nit o% +a)in* "#e o% the+ in + native co"nt! - Filled &ith a tende! and di#inte!e#ted love %o! + di#tant %ello&7citi$en#, I #ho"ld have add!e##ed the+ %!o+ + hea!t, +"ch in the %ollo&in* te!+#9M dea! %ello&7citi$en#, o! !athe! + (!othe!#, #ince the tie# o% (lood, a# &ell a# the la&#, "nite al+o#t all o% "#, it *ive# +e 'lea#"!e that I cannot thin) o% o", &itho"t thin)in*, at the #a+e ti+e, o% all the (le##in*# o" en2o , and o% &hich none o% o", 'e!ha'#, +o!e dee'l %eel# the val"e than I &ho have lo#t the+- The +o!e I !e%lect on o"! civil and 'olitical condition, the le## can I conceive that the nat"!e o% h"+an a%%ai!# co"ld ad+it o% a (ette!- In all othe! *ove!n+ent#, &hen the!e i# a ."e#tion o% en#"!in* the *!eate#t *ood o% the State, nothin* *et# (e ond '!o2ect# and idea#, o! at (e#t (a!e 'o##i(ilitie#- B"t a# %o! o", o"! ha''ine## i# co+'lete, and o" have nothin* to do ("t en2o it, o" !e."i!e nothin* +o!e to (e +ade 'e!%ectl ha'' , than to )no& ho& to (e #ati#%ied &ith (ein* #o- :o"! #ove!ei*nt , ac."i!ed o! !ecove!ed ( the #&o!d, and +aintained %o! t&o cent"!ie# 'a#t ( o"! valo"! and &i#do+, i# at len*th %"ll and "nive!#all ac)no&led*ed- :o"! (o"nda!ie# a!e %i0ed, o"! !i*ht# con%i!+ed and o"! !e'o#e #ec"!ed ( hono"!a(le t!eatie#- :o"! con#tit"tion i# e0cellent, (ein* not onl dictated ( the '!o%o"nde#t ;

&i#do+, ("t *"a!anteed ( *!eat and %!iendl 'o&e!#- :o"! State en2o # 'e!%ect t!an."illit , o" have neithe! &a!# no! con."e!o!# to %ea!, o" have no othe! +a#te! than the &i#e la&# o" have o"!#elve# +ade, and the#e a!e ad+ini#te!ed ( "'!i*ht +a*i#t!ate# o% o"! o&n choo#in*- :o" a!e neithe! #o &ealth a# to (e ene!vated ( e%%e+inac , and thence to lo#e, in the '"!#"it o% %!ivolo"# 'lea#"!e#, the ta#te %o! !eal ha''ine## and #olid vi!t"e, no! 'oo! eno"*h to !e."i!e +o!e a##i#tance %!o+ a(!oad than o"! o&n ind"#t! i# #"%%icient to '!oc"!e o"- In the +eanti+e the '!ecio"# '!ivile*e o% li(e!t , &hich in *!eat nation# i# +aintained onl ( #"(+i##ion to the +o#t e0o!(itant i+'o#ition#, co#t# o" ha!dl an thin* %o! it# '!e#e!vationMa a Re'"(lic, #o &i#el and ha''il con#tit"ted, la#t %o! eve!, %o! an e0a+'le to othe! nation#, and %o! the %elicit o% it# o&n citi$en#< Thi# i# the onl '!a e! o" have le%t to +a)e, the onl '!eca"tion that !e+ain# to (e ta)en- It de'end#, %o! the %"t"!e, on o"!#elve# alone =not to +a)e o" ha'' , %o! o"! ance#to!# have #aved o" that t!o"(le>, ("t to !ende! that ha''ine## la#tin*, ( o"! &i#do+ in it# en2o +ent- It i# on o"! con#tant "nion, o"! o(edience to the la&#, and o"! !e#'ect %o! thei! +ini#te!#, that o"! '!e#e!vation de'end#- I% the!e !e+ain# a+on* o" the #+alle#t t!ace o% (itte!ne## o! di#t!"#t, ha#ten to de#t!o it, a# an acc"!#ed leaven &hich #oone! o! late! +"#t (!in* +i#%o!t"ne and !"in on the State- I con2"!e o" all to loo) into o"! hea!t#, and to hea!)en to the #ec!et voice o% con#cience- I# the!e an a+on* o" &ho can %ind, th!o"*ho"t the "nive!#e, a +o!e "'!i*ht, +o!e enli*htened and +o!e hono"!a(le (od than o"! +a*i#t!ac / Do not all it# +e+(e!# #et o" an e0a+'le o% +ode!ation, o% #i+'licit o% +anne!#, o% !e#'ect %o! the la&#, and o% the +o#t #ince!e ha!+on / 6lace, the!e%o!e, &itho"t !e#e!ve, in #"ch &i#e #"'e!io!#, that #al"ta! con%idence &hich !ea#on eve! o&e# to vi!t"e- Con#ide! that the a!e o"! o&n choice, that the 2"#ti% that choice, and that the hono"!# d"e to tho#e &ho+ o" have di*ni%ied a!e nece##a!il o"!# ( !e%le0ion- Not one o% o" i# #o i*no!ant a# not to )no& that, &hen the la&# lo#e thei! %o!ce and tho#e &ho de%end the+ thei! a"tho!it , #ec"!it and li(e!t a!e "nive!#all i+'o##i(le- 3h , the!e%o!e, #ho"ld o" he#itate to do that chee!%"ll and &ith 2"#t con%idence &hich o" &o"ld all alon* have (een (o"nd to do ( o"! t!"e inte!e#t, o"! d"t and !ea#on it#el%/ Let not a c"l'a(le and 'e!nicio"# indi%%e!ence to the +aintenance o% the con#tit"tion eve! ind"ce o" to ne*lect, in ca#e o% need, the '!"dent advice o% the +o#t enli*htened and $ealo"# o% o"! %ello&7citi$en#, ("t let e."it , +ode!ation and %i!+ne## o% !e#ol"tion contin"e to !e*"late all o"! '!oceedin*#, and to e0hi(it o" to the &hole "nive!#e a# the e0a+'le o% a valiant and +ode#t 'eo'le, 2ealo"# e."all o% thei! hono"! and o% thei! li(e!t - Be&a!e 'a!tic"la!l , a# the la#t 'iece o% advice I #hall *ive o", o% #ini#te! con#t!"ction# and veno+o"# !"+o"!#, the #ec!et +otive# o% &hich a!e o%ten +o!e dan*e!o"# than the action# at &hich the a!e levelled- A &hole ho"#e &ill (e a&a)e and ta)e the %i!#t ala!+ *iven ( a *ood and t!"#t &atch7do*, &ho (a!)# onl at the a''!oach o% thieve#, ("t &e hate the i+'o!t"nit o% tho#e noi# c"!#, &hich a!e 'e!'et"all di#t"!(in* the '"(lic !e'o#e, and &ho#e contin"al ill7ti+ed &a!nin*# '!event o"! attendin* to the+, &hen the +a 'e!ha'# (e nece##a! -9 And o", +o#t hono"!a(le and +a*ni%icent lo!d#, the &o!th and !eve!ed +a*i#t!ate# o% a %!ee 'eo'le, 'e!+it +e to o%%e! o" in 'a!tic"la! + d"t and ho+a*e- I% the!e i# in the &o!ld a #tation ca'a(le o% con%e!!in* hono"! on tho#e &ho %ill it, it i# "ndo"(tedl that &hich vi!t"e and talent# co+(ine to (e#to&, that o% &hich o" have +ade o"!#elve# &o!th , and to &hich o" have (een '!o+oted ( o"! %ello&7citi$en#- Thei! &o!th add# a ne& l"#t!e to o"! o&n, &hile, a# o" have (een cho#en, ( +en ca'a(le o% *ove!nin* othe!#, to *ove!n the+#elve#, I cannot ("t hold o" a# +"ch #"'e!io! to all othe! +a*i#t!ate#, a# a %!ee 'eo'le, and 'a!tic"la!l that ove! &hich o" have the hono"! to '!e#ide, i# ( it# &i#do+ and it# !ea#on #"'e!io! to the 'o'"lace o% othe! State#-

Be it 'e!+itted +e to cite an e0a+'le o% &hich the!e o"*ht to have e0i#ted (ette! !eco!d#, and one &hich &ill (e eve! nea! to + hea!t- I cannot !ecall to +ind, &itho"t the #&eete#t e+otion#, the +e+o! o% that vi!t"o"# citi$en, to &ho+ I o&e + (ein*, and ( &ho+ I &a# o%ten in#t!"cted, in + in%anc , in the !e#'ect &hich i# d"e to o"- I #ee hi+ #till, livin* ( the &o!) o% hi# hand#, and %eedin* hi# #o"l on the #"(li+e#t t!"th#- I #ee the &o!)# o% Tacit"#, 6l"ta!ch, and G!oti"# l in* (e%o!e hi+ in the +id#t o% the tool# o% hi# t!ade- At hi# #ide #tand# hi# dea! #on, !eceivin*, ala# &ith too little '!o%it, the tende! in#t!"ction# o% the (e#t o% %athe!#- B"t, i% the %ollie# o% o"th +ade +e %o! a &hile %o!*et hi# &i#e le##on#, I have at len*th the ha''ine## to (e con#cio"# that, &hateve! '!o'en#it one +a have to vice, it i# not ea# %o! an ed"cation, &ith &hich love ha# +in*led, to (e enti!el th!o&n a&a S"ch, + +o#t hono"!a(le and +a*ni%icent lo!d#, a!e the citi$en#, and even the co++on inha(itant# o% the State &hich o" *ove!n, #"ch a!e tho#e intelli*ent and #en#i(le +en, o% &ho+, "nde! the na+e o% &o!)+en and the 'eo'le, it i# "#"al, in othe! nation#, to have a lo& and %al#e o'inion- M %athe!, I o&n &ith 'lea#"!e, &a# in no &a di#tin*"i#hed a+on* hi# %ello&7citi$en#He &a# onl #"ch a# the all a!e, and et, #"ch a# he &a#, the!e i# no co"nt! , in &hich hi# ac."aintance &o"ld not have (een coveted, and c"ltivated even &ith advanta*e ( +en o% the hi*he#t cha!acte!- It &o"ld not (eco+e +e, no! i# it, than) Heaven, at all nece##a! %o! +e to !e+ind o" o% the !e*a!d &hich #"ch +en have a !i*ht to e0'ect o% thei! +a*i#t!ate#, to &ho+ the a!e e."al (oth ( ed"cation and ( the !i*ht# o% nat"!e and (i!th, and in%e!io! onl , ( thei! o&n &ill, ( that '!e%e!ence &hich the o&e to o"! +e!it, and, %o! *ivin* o", can clai+ #o+e #o!t o% ac)no&led*+ent on o"! #ide- It i# &ith a livel #ati#%action I "nde!#tand that the *!eate#t cando"! and conde#cen#ion attend, in all o"! (ehavio"! to&a!d# the+, on that *!avit &hich (eco+e# the +ini#te!# o% the la&, and that o" #o &ell !e'a the+, ( o"! e#tee+ and attention, the !e#'ect and o(edience &hich the o&e to o"- Thi# cond"ct i# not onl 2"#t ("t '!"dent, a# it ha''il tend# to o(lite!ate the +e+o! o% +an "nha'' event#, &hich o"*ht to (e ("!ied in ete!nal o(livion- It i# al#o #o +"ch the +o!e 2"dicio"#, a# it tend# to +a)e thi# *ene!o"# and e."ita(le 'eo'le %ind a 'lea#"!e in thei! d"t , to +a)e the+ nat"!all love to do o" hono"!, and to ca"#e tho#e &ho a!e the +o#t $ealo"# in the +aintenance o% thei! o&n !i*ht# to (e at the #a+e ti+e the +o#t di#'o#ed to !e#'ect o"!#It o"*ht not to (e tho"*ht #"!'!i#in* that the !"le!# o% a civil #ociet #ho"ld have the &el%a!e and *lo! o% thei! co++"nitie# at hea!t1 ("t it i# "nco++onl %o!t"nate %o! the 'eace o% +en, &hen tho#e 'e!#on# &ho loo) "'on the+#elve# a# the +a*i#t!ate#, o! !athe! the +a#te!# o% a +o!e hol and #"(li+e co"nt! , #ho& #o+e love %o! the ea!thl co"nt! &hich +aintain# the+- I a+ ha'' in havin* it in + 'o&e! to +a)e #o #in*"la! an e0ce'tion in o"! %avo"!, and to (e a(le to !an), a+on* it# (e#t citi$en#, tho#e $ealo"# de'o#ita!ie# o% the #ac!ed a!ticle# o% %aith e#ta(li#hed ( the la&#, tho#e vene!a(le #he'he!d# o% #o"l# &ho#e 'o&e!%"l and ca'tivatin* elo."ence a!e #o +"ch the (ette! calc"lated to (ea! to +en@# hea!t# the +a0i+# o% the *o#'el, a# the a!e the+#elve# the %i!#t to '"t the+ into '!actice- All the &o!ld )no&# o% the *!eat #"cce## &ith &hich the a!t o% the '"l'it i# c"ltivated at Geneva, ("t +en a!e #o "#ed to hea!in* divine# '!each one thin* and '!acti#e anothe!, that %e& have a chance o% )no&in* ho& %a! the #'i!it o% Ch!i#tianit , holine## o% +anne!#, #eve!it to&a!d# the+#elve# and ind"l*ence to&a!d# thei! nei*h(o"!#, '!evail th!o"*ho"t the &hole (od o% o"! +ini#te!#- It i#, 'e!ha'#, *iven to the cit o% Geneva alone, to '!od"ce the edi% in* e0a+'le o% #o 'e!%ect a "nion (et&een it# cle!* and +en o% lette!#- It i# in *!eat +ea#"!e on thei! &i#do+, thei! )no&n +ode!ation, and thei! $eal %o! the '!o#'e!it o% the State that I ("ild + ho'e# o% it# 'e!'et"al t!an."illit - At the #a+e ti+e, I notice, &ith a 'lea#"!e +in*led &ith #"!'!i#e and vene!ation, ho& +"ch the dete#t the %!i*ht%"l +a0i+# o% tho#e acc"!#ed and (a!(a!o"# +en, o% &ho+ hi#to! %"!ni#he# "# &ith +o!e than one e0a+'le, &ho, in o!de! to #"''o!t the '!etended !i*ht# o% God, that i# to #a thei! o&n inte!e#t#, have (een #o +"ch the le## *!eed o% h"+an (lood, a# the &e!e +o!e ho'e%"l thei! o&n in 'a!tic"la! &o"ld (e al&a # !e#'ected4

I +"#t not %o!*et that '!ecio"# hal% o% the Re'"(lic, &hich +a)e# the ha''ine## o% the othe!, and &ho#e #&eetne## and '!"dence '!e#e!ve it# t!an."illit and vi!t"e- A+ia(le and vi!t"o"# da"*hte!# o% Geneva, it &ill (e al&a # the lot o% o"! #e0 to *ove!n o"!#- Ha'' a!e &e, #o lon* a# o"! cha#te in%l"ence, #olel e0e!ci#ed &ithin the li+it# o% con2"*al "nion, i# e0e!ted onl %o! the *lo! o% the State and the ha''ine## o% the '"(lic- It &a# th"# the %e+ale #e0 co++anded at S'a!ta, and th"# o" de#e!ve to co++and at Geneva- 3hat +an can (e #"ch a (a!(a!ian a# to !e#i#t the voice o% hono"! and !ea#on, co+in* %!o+ the li'# o% an a%%ectionate &i%e/ 3ho &o"ld not de#'i#e the vanitie# o% l"0"! , on (eholdin* the #i+'le and +ode#t atti!e &hich, %!o+ the l"#t!e it de!ive# %!o+ o", #ee+# the +o#t %avo"!a(le to (ea"t / It i# o"! ta#) to 'e!'et"ate, ( o"! in#in"atin* in%l"ence and o"! innocent and a+ia(le !"le, a !e#'ect %o! the la&# o% the State, and ha!+on a+on* the citi$en#- It i# o"!# to !e"nite divided %a+ilie# ( ha'' +a!!ia*e#, and, a(ove all thin*#, to co!!ect, ( the 'e!#"a#ive #&eetne## o% o"! le##on# and the +ode#t *!ace# o% o"! conve!#ation, tho#e e0t!ava*ancie# &hich o"! o"n* 'eo'le 'ic) "' in othe! co"nt!ie#, &hence, in#tead o% +an "#e%"l thin*# ( &hich the +i*ht '!o%it, the (!in* ho+e ha!dl an thin*, (e#ide# a '"e!ile ai! and a !idic"lo"# +anne!, ac."i!ed a+on* loo#e &o+en, ("t an ad+i!ation %o! I )no& not &hat #o7called *!ande"!, and 'alt! !eco+'en#e# %o! (ein* #lave#, &hich can neve! co+e nea! the !eal *!eatne## o% li(e!t - Contin"e, the!e%o!e, al&a # to (e &hat o" a!e, the cha#te *"a!dian# o% o"! +o!al#, and the #&eet #ec"!it %o! o"! 'eace, e0e!tin* on eve! occa#ion the '!ivile*e# o% the hea!t and o% nat"!e, in the inte!e#t# o% d"t and vi!t"eI %latte! + #el% that I #hall neve! (e '!oved to have (een +i#ta)en, in ("ildin* on #"ch a %o"ndation + ho'e# o% the *ene!al ha''ine## o% the citi$en# and the *lo! o% the Re'"(lic- It +"#t (e con%e##ed, ho&eve!, that &ith all the#e advanta*e#, it &ill not #hine &ith that l"#t!e, ( &hich the e e# o% +o#t +en a!e da$$led, a '"e!ile and %atal ta#te %o! &hich i# the +o#t +o!tal ene+ o% ha''ine## and li(e!t Let o"! di##ol"te o"th #ee) el#e&he!e li*ht 'lea#"!e# and lon* !e'entance#- Let o"! '!etende!# to ta#te ad+i!e el#e&he!e the *!ande"! o% 'alace#, the (ea"t o% e."i'a*e#, #"+'t"o"# %"!nit"!e, the 'o+' o% '"(lic ente!tain+ent#, and all the !e%ine+ent# o% l"0"! and e%%e+inac - Geneva (oa#t# nothin* ("t +en, #"ch a #i*ht ha# neve!thele## a val"e o% it# o&n, and tho#e &ho have a ta#te %o! it a!e &ell &o!th the ad+i!e!# o% all the !e#tDei*n, +o#t hono"!a(le, +a*ni%icent and #ove!ei*n lo!d#, to !eceive, and &ith e."al *oodne##, thi# !e#'ect%"l te#ti+on o% the inte!e#t I ta)e in o"! co++on '!o#'e!it - And, i% I have (een #o "nha'' a# to (e *"ilt o% an indi#c!eet t!an#'o!t in thi# *lo&in* e%%"#ion o% + hea!t, I (e#eech o" to 'a!don +e, and to att!i("te it to the tende! a%%ection o% a t!"e 'at!iot, and to the a!dent and le*iti+ate $eal o% a +an, &ho can i+a*ine %o! hi+#el% no *!eate! %elicit than to #ee o" ha'' Mo#t hono"!a(le, +a*ni%icent and #ove!ei*n lo!d#, I a+, &ith the +o#t '!o%o"nd !e#'ect, :o"! +o#t h"+(le and o(edient #e!vant and %ello&7citi$enA- A- ROUSSEAU Cha+(B! , A"ne 58, 5C4?

PREFACE
OF all h"+an #cience# the +o#t "#e%"l and +o#t i+'e!%ect a''ea!# to +e to (e that o% +an)ind1
and I &ill vent"!e to #a , the #in*le in#c!i'tion on the Te+'le o% Del'hi contained a '!ece't +o!e di%%ic"lt and +o!e i+'o!tant than i# to (e %o"nd in all the h"*e vol"+e# that +o!ali#t# have eve! &!itten- I con#ide! the #"(2ect o% the %ollo&in* di#co"!#e a# one o% the +o#t inte!e#tin* D

."e#tion# 'hilo#o'h can '!o'o#e, and "nha''il %o! "#, one o% the +o#t tho!n that 'hilo#o'he!# can have to #olve- Fo! ho& #hall &e )no& the #o"!ce o% ine."alit (et&een +en, i% &e do not (e*in ( )no&in* +an)ind/ And ho& #hall +an ho'e to #ee hi+#el% a# nat"!e +ade hi+, ac!o## all the chan*e# &hich the #"cce##ion o% 'lace and ti+e +"#t have '!od"ced in hi# o!i*inal con#tit"tion/ Ho& can he di#tin*"i#h &hat i# %"nda+ental in hi# nat"!e %!o+ the chan*e# and addition# &hich hi# ci!c"+#tance# and the advance# he ha# +ade have int!od"ced to +odi% hi# '!i+itive condition/ Li)e the #tat"e o% Gla"c"#, &hich &a# #o di#%i*"!ed ( ti+e, #ea# and te+'e#t#, that it loo)ed +o!e li)e a &ild (ea#t than a *od, the h"+an #o"l, alte!ed in #ociet ( a tho"#and ca"#e# 'e!'et"all !ec"!!in*, ( the ac."i#ition o% a +"ltit"de o% t!"th# and e!!o!#, ( the chan*e# ha''enin* to the con#tit"tion o% the (od , and ( the contin"al 2a!!in* o% the 'a##ion#, ha#, #o to #'ea), chan*ed in a''ea!ance, #o a# to (e ha!dl !eco*ni#a(le- In#tead o% a (ein*, actin* con#tantl %!o+ %i0ed and inva!ia(le '!inci'le#, in#tead o% that cele#tial and +a2e#tic #i+'licit , i+'!e##ed on it ( it# divine A"tho!, &e %ind in it onl the %!i*ht%"l cont!a#t o% 'a##ion +i#ta)in* it#el% %o! !ea#on, and o% "nde!#tandin* *!o&n deli!io"#It i# #till +o!e c!"el that, a# eve! advance +ade ( the h"+an #'ecie# !e+ove# it #till %a!the! %!o+ it# '!i+itive #tate, the +o!e di#cove!ie# &e +a)e, the +o!e &e de'!ive o"!#elve# o% the +ean# o% +a)in* the +o#t i+'o!tant o% all- Th"# it i#, in one #en#e, ( o"! ve! #t"d o% +an, that the )no&led*e o% hi+ i# '"t o"t o% o"! 'o&e!It i# ea# to 'e!ceive that it i# in the#e #"cce##ive chan*e# in the con#tit"tion o% +an that &e +"#t loo) %o! the o!i*in o% tho#e di%%e!ence# &hich no& di#tin*"i#h +en, &ho, it i# allo&ed, a!e a# e."al a+on* the+#elve# a# &e!e the ani+al# o% eve! )ind, (e%o!e 'h #ical ca"#e# had int!od"ced tho#e va!ietie# &hich a!e no& o(#e!va(le a+on* #o+e o% the+It i#, in %act, not to (e conceived that the#e '!i+a! chan*e#, ho&eve! the +a have a!i#en, co"ld have alte!ed, all at once and in the #a+e +anne!, eve! individ"al o% the #'ecie#- It i# nat"!al to thin) that, &hile the condition o% #o+e o% the+ *!e& (ette! o! &o!#e, and the &e!e ac."i!in* va!io"# *ood o! (ad ."alitie# not inhe!ent in thei! nat"!e, the!e &e!e othe!# &ho contin"ed a lon*e! ti+e in thei! o!i*inal condition- S"ch &a# do"(tle## the %i!#t #o"!ce o% the ine."alit o% +an)ind, &hich it i# +"ch ea#ie! to 'oint o"t th"# in *ene!al te!+#, than to a##i*n &ith '!eci#ion to it# act"al ca"#e#Let not + !eade!# the!e%o!e i+a*ine that I %latte! + #el% &ith havin* #een &hat it a''ea!# to +e #o di%%ic"lt to di#cove!- I have he!e ente!ed "'on ce!tain a!*"+ent#, and !i#)ed #o+e con2ect"!e#, le## in the ho'e o% #olvin* the di%%ic"lt , than &ith a vie& to th!o&in* #o+e li*ht "'on it, and !ed"cin* the ."e#tion to it# '!o'e! %o!+- Othe!# +a ea#il '!oceed %a!the! on the #a+e !oad, and et no one %ind it ve! ea# to *et to the end- Fo! it i# ( no +ean# a li*ht "nde!ta)in* to di#tin*"i#h '!o'e!l (et&een &hat i# o!i*inal and &hat i# a!ti%icial in the act"al nat"!e o% +an, o! to %o!+ a t!"e idea o% a #tate &hich no lon*e! e0i#t#, 'e!ha'# neve! did e0i#t, and '!o(a(l neve! &ill e0i#t, and o% &hich, it i#, neve!thele##, nece##a! to have t!"e idea#, in o!de! to %o!+ a '!o'e! 2"d*+ent o% o"! '!e#ent #tate- It !e."i!e#, indeed, +o!e 'hilo#o'h than can (e i+a*ined to ena(le an one to dete!+ine e0actl &hat '!eca"tion# he o"*ht to ta)e, in o!de! to +a)e #olid o(#e!vation# on thi# #"(2ect, and it a''ea!# to +e that a *ood #ol"tion o% the %ollo&in* '!o(le+ &o"ld (e not "n&o!th o% the A!i#totle# and 6lin # o% the '!e#ent a*e- What experiments would have to be made, to discover the natural man? And how are those experiments to be made in a state of society? So %a! a+ I %!o+ "nde!ta)in* to #olve thi# '!o(le+, that I thin) I have #"%%icientl con#ide!ed the #"(2ect, to vent"!e to decla!e (e%o!ehand that o"! *!eate#t 'hilo#o'he!# &o"ld not (e too *ood to di!ect #"ch e0'e!i+ent#, and o"! +o#t 'o&e!%"l #ove!ei*n# to +a)e the+- S"ch a co+(ination

&e have ve! little !ea#on to e0'ect, e#'eciall attended &ith the 'e!#eve!ance, o! !athe! #"cce##ion o% intelli*ence and *ood&ill nece##a! on (oth #ide# to #"cce##The#e inve#ti*ation#, &hich a!e #o di%%ic"lt to +a)e, and have (een hithe!to #o little tho"*ht o%, a!e, neve!thele##, the onl +ean# that !e+ain o% o(viatin* a +"ltit"de o% di%%ic"ltie# &hich de'!ive "# o% the )no&led*e o% the !eal %o"ndation# o% h"+an #ociet - It i# thi# i*no!ance o% the nat"!e o% +an, &hich ca#t# #o +"ch "nce!taint and o(#c"!it on the t!"e de%inition o% nat"!al !i*ht1 %o!, the idea o% !i*ht, #a # B"!la+a."i, and +o!e 'a!tic"la!l that o% nat"!al !i*ht, a!e idea# +ani%e#tl !elative to the nat"!e o% +an- It i# then %!o+ thi# ve! nat"!e it#el%, he *oe# on, %!o+ the con#tit"tion and #tate o% +an, that &e +"#t ded"ce the %i!#t '!inci'le# o% thi# #cience3e cannot #ee &itho"t #"!'!i#e and di#*"#t ho& little a*!ee+ent the!e i# (et&een the di%%e!ent a"tho!# &ho have t!eated thi# *!eat #"(2ect- A+on* the +o!e i+'o!tant &!ite!# the!e a!e #ca!cel t&o o% the #a+e +ind a(o"t it- Not to #'ea) o% the ancient 'hilo#o'he!#, &ho #ee+ to have done thei! (e#t '"!'o#el to cont!adict one anothe! on the +o#t %"nda+ental '!inci'le#, the Ro+an 2"!i#t# #"(2ected +an and the othe! ani+al# indi#c!i+inatel to the #a+e nat"!al la&, (eca"#e the con#ide!ed, "nde! that na+e, !athe! the la& &hich nat"!e i+'o#e# on he!#el% than that &hich #he '!e#c!i(e# to othe!#, o! !athe! (eca"#e o% the 'a!tic"la! acce'tation o% the te!+ la& a+on* tho#e 2"!i#t#, &ho #ee+ on thi# occa#ion to have "nde!#tood nothin* +o!e ( it than the *ene!al !elation# e#ta(li#hed ( nat"!e (et&een all ani+ated (ein*#, %o! thei! co++on '!e#e!vation- The +ode!n#, "nde!#tandin*, ( the te!+ la&, +e!el a !"le '!e#c!i(ed to a +o!al (ein*, that i# to #a intelli*ent, %!ee and con#ide!ed in hi# !elation# to othe! (ein*#, con#e."entl con%ine the 2"!i#diction o% nat"!al la& to +an, a# the onl ani+al endo&ed &ith !ea#on- B"t, de%inin* thi# la&, each a%te! hi# o&n %a#hion, the have e#ta(li#hed it on #"ch +eta'h #ical '!inci'le#, that the!e a!e ve! %e& 'e!#on# a+on* "# ca'a(le o% co+'!ehendin* the+, +"ch le## o% di#cove!in* the+ %o! the+#elve#- So that the de%inition# o% the#e lea!ned +en, all di%%e!in* in eve! thin* el#e, a*!ee onl in thi#, that it i# i+'o##i(le to co+'!ehend the la& o% nat"!e, and con#e."entl to o(e it, &itho"t (ein* a ve! #"(tle ca#"i#t and a '!o%o"nd +eta'h #ician- All &hich i# a# +"ch a# to #a that +an)ind +"#t have e+'lo ed, in the e#ta(li#h+ent o% #ociet , a ca'acit &hich i# ac."i!ed onl &ith *!eat di%%ic"lt , and ( ve! %e& 'e!#on#, even in a #tate o% #ociet Eno&in* #o little o% nat"!e, and a*!eein* #o ill a(o"t the +eanin* o% the &o!d law, it &o"ld (e di%%ic"lt %o! "# to %i0 on a *ood de%inition o% nat"!al la&- Th"# all the de%inition# &e +eet &ith in (oo)#, #ettin* a#ide thei! de%ect in 'oint o% "ni%o!+it , have et anothe! %a"lt, in that the a!e de!ived %!o+ +an )ind# o% )no&led*e, &hich +en do not 'o##e## nat"!all , and %!o+ advanta*e# o% &hich the can have no idea "ntil the have al!ead de'a!ted %!o+ that #tateMode!n &!ite!# (e*in ( in."i!in* &hat !"le# it &o"ld (e e0'edient %o! +en to a*!ee on %o! thei! co++on inte!e#t, and then *ive the na+e o% nat"!al la& to a collection o% the#e !"le#, &itho"t an othe! '!oo% than the *ood that &o"ld !e#"lt %!o+ thei! (ein* "nive!#all '!acti#ed- Thi# i# "ndo"(tedl a #i+'le &a o% +a)in* de%inition#, and o% e0'lainin* the nat"!e o% thin*# ( al+o#t a!(it!a! convenience#B"t a# lon* a# &e a!e i*no!ant o% the nat"!al +an, it i# in vain %o! "# to atte+'t to dete!+ine eithe! the la& o!i*inall '!e#c!i(ed to hi+, o! that &hich i# (e#t ada'ted to hi# con#tit"tion- All &e can )no& &ith an ce!taint !e#'ectin* thi# la& i# that, i% it i# to (e a la&, not onl the &ill# o% tho#e it o(li*e# +"#t (e #en#i(le o% thei! #"(+i##ion to it, ("t al#o, to (e nat"!al, it +"#t co+e di!ectl %!o+ the voice o% nat"!eTh!o&in* a#ide, the!e%o!e, all tho#e #cienti%ic (oo)#, &hich teach "# onl to #ee +en #"ch a# the have +ade the+#elve#, and conte+'latin* the %i!#t and +o#t #i+'le o'e!ation# o% the h"+an #o"l, I thin) I can 'e!ceive in it t&o '!inci'le# '!io! to !ea#on, one o% the+ dee'l inte!e#tin* "# in o"! o&n &el%a!e and '!e#e!vation, and the othe! e0citin* a nat"!al !e'"*nance at #eein* an F

othe! #en#i(le (ein*, and 'a!tic"la!l an o% o"! o&n #'ecie#, #"%%e! 'ain o! death- It i# %!o+ the a*!ee+ent and co+(ination &hich the "nde!#tandin* i# in a 'o#ition to e#ta(li#h (et&een the#e t&o '!inci'le#, &itho"t it# (ein* nece##a! to int!od"ce that o% #ocia(ilit , that all the !"le# o% nat"!al !i*ht a''ea! to +e to (e de!ived G !"le# &hich o"! !ea#on i# a%te!&a!d# o(li*ed to e#ta(li#h on othe! %o"ndation#, &hen ( it# #"cce##ive develo'+ent# it ha# (een led to #"''!e## nat"!e it#el%In '!oceedin* th"#, &e #hall not (e o(li*ed to +a)e +an a 'hilo#o'he! (e%o!e he i# a +an- Hi# d"tie# to&a!d othe!# a!e not dictated to hi+ onl ( the late! le##on# o% &i#do+, and, #o lon* a# he doe# not !e#i#t the inte!nal i+'"l#e o% co+'a##ion, he &ill neve! h"!t an othe! +an, no! even an #entient (ein*, e0ce't on tho#e la&%"l occa#ion# on &hich hi# o&n '!e#e!vation i# conce!ned and he i# o(li*ed to *ive hi+#el% the '!e%e!ence- B thi# +ethod al#o &e '"t an end to the ti+e7 hono"!ed di#'"te# conce!nin* the 'a!tici'ation o% ani+al# in nat"!al la&1 %o! it i# clea! that, (ein* de#tit"te o% intelli*ence and li(e!t , the cannot !eco*ni#e that la&, a# the 'a!ta)e, ho&eve!, in #o+e +ea#"!e o% o"! nat"!e, in con#e."ence o% the #en#i(ilit &ith &hich the a!e endo&ed, the o"*ht to 'a!ta)e o% nat"!al !i*ht, #o that +an)ind i# #"(2ected to a )ind o% o(li*ation even to&a!d the (!"te#- It a''ea!#, in %act, that i% I a+ (o"nd to do no in2"! to + %ello&7c!eat"!e#, thi# i# le## (eca"#e the a!e !ational than (eca"#e the a!e #entient (ein*#1 and thi# ."alit , (ein* co++on (oth to +en and (ea#t#, o"*ht to entitle the latte! at lea#t to the '!ivile*e o% not (ein* &antonl ill7t!eated ( the %o!+e!The ve! #t"d o% the o!i*inal +an, o% hi# !eal &ant#, and the %"nda+ental '!inci'le# o% hi# d"t , i# (e#ide# the onl '!o'e! +ethod &e can ado't to o(viate all the di%%ic"ltie# &hich the o!i*in o% +o!al ine."alit '!e#ent#, on the t!"e %o"ndation# o% the (od 'olitic, on the !eci'!ocal !i*ht# o% it# +e+(e!#, and on +an othe! #i+ila! to'ic# e."all i+'o!tant and o(#c"!eI% &e loo) at h"+an #ociet &ith a cal+ and di#inte!e#ted e e, it #ee+#, at %i!#t, to #ho& "# onl the violence o% the 'o&e!%"l and the o''!e##ion o% the &ea)- The +ind i# #hoc)ed at the c!"elt o% the one, o! i# ind"ced to la+ent the (lindne## o% the othe!, and a# nothin* i# le## 'e!+anent in li%e than tho#e e0te!nal !elation#, &hich a!e +o!e %!e."entl '!od"ced ( accident than &i#do+, and &hich a!e called &ea)ne## o! 'o&e!, !iche# o! 'ove!t , all h"+an in#tit"tion# #ee+ at %i!#t *lance to (e %o"nded +e!el on (an)# o% #hi%tin* #and- It i# onl ( ta)in* a clo#e! loo), and !e+ovin* the d"#t and #and that #"!!o"nd the edi%ice, that &e 'e!ceive the i++ova(le (a#i# on &hich it i# !ai#ed, and lea!n to !e#'ect it# %o"ndation#- No&, &itho"t a #e!io"# #t"d o% +an, hi# nat"!al %ac"ltie# and thei! #"cce##ive develo'+ent, &e #hall neve! (e a(le to +a)e the#e nece##a! di#tinction#, o! to #e'a!ate, in the act"al con#tit"tion o% thin*#, that &hich i# the e%%ect o% the divine &ill, %!o+ the innovation# atte+'ted ( h"+an a!t- The 'olitical and +o!al inve#ti*ation#, the!e%o!e, to &hich the i+'o!tant ."e#tion (e%o!e "# lead#, a!e in eve! !e#'ect "#e%"l, &hile the h 'othetical hi#to! o% *ove!n+ent# a%%o!d# a le##on e."all in#t!"ctive to +an)indIn con#ide!in* &hat &e #ho"ld have (eco+e, had &e (een le%t to o"!#elve#, &e #ho"ld lea!n to (le## Hi+, &ho#e *!acio"# hand, co!!ectin* o"! in#tit"tion#, and *ivin* the+ an i++ova(le (a#i#, ha# '!evented tho#e di#o!de!# &hich &o"ld othe!&i#e have a!i#en %!o+ the+, and ca"#ed o"! ha''ine## to co+e %!o+ tho#e ve! #o"!ce# &hich #ee+ed li)el to involve "# in +i#e! -

A DISSERTATION ON THE ORIGIN AND FOUNDATION OF THE INEQUALITY OF MAN(IND

H

IT i# o% +an that I have to #'ea), and the ."e#tion I a+ inve#ti*atin* #ho&# +e that it i# to +en
that I +"#t add!e## + #el%1 %o! ."e#tion# o% thi# #o!t a!e not a#)ed ( tho#e &ho a!e a%!aid to hono"! t!"th- I #hall then con%identl "'hold the ca"#e o% h"+anit (e%o!e the &i#e +en &ho invite +e to do #o, and #hall not (e di##ati#%ied i% I ac."it + #el% in a +anne! &o!th o% + #"(2ect and o% + 2"d*e#I conceive that the!e a!e t&o )ind# o% ine."alit a+on* the h"+an #'ecie#, one, &hich I call nat"!al o! 'h #ical, (eca"#e it i# e#ta(li#hed ( nat"!e, and con#i#t# in a di%%e!ence o% a*e, health, (odil #t!en*th, and the ."alitie# o% the +ind o! o% the #o"l1 and anothe!, &hich +a (e called +o!al o! 'olitical ine."alit , (eca"#e it de'end# on a )ind o% convention, and i# e#ta(li#hed, o! at lea#t a"tho!i#ed ( the con#ent o% +en- Thi# latte! con#i#t# o% the di%%e!ent '!ivile*e#, &hich #o+e +en en2o to the '!e2"dice o% othe!#, #"ch a# that o% (ein* +o!e !ich, +o!e hono"!ed, +o!e 'o&e!%"l o! even in a 'o#ition to e0act o(edienceIt i# "#ele## to a#) &hat i# the #o"!ce o% nat"!al ine."alit , (eca"#e that ."e#tion i# an#&e!ed ( the #i+'le de%inition o% the &o!d- A*ain, it i# #till +o!e "#ele## to in."i!e &hethe! the!e i# an e##ential connection (et&een the t&o ine."alitie#, %o! thi# &o"ld (e onl a#)in*, in othe! &o!d#, &hethe! tho#e &ho co++and a!e nece##a!il (ette! than tho#e &ho o(e , and i% #t!en*th o% (od o! o% +ind, &i#do+ o! vi!t"e a!e al&a # %o"nd in 'a!tic"la! individ"al#, in '!o'o!tion to thei! 'o&e! o! &ealth1 a ."e#tion %it 'e!ha'# to (e di#c"##ed ( #lave# in the hea!in* o% thei! +a#te!#, ("t hi*hl "n(eco+in* to !ea#ona(le and %!ee +en in #ea!ch o% the t!"thThe #"(2ect o% the '!e#ent di#co"!#e, the!e%o!e, i# +o!e '!eci#el thi#- To +a!), in the '!o*!e## o% thin*#, the +o+ent at &hich !i*ht too) the 'lace o% violence and nat"!e (eca+e #"(2ect to la&, and to e0'lain ( &hat #e."ence o% +i!acle# the #t!on* ca+e to #"(+it to #e!ve the &ea), and the 'eo'le to '"!cha#e i+a*ina! !e'o#e at the e0'en#e o% !eal %elicit The 'hilo#o'he!#, &ho have in."i!ed into the %o"ndation# o% #ociet , have all %elt the nece##it o% *oin* (ac) to a #tate o% nat"!e, ("t not one o% the+ ha# *ot the!e- So+e o% the+ have not he#itated to a#c!i(e to +an, in #"ch a #tate, the idea o% 2"#t and "n2"#t, &itho"t t!o"(lin* the+#elve# to #ho& that he +"#t (e 'o##e##ed o% #"ch an idea, o! that it co"ld (e o% an "#e to hi+- Othe!# have #'o)en o% the nat"!al !i*ht o% eve! +an to )ee' &hat (elon*# to hi+, &itho"t e0'lainin* &hat the +eant ( belongs- Othe!# a*ain, (e*innin* ( *ivin* the #t!on* a"tho!it ove! the &ea), '!oceeded di!ectl to the (i!th o% *ove!n+ent, &itho"t !e*a!d to the ti+e that +"#t have ela'#ed (e%o!e the +eanin* o% the &o!d# a"tho!it and *ove!n+ent co"ld have e0i#ted a+on* +en- Eve! one o% the+, in #ho!t, con#tantl d&ellin* on &ant#, avidit , o''!e##ion, de#i!e# and '!ide, ha# t!an#%e!!ed to the #tate o% nat"!e idea# &hich &e!e ac."i!ed in #ociet , #o that, in #'ea)in* o% the #ava*e, the de#c!i(ed the #ocial +an- It ha# not even ente!ed into the head# o% +o#t o% o"! &!ite!# to do"(t &hethe! the #tate o% nat"!e eve! e0i#ted, ("t it i# clea! %!o+ the Hol Sc!i't"!e# that the %i!#t +an, havin* !eceived hi# "nde!#tandin* and co++and+ent# i++ediatel %!o+ God, &a# not hi+#el% in #"ch a #tate, and that, i% &e *ive #"ch c!edit to the &!itin*# o% Mo#e# a# eve! Ch!i#tian 'hilo#o'he! o"*ht to *ive, &e +"#t den that, even (e%o!e the del"*e, +en &e!e eve! in the '"!e #tate o% nat"!e, "nle##, indeed, the %ell (ac) into it %!o+ #o+e ve! e0t!ao!dina! ci!c"+#tance, a 'a!ado0 &hich it &o"ld (e ve! e+(a!!a##in* to de%end, and ."ite i+'o##i(le to '!oveLet "# (e*in then ( la in* %act# a#ide, a# the do not a%%ect the ."e#tion- The inve#ti*ation# &e +a ente! into, in t!eatin* thi# #"(2ect, +"#t not (e con#ide!ed a# hi#to!ical t!"th#, ("t onl a# +e!e conditional and h 'othetical !ea#onin*#, !athe! calc"lated to e0'lain the nat"!e o% thin*#, than to a#ce!tain thei! act"al o!i*in, 2"#t li)e the h 'othe#e# &hich o"! 'h #ici#t# dail %o!+ !e#'ectin* the %o!+ation o% the &o!ld- Reli*ion co++and# "# to (elieve that, God Hi+#el% havin* ta)en +en o"t o% a #tate o% nat"!e i++ediatel a%te! the c!eation, the a!e "ne."al onl 5I

(eca"#e it i# Hi# &ill the #ho"ld (e #o1 ("t it doe# not %o!(id "# to %o!+ con2ect"!e# (a#ed #olel on the nat"!e o% +an, and the (ein*# a!o"nd hi+, conce!nin* &hat +i*ht have (eco+e o% the h"+an !ace, i% it had (een le%t to it#el%- Thi# then i# the ."e#tion a#)ed +e, and that &hich I '!o'o#e to di#c"## in the %ollo&in* di#co"!#e- A# + #"(2ect inte!e#t# +an)ind in *ene!al, I #hall endeavo"! to +a)e "#e o% a #t le ada'ted to all nation#, o! !athe!, %o!*ettin* ti+e and 'lace, to attend onl to +en to &ho+ I a+ #'ea)in*- I #hall #"''o#e + #el% in the L ce"+ o% Athen#, !e'eatin* the le##on# o% + +a#te!#, &ith 6lato and Jenoc!ate# %o! 2"d*e#, and the &hole h"+an !ace %o! a"dienceO +an, o% &hateve! co"nt! o" a!e, and &hateve! o"! o'inion# +a (e, (ehold o"! hi#to! , #"ch a# I have tho"*ht to !ead it, not in (oo)# &!itten ( o"! %ello&7c!eat"!e#, &ho a!e lia!#, ("t in nat"!e, &hich neve! lie#- All that co+e# %!o+ he! &ill (e t!"e, no! &ill o" +eet &ith an thin* %al#e, "nle## I have invol"nta!il '"t in #o+ethin* o% + o&n- The ti+e# o% &hich I a+ *oin* to #'ea) a!e ve! !e+ote1 ho& +"ch a!e o" chan*ed %!o+ &hat o" once &e!e< It i#, #o to #'ea), the li%e o% o"! #'ecie# &hich I a+ *oin* to &!ite, a%te! the ."alitie# &hich o" have !eceived, &hich o"! ed"cation and ha(it# +a have de'!aved, ("t cannot have enti!el de#t!o ed- The!e i#, I %eel, an a*e at &hich the individ"al +an &o"ld &i#h to #to'1 o" a!e a(o"t to in."i!e a(o"t the a*e at &hich o" &o"ld have li)ed o"! &hole #'ecie# to #tand #till- Di#contented &ith o"! '!e#ent #tate, %o! !ea#on# &hich th!eaten o"! "n%o!t"nate de#cendant# &ith #till *!eate! di#content, o" &ill 'e!ha'# &i#h it &e!e in o"! 'o&e! to *o (ac), and thi# %eelin* #ho"ld (e a 'ane* !ic on o"! %i!#t ance#to!#, a c!itici#+ o% o"! conte+'o!a!ie#, and a te!!o! to the "n%o!t"nate# &ho &ill co+e a%te! o"-

THE FIRST PART IM6ORTANT a# it +a (e, in o!de! to 2"d*e !i*htl o% the nat"!al #tate o% +an, to con#ide! hi+
%!o+ hi# o!i*in, and to e0a+ine hi+, a# it &e!e, in the e+(! o o% hi# #'ecie#, I #hall not %ollo& hi# o!*ani#ation th!o"*h it# #"cce##ive develo'+ent#, no! #hall I #ta to in."i!e &hat hi# ani+al # #te+ +"#t have (een at the (e*innin*, in o!de! to (eco+e at len*th &hat it act"all i#- I #hall not a#) &hethe! hi# lon* nail# &e!e at %i!#t, a# A!i#totle #"''o#e#, onl c!oo)ed talon#, &hethe! hi# &hole (od , li)e that o% a (ea!, &a# not cove!ed &ith hai!, o! &hethe! the %act that he &al)ed "'on all %o"!#, &ith hi# loo)# di!ected to&a!d the ea!th, con%ined to a ho!i$on o% a %e& 'ace#, did not at once 'oint o"t the nat"!e and li+it# o% hi# idea#- On thi# #"(2ect I co"ld %o!+ none ("t va*"e and al+o#t i+a*ina! con2ect"!e#- Co+'a!ative anato+ ha# a# et +ade too little '!o*!e##, and the o(#e!vation# o% nat"!ali#t# a!e too "nce!tain to a%%o!d an ade."ate (a#i# %o! an #olid !ea#onin*- So that, &itho"t havin* !eco"!#e to the #"'e!nat"!al in%o!+ation *iven "# on thi# head, o! 'a in* an !e*a!d to the chan*e# &hich +"#t have ta)en 'lace in the inte!nal, a# &ell a# the e0te!nal, con%o!+ation o% +an, a# he a''lied hi# li+(# to ne& "#e#, and %ed hi+#el% on ne& )ind# o% %ood, I #hall #"''o#e hi# con%o!+ation to have (een at all ti+e# &hat it a''ea!# to "# at thi# da , that he al&a # &al)ed on t&o le*#, +ade "#e o% hi# hand# a# &e do, di!ected hi# loo)# ove! all nat"!e, and +ea#"!ed &ith hi# e e# the va#t e0'an#e o% HeavenI% &e #t!i' thi# (ein*, th"# con#tit"ted, o% all the #"'e!nat"!al *i%t# he +a have !eceived, and all the a!ti%icial %ac"ltie# he can have ac."i!ed onl ( a lon* '!oce##, i% &e con#ide! hi+, in a &o!d, 2"#t a# he +"#t have co+e %!o+ the hand# o% nat"!e, &e (ehold in hi+ an ani+al &ea)e! than #o+e, and le## a*ile than othe!#, ("t, ta)in* hi+ all !o"nd, the +o#t advanta*eo"#l o!*ani#ed o% an - I #ee hi+ #ati#% in* hi# h"n*e! at the %i!#t oa), and #la)in* hi# thi!#t at the %i!#t (!oo), %indin* hi# (ed at the %oot o% the t!ee &hich a%%o!ded hi+ a !e'a#t, and, &ith that, all hi# &ant# #"''lied3hile the ea!th &a# le%t to it# nat"!al %e!tilit and cove!ed &ith i++en#e %o!e#t#, &ho#e t!ee# &e!e neve! +"tilated ( the a0e, it &o"ld '!e#ent on eve! #ide (oth #"#tenance and #helte! %o! 55

eve! #'ecie# o% ani+al- Men, di#'e!#ed "' and do&n a+on* the !e#t, &o"ld o(#e!ve and i+itate thei! ind"#t! , and th"# attain even to the in#tinct o% the (ea#t#, &ith the advanta*e that, &he!ea# eve! #'ecie# o% (!"te# &a# con%ined to one 'a!tic"la! in#tinct, +an, &ho 'e!ha'# ha# not an one 'ec"lia! to hi+#el%, &o"ld a''!o'!iate the+ all, and live "'on +o#t o% tho#e di%%e!ent %ood# &hich othe! ani+al# #ha!ed a+on* the+#elve#, and th"# &o"ld %ind hi# #"(#i#tence +"ch +o!e ea#il than an o% the !e#tAcc"#to+ed %!o+ thei! in%anc to the incle+encie# o% the &eathe! and the !i*o"! o% the #ea#on#, in"!ed to %ati*"e, and %o!ced, na)ed and "na!+ed, to de%end the+#elve# and thei! '!e %!o+ othe! %e!ocio"# ani+al#, o! to e#ca'e the+ ( %li*ht, +en &o"ld ac."i!e a !o("#t and al+o#t "nalte!a(le con#tit"tion- The child!en, (!in*in* &ith the+ into the &o!ld the e0cellent con#tit"tion o% thei! 'a!ent#, and %o!ti% in* it ( the ve! e0e!ci#e# &hich %i!#t '!od"ced it, &o"ld th"# ac."i!e all the vi*o"! o% &hich the h"+an %!a+e i# ca'a(le- Nat"!e in thi# ca#e t!eat# the+ e0actl a# S'a!ta t!eated the child!en o% he! citi$en#1 tho#e &ho co+e &ell %o!+ed into the &o!ld #he !ende!# #t!on* and !o("#t, and all the !e#t #he de#t!o #, di%%e!in* in thi# !e#'ect %!o+ o"! +ode!n co++"nitie#, in &hich the State, ( +a)in* child!en a ("!den to thei! 'a!ent#, )ill# the+ indi#c!i+inatel (e%o!e the a!e (o!nThe (od o% a #ava*e +an (ein* the onl in#t!"+ent he "nde!#tand#, he "#e# it %o! va!io"# '"!'o#e#, o% &hich o"!#, %o! &ant o% '!actice, a!e inca'a(le1 %o! o"! ind"#t! de'!ive# "# o% that %o!ce and a*ilit , &hich nece##it o(li*e# hi+ to ac."i!e- I% he had had an a0e, &o"ld he have (een a(le &ith hi# na)ed a!+ to (!ea) #o la!*e a (!anch %!o+ a t!ee/ I% he had had a #lin*, &o"ld he have (een a(le to th!o& a #tone &ith #o *!eat velocit / I% he had had a ladde!, &o"ld he have (een #o ni+(le in cli+(in* a t!ee/ I% he had had a ho!#e, &o"ld he have (een hi+#el% #o #&i%t o% %oot/ Give civili#ed +an ti+e to *athe! all hi# +achine# a(o"t hi+, and he &ill no do"(t ea#il (eat the #ava*e, ("t i% o" &o"ld #ee a #till +o!e "ne."al conte#t, #et the+ to*ethe! na)ed and "na!+ed, and o" &ill #oon #ee the advanta*e o% havin* all o"! %o!ce# con#tantl at o"! di#'o#al, o% (ein* al&a # '!e'a!ed %o! eve! event, and o% ca!! in* one@# #el%, a# it &e!e, 'e!'et"all &hole and enti!e a(o"t oneHo((e# contend# that +an i# nat"!all int!e'id, and i# intent onl "'on attac)in* and %i*htin*Anothe! ill"#t!io"# 'hilo#o'he! hold# the o''o#ite, and C"+(e!land and 6"%%endo!% al#o a%%i!+ that nothin* i# +o!e ti+id and %ea!%"l than +an in the #tate o% nat"!e, that he i# al&a # in a t!e+(le, and !ead to %l at the lea#t noi#e o! the #li*hte#t +ove+ent- Thi# +a (e t!"e o% thin*# he doe# not )no&, and I do not do"(t hi# (ein* te!!i%ied ( eve! novelt that '!e#ent# it#el%, &hen he neithe! )no&# the 'h #ical *ood o! evil he +a e0'ect %!o+ it, no! can +a)e a co+'a!i#on (et&een hi# o&n #t!en*th and the dan*e!# he i# a(o"t to enco"nte!- S"ch ci!c"+#tance#, ho&eve!, !a!el occ"! in a #tate o% nat"!e, in &hich all thin*# '!oceed in a "ni%o!+ +anne!, and the %ace o% the ea!th i# not #"(2ect to tho#e #"dden and contin"al chan*e# &hich a!i#e %!o+ the 'a##ion# and ca'!ice# o% (odie# o% +en livin* to*ethe!- B"t #ava*e +an, livin* di#'e!#ed a+on* othe! ani+al#, and %indin* hi+#el% (eti+e# in a #it"ation to +ea#"!e hi# #t!en*th &ith thei!#, #oon co+e# to co+'a!e hi+#el% &ith the+, and, 'e!ceivin* that he #"!'a##e# the+ +o!e in ad!oitne## than the #"!'a## hi+ in #t!en*th, lea!n# to (e no lon*e! a%!aid o% the+Set a (ea!, o! a &ol%, a*ain#t a !o("#t, a*ile, and !e#ol"te #ava*e, a# the all a!e, a!+ed &ith #tone# and a *ood c"d*el, and o" &ill #ee that the dan*e! &ill (e at lea#t on (oth #ide#, and that, a%te! a %e& t!ial# o% thi# )ind, &ild (ea#t#, &hich a!e not %ond o% attac)in* each othe!, &ill not (e at all !ead to attac) +an, &ho+ the &ill have %o"nd to (e a# &ild and %e!ocio"# a# the+#elve#3ith !e*a!d to #"ch ani+al# a# have !eall +o!e #t!en*th than +an ha# ad!oitne##, he i# in the #a+e #it"ation a# all &ea)e! ani+al#, &hich not&ith#tandin* a!e #till a(le to #"(#i#t, e0ce't indeed that he ha# the advanta*e that, (ein* e."all #&i%t o% %oot, and %indin* an al+o#t ce!tain 'lace o% !e%"*e in eve! t!ee, he i# at li(e!t to ta)e o! leave it at eve! enco"nte!, and th"# to %i*ht o! %l , a# he choo#e#- Add to thi# that it doe# not a''ea! that an ani+al nat"!all +a)e# 58

&a! on +an, e0ce't in ca#e o% #el%7de%ence o! e0ce##ive h"n*e!, o! (et!a # an o% tho#e violent anti'athie#, &hich #ee+ to indicate that one #'ecie# i# intended ( nat"!e %o! the %ood o% anothe!Thi# i# do"(tle## &h ne*!oe# and #ava*e# a!e #o little a%!aid o% the &ild (ea#t# the +a +eet in the &ood#- The Ca!ai(# o% Vene$"ela a+on* othe!# live in thi# !e#'ect in a(#ol"te #ec"!it and &itho"t the #+alle#t inconvenience- Tho"*h the a!e al+o#t na)ed, F!anci# Co!!Bal tell# "#, the e0'o#e the+#elve# %!eel in the &ood#, a!+ed onl &ith (o&# and a!!o&#, ("t no one ha# eve! hea!d o% one o% the+ (ein* devo"!ed ( &ild (ea#t#B"t +an ha# othe! ene+ie# +o!e %o!+ida(le, a*ain#t &hich i# i# not '!ovided &ith #"ch +ean# o% de%ence1 the#e a!e the nat"!al in%i!+itie# o% in%anc , old a*e, and illne## o% eve! )ind, +elanchol '!oo%# o% o"! &ea)ne##, o% &hich the t&o %i!#t a!e co++on to all ani+al#, and the la#t (elon*# chie%l to +an in a #tate o% #ociet - 3ith !e*a!d to in%anc , it i# o(#e!va(le that the +othe!, ca!! in* he! child al&a # &ith he!, can n"!#e it &ith +"ch *!eate! ea#e than the %e+ale# o% +an othe! ani+al#, &hich a!e %o!ced to (e 'e!'et"all *oin* and co+in*, &ith *!eat %ati*"e, one &a to %ind #"(#i#tence, and anothe! to #"c)le o! %eed thei! o"n*- It i# t!"e that i% the &o+an ha''en# to 'e!i#h, the in%ant i# in *!eat dan*e! o% 'e!i#hin* &ith he!, ("t thi# !i#) i# co++on to +an othe! #'ecie# o% ani+al#, &ho#e o"n* ta)e a lon* ti+e (e%o!e the a!e a(le to '!ovide %o! the+#elve#- And i% o"! in%anc i# lon*e! than thei!#, o"! live# a!e lon*e! in '!o'o!tion, #o that all thin*# a!e in thi# !e#'ect %ai!l e."al, tho"*h the!e a!e othe! !"le# to (e con#ide!ed !e*a!din* the d"!ation o% the %i!#t 'e!iod o% li%e, and the n"+(e! o% o"n*, &hich do not a%%ect the '!e#ent #"(2ect- In old a*e, &hen +en a!e le## active and 'e!#'i!e little, the need %o! %ood di+ini#he# &ith the a(ilit to '!ovide it- A# the #ava*e #tate al#o '!otect# the+ %!o+ *o"t and !he"+ati#+, and old a*e i#, o% all ill#, that &hich h"+an aid can lea#t alleviate, the cea#e to (e, &itho"t othe!# 'e!ceivin* that the a!e no +o!e, and al+o#t &itho"t 'e!ceivin* it the+#elve#3ith !e#'ect to #ic)ne##, I #hall not !e'eat the vain and %al#e decla+ation# &hich +o#t health 'eo'le '!ono"nce a*ain#t +edicine, ("t I #hall a#) i% an #olid o(#e!vation# have (een +ade %!o+ &hich it +a (e 2"#tl concl"ded that, in the co"nt!ie# &he!e the a!t o% +edicine i# +o#t ne*lected, the +ean d"!ation o% +an@# li%e i# le## than in tho#e &he!e it i# +o#t c"ltivated- Ho& indeed can thi# (e the ca#e, i% &e (!in* on o"!#elve# +o!e di#ea#e# than +edicine can %"!ni#h !e+edie#/ The *!eat ine."alit in +anne! o% livin*, the e0t!e+e idlene## o% #o+e, and the e0ce##ive la(o"! o% othe!#, the ea#ine## o% e0citin* and *!ati% in* o"! #en#"al a''etite#, the too e0."i#ite %ood# o% the &ealth &hich ove!heat and %ill the+ &ith indi*e#tion, and, on the othe! hand, the "n&hole#o+e %ood o% the 'oo!, o%ten, (ad a# it i#, in#"%%icient %o! thei! need#, &hich ind"ce# the+, &hen o''o!t"nit o%%e!#, to eat vo!acio"#l and ove!cha!*e thei! #to+ach#, all the#e, to*ethe! &ith #ittin* "' late, and e0ce##e# o% eve! )ind, i++ode!ate t!an#'o!t# o% eve! 'a##ion, %ati*"e, +ental e0ha"#tion, the inn"+e!a(le 'ain# and an0ietie# in#e'a!a(le %!o+ eve! condition o% li%e, ( &hich the +ind o% +an i# ince##antl to!+ented, the#e a!e too %atal '!oo%# that the *!eate! 'a!t o% o"! ill# a!e o% o"! o&n +a)in*, and that &e +i*ht have avoided the+ nea!l all ( adhe!in* to that #i+'le, "ni%o!+ and #olita! +anne! o% li%e &hich nat"!e '!e#c!i(ed- I% #he de#tined +an to (e health , I vent"!e to decla!e that a #tate o% !e%lection i# a #tate cont!a! to nat"!e, and that a thin)in* +an i# a de'!aved ani+al- 3hen &e thin) o% the *ood con#tit"tion o% the #ava*e#, at lea#t o% tho#e &ho+ &e have not !"ined &ith o"! #'i!it"o"# li."o!#, and !e%lect that the a!e t!o"(led &ith ha!dl an di#o!de!#, #ave &o"nd# and old a*e, &e a!e te+'ted to (elieve that, in %ollo&in* the hi#to! o% civil #ociet , &e #hall (e tellin* al#o that o% h"+an #ic)ne##- S"ch, at lea#t, &a# the o'inion o% 6lato, &ho in%e!!ed %!o+ ce!tain !e+edie# '!e#c!i(ed, o! a''!oved, ( 6odali!i"# and Machaon at the #ie*e o% T!o , that #eve!al #ic)ne##e# &hich the#e !e+edie# *ave !i#e to in hi# ti+e, &e!e not then )no&n to +an)ind1 and Cel#"# tell# "# that diet, &hich i# no& #o nece##a! , &a# %i!#t invented ( Hi''oc!ate#-

5;

Bein* #"(2ect the!e%o!e to #o %e& ca"#e# o% #ic)ne##, +an, in the #tate o% nat"!e, can have no need o% !e+edie#, and #till le## o% 'h #ician#1 no! i# the h"+an !ace in thi# !e#'ect &o!#e o%% than othe! ani+al#, and it i# ea# to lea!n %!o+ h"nte!# &hethe! the +eet &ith +an in%i!+ ani+al# in the co"!#e o% the cha#e- It i# ce!tain the %!e."entl +eet &ith #"ch a# ca!! the +a!)# o% havin* (een con#ide!a(l &o"nded, &ith +an that have had (one# o! even li+(# (!o)en, et have (een healed &itho"t an othe! #"!*ical a##i#tance than that o% ti+e, o! an othe! !e*i+en than that o% thei! o!dina! li%e- At the #a+e ti+e thei! c"!e# #ee+ not to have (een le## 'e!%ect, %o! thei! not havin* (een to!t"!ed ( inci#ion#, 'oi#oned &ith d!"*#, o! &a#ted ( %a#tin*- In #ho!t, ho&eve! "#e%"l +edicine, '!o'e!l ad+ini#te!ed, +a (e a+on* "#, it i# ce!tain that, i% the #ava*e, &hen he i# #ic) and le%t to hi+#el%, ha# nothin* to ho'e ("t %!o+ nat"!e, he ha#, on the othe! hand, nothin* to %ea! ("t %!o+ hi# di#ea#e, &hich !ende!# hi# #it"ation o%ten '!e%e!a(le to o"! o&n3e #ho"ld (e&a!e, the!e%o!e, o% con%o"ndin* the #ava*e +an &ith the +en &e have dail (e%o!e o"! e e#- Nat"!e t!eat# all the ani+al# le%t to he! ca!e &ith a '!edilection that #ee+# to #ho& ho& 2ealo"# #he i# o% that !i*ht- The ho!#e, the cat, the ("ll, and even the a## a!e *ene!all o% *!eate! #tat"!e, and al&a # +o!e !o("#t, and have +o!e vi*o"!, #t!en*th and co"!a*e, &hen the !"n &ild in the %o!e#t# than &hen (!ed in the #tall- B (eco+in* do+e#ticated, the lo#e hal% the#e advanta*e#, and it #ee+# a# i% all o"! ca!e to %eed and t!eat the+ &ell #e!ve# onl to de'!ave the+- It i# th"# &ith +an al#o1 a# he (eco+e# #ocia(le and a #lave, he *!o&# &ea), ti+id and #e!vile, hi# e%%e+inate &a o% li%e totall ene!vate# hi# #t!en*th and co"!a*e- To thi# it +a (e added that the!e i# #till a *!eate! di%%e!ence (et&een #ava*e and civili#ed +an, than (et&een &ild and ta+e (ea#t#1 %o! +en and (!"te# havin* (een t!eated ali)e ( nat"!e, the #eve!al convenience# in &hich +en ind"l*e the+#elve# #till +o!e than the do thei! (ea#t#, a!e #o +an additional ca"#e# o% thei! dee'e! de*ene!ac It i# not the!e%o!e #o *!eat a +i#%o!t"ne to the#e '!i+itive +en, no! #o *!eat an o(#tacle to thei! '!e#e!vation, that the *o na)ed, have no d&ellin*# and lac) all the #"'e!%l"itie# &hich &e thin) #o nece##a! - I% thei! #)in# a!e not cove!ed &ith hai!, the have no need o% #"ch cove!in* in &a!+ cli+ate#, and, in cold co"nt!ie#, the #oon lea!n to a''!o'!iate the #)in# o% the (ea#t# the have ove!co+e- I% the have ("t t&o le*# to !"n &ith, the have t&o a!+# to de%end the+#elve# &ith, and '!ovide %o! thei! &ant#- Thei! child!en a!e #lo&l and &ith di%%ic"lt ta"*ht to &al), ("t thei! +othe!# a!e a(le to ca!! the+ &ith ea#e, an advanta*e &hich othe! ani+al# lac), a# the +othe!, i% '"!#"ed, i# %o!ced eithe! to a(andon he! o"n*, o! to !e*"late he! 'ace ( thei!#Unle##, in #ho!t, &e #"''o#e a #in*"la! and %o!t"ito"# conc"!!ence o% ci!c"+#tance# o% &hich I #hall #'ea) late!, and &hich &o"ld (e "nli)el to e0i#t, it i# 'lain in eve! #tate o% the ca#e, that the +an &ho %i!#t +ade hi+#el% clothe# o! a d&ellin* &a# %"!ni#hin* hi+#el% &ith thin*# not at all nece##a! , %o! he had till then done &itho"t the+, and the!e i# no !ea#on &h he #ho"ld not have (een a(le to '"t "' in +anhood &ith the #a+e )ind o% li%e a# had (een hi# in in%anc Solita! , indolent, and 'e!'et"all acco+'anied ( dan*e!, the #ava*e cannot ("t (e %ond o% #lee', hi# #lee' too +"#t (e li*ht, li)e that o% the ani+al#, &hich thin) ("t little and +a (e #aid to #l"+(e! all the ti+e the do not thin)- Sel%7'!e#e!vation (ein* hi# chie% and al+o#t #ole conce!n, he +"#t e0e!ci#e +o#t tho#e %ac"ltie# &hich a!e +o#t conce!ned &ith attac) o! de%ence, eithe! %o! ove!co+in* hi# '!e , o! %o! '!eventin* hi+ %!o+ (eco+in* the '!e o% othe! ani+al#On the othe! hand, tho#e o!*an# &hich a!e 'e!%ected onl ( #o%tne## and #en#"alit &ill !e+ain in a *!o## and i+'e!%ect #tate, inco+'ati(le &ith an #o!t o% delicac , #o that, hi# #en#e# (ein* divided on thi# head, hi# to"ch and ta#te &ill (e e0t!e+el coa!#e, hi# #i*ht, hea!in* and #+ell e0ceedin*l %ine and #"(tle- S"ch in *ene!al i# the ani+al condition, and #"ch, acco!din* to the na!!ative# o% t!avelle!#, i# that o% +o#t #ava*e nation#- It i# the!e%o!e no +atte! %o! #"!'!i#e that the Hottentot# o% the Ca'e o% Good Ho'e di#tin*"i#h #hi'# at #ea, &ith the na)ed e e, at a# *!eat a di#tance a# the D"tch can do &ith thei! tele#co'e#, o! that the #ava*e# o% A+e!ica #ho"ld t!ace 5?

the S'ania!d#, ( thei! #+ell, a# &ell a# the (e#t do*# co"ld have done, o! that the#e (a!(a!o"# 'eo'le# %eel no 'ain in *oin* na)ed, o! that the "#e la!*e ."antitie# o% 'ie+ento &ith thei! %ood, and d!in) the #t!on*e#t E"!o'ean li."o!# li)e &ate!Hithe!to I have con#ide!ed +e!el the 'h #ical +an, let "# no& ta)e a vie& o% hi+ on hi# +eta'h #ical and +o!al #ideI #ee nothin* in an ani+al ("t an in*enio"# +achine, to &hich nat"!e hath *iven #en#e# to &ind it#el% "', and to *"a!d it#el%, to a ce!tain de*!ee, a*ain#t an thin* that +i*ht tend to di#o!de! o! de#t!o it- I 'e!ceive e0actl the #a+e thin*# in the h"+an +achine, &ith thi# di%%e!ence, that in the o'e!ation# o% the (!"te, nat"!e i# the #ole a*ent, &he!ea# +an ha# #o+e #ha!e in hi# o&n o'e!ation#, in hi# cha!acte! a# a %!ee a*ent- The one choo#e# and !e%"#e# ( in#tinct, the othe! %!o+ an act o% %!ee7&ill1 hence the (!"te cannot deviate %!o+ the !"le '!e#c!i(ed to it, even &hen it &o"ld (e advanta*eo"# %o! it to do #o, and, on the cont!a! , +an %!e."entl deviate# %!o+ #"ch !"le# to hi# o&n '!e2"dice- Th"# a 'i*eon &o"ld (e #ta!ved to death ( the #ide o% a di#h o% the choice#t +eat#, and a cat on a hea' o% %!"it o! *!ain, tho"*h it i# ce!tain that eithe! +i*ht %ind no"!i#h+ent in the %ood# &hich it th"# !e2ect# &ith di#dain, did it thin) o% t! in* the+- Hence it i# that di##ol"te +en !"n into e0ce##e# &hich (!in* on %eve!# and death, (eca"#e the +ind de'!ave# the #en#e#, and the &ill contin"e# to #'ea) &hen nat"!e i# #ilentEve! ani+al ha# idea#, #ince it ha# #en#e#, it even co+(ine# tho#e idea# in a ce!tain de*!ee, and it i# onl in de*!ee that +an di%%e!#, in thi# !e#'ect, %!o+ the (!"te- So+e 'hilo#o'he!# have even +aintained that the!e i# a *!eate! di%%e!ence (et&een one +an and anothe! than (et&een #o+e +en and #o+e (ea#t#- It i# not, the!e%o!e, #o +"ch the "nde!#tandin* that con#tit"te# the #'eci%ic di%%e!ence (et&een the +an and the (!"te, a# the h"+an ."alit o% %!ee7a*enc - Nat"!e la # he! co++and# on eve! ani+al, and the (!"te o(e # he! voice- Man !eceive# the #a+e i+'"l#ion, ("t at the #a+e ti+e )no&# hi+#el% at li(e!t to ac."ie#ce o! !e#i#t1 and it i# 'a!tic"la!l in hi# con#cio"#ne## o% thi# li(e!t that the #'i!it"alit o% hi# #o"l i# di#'la ed- Fo! 'h #ic# +a e0'lain, in #o+e +ea#"!e, the +echani#+ o% the #en#e# and the %o!+ation o% idea#, ("t in the 'o&e! o% &illin* o! !athe! o% choo#in*, and in the %eelin* o% thi# 'o&e!, nothin* i# to (e %o"nd ("t act# &hich a!e '"!el #'i!it"al and &holl ine0'lica(le ( the la&# o% +echani#+Ho&eve!, even i% the di%%ic"ltie# attendin* all the#e ."e#tion# #ho"ld #till leave !oo+ %o! di%%e!ence in thi# !e#'ect (et&een +en and (!"te#, the!e i# anothe! ve! #'eci%ic ."alit &hich di#tin*"i#he# the+, and &hich &ill ad+it o% no di#'"te- Thi# i# the %ac"lt o% #el%7i+'!ove+ent, &hich, ( the hel' o% ci!c"+#tance#, *!ad"all develo'# all the !e#t o% o"! %ac"ltie#, and i# inhe!ent in the #'ecie# a# in the individ"al1 &he!ea# a (!"te i#, at the end o% a %e& +onth#, all he &ill eve! (e d"!in* hi# &hole li%e, and hi# #'ecie#, at the end o% a tho"#and ea!#, e0actl &hat it &a# the %i!#t ea! o% that tho"#and- 3h i# +an alone lia(le to *!o& into a dota!d/ I# it not (eca"#e he !et"!n#, in thi#, to hi# '!i+itive #tate, and that, &hile the (!"te, &hich ha# ac."i!ed nothin* and ha# the!e%o!e nothin* to lo#e, #till !etain# the %o!ce o% in#tinct, +an, &ho lo#e#, ( a*e o! accident, all that hi# perfectibility had ena(led hi+ to *ain, %all# ( thi# +ean# lo&e! than the (!"te# the+#elve#/ It &o"ld (e +elanchol , &e!e &e %o!ced to ad+it that thi# di#tinctive and al+o#t "nli+ited %ac"lt i# the #o"!ce o% all h"+an +i#%o!t"ne#, that it i# thi# &hich, in ti+e, d!a&# +an o"t o% hi# o!i*inal #tate, in &hich he &o"ld have #'ent hi# da # in#en#i(l in 'eace and innocence, that it i# thi# %ac"lt , &hich, #"cce##ivel '!od"cin* in di%%e!ent a*e# hi# di#cove!ie# and hi# e!!o!#, hi# vice# and hi# vi!t"e#, +a)e# hi+ at len*th a t !ant (oth ove! hi+#el% and ove! nat"!e-# It &o"ld (e #hoc)in* to (e o(li*ed to !e*a!d a# a (ene%acto! the +an &ho %i!#t #"**e#ted to the O!oono)o Indian# the "#e o% the (oa!d# the a''l to the te+'le# o% thei! child!en, &hich #ec"!e to the+ #o+e 'a!t at lea#t o% thei! i+(ecilit and o!i*inal ha''ine##-

54

Sava*e +an, le%t ( nat"!e #olel to the di!ection o% in#tinct, o! !athe! inde+ni%ied %o! &hat he +a lac) ( %ac"ltie# ca'a(le at %i!#t o% #"''l in* it# 'lace, and a%te!&a!d# o% !ai#in* hi+ +"ch a(ove it, +"#t acco!din*l (e*in &ith '"!el ani+al %"nction#1 th"# #eein* and %eelin* +"#t (e hi# %i!#t condition, &hich &o"ld (e co++on to hi+ and all othe! ani+al#- To &ill, and not to &ill, to de#i!e and to %ea!, +"#t (e the %i!#t, and al+o#t the onl o'e!ation# o% hi# #o"l, till ne& ci!c"+#tance# occa#ion ne& develo'+ent# o% hi# %ac"ltie#3hateve! +o!ali#t# +a hold, the h"+an "nde!#tandin* i# *!eatl inde(ted to the 'a##ion#, &hich, it i# "nive!#all allo&ed, a!e al#o +"ch inde(ted to the "nde!#tandin*- It i# ( the activit o% the 'a##ion# that o"! !ea#on i# i+'!oved, %o! &e de#i!e )no&led*e onl (eca"#e &e &i#h to en2o , and it i# i+'o##i(le to conceive an !ea#on &h a 'e!#on &ho ha# neithe! %ea!# no! de#i!e# #ho"ld *ive hi+#el% the t!o"(le o% !ea#onin*- The 'a##ion#, a*ain, o!i*inate in o"! &ant#, and thei! '!o*!e## de'end# on that o% o"! )no&led*e, %o! &e cannot de#i!e o! %ea! an thin*, e0ce't %!o+ the idea &e have o% it, o! %!o+ the #i+'le i+'"l#e o% nat"!e- No& #ava*e +an, (ein* de#tit"te o% eve! #'ecie# o% intelli*ence, can have no 'a##ion# #ave tho#e o% the latte! )ind1 hi# de#i!e# neve! *o (e ond hi# 'h #ical &ant#- The onl *ood# he !eco*ni#e# in the "nive!#e a!e %ood, a %e+ale, and #lee'1 the onl evil# he %ea!# a!e 'ain and h"n*e!- I #a 'ain, and not death1 %o! no ani+al can )no& &hat it i# to die, the )no&led*e o% death and it# te!!o!# (ein* one o% the %i!#t ac."i#ition# +ade ( +an in de'a!tin* %!o+ an ani+al #tateIt &o"ld (e ea# , &e!e it nece##a! , to #"''o!t thi# o'inion ( %act#, and to #ho& that, in all the nation# o% the &o!ld, the '!o*!e## o% the "nde!#tandin* ha# (een e0actl '!o'o!tionate to the &ant# &hich the 'eo'le# had !eceived %!o+ nat"!e, o! (een #"(2ected to ( ci!c"+#tance#, and in con#e."ence to the 'a##ion# that ind"ced the+ to '!ovide %o! tho#e nece##itie#- I +i*ht in#tance the a!t#, !i#in* "' in E* 't and e0'andin* &ith the in"ndation o% the Nile- I +i*ht %ollo& thei! '!o*!e## into G!eece, &he!e the too) !oot a%!e#h, *!e& "' and lo&e!ed to the #)ie#, a+on* the !oc)# and #and# o% Attica, &itho"t (ein* a(le to *e!+inate on the %e!tile (an)# o% the E"!ota#1 I +i*ht o(#e!ve that in *ene!al, the 'eo'le o% the No!th a!e +o!e ind"#t!io"# than tho#e o% the So"th, (eca"#e the cannot *et on #o &ell &itho"t (ein* #o1 a# i% nat"!e &anted to e."ali#e +atte!# ( *ivin* thei! "nde!#tandin*# the %e!tilit #he had !e%"#ed to thei! #oilB"t &ho doe# not #ee, &itho"t !ec"!!in* to the "nce!tain te#ti+on o% hi#to! , that eve! thin* #ee+# to !e+ove %!o+ #ava*e +an (oth the te+'tation and the +ean# o% chan*in* hi# condition/ Hi# i+a*ination 'aint# no 'ict"!e#, hi# hea!t +a)e# no de+and# on hi+- Hi# %e& &ant# a!e #o !eadil #"''lied, and he i# #o %a! %!o+ havin* the )no&led*e &hich i# need%"l to +a)e hi+ &ant +o!e, that he can have neithe! %o!e#i*ht no! c"!io#it - The %ace o% nat"!e (eco+e# indi%%e!ent to hi+ a# it *!o&# %a+ilia!- He #ee# in it al&a # the #a+e o!de!, the #a+e #"cce##ion#1 he ha# not "nde!#tandin* eno"*h to &onde! at the *!eate#t +i!acle#, no! i# it in hi# +ind that &e can e0'ect to %ind that 'hilo#o'h +an need#, i% he i# to )no& ho& to notice %o! once &hat he #ee# eve! da - Hi# #o"l, &hich nothin* di#t"!(#, i# &holl &!a''ed "' in the %eelin* o% it# '!e#ent e0i#tence, &itho"t an idea o% the %"t"!e, ho&eve! nea! at hand, &hile hi# '!o2ect#, a# li+ited a# hi# vie&#, ha!dl e0tend to the clo#e o% da - S"ch, even at '!e#ent, i# the e0tent o% the native Ca!i((ean@# %o!e#i*ht1 he &ill i+'!ovidentl #ell o" hi# cotton7(ed in the +o!nin*, and co+e c! in* in the evenin* to (" it a*ain, not havin* %o!e#een he &o"ld &ant it a*ain the ne0t ni*htThe +o!e &e !e%lect on thi# #"(2ect, the *!eate! a''ea!# the di#tance (et&een '"!e #en#ation and the +o#t #i+'le )no&led*e1 it i# i+'o##i(le indeed to conceive ho& a +an, ( hi# o&n 'o&e!# alone, &itho"t the aid o% co++"nication and the #'"! o% nece##it , co"ld have (!id*ed #o *!eat a *a'- Ho& +an a*e# +a have ela'#ed (e%o!e +an)ind &e!e in a 'o#ition to (ehold an othe! %i!e than that o% the heaven#- 3hat a +"lti'licit o% chance# +"#t have ha''ened to teach the+ the co++one#t "#e# o% that ele+ent< Ho& o%ten +"#t the have let it o"t (e%o!e the ac."i!ed the a!t o% !e'!od"cin* it/ and ho& o%ten +a not #"ch a #ec!et have died &ith hi+ &ho had 5D

di#cove!ed it/ 3hat #hall &e #a o% a*!ic"lt"!e, an a!t &hich !e."i!e# #o +"ch la(o"! and %o!e#i*ht, &hich i# #o de'endent on othe!# that it i# 'lain it co"ld onl (e '!acti#ed in a #ociet &hich had at lea#t (e*"n, and &hich doe# not #e!ve #o +"ch to d!a& the +ean# o% #"(#i#tence %!o+ the ea!th G %o! the#e it &o"ld '!od"ce o% it#el% G ("t to co+'el it to '!od"ce &hat i# +o#t to o"! ta#te/ B"t let "# #"''o#e that +en had #o +"lti'lied that the nat"!al '!od"ce o% the ea!th &a# no lon*e! #"%%icient %o! thei! #"''o!t, a #"''o#ition, ( the &a , &hich &o"ld '!ove #"ch a li%e to (e ve! advanta*eo"# %o! the h"+an !ace, let "# #"''o#e that, &itho"t %o!*e# o! &o!)#ho'#, the in#t!"+ent# o% h"#(and! had d!o''ed %!o+ the #) into the hand# o% #ava*e#, that the had ove!co+e thei! nat"!al ave!#ion to contin"al la(o"!, that the had lea!nt #o +"ch %o!e#i*ht %o! thei! need#, that the had divined ho& to c"ltivate the ea!th, to #o& *!ain and 'lant t!ee#, that the had di#cove!ed the a!t# o% *!indin* co!n, and o% #ettin* the *!a'e to %e!+ent G all (ein* thin*# that +"#t have (een ta"*ht the+ ( the *od#, #ince it i# not to (e conceived ho& the co"ld di#cove! the+ %o! the+#elve# G et a%te! all thi#, &hat +an a+on* the+ &o"ld (e #o a(#"!d a# to ta)e the t!o"(le o% c"ltivatin* a %ield, &hich +i*ht (e #t!i''ed o% it# c!o' ( the %i!#t co+e!, +an o! (ea#t, that +i*ht ta)e a li)in* to it, and ho& #ho"ld each o% the+ !e#olve to 'a## hi# li%e in &ea!i#o+e la(o"!, &hen, the +o!e nece##a! to hi+ the !e&a!d o% hi# la(o"! +i*ht (e, the #"!e! he &o"ld (e o% not *ettin* it/ In a &o!d, ho& co"ld #"ch a #it"ation ind"ce +en to c"ltivate the ea!th, till it &a# !e*"la!l 'a!celled o"t a+on* the+, that i# to #a , till the #tate o% nat"!e had (een a(oli#hed/ 3e!e &e to #"''o#e #ava*e +an a# t!ained in the a!t o% thin)in* a# 'hilo#o'he!# +a)e hi+, &e!e &e, li)e the+, to #"''o#e hi+ a ve! 'hilo#o'he! ca'a(le o% inve#ti*atin* the #"(li+e#t t!"th#, and o% %o!+in*, ( hi*hl a(#t!act chain# o% !ea#onin*, +a0i+# o% !ea#on and 2"#tice, ded"ced %!o+ the love o% o!de! in *ene!al, o! the )no&n &ill o% hi# C!eato!, in a &o!d, &e!e &e to #"''o#e hi+ a# intelli*ent and enli*htened, a# he +"#t have (een, and i# in %act %o"nd to have (een, d"ll and #t"'id, &hat advanta*e &o"ld acc!"e to the #'ecie#, %!o+ all #"ch +eta'h #ic#, &hich co"ld not (e co++"nicated ( one to anothe!, ("t +"#t end &ith hi+ &ho +ade the+/ 3hat '!o*!e## co"ld (e +ade ( +an)ind, &hile di#'e!#ed in the &ood# a+on* othe! ani+al#/ and ho& %a! co"ld +en i+'!ove o! +"t"all enli*hten one anothe!, &hen, havin* no %i0ed ha(itation, and no need o% one anothe!@# a##i#tance, the #a+e 'e!#on# ha!dl +et t&ice in thei! live#, and 'e!ha'# then, &itho"t )no&in* one anothe! o! #'ea)in* to*ethe!/ Let it (e con#ide!ed ho& +an idea# &e o&e to the "#e o% #'eech, ho& %a! *!a++a! e0e!ci#e# the "nde!#tandin* and %acilitate# it# o'e!ation#- Let "# !e%lect on the inconceiva(le 'ain# and the in%inite #'ace o% ti+e that the %i!#t invention o% lan*"a*e# +"#t have co#t- To the#e !e%lection# add &hat '!eceded, and then 2"d*e ho& +an tho"#and a*e# +"#t have ela'#ed in the #"cce##ive develo'+ent in the h"+an +ind o% tho#e o'e!ation# o% &hich it i# ca'a(leI #hall he!e ta)e the li(e!t %o! a +o+ent, o% con#ide!in* the di%%ic"ltie# o% the o!i*in o% lan*"a*e#, on &hich #"(2ect I +i*ht content + #el% &ith a #i+'le !e'etition o% the A((B Condillac@# inve#ti*ation#, a# the %"ll con%i!+ + # #te+, and 'e!ha'# even %i!#t #"**e#ted itB"t it i# 'lain, %!o+ the +anne! in &hich thi# 'hilo#o'he! #olve# the di%%ic"ltie# he hi+#el% !ai#e#, conce!nin* the o!i*in o% a!(it!a! #i*n#, that he a##"+e# &hat I ."e#tion, vi$-, that a )ind o% #ociet +"#t al!ead have e0i#ted a+on* the %i!#t invento!# o% lan*"a*e- 3hile I !e%e!, the!e%o!e, to hi# o(#e!vation# on thi# head, I thin) it !i*ht to *ive + o&n, in o!de! to e0hi(it the #a+e di%%ic"ltie# in a li*ht ada'ted to + #"(2ect- The %i!#t &hich '!e#ent# it#el% i# to conceive ho& lan*"a*e can have (eco+e nece##a! , %o! a# the!e &a# no co++"nication a+on* +en and no need %o! an , &e can neithe! conceive the nece##it o% thi# invention, no! the 'o##i(ilit o% it, i% it &a# not #o+eho& indi#'en#a(le- I +i*ht a%%i!+, &ith +an othe!#, that lan*"a*e# a!o#e in the do+e#tic inte!co"!#e (et&een 'a!ent# and thei! child!en- B"t thi# e0'edient &o"ld not o(viate the di%%ic"lt , and &o"ld (e#ide# involve the (l"nde! +ade ( tho#e &ho, in !ea#onin* on the #tate o% nat"!e, al&a # i+'o!t into it idea# *athe!ed in a #tate o% #ociet - Th"# the con#tantl 5C

con#ide! %a+ilie# a# livin* to*ethe! "nde! one !oo%, and the individ"al# o% each a# o(#e!vin* a+on* the+#elve# a "nion a# inti+ate and 'e!+anent a# that &hich e0i#t# a+on* "#, &he!e #o +an co++on inte!e#t# "nite the+1 &he!ea#, in thi# '!i+itive #tate, +en had neithe! ho"#e#, no! h"t#, no! an )ind o% '!o'e!t &hateve!, eve! one lived &he!e he co"ld, #eldo+ %o! +o!e than a #in*le ni*ht, the #e0e# "nited &itho"t de#i*n, a# accident, o''o!t"nit o! inclination (!o"*ht the+ to*ethe!, no! had the an *!eat need o% &o!d# to co++"nicate thei! de#i*n# to each othe!, and the 'a!ted &ith the #a+e indi%%e!ence- The +othe! *ave #"c) to he! child!en at %i!#t %o! he! o&n #a)e, and a%te!&a!d#, &hen ha(it had +ade the+ dea!, %o! thei!#1 ("t a# #oon a# the &e!e #t!on* eno"*h to *o in #ea!ch o% thei! o&n %ood, the %o!#oo) he! o% thei! o&n acco!d, and, a# the had ha!dl an othe! +ethod o% not lo#in* one anothe! than that o% !e+ainin* contin"all &ithin #i*ht, the #oon (eca+e ."ite inca'a(le o% !eco*ni#in* one anothe! &hen the ha''ened to +eet a*ain- It i# %a!the! to (e o(#e!ved that the child, havin* all hi# &ant# to e0'lain, and o% co"!#e +o!e to #a to hi# +othe! than the +othe! co"ld have to #a to hi+, +"#t have (o!ne the (!"nt o% the ta#) o% invention, and the lan*"a*e he "#ed &o"ld (e o% hi# o&n device, #o that the n"+(e! o% lan*"a*e# &o"ld (e e."al to that o% the individ"al# #'ea)in* the+, and the va!iet &o"ld (e inc!ea#ed ( the va*a(ond and !ovin* li%e the led, &hich &o"ld not *ive ti+e %o! an idio+ to (eco+e con#tant- Fo! to #a that the +othe! dictated to he! child the &o!d# he &a# to "#e in a#)in* he! %o! one thin* o! anothe!, i# an e0'lanation o% ho& lan*"a*e# al!ead %o!+ed a!e ta"*ht, ("t ( no +ean# e0'lain# ho& lan*"a*e# &e!e o!i*inall %o!+ed3e &ill #"''o#e, ho&eve!, that thi# %i!#t di%%ic"lt i# o(viated- Let "# %o! a +o+ent then ta)e o"!#elve# a# (ein* on thi# #ide o% the va#t #'ace &hich +"#t lie (et&een a '"!e #tate o% nat"!e and that in &hich lan*"a*e# had (eco+e nece##a! , and, ad+ittin* thei! nece##it , let "# in."i!e ho& the co"ld %i!#t (e e#ta(li#hed- He!e &e have a ne& and &o!#e di%%ic"lt to *!a''le &ith, %o! i% +en need #'eech to lea!n to thin), the +"#t have #tood in +"ch *!eate! need o% the a!t o% thin)in*, to (e a(le to invent that o% #'ea)in*- And tho"*h &e +i*ht conceive ho& the a!tic"late #o"nd# o% the voice ca+e to (e ta)en a# the conventional inte!'!ete!# o% o"! idea#, it &o"ld #till !e+ain %o! "# to in."i!e &hat co"ld have (een the inte!'!ete!# o% thi# convention %o! tho#e idea#, &hich, an#&e!in* to no #en#i(le o(2ect#, co"ld not (e indicated eithe! ( *e#t"!e o! voice, #o that &e can ha!dl %o!+ an tole!a(le con2ect"!e# a(o"t the o!i*in o% thi# a!t o% co++"nicatin* o"! tho"*ht# and e#ta(li#hin* a co!!e#'ondence (et&een +ind#1 an a!t #o #"(li+e, that %a! di#tant a# it i# %!o+ it# o!i*in, 'hilo#o'he!# #till (ehold it at #"ch an i++ea#"!a(le di#tance %!o+ 'e!%ection, that the!e i# none !a#h eno"*h to a%%i!+ it &ill eve! !each it, even tho"*h the !evol"tion# ti+e nece##a!il '!od"ce# &e!e #"#'ended in it# %avo"!, tho"*h '!e2"dice #ho"ld (e (ani#hed %!o+ o"! acade+ie# o! conde+ned to #ilence, and tho#e lea!ned #ocietie# #ho"ld devote the+#elve# "ninte!!"'tedl %o! &hole a*e# to thi# tho!n ."e#tionThe %i!#t lan*"a*e o% +an)ind, the +o#t "nive!#al and vivid, in a &o!d the onl lan*"a*e +an needed, (e%o!e he had occa#ion to e0e!t hi# elo."ence to 'e!#"ade a##e+(led +"ltit"de#, &a# the #i+'le c! o% nat"!e- B"t a# thi# &a# e0cited onl ( a #o!t o% in#tinct on "!*ent occa#ion#, to i+'lo!e a##i#tance in ca#e o% dan*e!, o! !elie% in ca#e o% #"%%e!in*, it co"ld (e o% little "#e in the o!dina! co"!#e o% li%e, in &hich +o!e +ode!ate %eelin*# '!evail- 3hen the idea# o% +en (e*an to e0'and and +"lti'l , and clo#e! co++"nication too) 'lace a+on* the+, the #t!ove to invent +o!e n"+e!o"# #i*n# and a +o!e co'io"# lan*"a*e- The +"lti'lied the in%lection# o% the voice, and added *e#t"!e#, &hich a!e in thei! o&n nat"!e +o!e e0'!e##ive, and de'end le## %o! thei! +eanin* on a '!io! dete!+ination- Vi#i(le and +ova(le o(2ect# &e!e the!e%o!e e0'!e##ed ( *e#t"!e#, and a"di(le one# ( i+itative #o"nd#1 ("t, a# ha!dl an thin* can (e indicated ( *e#t"!e#, e0ce't o(2ect# act"all '!e#ent o! ea#il de#c!i(ed, and vi#i(le action#, a# the a!e not "nive!#all "#e%"l G %o! da!)ne## o! the inte!'o#ition o% a +ate!ial o(2ect de#t!o # thei! e%%icac G and a# (e#ide# the !athe! !e."e#t than #ec"!e o"! attention, +en at len*th (etho"*ht the+#elve# o% #"(#tit"tin* %o! the+ the a!tic"late #o"nd# o% the voice, &hich, &itho"t (ea!in* the #a+e !elation to an 'a!tic"la! idea#, a!e (ette! calc"lated to e0'!e## the+ all, a# conventional 5F

#i*n#- S"ch an in#tit"tion co"ld onl (e +ade ( co++on con#ent, and +"#t have (een e%%ected in a +anne! not ve! ea# %o! +en &ho#e *!o## o!*an# had not (een acc"#to+ed to an #"ch e0e!ci#e- It i# al#o in it#el% #till +o!e di%%ic"lt to conceive, #ince #"ch a co++on a*!ee+ent +"#t have had +otive#, and #'eech #ee+# to have (een hi*hl nece##a! to e#ta(li#h the "#e o% itIt i# !ea#ona(le to #"''o#e that the &o!d# %i!#t +ade "#e o% ( +an)ind had a +"ch +o!e e0ten#ive #i*ni%ication than tho#e "#ed in lan*"a*e# al!ead %o!+ed, and that i*no!ant a# the &e!e o% the divi#ion o% di#co"!#e into it# con#tit"ent 'a!t#, the at %i!#t *ave eve! #in*le &o!d the #en#e o% a &hole '!o'o#ition- 3hen the (e*an to di#tin*"i#h #"(2ect and att!i("te, and no"n and ve!(, &hich &a# it#el% no co++on e%%o!t o% *eni"#, #"(#tantive# &e!e %i!#t onl #o +an '!o'e! na+e#, the '!e#ent in%initive &a# the onl ten#e o% ve!(#, and the ve! idea o% ad2ective# +"#t have (een develo'ed &ith *!eat di%%ic"lt , %o! eve! ad2ective i# an a(#t!act idea, and a(#t!action# a!e 'ain%"l and "nnat"!al o'e!ation#Eve! o(2ect at %i!#t !eceived a 'a!tic"la! na+e &itho"t !e*a!d to *en"# o! #'ecie#, &hich the#e '!i+itive o!i*inato!# &e!e not in a 'o#ition to di#tin*"i#h, eve! individ"al '!e#ented it#el% to thei! +ind# in i#olation, a# the a!e in the 'ict"!e o% nat"!e- I% one oa) &a# called A, anothe! &a# called B, %o! the '!i+itive idea o% t&o thin*# i# that the a!e not the #a+e, and it o%ten ta)e# a lon* ti+e %o! &hat the have in co++on to (e #een1 #o that, the na!!o&e! the li+it# o% thei! )no&led*e o% thin*#, the +o!e co'io"# thei! dictiona! +"#t have (een- The di%%ic"lt o% "#in* #"ch a voca("la! co"ld not (e ea#il !e+oved, %o!, to a!!an*e (ein*# "nde! co++on and *ene!ic deno+ination#, it (eca+e nece##a! to )no& thei! di#tin*"i#hin* '!o'e!tie#1 the need a!o#e %o! o(#e!vation and de%inition, that i# to #a , %o! nat"!al hi#to! and +eta'h #ic# o% a %a! +o!e develo'ed )ind than +en can at that ti+e have 'o##e##edAdd to thi#, that *ene!al idea# cannot (e int!od"ced into the +ind &itho"t the a##i#tance o% &o!d#, no! can the "nde!#tandin* #ei$e the+ e0ce't ( +ean# o% '!o'o#ition#- Thi# i# one o% the !ea#on# &h ani+al# cannot %o!+ #"ch idea#, o! eve! ac."i!e that ca'acit %o! #el%7i+'!ove+ent &hich de'end# on the+- 3hen a +on)e *oe# %!o+ one n"t to anothe!, a!e &e to conceive that he ente!tain# an *ene!al idea o% that )ind o% %!"it, and co+'a!e# it# a!chet 'e &ith the t&o individ"al n"t#/ A##"!edl he doe# not, ("t the #i*ht o% one o% the#e n"t# !ecall# to hi# +e+o! the #en#ation# &hich he !eceived %!o+ the othe!, and hi# e e#, (ein* +odi%ied a%te! a ce!tain +anne!, *ive in%o!+ation to the 'alate o% the +odi%ication it i# a(o"t to !eceive- Eve! *ene!al idea i# '"!el intellect"al, i% the i+a*ination +eddle# &ith it eve! #o little, the idea i++ediatel (eco+e# 'a!tic"la!- I% o" endeavo"! to t!ace in o"! +ind the i+a*e o% a t!ee in *ene!al, o" neve! attain to o"! end- In #'ite o% all o" can do, o" &ill have to #ee it a# *!eat o! little, (a!e o! lea% , li*ht o! da!), and &e!e o" ca'a(le o% #eein* nothin* in it ("t &hat i# co++on to all t!ee#, it &o"ld no lon*e! (e li)e a t!ee at all- 6"!el a(#t!act (ein*# a!e 'e!ceiva(le in the #a+e +anne!, o! a!e onl conceiva(le ( the hel' o% lan*"a*e- The de%inition o% a t!ian*le alone *ive# o" a t!"e idea o% it1 the +o+ent o" i+a*ine a t!ian*le in o"! +ind, it i# #o+e 'a!tic"la! t!ian*le and not anothe!, and o" cannot avoid *ivin* it #en#i(le line# and a colo"!ed a!ea- 3e +"#t then +a)e "#e o% '!o'o#ition# and o% lan*"a*e in o!de! to %o!+ *ene!al idea#- Fo! no #oone! doe# the i+a*ination cea#e to o'e!ate than the "nde!#tandin* '!oceed# onl ( the hel' o% &o!d#- I% then the %i!#t invento!# o% #'eech co"ld *ive na+e# onl to idea# the al!ead had, it %ollo&# that the %i!#t #"(#tantive# co"ld (e nothin* +o!e than '!o'e! na+e#B"t &hen o"! ne& *!a++a!ian#, ( +ean# o% &hich I have no conce'tion, (e*an to e0tend thei! idea# and *ene!ali#e thei! te!+#, the i*no!ance o% the invento!# +"#t have con%ined thi# +ethod &ithin ve! na!!o& li+it#, and, a# the had at %i!#t *one too %a! in +"lti'l in* the na+e# o% individ"al#, %!o+ i*no!ance o% thei! *en"# and #'ecie#, the +ade a%te!&a!d# too %e& o% the#e, %!o+ not havin* con#ide!ed (ein*# in all thei! #'eci%ic di%%e!ence#- It &o"ld indeed have needed +o!e )no&led*e and e0'e!ience than the co"ld have, and +o!e 'ain# and in."i! than the 5H

&o"ld have (e#to&ed, to ca!! the#e di#tinction# to thei! '!o'e! len*th- I%, even to7da , &e a!e contin"all di#cove!in* ne& #'ecie#, &hich have hithe!to e#ca'ed o(#e!vation, let "# !e%lect ho& +an o% the+ +"#t have e#ca'ed +en &ho 2"d*ed thin*# +e!el %!o+ thei! %i!#t a''ea!ance< It i# #"'e!%l"o"# to add that the '!i+itive cla##e# and the +o#t *ene!al notion# +"#t nece##a!il have e#ca'ed thei! notice al#o- Ho&, %o! in#tance, co"ld the have "nde!#tood o! tho"*ht o% the &o!d# +atte!, #'i!it, #"(#tance, +ode, %i*"!e, +otion, &hen even o"! 'hilo#o'he!#, &ho have #o lon* (een +a)in* "#e o% the+, have the+#elve# the *!eate#t di%%ic"lt in "nde!#tandin* the+, and &hen, the idea# attached to the+ (ein* '"!el +eta'h #ical, the!e a!e no +odel# o% the+ to (e %o"nd in nat"!e/ B"t I #to' at thi# 'oint, and a#) + 2"d*e# to #"#'end thei! !eadin* a &hile, to con#ide!, a%te! the invention o% 'h #ical #"(#tantive#, &hich i# the ea#ie#t 'a!t o% lan*"a*e to invent, that the!e i# #till a *!eat &a to *o, (e%o!e the tho"*ht# o% +en &ill have %o"nd 'e!%ect e0'!e##ion and con#tant %o!+, #"ch a# &o"ld an#&e! the '"!'o#e# o% '"(lic #'ea)in*, and '!od"ce thei! e%%ect on #ociet - I (e* o% the+ to con#ide! ho& +"ch ti+e +"#t have (een #'ent, and ho& +"ch )no&led*e needed, to %ind o"t n"+(e!#, a(#t!act te!+#, ao!i#t# and all the ten#e# o% ve!(#, 'a!ticle#, # nta0, the +ethod o% connectin* '!o'o#ition#, the %o!+# o% !ea#onin*, and all the lo*ic o% #'eech- Fo! + #el%, I a+ #o a*ha#t at the inc!ea#in* di%%ic"ltie# &hich '!e#ent the+#elve#, and #o &ell convinced o% the al+o#t de+on#t!a(le i+'o##i(ilit that lan*"a*e# #ho"ld o&e thei! o!i*inal in#tit"tion to +e!el h"+an +ean#, that I leave, to an one &ho &ill "nde!ta)e it, the di#c"##ion o% the di%%ic"lt '!o(le+, &hich &a# +o#t nece##a! , the e0i#tence o% #ociet to the invention o% lan*"a*e, o! the invention o% lan*"a*e to the e#ta(li#h+ent o% #ociet - B"t (e the o!i*in o% lan*"a*e and #ociet &hat the +a , it +a (e at lea#t in%e!!ed, %!o+ the little ca!e &hich nat"!e ha# ta)en to "nite +an)ind ( +"t"al &ant#, and to %acilitate the "#e o% #'eech, that #he ha# cont!i("ted little to +a)e the+ #ocia(le, and ha# '"t little o% he! o&n into all the have done to c!eate #"ch (ond# o% "nion- It i# in %act i+'o##i(le to conceive &h , in a #tate o% nat"!e, one +an #ho"ld #tand +o!e in need o% the a##i#tance o% anothe!, than a +on)e o! a &ol% o% the a##i#tance o% anothe! o% it# )ind1 o!, *!antin* that he did, &hat +otive# co"ld ind"ce that othe! to a##i#t hi+, o!, even then, ( &hat +ean# the co"ld a*!ee a(o"t the condition#- I )no& it i# ince##antl !e'eated that +an &o"ld in #"ch a #tate have (een the +o#t +i#e!a(le o% c!eat"!e#, and indeed, i% it (e t!"e, a# I thin) I have '!oved, that he +"#t have lived +an a*e#, (e%o!e he co"ld have eithe! de#i!e o! an o''o!t"nit o% e+e!*in* %!o+ it, thi# &o"ld onl (e an acc"#ation a*ain#t nat"!e, and not a*ain#t the (ein* &hich #he had th"# "nha''il con#tit"ted- B"t a# I "nde!#tand the &o!d miserable, it eithe! ha# no +eanin* at all, o! el#e #i*ni%ie# onl a 'ain%"l '!ivation o% #o+ethin*, o! a #tate o% #"%%e!in* eithe! in (od o! #o"l- I #ho"ld (e *lad to have e0'lained to +e, &hat )ind o% +i#e! a %!ee (ein*, &ho#e hea!t i# at ea#e and &ho#e (od i# in health, can 'o##i(l #"%%e!- I &o"ld a#) al#o, &hethe! a #ocial o! a nat"!al li%e i# +o#t li)el to (eco+e in#"''o!ta(le to tho#e &ho en2o it- 3e #ee a!o"nd "# ha!dl a c!eat"!e in civil #ociet , &ho doe# not la+ent hi# e0i#tence1 &e even #ee +an de'!ive the+#elve# o% a# +"ch o% it a# the can, and la&# h"+an and divine to*ethe! can ha!dl '"t a #to' to the di#o!de!- I a#), i% it &a# eve! )no&n that a #ava*e too) it into hi# head, &hen at li(e!t , to co+'lain o% li%e o! to +a)e a&a &ith hi+#el%- Let "# the!e%o!e 2"d*e, &ith le## vanit , on &hich #ide the !eal +i#e! i# %o"nd- On the othe! hand, nothin* co"ld (e +o!e "nha'' than #ava*e +an, da$$led ( #cience, to!+ented ( hi# 'a##ion#, and !ea#onin* a(o"t a #tate di%%e!ent %!o+ hi# o&n- It a''ea!# that 6!ovidence +o#t &i#el dete!+ined that the %ac"ltie#, &hich he 'otentiall 'o##e##ed, #ho"ld develo' the+#elve# onl a# occa#ion o%%e!ed to e0e!ci#e the+, in o!de! that the +i*ht not (e #"'e!%l"o"# o! 'e!'le0in* to hi+, ( a''ea!in* (e%o!e thei! ti+e, no! #lo& and "#ele## &hen the need %o! the+ a!o#e- In in#tinct alone, he had all he !e."i!ed %o! livin* in the #tate o% nat"!e, and &ith a develo'ed "nde!#tandin* he ha# onl 2"#t eno"*h to #"''o!t li%e in #ociet It a''ea!#, at %i!#t vie&, that +en in a #tate o% nat"!e, havin* no +o!al !elation# o! dete!+inate o(li*ation# one &ith anothe!, co"ld not (e eithe! *ood o! (ad, vi!t"o"# o! vicio"#, "nle## &e ta)e 8I

the#e te!+# in a 'h #ical #en#e, and call, in an individ"al, tho#e ."alitie# vice# &hich +a (e in2"!io"# to hi# '!e#e!vation, and tho#e vi!t"e# &hich cont!i("te to it, in &hich ca#e, he &o"ld have to (e acco"nted +o#t vi!t"o"#, &ho '"t lea#t chec) on the '"!e i+'"l#e# o% nat"!e- B"t &itho"t deviatin* %!o+ the o!dina! #en#e o% the &o!d#, it &ill (e '!o'e! to #"#'end the 2"d*+ent &e +i*ht (e led to %o!+ on #"ch a #tate, and (e on o"! *"a!d a*ain#t o"! '!e2"dice#, till &e have &ei*hed the +atte! in the #cale# o% i+'a!tialit , and #een &hethe! vi!t"e# o! vice# '!e'onde!ate a+on* civili#ed +en, and &hethe! thei! vi!t"e# do the+ +o!e *ood than thei! vice# do ha!+, till &e have di#cove!ed, &hethe! the '!o*!e## o% the #cience# #"%%icientl inde+ni%ie# the+ %o! the +i#chie%# the do one anothe!, in '!o'o!tion a# the a!e (ette! in%o!+ed o% the *ood the o"*ht to do, o! &hethe! the &o"ld not (e, on the &hole, in a +"ch ha''ie! condition i% the had nothin* to %ea! o! to ho'e %!o+ an one, than a# the a!e, #"(2ected to "nive!#al de'endence, and o(li*ed to ta)e eve! thin* %!o+ tho#e &ho en*a*e to *ive the+ nothin* in !et"!nA(ove all, let "# not concl"de, &ith Ho((e#, that (eca"#e +an ha# no idea o% *oodne##, he +"#t (e nat"!all &ic)ed, that he i# vicio"# (eca"#e he doe# not )no& vi!t"e, that he al&a # !e%"#e# to do hi# %ello&7c!eat"!e# #e!vice# &hich he doe# not thin) the have a !i*ht to de+and, o! that ( vi!t"e o% the !i*ht he t!"l clai+# to eve! thin* he need#, he %ooli#hl i+a*ine# hi+#el% the #ole '!o'!ieto! o% the &hole "nive!#e- Ho((e# had #een clea!l the de%ect# o% all the +ode!n de%inition# o% nat"!al !i*ht1 ("t the con#e."ence# &hich he ded"ce# %!o+ hi# o&n #ho& that he "nde!#tand# it in an e."all %al#e #en#e- In !ea#onin* on the '!inci'le# he la # do&n, he o"*ht to have #aid that the #tate o% nat"!e, (ein* that in &hich the ca!e %o! o"! o&n '!e#e!vation i# the lea#t '!e2"dicial to that o% othe!#, &a# con#e."entl the (e#t calc"lated to '!o+ote 'eace, and the +o#t #"ita(le %o! +an)ind- He doe# #a the e0act o''o#ite, in con#e."ence o% havin* i+'!o'e!l ad+itted, a# a 'a!t o% #ava*e +an@# ca!e %o! #el%7'!e#e!vation, the *!ati%ication o% a +"ltit"de o% 'a##ion# &hich a!e the &o!) o% #ociet , and have +ade la&# nece##a! - A (ad +an, he #a #, i# a !o("#t child- B"t it !e+ain# to (e '!oved &hethe! +an in a #tate o% nat"!e i# thi# !o("#t child1 and, #ho"ld &e *!ant that he i#, &hat &o"ld he in%e!/ 3h t!"l , that i% thi# +an, &hen !o("#t and #t!on*, &e!e de'endent on othe!# a# he i# &hen %ee(le, the!e i# no e0t!ava*ance he &o"ld not (e *"ilt o%, that he &o"ld (eat hi# +othe! &hen #he &a# too #lo& in *ivin* hi+ he! (!ea#t, that he &o"ld #t!an*le one o% hi# o"n*e! (!othe!#, i% he #ho"ld (e t!o"(le#o+e to hi+, o! (ite the a!+ o% anothe!, i% he '"t hi+ to an inconvenience- B"t that +an in the #tate o% nat"!e i# (oth #t!on* and de'endent involve# t&o cont!a! #"''o#ition#- Man i# &ea) &hen he i# de'endent, and i# hi# o&n +a#te! (e%o!e he co+e# to (e #t!on*- Ho((e# did not !e%lect that the #a+e ca"#e, &hich '!event# a #ava*e %!o+ +a)in* "#e o% hi# !ea#on, a# o"! 2"!i#t# hold, '!event# hi+ al#o %!o+ a("#in* hi# %ac"ltie#, a# Ho((e# hi+#el% allo&#1 #o that it +a (e 2"#tl #aid that #ava*e# a!e not (ad +e!el (eca"#e the do not )no& &hat it i# to (e *ood1 %o! it i# neithe! the develo'+ent o% the "nde!#tandin* no! the !e#t!aint o% la& that hinde!# the+ %!o+ doin* ill, ("t the 'eace%"lne## o% thei! 'a##ion#, and thei! i*no!ance o% vice1 tanto plus in illis proficit vitiorum ignoratio, quam in his cognitio virtutis.) The!e i# anothe! '!inci'le &hich ha# e#ca'ed Ho((e#, &hich, havin* (een (e#to&ed on +an)ind, to +ode!ate, on ce!tain occa#ion#, the i+'et"o#it o% e*oi#+, o!, (e%o!e it# (i!th, the de#i!e o% #el%7'!e#e!vation, te+'e!# the a!do"! &ith &hich he '"!#"e# hi# o&n &el%a!e, ( an innate !e'"*nance at #eein* a %ello&7c!eat"!e #"%%e!-* I thin) I need not %ea! cont!adiction in holdin* +an to (e 'o##e##ed o% the onl nat"!al vi!t"e, &hich co"ld not (e denied hi+ ( the +o#t violent det!acto! o% h"+an vi!t"e- I a+ #'ea)in* o% co+'a##ion, &hich i# a di#'o#ition #"ita(le to c!eat"!e# #o &ea) and #"(2ect to #o +an evil# a# &e ce!tainl a!e1 ( #o +"ch the +o!e "nive!#al and "#e%"l to +an)ind, a# it co+e# (e%o!e an )ind o% !e%lection, and at the #a+e ti+e #o nat"!al, that the ve! (!"te# the+#elve# #o+eti+e# *ive evident '!oo%# o% it- Not to +ention the tende!ne## o% +othe!# %o! thei! o%%#'!in* and the 'e!il# the enco"nte! to #ave the+ %!o+ dan*e!, it i# &ell )no&n that ho!#e# #ho& a !el"ctance to t!a+'le on livin* (odie#- One ani+al neve! 'a##e# ( the dead (od o% anothe! o% it# #'ecie#1 the!e a!e even #o+e &hich *ive thei! 85

%ello&# a #o!t o% ("!ial, &hile the +o"!n%"l lo&in*# o% the cattle &hen the ente! the #la"*hte!7 ho"#e #ho& the i+'!e##ion# +ade on the+ ( the ho!!i(le #'ectacle &hich +eet# the+- 3e %ind, &ith 'lea#"!e, the a"tho! o% the Fa(le o% the Bee# o(li*ed to o&n that +an i# a co+'a##ionate and #en#i(le (ein*, and la in* a#ide hi# cold #"(tlet o% #t le, in the e0a+'le he *ive#, to '!e#ent "# &ith the 'athetic de#c!i'tion o% a +an &ho, %!o+ a 'lace o% con%ine+ent, i# co+'elled to (ehold a &ild (ea#t tea! a child %!o+ the a!+# o% it# +othe!, *!indin* it# tende! li+(# &ith it# +"!de!o"# teeth, and tea!in* it# 'al'itatin* ent!ail# &ith it# cla&#- 3hat ho!!id a*itation +"#t not the e e&itne## o% #"ch a #cene e0'e!ience, altho"*h he &o"ld not (e 'e!#onall conce!ned< 3hat an0iet &o"ld he not #"%%e! at not (ein* a(le to *ive an a##i#tance to the %aintin* +othe! and the d in* in%ant< S"ch i# the '"!e e+otion o% nat"!e, '!io! to all )ind# o% !e%lection< S"ch i# the %o!ce o% nat"!al co+'a##ion, &hich the *!eate#t de'!avit o% +o!al# ha# a# et ha!dl (een a(le to de#t!o < %o! &e dail %ind at o"! theat!e# +en a%%ected, na #heddin* tea!# at the #"%%e!in*# o% a &!etch &ho, &e!e he in the t !ant@# 'lace, &o"ld '!o(a(l even add to the to!+ent# o% hi# ene+ie#, li)e the (loodthi!#t S"lla, &ho &a# #o #en#itive to ill# he had not ca"#ed, o! that Ale0ande! o% 6he!o# &ho did not da!e to *o and #ee an t!a*ed acted, %o! %ea! o% (ein* #een &ee'in* &ith And!o+ache and 6!ia+, tho"*h he co"ld li#ten &itho"t e+otion to the c!ie# o% all the citi$en# &ho &e!e dail #t!an*led at hi# co++andMollissima corda umano generi dare se natura fatetur, !u" lacrimas dedit. A"venal, #atires, 0v- 545& Mandeville &ell )ne& that, in #'ite o% all thei! +o!alit , +en &o"ld have neve! (een (ette! than +on#te!#, had not nat"!e (e#to&ed on the+ a #en#e o% co+'a##ion, to aid thei! !ea#on1 ("t he did not #ee that %!o+ thi# ."alit alone %lo& all tho#e #ocial vi!t"e#, o% &hich he denied +an the 'o##e##ion- B"t &hat i# *ene!o#it , cle+enc o! h"+anit ("t co+'a##ion a''lied to the &ea), to the *"ilt , o! to +an)ind in *ene!al/ Even (enevolence and %!iend#hi' a!e, i% &e 2"d*e !i*htl , onl the e%%ect# o% co+'a##ion, con#tantl #et "'on a 'a!tic"la! o(2ect1 %o! ho& i# it di%%e!ent to &i#h that anothe! 'e!#on +a not #"%%e! 'ain and "nea#ine## and to &i#h hi+ ha'' / 3e!e it even t!"e that 'it i# no +o!e than a %eelin*, &hich '"t# "# in the 'lace o% the #"%%e!e!, a %eelin*, o(#c"!e et livel in a #ava*e, develo'ed et %ee(le in civili#ed +an, thi# t!"th &o"ld have no othe! con#e."ence than to con%i!+ + a!*"+ent- Co+'a##ion +"#t, in %act, (e the #t!on*e!, the +o!e the ani+al (eholdin* an )ind o% di#t!e## identi%ie# hi+#el% &ith the ani+al that #"%%e!#No&, it i# 'lain that #"ch identi%ication +"#t have (een +"ch +o!e 'e!%ect in a #tate o% nat"!e than it i# in a #tate o% !ea#on- It i# !ea#on that en*ende!# #el%7!e#'ect, and !e%lection that con%i!+# it1 it i# !ea#on &hich t"!n# +an@# +ind (ac) "'on it#el%, and divide# hi+ %!o+ eve! thin* that co"ld di#t"!( o! a%%lict hi+- It i# 'hilo#o'h that i#olate# hi+, and (id# hi+ #a , at #i*ht o% the +i#%o!t"ne# o% othe!#1 96e!i#h i% o" &ill, I a+ #ec"!e-9 Nothin* ("t #"ch *ene!al evil# a# th!eaten the &hole co++"nit can di#t"!( the t!an."il #lee' o% the 'hilo#o'he!, o! tea! hi+ %!o+ hi# (ed- A +"!de! +a &ith i+'"nit (e co++itted "nde! hi# &indo&, he ha# onl to '"t hi# hand# to hi# ea!# and a!*"e a little &ith hi+#el%, to '!event nat"!e, &hich i# #hoc)ed &ithin hi+, %!o+ identi% in* it#el% &ith the "n%o!t"nate #"%%e!e!- Uncivili#ed +an ha# not thi# ad+i!a(le talent, and %o! &ant o% !ea#on and &i#do+, i# al&a # %ooli#hl !ead to o(e the %i!#t '!o+'tin*# o% h"+anit - It i# the 'o'"lace that %loc)# to*ethe! at !iot# and #t!eet7(!a&l#, &hile the &i#e +an '!"dentl +a)e# o%%- It i# the +o( and the +a!)et7&o+en, &ho 'a!t the co+(atant#, and hinde! *entle7%ol)# %!o+ c"ttin* one anothe!@# th!oat#It i# then ce!tain that co+'a##ion i# a nat"!al %eelin*, &hich, ( +ode!atin* the violence o% love o% #el% in each individ"al, cont!i("te# to the '!e#e!vation o% the &hole #'ecie#- It i# thi# 88

co+'a##ion that h"!!ie# "# &itho"t !e%lection to the !elie% o% tho#e &ho a!e in di#t!e##1 it i# thi# &hich in a #tate o% nat"!e #"''lie# the 'lace o% la&#, +o!al# and vi!t"e#, &ith the advanta*e that none a!e te+'ted to di#o(e it# *entle voice1 it i# thi# &hich &ill al&a # '!event a #t"!d #ava*e %!o+ !o((in* a &ea) child o! a %ee(le old +an o% the #"#tenance the +a have &ith 'ain and di%%ic"lt ac."i!ed, i% he #ee# a 'o##i(ilit o% '!ovidin* %o! hi+#el% ( othe! +ean#1 it i# thi# &hich, in#tead o% inc"lcatin* that #"(li+e +a0i+ o% !ational 2"#tice- $o to others as you would have them do unto you, in#'i!e# all +en &ith that othe! +a0i+ o% nat"!al *oodne##, +"ch le## 'e!%ect indeed, ("t 'e!ha'# +o!e "#e%"l, $o good to yourself with as little evil as possible to others. In a &o!d, it i# !athe! in thi# nat"!al %eelin* than in an #"(tle a!*"+ent# that &e +"#t loo) %o! the ca"#e o% that !e'"*nance, &hich eve! +an &o"ld e0'e!ience in doin* evil, even inde'endentl o% the +a0i+# o% ed"cation- Altho"*h it +i*ht (elon* to Soc!ate# and othe! +ind# o% the li)e c!a%t to ac."i!e vi!t"e ( !ea#on, the h"+an !ace &o"ld lon* #ince have cea#ed to (e, had it# '!e#e!vation de'ended onl on the !ea#onin*# o% the individ"al# co+'o#in* it3ith 'a##ion# #o little active, and #o *ood a c"!(, +en, (ein* !athe! &ild than &ic)ed, and +o!e intent to *"a!d the+#elve# a*ain#t the +i#chie% that +i*ht (e done the+, than to do +i#chie% to othe!#, &e!e ( no +ean# #"(2ect to ve! 'e!ilo"# di##en#ion#- The +aintained no )ind o% inte!co"!#e &ith one anothe!, and &e!e con#e."entl #t!an*e!# to vanit , de%e!ence, e#tee+ and conte+'t, the had not the lea#t idea o% meum and tuum, and no t!"e conce'tion o% 2"#tice, the loo)ed "'on eve! violence to &hich the &e!e #"(2ected, !athe! a# an in2"! that +i*ht ea#il (e !e'ai!ed than a# a c!i+e that o"*ht to (e '"ni#hed, and the neve! tho"*ht o% ta)in* !even*e, "nle## 'e!ha'# +echanicall and on the #'ot, a# a do* &ill #o+eti+e# (ite the #tone &hich i# th!o&n at hi+- Thei! ."a!!el# the!e%o!e &o"ld #eldo+ have ve! (lood con#e."ence#, %o! the #"(2ect o% the+ &o"ld (e +e!el the ."e#tion o% #"(#i#tence- B"t I a+ a&a!e o% one *!eate! dan*e!, &hich !e+ain# to (e noticedO% the 'a##ion# that #ti! the hea!t o% +an, the!e i# one &hich +a)e# the #e0e# nece##a! to each othe!, and i# e0t!e+el a!dent and i+'et"o"#, a te!!i(le 'a##ion that (!ave# dan*e!, #"!+o"nt# all o(#tacle#, and in it# t!an#'o!t# #ee+# calc"lated to (!in* de#t!"ction on the h"+an !ace &hich it i# !eall de#tined to '!e#e!ve- 3hat +"#t (eco+e o% +en &ho a!e le%t to thi# (!"tal and (o"ndle## !a*e, &itho"t +ode#t , &itho"t #ha+e, and dail "'holdin* thei! a+o"!# at the '!ice o% thei! (lood/ It +"#t, in the %i!#t 'lace, (e allo&ed that, the +o!e violent the 'a##ion# a!e, the +o!e a!e la&# nece##a! to )ee' the+ "nde! !e#t!aint- B"t, #ettin* a#ide the inade."ac o% la&# to e%%ect thi# '"!'o#e, &hich i# evident %!o+ the c!i+e# and di#o!de!# to &hich the#e 'a##ion# dail *ive !i#e a+on* "#, &e #ho"ld do &ell to in."i!e i% the#e evil# did not #'!in* "' &ith the la&# the+#elve#, %o! in thi# ca#e, even i% the la&# &e!e ca'a(le o% !e'!e##in* #"ch evil#, it i# the lea#t that co"ld (e e0'ected %!o+ the+, that the #ho"ld chec) a +i#chie% &hich &o"ld not have a!i#en &itho"t the+Let "# (e*in ( di#tin*"i#hin* (et&een the 'h #ical and +o!al in*!edient# in the %eelin* o% loveThe 'h #ical 'a!t o% love i# that *ene!al de#i!e &hich "!*e# the #e0e# to "nion &ith each othe!The +o!al 'a!t i# that &hich dete!+ine# and %i0e# thi# de#i!e e0cl"#ivel "'on one 'a!tic"la! o(2ect, o! at lea#t *ive# it a *!eate! de*!ee o% ene!* to&a!d the o(2ect th"# '!e%e!!ed- It i# ea# to #ee that the +o!al 'a!t o% love i# a %actitio"# %eelin*, (o!n o% #ocial "#a*e, and enhanced ( the &o+en &ith +"ch ca!e and cleve!ne##, to e#ta(li#h thei! e+'i!e, and '"t in 'o&e! the #e0 &hich o"*ht to o(e - Thi# %eelin*, (ein* %o"nded on ce!tain idea# o% (ea"t and +e!it &hich a #ava*e i# not in a 'o#ition to ac."i!e, and on co+'a!i#on# &hich he i# inca'a(le o% +a)in*, +"#t (e %o! hi+ al+o#t non7e0i#tent, %o!, a# hi# +ind cannot %o!+ a(#t!act idea# o% '!o'o!tion and !e*"la!it , #o hi# hea!t i# not #"#ce'ti(le o% the %eelin*# o% love and ad+i!ation, &hich a!e even in#en#i(l '!od"ced ( the a''lication o% the#e idea#- He %ollo&# #olel the cha!acte! nat"!e ha# i+'lanted 8;

in hi+, and not ta#te# &hich he co"ld neve! have ac."i!ed, #o that eve! &o+an e."all an#&e!# hi# '"!'o#eMen in a #tate o% nat"!e (ein* con%ined +e!el to &hat i# 'h #ical in love, and %o!t"nate eno"*h to (e i*no!ant o% tho#e e0cellence#, &hich &het the a''etite &hile the inc!ea#e the di%%ic"lt o% *!ati% in* it, +"#t (e #"(2ect to %e&e! and le## violent %it# o% 'a##ion, and con#e."entl %all into %e&e! and le## violent di#'"te#- The i+a*ination, &hich ca"#e# #"ch !ava*e# a+on* "#, neve! #'ea)# to the hea!t o% #ava*e#, &ho ."ietl a&ait the i+'"l#e# o% nat"!e, ield to the+ invol"nta!il , &ith +o!e 'lea#"!e than a!do"!, and, thei! &ant# once #ati#%ied, lo#e the de#i!e- It i# the!e%o!e inconte#ta(le that love, a# &ell a# all othe! 'a##ion#, +"#t have ac."i!ed in #ociet that *lo&in* i+'et"o#it , &hich +a)e# it #o o%ten %atal to +an)ind- And it i# the +o!e a(#"!d to !e'!e#ent #ava*e# a# contin"all c"ttin* one anothe!@# th!oat# to ind"l*e thei! (!"talit , (eca"#e thi# o'inion i# di!ectl cont!a! to e0'e!ience, the Ca!i((ean#, &ho have a# et lea#t o% all deviated %!o+ the #tate o% nat"!e, (ein* in %act the +o#t 'eacea(le o% 'eo'le in thei! a+o"!#, and the lea#t #"(2ect to 2ealo"# , tho"*h the live in a hot cli+ate &hich #ee+# al&a # to in%la+e the 'a##ion#3ith !e*a!d to the in%e!ence# that +i*ht (e d!a&n, in the ca#e o% #eve!al #'ecie# o% ani+al#, the +ale# o% &hich %ill o"! 'o"lt! 7 a!d# &ith (lood and #la"*hte!, o! in #'!in* +a)e the %o!e#t# !e#o"nd &ith thei! ."a!!el# ove! thei! %e+ale#, &e +"#t (e*in ( e0cl"din* all tho#e #'ecie#, in &hich nat"!e ha# 'lainl e#ta(li#hed, in the co+'a!ative 'o&e! o% the #e0e#, !elation# di%%e!ent %!o+ tho#e &hich e0i#t a+on* "#1 th"# &e can (a#e no concl"#ion a(o"t +en on the ha(it# o% %i*htin* coc)#- In tho#e #'ecie# &he!e the '!o'o!tion i# (ette! o(#e!ved, the#e (attle# +"#t (e enti!el d"e to the #ca!cit o% %e+ale# in co+'a!i#on &ith +ale#, o!, &hat a+o"nt# to the #a+e thin*, to the inte!val# d"!in* &hich the %e+ale con#tantl !e%"#e# the advance# o% the +ale1 %o! i% each %e+ale ad+it# the +ale ("t d"!in* t&o +onth# in the ea!, it i# the #a+e a# i% the n"+(e! o% %e+ale# &e!e %ive7#i0th# le##- No&, neithe! o% the#e t&o ca#e# i# a''lica(le to the h"+an #'ecie#, in &hich the n"+(e! o% %e+ale# "#"all e0ceed# that o% +ale#, and a+on* &ho+ it ha# neve! (een o(#e!ved, even a+on* #ava*e#, that the %e+ale# have, li)e tho#e o% othe! ani+al#, thei! #tated ti+e# o% 'a##ion and indi%%e!ence- Mo!eove!, in #eve!al o% the#e #'ecie#, the individ"al# all ta)e %i!e at once, and the!e co+e# a %ea!%"l +o+ent o% "nive!#al 'a##ion, t"+"lt and di#o!de! a+on* the+, a #cene &hich i# neve! (eheld in the h"+an #'ecie#, &ho#e love i# not th"# #ea#onal- 3e +"#t not then concl"de %!o+ the co+(at# o% #"ch ani+al# %o! the en2o +ent o% the %e+ale#, that the ca#e &o"ld (e the #a+e &ith +an)ind in a #tate o% nat"!e1 and, even i% &e d!e& #"ch a concl"#ion, &e #ee that #"ch conte#t# do not e0te!+inate othe! )ind# o% ani+al#, and &e have no !ea#on to thin) the &o"ld (e +o!e %atal to o"!#- It i# indeed clea! that the &o"ld do #till le## +i#chie% than i# the ca#e in a #tate o% #ociet , e#'eciall in tho#e co"nt!ie# in &hich, +o!al# (ein* #till held in #o+e !e'"te, the 2ealo"# o% love!# and the ven*eance o% h"#(and# a!e the dail ca"#e o% d"el#, +"!de!#, and even &o!#e c!i+e#, &he!e the o(li*ation o% ete!nal %idelit onl occa#ion# ad"lte! , and the ve! la&# o% hono"! and continence nece##a!il inc!ea#e de(a"che! and lead to the +"lti'lication o% a(o!tion#Let "# concl"de then that +an in a #tate o% nat"!e, &ande!in* "' and do&n the %o!e#t#, &itho"t ind"#t! , &itho"t #'eech, and &itho"t ho+e, an e."al #t!an*e! to &a! and to all tie#, neithe! #tandin* in need o% hi# %ello&7c!eat"!e# no! havin* an de#i!e to h"!t the+, and 'e!ha'# even not di#tin*"i#hin* the+ one %!o+ anothe!, let "# concl"de that, (ein* #el%7#"%%icient and #"(2ect to #o %e& 'a##ion#, he co"ld have no %eelin*# o! )no&led*e ("t #"ch a# (e%itted hi# #it"ation, that he %elt onl hi# act"al nece##itie#, and di#!e*a!ded eve! thin* he did not thin) hi+#el% i++ediatel conce!ned to notice, and that hi# "nde!#tandin* +ade no *!eate! '!o*!e## than hi# vanit - I% ( accident he +ade an di#cove! , he &a# the le## a(le to co++"nicate it to othe!#, a# he did not )no& even hi# o&n child!en- Eve! a!t &o"ld nece##a!il 'e!i#h &ith it# invento!, &he!e the!e &a# no )ind o% ed"cation a+on* +en, and *ene!ation# #"cceeded *ene!ation# &itho"t the lea#t 8?

advance, &hen, all #ettin* o"t %!o+ the #a+e 'oint, cent"!ie# +"#t have ela'#ed in the (a!(a!i#+ o% the %i!#t a*e#, &hen the !ace &a# al!ead old, and +an !e+ained a childI% I have e0'atiated at #"ch len*th on thi# #"''o#ed '!i+itive #tate, it i# (eca"#e I had #o +an ancient e!!o!# and invete!ate '!e2"dice# to e!adicate, and the!e%o!e tho"*ht it inc"+(ent on +e to di* do&n to thei! ve! !oot, and #ho&, ( +ean# o% a t!"e 'ict"!e o% the #tate o% nat"!e, ho& %a! even the nat"!al ine."alitie# o% +an)ind a!e %!o+ havin* that !ealit and in%l"ence &hich +ode!n &!ite!# #"''o#eIt i# in %act ea# to #ee that +an o% the di%%e!ence# &hich di#tin*"i#h +en a!e +e!el the e%%ect o% ha(it and the di%%e!ent +ethod# o% li%e +en ado't in #ociet - Th"# a !o("#t o! delicate con#tit"tion, and the #t!en*th o! &ea)ne## attachin* to it, a!e +o!e %!e."entl the e%%ect# o% a ha!d o! e%%e+inate +ethod o% ed"cation than o% the o!i*inal endo&+ent o% the (od - It i# the #a+e &ith the 'o&e!# o% the +ind, %o! ed"cation not onl +a)e# a di%%e!ence (et&een #"ch a# a!e c"lt"!ed and #"ch a# a!e not, ("t even inc!ea#e# the di%%e!ence# &hich e0i#t a+on* the %o!+e!, in '!o'o!tion to thei! !e#'ective de*!ee# o% c"lt"!e1 a# the di#tance (et&een a *iant and a d&a!% on the #a+e !oad inc!ea#e# &ith eve! #te' the ta)e- I% &e co+'a!e the '!odi*io"# dive!#it , &hich o(tain# in the ed"cation and +anne! o% li%e o% the va!io"# o!de!# o% +en in the #tate o% #ociet , &ith the "ni%o!+it and #i+'licit o% ani+al and #ava*e li%e, in &hich eve! one live# on the #a+e )ind o% %ood and in e0actl the #a+e +anne!, and doe# e0actl the #a+e thin*#, it i# ea# to conceive ho& +"ch le## the di%%e!ence (et&een +an and +an +"#t (e in a #tate o% nat"!e than in a #tate o% #ociet , and ho& *!eatl the nat"!al ine."alit o% +an)ind +"#t (e inc!ea#ed ( the ine."alitie# o% #ocial in#tit"tion#B"t even i% nat"!e !eall a%%ected, in the di#t!i("tion o% he! *i%t#, that 'a!tialit &hich i# i+'"ted to he!, &hat advanta*e &o"ld the *!eate#t o% he! %avo"!ite# de!ive %!o+ it, to the det!i+ent o% othe!#, in a #tate that ad+it# o% ha!dl an )ind o% !elation (et&een the+/ 3he!e the!e i# no love, o% &hat advanta*e i# (ea"t / O% &hat "#e i# &it to tho#e &ho do not conve!#e, o! c"nnin* to tho#e &ho have no ("#ine## &ith othe!#/ I hea! it con#tantl !e'eated that, in #"ch a #tate, the #t!on* &o"ld o''!e## the &ea), ("t &hat i# he!e +eant ( o''!e##ion/ So+e, it i# #aid, &o"ld violentl do+inee! ove! othe!#, &ho &o"ld *!oan "nde! a #e!vile #"(+i##ion to thei! ca'!ice#Thi# indeed i# e0actl &hat I o(#e!ve to (e the ca#e a+on* "#, ("t I do not #ee ho& it can (e in%e!!ed o% +en in a #tate o% nat"!e, &ho co"ld not ea#il (e (!o"*ht to conceive &hat &e +ean ( do+inion and #e!vit"de- One +an, it i# t!"e, +i*ht #ei$e the %!"it# &hich anothe! had *athe!ed, the *a+e he had )illed, o! the cave he had cho#en %o! #helte!, ("t ho& &o"ld he eve! (e a(le to e0act o(edience, and &hat tie# o% de'endence co"ld the!e (e a+on* +en &itho"t 'o##e##ion#/ I%, %o! in#tance, I a+ d!iven %!o+ one t!ee, I can *o to the ne0t, i% I a+ di#t"!(ed in one 'lace, &hat hinde!# +e %!o+ *oin* to anothe!/ A*ain, #ho"ld I ha''en to +eet &ith a +an #o +"ch #t!on*e! than + #el%, and at the #a+e ti+e #o de'!aved, #o indolent, and #o (a!(a!o"#, a# to co+'el +e to '!ovide %o! hi# #"#tenance &hile he hi+#el% !e+ain# idle, he +"#t ta)e ca!e not to have hi# e e# o%% +e %o! a #in*le +o+ent, he +"#t (ind +e %a#t (e%o!e he *oe# to #lee', o! I #hall ce!tainl eithe! )noc) hi+ on the head o! +a)e + e#ca'e- That i# to #a , he +"#t in #"ch a ca#e vol"nta!il e0'o#e hi+#el% to +"ch *!eate! t!o"(le than he #ee)# to avoid, o! can *ive +eA%te! all thi#, let hi+ (e o%% hi# *"a!d eve! #o little, let hi+ ("t t"!n hi# head a#ide at an #"dden noi#e, and I #hall (e in#tantl t&ent 'ace# o%%, lo#t in the %o!e#t, and, + %ette!# ("!#t a#"nde!, he &o"ld neve! #ee +e a*ain3itho"t + e0'atiatin* th"# "#ele##l on the#e detail#, eve! one +"#t #ee that a# the (ond# o% #e!vit"de a!e %o!+ed +e!el ( the +"t"al de'endence o% +en on one anothe! and the !eci'!ocal need# that "nite the+, it i# i+'o##i(le to +a)e an +an a #lave, "nle## he (e %i!#t !ed"ced to a #it"ation in &hich he cannot do &itho"t the hel' o% othe!#1 and, #ince #"ch a #it"ation doe# not

84

e0i#t in a #tate o% nat"!e, eve! one i# the!e hi# o&n +a#te!, and the la& o% the #t!on*e#t i# o% no e%%ectHavin* '!oved that the ine."alit o% +an)ind i# ha!dl %elt, and that it# in%l"ence i# ne0t to nothin* in a #tate o% nat"!e, I +"#t ne0t #ho& it# o!i*in and t!ace it# '!o*!e## in the #"cce##ive develo'+ent# o% the h"+an +ind- Havin* #ho&n that h"+an perfectibility, the #ocial vi!t"e#, and the othe! %ac"ltie# &hich nat"!al +an 'otentiall 'o##e##ed, co"ld neve! develo' o% the+#elve#, ("t +"#t !e."i!e the %o!t"ito"# conc"!!ence o% +an %o!ei*n ca"#e# that +i*ht neve! a!i#e, and &itho"t &hich he &o"ld have !e+ained %o! eve! in hi# '!i+itive condition, I +"#t no& collect and con#ide! the di%%e!ent accident# &hich +a have i+'!oved the h"+an "nde!#tandin* &hile de'!avin* the #'ecie#, and +ade +an &ic)ed &hile +a)in* hi+ #ocia(le, #o a# to (!in* hi+ and the &o!ld %!o+ that di#tant 'e!iod to the 'oint at &hich &e no& (ehold the+I con%e## that, a# the event# I a+ *oin* to de#c!i(e +i*ht have ha''ened in va!io"# &a #, I have nothin* to dete!+ine + choice ("t con2ect"!e#1 ("t #"ch con2ect"!e# (eco+e !ea#on#, &hen the a!e the +o#t '!o(a(le that can (e d!a&n %!o+ the nat"!e o% thin*#, and the onl +ean# o% di#cove!in* the t!"th- The con#e."ence#, ho&eve!, &hich I +ean to ded"ce &ill not (e (a!el con2ect"!al, a#, on the '!inci'le# 2"#t laid do&n, it &o"ld (e i+'o##i(le to %o!+ an othe! theo! that &o"ld not %"!ni#h the #a+e !e#"lt#, and %!o+ &hich I co"ld not d!a& the #a+e concl"#ion#Thi# &ill (e a #"%%icient a'olo* %o! + not d&ellin* on the +anne! in &hich the la'#e o% ti+e co+'en#ate# %o! the little '!o(a(ilit in the event#, on the #"!'!i#in* 'o&e! o% t!ivial ca"#e#, &hen thei! action i# con#tant, on the i+'o##i(ilit , on the one hand, o% de#t!o in* ce!tain h 'othe#e#, tho"*h on the othe! &e cannot *ive the+ the ce!taint o% )no&n +atte!# o% %act, on it# (ein* &ithin the '!ovince o% hi#to! , &hen t&o %act# a!e *iven a# !eal, and have to (e connected ( a #e!ie# o% inte!+ediate %act#, &hich a!e "n)no&n o! #"''o#ed to (e #o, to #"''l #"ch %act# a# +a connect the+, and on it# (ein* in the '!ovince o% 'hilo#o'h &hen hi#to! i# #ilent, to dete!+ine #i+ila! %act# to #e!ve the #a+e end, and la#tl , on the in%l"ence o% #i+ila!it , &hich, in the ca#e o% event#, !ed"ce# the %act# to a +"ch #+alle! n"+(e! o% di%%e!ent cla##e# than i# co++onl i+a*ined- It i# eno"*h %o! +e to o%%e! the#e hint# to the con#ide!ation o% + 2"d*e#, and to have #o a!!an*ed that the *ene!al !eade! ha# no need to con#ide! the+ at all-

5- See A''endi08- A"#tin, ist. ii- 8- So +"ch +o!e doe# the i*no!ance o% vice '!o%it the one #o!t than the )no&led*e o% vi!t"e the othe!;- E*oi#+ +"#t not (e con%"#ed &ith #el%7!e#'ect1 %o! the di%%e! (oth in the+#elve# and in thei! e%%ect#- Sel%7!e#'ect i# a nat"!al %eelin* &hich lead# eve! ani+al to loo) to it# o&n '!e#e!vation, and &hich, *"ided in +an ( !ea#on and +odi%ied ( co+'a##ion, c!eate# h"+anit and vi!t"e- E*oi#+ i# a '"!el !elative and %actitio"# %eelin*, &hich a!i#e# in the #tate o% #ociet , lead# each individ"al to +a)e +o!e o% hi+#el% than o% an othe!, ca"#e# all the +"t"al da+a*e +en in%lict one on anothe!, and i# the !eal #o"!ce o% the 9#en#e o% hono"!-9 Thi# (ein* "nde!#tood, I +aintain that, in o"! '!i+itive condition, in the t!"e #tate o% nat"!e, e*oi#+ did not e0i#t, %o! a# each +an !e*a!ded hi+#el% a# the onl o(#e!ve! o% hi# action#, the onl (ein* in the "nive!#e &ho too) an inte!e#t in hi+, and the #ole 2"d*e o% hi# de#e!t#, no %eelin* a!i#in* %!o+ co+'a!i#on# he co"ld not (e led to +a)e co"ld ta)e !oot in hi# #o"l, and %o! the #a+e !ea#on, he co"ld )no& neithe! hat!ed no! the de#i!e %o! !even*e, #ince the#e 'a##ion# can #'!in* onl %!o+ a #en#e o% in2"! 1 and a# it i# the conte+'t o! the intention to h"!t, and not the ha!+ done, &hich con#tit"te# the

8D

in2"! , +en &ho neithe! val"ed no! co+'a!ed the+#elve# co"ld do one anothe! +"ch violence, &hen it #"ited the+, &itho"t %eelin* an #en#e o% in2"! - In a &o!d, each +an, !e*a!din* hi# %ello&# al+o#t a# he !e*a!ded ani+al# o% di%%e!ent #'ecie#, +i*ht #ei$e the '!e o% a &ea)e! o! ield "' hi# o&n to a #t!on*e!, and et con#ide! the#e act# o% violence a# +e!e nat"!al occ"!!ence#, &itho"t the #li*hte#t e+otion o% in#olence o! de#'ite, o! an othe! %eelin* than the 2o o! *!ie% o% #"cce## o! %ail"!e?- Nat"!e avo&# #he *ave the h"+an !ace the #o%te#t hea!t#, &ho *ave the+ tea!#-

THE SECOND PART THE %i!#t +an &ho, havin* enclo#ed a 'iece o% *!o"nd, (etho"*ht hi+#el% o% #a in* %his is mine,
and %o"nd 'eo'le #i+'le eno"*h to (elieve hi+, &a# the !eal %o"nde! o% civil #ociet - F!o+ ho& +an c!i+e#, &a!# and +"!de!#, %!o+ ho& +an ho!!o!# and +i#%o!t"ne# +i*ht not an one have #aved +an)ind, ( '"llin* "' the #ta)e#, o! %illin* "' the ditch, and c! in* to hi# %ello&#, 9Be&a!e o% li#tenin* to thi# i+'o#to!, o" a!e "ndone i% o" once %o!*et that the %!"it# o% the ea!th (elon* to "# all, and the ea!th it#el% to no(od -9 B"t the!e i# *!eat '!o(a(ilit that thin*# had then al!ead co+e to #"ch a 'itch, that the co"ld no lon*e! contin"e a# the &e!e, %o! the idea o% '!o'e!t de'end# on +an '!io! idea#, &hich co"ld onl (e ac."i!ed #"cce##ivel , and cannot have (een %o!+ed all at once in the h"+an +ind- Man)ind +"#t have +ade ve! con#ide!a(le '!o*!e##, and ac."i!ed con#ide!a(le )no&led*e and ind"#t! &hich the +"#t al#o have t!an#+itted and inc!ea#ed %!o+ a*e to a*e, (e%o!e the a!!ived at thi# la#t 'oint o% the #tate o% nat"!e- Let "# then *o %a!the! (ac), and endeavo"! to "ni% "nde! a #in*le 'oint o% vie& that #lo& #"cce##ion o% event# and di#cove!ie# in the +o#t nat"!al o!de!Man@# %i!#t %eelin* &a# that o% hi# o&n e0i#tence, and hi# %i!#t ca!e that o% #el%7'!e#e!vation- The '!od"ce o% the ea!th %"!ni#hed hi+ &ith all he needed, and in#tinct told hi+ ho& to "#e itH"n*e! and othe! a''etite# +ade hi+ at va!io"# ti+e# e0'e!ience va!io"# +ode# o% e0i#tence, and a+on* the#e &a# one &hich "!*ed hi+ to '!o'a*ate hi# #'ecie# G a (lind '!o'en#it that, havin* nothin* to do &ith the hea!t, '!od"ced a +e!el ani+al act- The &ant once *!ati%ied, the t&o #e0e# )ne& each othe! no +o!e, and even the o%%#'!in* &a# nothin* to it# +othe!, a# #oon a# it co"ld do &itho"t he!S"ch &a# the condition o% in%ant +an, the li%e o% an ani+al li+ited at %i!#t to +e!e #en#ation#, and ha!dl '!o%itin* ( the *i%t# nat"!e (e#to&ed on hi+, +"ch le## ca'a(le o% ente!tainin* a tho"*ht o% %o!cin* an thin* %!o+ he!- B"t di%%ic"ltie# #oon '!e#ented the+#elve#, and it (eca+e nece##a! to lea!n ho& to #"!+o"nt the+1 the hei*ht o% the t!ee#, &hich '!evented hi+ %!o+ *athe!in* thei! %!"it#, the co+'etition o% othe! ani+al# de#i!o"# o% the #a+e %!"it#, and the %e!ocit o% tho#e &ho needed the+ %o! thei! o&n '!e#e!vation, all o(li*ed hi+ to a''l hi+#el% to (odil e0e!ci#e#- He had to (e active, #&i%t o% %oot, and vi*o!o"# in %i*ht- Nat"!al &ea'on#, #tone# and #tic)#, &e!e ea#il %o"nd1 he lea!nt to #"!+o"nt the o(#tacle# o% nat"!e, to contend in ca#e o% nece##it &ith othe! ani+al#, and to di#'"te %o! the +ean# o% #"(#i#tence even &ith othe! +en, o! to inde+ni% hi+#el% %o! &hat he &a# %o!ced to *ive "' to a #t!on*e!In '!o'o!tion a# the h"+an !ace *!e& +o!e n"+e!o"#, +en@# ca!e# inc!ea#ed- The di%%e!ence o% #oil#, cli+ate# and #ea#on#, +"#t have int!od"ced #o+e di%%e!ence# into thei! +anne! o% livin*Ba!!en ea!#, lon* and #ha!' &inte!#, #co!chin* #"++e!# &hich 'a!ched the %!"it# o% the ea!th, +"#t have de+anded a ne& ind"#t! - On the #ea#ho!e and the (an)# o% !ive!#, the invented the hoo) and line, and (eca+e %i#he!+en and eate!# o% %i#h- In the %o!e#t# the +ade (o&# and a!!o&#, and (eca+e h"nt#+en and &a!!io!#- In cold co"nt!ie# the clothed the+#elve# &ith the 8C

#)in# o% the (ea#t# the had #lain- The li*htnin*, a volcano, o! #o+e l"c) chance ac."ainted the+ &ith %i!e, a ne& !e#o"!ce a*ain#t the !i*o"!# o% &inte!1 the ne0t lea!ned ho& to '!e#e!ve thi# ele+ent, then ho& to !e'!od"ce it, and %inall ho& to '!e'a!e &ith it the %le#h o% ani+al# &hich (e%o!e the had eaten !a&Thi# !e'eated !elevance o% va!io"# (ein*# to hi+#el%, and one to anothe!, &o"ld nat"!all *ive !i#e in the h"+an +ind to the 'e!ce'tion# o% ce!tain !elation# (et&een the+- Th"# the !elation# &hich &e denote ( the te!+#, *!eat, #+all, #t!on*, &ea), #&i%t, #lo&, %ea!%"l, (old, and the li)e, al+o#t in#en#i(l co+'a!ed at need, +"#t have at len*th '!od"ced in hi+ a )ind o% !e%lection, o! !athe! a +echanical '!"dence, &hich &o"ld indicate to hi+ the '!eca"tion# +o#t nece##a! to hi# #ec"!it The ne& intelli*ence &hich !e#"lted %!o+ thi# develo'+ent inc!ea#ed hi# #"'e!io!it ove! othe! ani+al#, ( +a)in* hi+ #en#i(le o% it- He &o"ld no& endeavo"!, the!e%o!e, to en#na!e the+, &o"ld 'la the+ a tho"#and t!ic)#, and tho"*h +an o% the+ +i*ht #"!'a## hi+ in #&i%tne## o! in #t!en*th, &o"ld in ti+e (eco+e the +a#te! o% #o+e and the #co"!*e o% othe!#- Th"#, the %i!#t ti+e he loo)ed into hi+#el%, he %elt the %i!#t e+otion o% '!ide, and, at a ti+e &hen he #ca!ce )ne& ho& to di#tin*"i#h the di%%e!ent o!de!# o% (ein*#, ( loo)in* "'on hi# #'ecie# a# o% the hi*he#t o!de!, he '!e'a!ed the &a %o! a##"+in* '!e7e+inence a# an individ"alOthe! +en, it i# t!"e, &e!e not then to hi+ &hat the no& a!e to "#, and he had no *!eate! inte!co"!#e &ith the+ than &ith othe! ani+al#, et the &e!e not ne*lected in hi# o(#e!vation#The con%o!+itie#, &hich he &o"ld in ti+e di#cove! (et&een the+, and (et&een hi+#el% and hi# %e+ale, led hi+ to 2"d*e o% othe!# &hich &e!e not then 'e!ce'ti(le, and %indin* that the all (ehaved a# he hi+#el% &o"ld have done in li)e ci!c"+#tance#, he nat"!all in%e!!ed that thei! +anne! o% thin)in* and actin* &a# alto*ethe! in con%o!+it &ith hi# o&n- Thi# i+'o!tant t!"th, once dee'l i+'!e##ed on hi# +ind, +"#t have ind"ced hi+, %!o+ an int"itive %eelin* +o!e ce!tain and +"ch +o!e !a'id than an )ind o% !ea#onin*, to '"!#"e the !"le# o% cond"ct, &hich he had (e#t o(#e!ve to&a!d# the+, %o! hi# o&n #ec"!it and advanta*eTa"*ht ( e0'e!ience that the love o% &ell7(ein* i# the #ole +otive o% h"+an action#, he %o"nd hi+#el% in a 'o#ition to di#tin*"i#h the %e& ca#e#, in &hich +"t"al inte!e#t +i*ht 2"#ti% hi+ in !el in* "'on the a##i#tance o% hi# %ello&#, and al#o the #till %e&e! ca#e# in &hich a con%lict o% inte!e#t# +i*ht *ive ca"#e to #"#'ect the+- In the %o!+e! ca#e, he 2oined in the #a+e he!d &ith the+, o! at +o#t in #o+e )ind o% loo#e a##ociation, that laid no !e#t!aint on it# +e+(e!#, and la#ted no lon*e! than the t!an#ito! occa#ion that %o!+ed it- In the latte! ca#e, eve! one #o"*ht hi# o&n '!ivate advanta*e, eithe! ( o'en %o!ce, i% he tho"*ht hi+#el% #t!on* eno"*h, o! ( add!e## and c"nnin*, i% he %elt hi+#el% the &ea)e!In thi# +anne!, +en +a have in#en#i(l ac."i!ed #o+e *!o## idea# o% +"t"al "nde!ta)in*#, and o% the advanta*e# o% %"l%illin* the+1 that i#, 2"#t #o %a! a# thei! '!e#ent and a''a!ent inte!e#t &a# conce!ned1 %o! the &e!e 'e!%ect #t!an*e!# to %o!e#i*ht, and &e!e #o %a! %!o+ t!o"(lin* the+#elve# a(o"t the di#tant %"t"!e, that the ha!dl tho"*ht o% the +o!!o&- I% a dee! &a# to (e ta)en, eve! one #a& that, in o!de! to #"cceed, he +"#t a(ide %aith%"ll ( hi# 'o#t1 ("t i% a ha!e ha''ened to co+e &ithin the !each o% an one o% the+, it i# not to (e do"(ted that he '"!#"ed it &itho"t #c!"'le, and, havin* #ei$ed hi# '!e , ca!ed ve! little, i% ( #o doin* he ca"#ed hi# co+'anion# to +i## thei!#It i# ea# to "nde!#tand that #"ch inte!co"!#e &o"ld not !e."i!e a lan*"a*e +"ch +o!e !e%ined than that o% !oo)# o! +on)e #, &ho a##ociate to*ethe! %o! +"ch the #a+e '"!'o#e- Ina!tic"late c!ie#, 'lent o% *e#t"!e# and #o+e i+itative #o"nd#, +"#t have (een %o! a lon* ti+e the "nive!#al lan*"a*e, and ( the addition, in eve! co"nt! , o% #o+e conventional a!tic"late #o"nd# =o% 8F

&hich, a# I have al!ead inti+ated, the %i!#t in#tit"tion i# not too ea# to e0'lain> 'a!tic"la! lan*"a*e# &e!e '!od"ced, ("t the#e &e!e !"de and i+'e!%ect, and nea!l #"ch a# a!e no& to (e %o"nd a+on* #o+e #ava*e nation#H"!!ied on ( the !a'idit o% ti+e, ( the a("ndance o% thin*# I have to #a , and ( the al+o#t in#en#i(le '!o*!e## o% thin*# in thei! (e*innin*#, I 'a## ove! in an in#tant a +"ltit"de o% a*e#, %o! the #lo&e! the event# &e!e in thei! #"cce##ion, the +o!e !a'idl +a the (e de#c!i(edThe#e %i!#t advance# ena(led +en to +a)e othe!# &ith *!eate! !a'idit - In '!o'o!tion a# the *!e& enli*htened, the *!e& ind"#t!io"#- The cea#ed to %all a#lee' "nde! the %i!#t t!ee, o! in the %i!#t cave that a%%o!ded the+ #helte!, the invented #eve!al )ind# o% i+'le+ent# o% ha!d and #ha!' #tone#, &hich the "#ed to di* "' the ea!th, and to c"t &ood, the then +ade h"t# o"t o% (!anche#, and a%te!&a!d# lea!nt to 'la#te! the+ ove! &ith +"d and cla - Thi# &a# the e'och o% a %i!#t !evol"tion, &hich e#ta(li#hed and di#tin*"i#hed %a+ilie#, and int!od"ced a )ind o% '!o'e!t , in it#el% the #o"!ce o% a tho"#and ."a!!el# and con%lict#- A#, ho&eve!, the #t!on*e#t &e!e '!o(a(l the %i!#t to ("ild the+#elve# h"t# &hich the %elt the+#elve# a(le to de%end, it +a (e concl"ded that the &ea) %o"nd it +"ch ea#ie! and #a%e! to i+itate, than to atte+'t to di#lod*e the+1 and o% tho#e &ho &e!e once '!ovided &ith h"t#, none co"ld have an ind"ce+ent to a''!o'!iate that o% hi# nei*h(o"!, not indeed #o +"ch (eca"#e it did not (elon* to hi+, a# (eca"#e it co"ld (e o% no "#e, and he co"ld not +a)e hi+#el% +a#te! o% it &itho"t e0'o#in* hi+#el% to a de#'e!ate (attle &ith the %a+il &hich occ"'ied itThe %i!#t e0'an#ion# o% the h"+an hea!t &e!e the e%%ect# o% a novel #it"ation, &hich "nited h"#(and# and &ive#, %athe!# and child!en, "nde! one !oo%- The ha(it o% livin* to*ethe! #oon *ave !i#e to the %ine#t %eelin*# )no&n to h"+anit , con2"*al love and 'ate!nal a%%ection- Eve! %a+il (eca+e a little #ociet , the +o!e "nited (eca"#e li(e!t and !eci'!ocal attach+ent &e!e the onl (ond# o% it# "nion- The #e0e#, &ho#e +anne! o% li%e had (een hithe!to the #a+e, (e*an no& to ado't di%%e!ent &a # o% livin*- The &o+en (eca+e +o!e #edenta! , and acc"#to+ed the+#elve# to +ind the h"t and thei! child!en, &hile the +en &ent a(!oad in #ea!ch o% thei! co++on #"(#i#tence- F!o+ livin* a #o%te! li%e, (oth #e0e# al#o (e*an to lo#e #o+ethin* o% thei! #t!en*th and %e!ocit 1 ("t, i% individ"al# (eca+e to #o+e e0tent le## a(le to enco"nte! &ild (ea#t# #e'a!atel , the %o"nd it, on the othe! hand, ea#ie! to a##e+(le and !e#i#t in co++onThe #i+'licit and #olit"de o% +an@# li%e in thi# ne& condition, the 'a"cit o% hi# &ant#, and the i+'le+ent# he had invented to #ati#% the+, le%t hi+ a *!eat deal o% lei#"!e, &hich he e+'lo ed to %"!ni#h hi+#el% &ith +an convenience# "n)no&n to hi# %athe!#1 and thi# &a# the %i!#t o)e he inadve!tentl i+'o#ed on hi+#el%, and the %i!#t #o"!ce o% the evil# he '!e'a!ed %o! hi# de#cendant#- Fo!, (e#ide# contin"in* th"# to ene!vate (oth (od and +ind, the#e convenience# lo#t &ith "#e al+o#t all thei! 'o&e! to 'lea#e, and even de*ene!ated into !eal need#, till the &ant o% the+ (eca+e %a! +o!e di#a*!eea(le than the 'o##e##ion o% the+ had (een 'lea#ant- Men &o"ld have (een "nha'' at the lo## o% the+, tho"*h the 'o##e##ion did not +a)e the+ ha'' 3e can he!e #ee a little (ette! ho& the "#e o% #'eech (eca+e e#ta(li#hed, and in#en#i(l i+'!oved in each %a+il , and &e +a %o!+ a con2ect"!e al#o conce!nin* the +anne! in &hich va!io"# ca"#e# +a have e0tended and accele!ated the '!o*!e## o% lan*"a*e, ( +a)in* it +o!e and +o!e nece##a! - Flood# o! ea!th."a)e# #"!!o"nded inha(ited di#t!ict# &ith '!eci'ice# o! &ate!#1 !evol"tion# o% the *lo(e to!e o%% 'o!tion# %!o+ the continent, and +ade the+ i#land#- It i# !eadil #een that a+on* +en th"# collected and co+'elled to live to*ethe!, a co++on idio+ +"#t have a!i#en +"ch +o!e ea#il than a+on* tho#e &ho #till &ande!ed th!o"*h the %o!e#t# o% the continent- Th"# it i# ve! 'o##i(le that a%te! thei! %i!#t e##a # in navi*ation the i#lande!# (!o"*ht ove! the "#e o% #'eech to the continent1 and it i# at lea#t ve! '!o(a(le that co++"nitie#

8H

and lan*"a*e# &e!e %i!#t e#ta(li#hed in i#land#, and even ca+e to 'e!%ection the!e (e%o!e the &e!e )no&n on the +ainlandEve! thin* no& (e*in# to chan*e it# a#'ect- Men, &ho have "' to no& (een !ovin* in the &ood#, ( ta)in* to a +o!e #ettled +anne! o% li%e, co+e *!ad"all to*ethe!, %o!+ #e'a!ate (odie#, and at len*th in eve! co"nt! a!i#e# a di#tinct nation, "nited in cha!acte! and +anne!#, not ( !e*"lation# o! la&#, ("t ( "ni%o!+it o% li%e and %ood, and the co++on in%l"ence o% cli+ate6e!+anent nei*h(o"!hood co"ld not %ail to '!od"ce, in ti+e, #o+e connection (et&een di%%e!ent %a+ilie#- A+on* o"n* 'eo'le o% o''o#ite #e0e#, livin* in nei*h(o"!in* h"t#, the t!an#ient co++e!ce !e."i!ed ( nat"!e #oon led, th!o"*h +"t"al inte!co"!#e, to anothe! )ind not le## a*!eea(le, and +o!e 'e!+anent- Men (e*an no& to ta)e the di%%e!ence (et&een o(2ect# into acco"nt, and to +a)e co+'a!i#on#, the ac."i!ed i+'e!ce'ti(l the idea# o% (ea"t and +e!it, &hich #oon *ave !i#e to %eelin*# o% '!e%e!ence- In con#e."ence o% #eein* each othe! o%ten, the co"ld not do &itho"t #eein* each othe! con#tantl - A tende! and 'lea#ant %eelin* in#in"ated it#el% into thei! #o"l#, and the lea#t o''o#ition t"!ned it into an i+'et"o"# %"! 1 &ith love a!o#e 2ealo"# , di#co!d t!i"+'hed, and h"+an (lood &a# #ac!i%iced to the *entle#t o% all 'a##ion#A# idea# and %eelin*# #"cceeded one anothe!, and hea!t and head &e!e (!o"*ht into 'la , +en contin"ed to la a#ide thei! o!i*inal &ildne##, thei! '!ivate connection# (eca+e eve! da +o!e inti+ate a# thei! li+it# e0tended- The acc"#to+ed the+#elve# to a##e+(le (e%o!e thei! h"t# !o"nd a la!*e t!ee, #in*in* and dancin*, the t!"e o%%#'!in* o% love and lei#"!e, (eca+e the a+"#e+ent, o! !athe! the occ"'ation, o% +en and &o+en th"# a##e+(led to*ethe! &ith nothin* el#e to do- Each one (e*an to con#ide! the !e#t, and to &i#h to (e con#ide!ed in t"!n, and th"# a val"e ca+e to (e attached to '"(lic e#tee+- 3hoeve! #an* o! danced (e#t, &hoeve! &a# the hand#o+e#t, the #t!on*e#t, the +o#t de0te!o"#, o! the +o#t elo."ent, ca+e to (e o% +o#t con#ide!ation, and thi# &a# the %i!#t #te' to&a!d# ine."alit , and at the #a+e ti+e to&a!d# viceF!o+ the#e %i!#t di#tinction# a!o#e on the one #ide vanit and conte+'t and on the othe! #ha+e and env 1 and the %e!+entation ca"#ed ( the#e ne& leaven# ended ( '!od"cin* co+(ination# %atal to innocence and ha''ine##A# #oon a# +en (e*an to val"e one anothe!, and the idea o% con#ide!ation had *ot a %ootin* in the +ind, eve! one '"t in hi# clai+ to it, and it (eca+e i+'o##i(le to !e%"#e it to an &ith i+'"nit Hence a!o#e the %i!#t o(li*ation# o% civilit even a+on* #ava*e#, and eve! intended in2"! (eca+e an a%%!ont, (eca"#e, (e#ide# the h"!t &hich +i*ht !e#"lt %!o+ it, the 'a!t in2"!ed &a# ce!tain to %ind in it a conte+'t %o! hi# 'e!#on, &hich &a# o%ten +o!e in#"''o!ta(le than the h"!t it#el%Th"#, a# eve! +an '"ni#hed the conte+'t #ho&n hi+ ( othe!#, in '!o'o!tion to hi# o'inion o% hi+#el%, !even*e (eca+e te!!i(le, and +en (lood and c!"el- Thi# i# '!eci#el the #tate !eached ( +o#t o% the #ava*e nation# )no&n to "#1 and it i# %o! &ant o% havin* +ade a '!o'e! di#tinction in o"! idea#, and #ee ho& ve! %a! the al!ead a!e %!o+ the #tate o% nat"!e, that #o +an &!ite!# have ha#til concl"ded that +an i# nat"!all c!"el, and !e."i!e# civil in#tit"tion# to +a)e hi+ +o!e +ild, &he!ea# nothin* i# +o!e *entle than +an in hi# '!i+itive #tate, a# he i# 'laced ( nat"!e at an e."al di#tance %!o+ the #t"'idit o% (!"te#, and the %atal in*en"it o% civili#ed +anE."all con%ined ( in#tinct and !ea#on to the #ole ca!e o% *"a!din* hi+#el% a*ain#t the +i#chie%# &hich th!eaten hi+, he i# !e#t!ained ( nat"!al co+'a##ion %!o+ doin* an in2"! to othe!#, and i# not led to do #"ch a thin* even in !et"!n %o! in2"!ie# !eceived- Fo!, acco!din* to the a0io+ o% the &i#e Loc)e, %here can be no in&ury, where there is no propertyB"t it +"#t (e !e+a!)ed that the #ociet th"# %o!+ed, and the !elation# th"# e#ta(li#hed a+on* +en, !e."i!ed o% the+ ."alitie# di%%e!ent %!o+ tho#e &hich the 'o##e##ed %!o+ thei! '!i+itive con#tit"tion- Mo!alit (e*an to a''ea! in h"+an action#, and eve! one, (e%o!e the in#tit"tion o% ;I

la&, &a# the onl 2"d*e and aven*e! o% the in2"!ie# done hi+, #o that the *oodne## &hich &a# #"ita(le in the '"!e #tate o% nat"!e &a# no lon*e! '!o'e! in the ne&7(o!n #tate o% #ociet 6"ni#h+ent# had to (e +ade +o!e #eve!e, a# o''o!t"nitie# o% o%%endin* (eca+e +o!e %!e."ent, and the d!ead o% ven*eance had to ta)e the 'lace o% the !i*o"! o% the la&- Th"#, tho"*h +en had (eco+e le## 'atient, and thei! nat"!al co+'a##ion had al!ead #"%%e!ed #o+e di+in"tion, thi# 'e!iod o% e0'an#ion o% the h"+an %ac"ltie#, )ee'in* a 2"#t +ean (et&een the indolence o% the '!i+itive #tate and the 'et"lant activit o% o"! e*oi#+, +"#t have (een the ha''ie#t and +o#t #ta(le o% e'och#- The +o!e &e !e%lect on it, the +o!e &e #hall %ind that thi# #tate &a# the lea#t #"(2ect to !evol"tion#, and alto*ethe! the ve! (e#t +an co"ld e0'e!ience, #o that he can have de'a!ted %!o+ it onl th!o"*h #o+e %atal accident, &hich, %o! the '"(lic *ood, #ho"ld neve! have ha''ened- The e0a+'le o% #ava*e#, +o#t o% &ho+ have (een %o"nd in thi# #tate, #ee+# to '!ove that +en &e!e +eant to !e+ain in it, that it i# the !eal o"th o% the &o!ld, and that all #"(#e."ent advance# have (een a''a!entl #o +an #te'# to&a!d# the 'e!%ection o% the individ"al, ("t in !ealit to&a!d# the dec!e'it"de o% the #'ecie#So lon* a# +en !e+ained content &ith thei! !"#tic h"t#, #o lon* a# the &e!e #ati#%ied &ith clothe# +ade o% the #)in# o% ani+al# and #e&n to*ethe! &ith tho!n# and %i#h7(one#, ado!ned the+#elve# onl &ith %eathe!# and #hell#, and contin"ed to 'aint thei! (odie# di%%e!ent colo"!#, to i+'!ove and (ea"ti% thei! (o&# and a!!o&# and to +a)e &ith #ha!'7ed*ed #tone# %i#hin* (oat# o! cl"+# +"#ical in#t!"+ent#, in a &o!d, #o lon* a# the "nde!too) onl &hat a #in*le 'e!#on co"ld acco+'li#h, and con%ined the+#elve# to #"ch a!t# a# did not !e."i!e the 2oint la(o"! o% #eve!al hand#, the lived %!ee, health , hone#t and ha'' live#, #o lon* a# thei! nat"!e allo&ed, and a# the contin"ed to en2o the 'lea#"!e# o% +"t"al and inde'endent inte!co"!#e- B"t %!o+ the +o+ent one +an (e*an to #tand in need o% the hel' o% anothe!, %!o+ the +o+ent it a''ea!ed advanta*eo"# to an one +an to have eno"*h '!ovi#ion# %o! t&o, e."alit di#a''ea!ed, '!o'e!t &a# int!od"ced, &o!) (eca+e indi#'en#a(le, and va#t %o!e#t# (eca+e #+ilin* %ield#, &hich +an had to &ate! &ith the #&eat o% hi# (!o&, and &he!e #lave! and +i#e! &e!e #oon #een to *e!+inate and *!o& "' &ith the c!o'#Metall"!* and a*!ic"lt"!e &e!e the t&o a!t# &hich '!od"ced thi# *!eat !evol"tion- The 'oet# tell "# it &a# *old and #ilve!, ("t, %o! the 'hilo#o'he!#, it &a# i!on and co!n, &hich %i!#t civili#ed +en, and !"ined h"+anit - Th"# (oth &e!e "n)no&n to the #ava*e# o% A+e!ica, &ho %o! that !ea#on a!e #till #ava*e1 the othe! nation# al#o #ee+ to have contin"ed in a #tate o% (a!(a!i#+ &hile the '!acti#ed onl one o% the#e a!t#- One o% the (e#t !ea#on#, 'e!ha'#, &h E"!o'e ha# (een, i% not lon*e!, at lea#t +o!e con#tantl and hi*hl civili#ed than the !e#t o% the &o!ld, i# that it i# at once the +o#t a("ndant in i!on and the +o#t %e!tile in co!nIt i# di%%ic"lt to con2ect"!e ho& +en %i!#t ca+e to )no& and "#e i!on, %o! it i# i+'o##i(le to #"''o#e the &o"ld o% the+#elve# thin) o% di**in* the o!e o"t o% the +ine, and '!e'a!in* it %o! #+eltin*, (e%o!e the )ne& &hat &o"ld (e the !e#"lt- On the othe! hand, &e have the le## !ea#on to #"''o#e thi# di#cove! the e%%ect o% an accidental %i!e, a# +ine# a!e onl %o!+ed in (a!!en 'lace#, (a!e o% t!ee# and 'lant#, #o that it loo)# a# i% nat"!e had ta)en 'ain# to )ee' that %atal #ec!et %!o+ "#- The!e !e+ain#, the!e%o!e, onl the e0t!ao!dina! accident o% #o+e volcano &hich, ( e2ectin* +etallic #"(#tance# al!ead in %"#ion, #"**e#ted to the #'ectato!# the idea o% i+itatin* the nat"!al o'e!ation- And &e +"#t %"!the! conceive the+ a# 'o##e##ed o% "nco++on co"!a*e and %o!e#i*ht, to "nde!ta)e #o la(o!io"# a &o!), &ith #o di#tant a '!o#'ect o% d!a&in* advanta*e %!o+ it, et the#e ."alitie# a!e "nited onl in +ind# +o!e advanced than &e can #"''o#e tho#e o% the#e %i!#t di#cove!e!# to have (een3ith !e*a!d to a*!ic"lt"!e, the '!inci'le# o% it &e!e )no&n lon* (e%o!e the &e!e '"t in '!actice, and it i# indeed ha!dl 'o##i(le that +en, con#tantl e+'lo ed in d!a&in* thei! #"(#i#tence %!o+ 'lant# and t!ee#, #ho"ld not !eadil ac."i!e a )no&led*e o% the +ean# +ade "#e o% ( nat"!e %o! ;5

the '!o'a*ation o% ve*eta(le#- It &a# in all '!o(a(ilit ve! lon*, ho&eve!, (e%o!e thei! ind"#t! too) that t"!n, eithe! (eca"#e t!ee#, &hich to*ethe! &ith h"ntin* and %i#hin* a%%o!ded the+ %ood, did not !e."i!e thei! attention, o! (eca"#e the &e!e i*no!ant o% the "#e o% co!n, o! &itho"t in#t!"+ent# to c"ltivate it, o! (eca"#e the lac)ed %o!e#i*ht to %"t"!e need#, o! la#til , (eca"#e the &e!e &itho"t +ean# o% '!eventin* othe!# %!o+ !o((in* the+ o% the %!"it o% thei! la(o"!3hen the *!e& +o!e ind"#t!io"#, it i# nat"!al to (elieve that the (e*an, &ith the hel' o% #ha!' #tone# and 'ointed #tic)#, to c"ltivate a %e& ve*eta(le# o! !oot# a!o"nd thei! h"t#, tho"*h it &a# lon* (e%o!e the )ne& ho& to '!e'a!e co!n, o! &e!e '!ovided &ith the i+'le+ent# nece##a! %o! !ai#in* it in an la!*e ."antit , not to +ention ho& e##ential it i#, %o! h"#(and! , to con#ent to i++ediate lo##, in o!de! to !ea' a %"t"!e *ain G a '!eca"tion ve! %o!ei*n to the t"!n o% a #ava*e@# +ind, %o!, a# I have #aid, he ha!dl %o!e#ee# in the +o!nin* &hat he &ill need at ni*htThe invention o% the othe! a!t# +"#t the!e%o!e have (een nece##a! to co+'el +an)ind to a''l the+#elve# to a*!ic"lt"!e- No #oone! &e!e a!ti%ice!# &anted to #+elt and %o!*e i!on, than othe!# &e!e !e."i!ed to +aintain the+, the +o!e hand# that &e!e e+'lo ed in +an"%act"!e#, the %e&e! &e!e le%t to '!ovide %o! the co++on #"(#i#tence, tho"*h the n"+(e! o% +o"th# to (e %"!ni#hed &ith %ood !e+ained the #a+e1 and a# #o+e !e."i!ed co++oditie# in e0chan*e %o! thei! i!on, the !e#t at len*th di#cove!ed the +ethod o% +a)in* i!on #e!ve %o! the +"lti'lication o% co++oditie#B thi# +ean# the a!t# o% h"#(and! and a*!ic"lt"!e &e!e e#ta(li#hed on the one hand, and the a!t o% &o!)in* +etal# and +"lti'l in* thei! "#e# on the othe!The c"ltivation o% the ea!th nece##a!il (!o"*ht a(o"t it# di#t!i("tion, and '!o'e!t , once !eco*ni#ed, *ave !i#e to the %i!#t !"le# o% 2"#tice, %o!, to #ec"!e each +an hi# o&n, it had to (e 'o##i(le %o! each to have #o+ethin*- Be#ide#, a# +en (e*an to loo) %o!&a!d to the %"t"!e, and all had #o+ethin* to lo#e, eve! one had !ea#on to a''!ehend that !e'!i#al# &o"ld %ollo& an in2"! he +i*ht do to anothe!- Thi# o!i*in i# #o +"ch the +o!e nat"!al, a# it i# i+'o##i(le to conceive ho& '!o'e!t can co+e %!o+ an thin* ("t +an"al la(o"!1 %o! &hat el#e can a +an add to thin*# &hich he doe# not o!i*inall c!eate, #o a# to +a)e the+ hi# o&n '!o'e!t / It i# the h"#(and+an@# la(o"! alone that, *ivin* hi+ a title to the '!od"ce o% the *!o"nd he ha# tilled, *ive# hi+ a clai+ al#o to the land it#el%, at lea#t till ha!ve#t, and #o, %!o+ ea! to ea!, a con#tant 'o##e##ion &hich i# ea#il t!an#%o!+ed into '!o'e!t - 3hen the ancient#, #a # G!oti"#, *ave to Ce!e# the title o% Le*i#lat!i0, and to a %e#tival cele(!ated in he! hono"! the na+e o% The#+o'ho!ia, the +eant ( that that the di#t!i("tion o% land# had '!od"ced a ne& )ind o% !i*ht1 that i# to #a , the !i*ht o% '!o'e!t , &hich i# di%%e!ent %!o+ the !i*ht ded"ci(le %!o+ the la& o% nat"!eIn thi# #tate o% a%%ai!#, e."alit +i*ht have (een #"#tained, had the talent# o% individ"al# (een e."al, and had, %o! e0a+'le, the "#e o% i!on and the con#"+'tion o% co++oditie# al&a # e0actl (alanced each othe!, ("t, a# the!e &a# nothin* to '!e#e!ve thi# (alance, it &a# #oon di#t"!(ed, the #t!on*e#t did +o#t &o!), the +o#t #)il%"l t"!ned hi# la(o"! to (e#t acco"nt, the +o#t in*enio"# devi#ed +ethod# o% di+ini#hin* hi# la(o"!1 the h"#(and+an &anted +o!e i!on, o! the #+ith +o!e co!n, and, &hile (oth la(o"!ed e."all , the one *ained a *!eat deal ( hi# &o!), &hile the othe! co"ld ha!dl #"''o!t hi+#el%- Th"# nat"!al ine."alit "n%old# it#el% in#en#i(l &ith that o% co+(ination, and the di%%e!ence (et&een +en, develo'ed ( thei! di%%e!ent ci!c"+#tance#, (eco+e# +o!e #en#i(le and 'e!+anent in it# e%%ect#, and (e*in# to have an in%l"ence, in the #a+e '!o'o!tion, ove! the lot o% individ"al#Matte!# once at thi# 'itch, it i# ea# to i+a*ine the !e#t- I #hall not detain the !eade! &ith a de#c!i'tion o% the #"cce##ive invention o% othe! a!t#, the develo'+ent o% lan*"a*e, the t!ial and "tili#ation o% talent#, the ine."alit o% %o!t"ne#, the "#e and a("#e o% !iche#, and all the detail# connected &ith the+ &hich the !eade! can ea#il #"''l %o! hi+#el%- I #hall con%ine + #el% to a *lance at +an)ind in thi# ne& #it"ation;8

Behold then all h"+an %ac"ltie# develo'ed, +e+o! and i+a*ination in %"ll 'la , e*oi#+ inte!e#ted, !ea#on active, and the +ind al+o#t at the hi*he#t 'oint o% it# 'e!%ection- Behold all the nat"!al ."alitie# in action, the !an) and condition o% eve! +an a##i*ned hi+, not +e!el hi# #ha!e o% '!o'e!t and hi# 'o&e! to #e!ve o! in2"!e othe!#, ("t al#o hi# &it, (ea"t , #t!en*th o! #)ill, +e!it o! talent#1 and the#e (ein* the onl ."alitie# ca'a(le o% co++andin* !e#'ect, it #oon (eca+e nece##a! to 'o##e## o! to a%%ect the+It no& (eca+e the inte!e#t o% +en to a''ea! &hat the !eall &e!e not- To (e and to #ee+ (eca+e t&o totall di%%e!ent thin*#, and %!o+ thi# di#tinction #'!an* in#olent 'o+' and cheatin* t!ic)e! , &ith all the n"+e!o"# vice# that *o in thei! t!ain- On the othe! hand, %!ee and inde'endent a# +en &e!e (e%o!e, the &e!e no&, in con#e."ence o% a +"lti'licit o% ne& &ant#, (!o"*ht into #"(2ection, a# it &e!e, to all nat"!e, and 'a!tic"la!l to one anothe!, and each (eca+e in #o+e de*!ee a #lave even in (eco+in* the +a#te! o% othe! +en1 i% !ich, the #tood in need o% the #e!vice# o% othe!#, i% 'oo!, o% thei! a##i#tance, and even a +iddle condition did not ena(le the+ to do &itho"t one anothe!- Man +"#t no&, the!e%o!e, have (een 'e!'et"all e+'lo ed in *ettin* othe!# to inte!e#t the+#elve# in hi# lot, and in +a)in* the+, a''a!entl at lea#t, i% not !eall , %ind thei! advanta*e in '!o+otin* hi# o&n- Th"# he +"#t have (een #l and a!t%"l in hi# (ehavio"! to #o+e, and i+'e!io"# and c!"el to othe!#, (ein* "nde! a )ind o% nece##it to ill7"#e all the 'e!#on# o% &ho+ he #tood in need, &hen he co"ld not %!i*hten the+ into co+'liance, and did not 2"d*e it hi# inte!e#t to (e "#e%"l to the+- In#atia(le a+(ition, the thi!#t o% !ai#in* thei! !e#'ective %o!t"ne#, not #o +"ch %!o+ !eal &ant a# %!o+ the de#i!e to #"!'a## othe!#, in#'i!ed all +en &ith a vile '!o'en#it to in2"!e one anothe!, and &ith a #ec!et 2ealo"# , &hich i# the +o!e dan*e!o"#, a# it '"t# on the +a#) o% (enevolence, to ca!! it# 'oint &ith *!eate! #ec"!it - In a &o!d, the!e a!o#e !ival! and co+'etition on the one hand, and con%lictin* inte!e#t# on the othe!, to*ethe! &ith a #ec!et de#i!e on (oth o% '!o%itin* at the e0'en#e o% othe!#- All the#e evil# &e!e the %i!#t e%%ect# o% '!o'e!t , and the in#e'a!a(le attendant# o% *!o&in* ine."alit Be%o!e the invention o% #i*n# to !e'!e#ent !iche#, &ealth co"ld ha!dl con#i#t in an thin* ("t land# and cattle, the onl !eal 'o##e##ion# +en can have- B"t, &hen inhe!itance# #o inc!ea#ed in n"+(e! and e0tent a# to occ"' the &hole o% the land, and to (o!de! on one anothe!, one +an co"ld a**!andi#e hi+#el% onl at the e0'en#e o% anothe!, at the #a+e ti+e the #"'e!n"+e!a!ie#, &ho had (een too &ea) o! too indolent to +a)e #"ch ac."i#ition#, and had *!o&n 'oo! &itho"t #"#tainin* an lo##, (eca"#e, &hile the #a& eve! thin* chan*e a!o"nd the+, the !e+ained #till the #a+e, &e!e o(li*ed to !eceive thei! #"(#i#tence, o! #teal it, %!o+ the !ich, and thi# #oon (!ed, acco!din* to thei! di%%e!ent cha!acte!#, do+inion and #lave! , o! violence and !a'ine- The &ealth , on thei! 'a!t, had no #oone! (e*"n to ta#te the 'lea#"!e o% co++and, than the di#dained all othe!#, and, "#in* thei! old #lave# to ac."i!e ne&, tho"*ht o% nothin* ("t #"(d"in* and en#lavin* thei! nei*h(o"!#, li)e !aveno"# &olve#, &hich, havin* once ta#ted h"+an %le#h, de#'i#e eve! othe! %ood and thence%o!th #ee) onl +en to devo"!Th"#, a# the +o#t 'o&e!%"l o! the +o#t +i#e!a(le con#ide!ed thei! +i*ht o! +i#e! a# a )ind o% !i*ht to the 'o##e##ion# o% othe!#, e."ivalent, in thei! o'inion, to that o% '!o'e!t , the de#t!"ction o% e."alit &a# attended ( the +o#t te!!i(le di#o!de!#- U#"!'ation# ( the !ich, !o((e! ( the 'oo!, and the "n(!idled 'a##ion# o% (oth, #"''!e##ed the c!ie# o% nat"!al co+'a##ion and the #till %ee(le voice o% 2"#tice, and %illed +en &ith ava!ice, a+(ition and vice- Bet&een the title o% the #t!on*e#t and that o% the %i!#t occ"'ie!, the!e a!o#e 'e!'et"al con%lict#, &hich neve! ended ("t in (attle# and (lood#hed- The ne&7(o!n #tate o% #ociet th"# *ave !i#e to a ho!!i(le #tate o% &a!, +en th"# ha!a##ed and de'!aved &e!e no lon*e! ca'a(le o% !et!acin* thei! #te'# o! !eno"ncin* the %atal ac."i#ition# the had +ade, ("t, la(o"!in* ( the a("#e o% the %ac"ltie# &hich do the+ hono"!, +e!el to thei! o&n con%"#ion, (!o"*ht the+#elve# to the (!in) o% !"in-

;;

Attonitus novitate mali, divesque miserque, 'ffugere optat opes( et qu) modo voverat odit.% It i# i+'o##i(le that +en #ho"ld not at len*th have !e%lected on #o &!etched a #it"ation, and on the cala+itie# that ove!&hel+ed the+- The !ich, in 'a!tic"la!, +"#t have %elt ho& +"ch the #"%%e!ed ( a con#tant #tate o% &a!, o% &hich the (o!e all the e0'en#e, and in &hich, tho"*h all !i#)ed thei! live#, the alone !i#)ed thei! '!o'e!t - Be#ide#, ho&eve! #'ecio"#l the +i*ht di#*"i#e thei! "#"!'ation#, the )ne& that the &e!e %o"nded on '!eca!io"# and %al#e title#, #o that, i% othe!# too) %!o+ the+ ( %o!ce &hat the the+#elve# had *ained ( %o!ce, the &o"ld have no !ea#on to co+'lain- Even tho#e &ho had (een en!iched ( thei! o&n ind"#t! , co"ld ha!dl (a#e thei! '!o'!ieto!#hi' on (ette! clai+#- It &a# in vain to !e'eat, 9I ("ilt thi# &ell, I *ained thi# #'ot ( + ind"#t! -9 3ho *ave o" o"! #tandin*, it +i*ht (e an#&e!ed, and &hat !i*ht have o" to de+and 'a +ent o% "# %o! doin* &hat &e neve! a#)ed o" to do/ Do o" not )no& that n"+(e!# o% o"! %ello&7c!eat"!e# a!e #ta!vin*, %o! &ant o% &hat o" have too +"ch o%/ :o" o"*ht to have had the e0'!e## and "nive!#al con#ent o% +an)ind, (e%o!e a''!o'!iatin* +o!e o% the co++on #"(#i#tence than o" needed %o! o"! o&n +aintenance- De#tit"te o% valid !ea#on# to 2"#ti% and #"%%icient #t!en*th to de%end hi+#el%, a(le to c!"#h individ"al# &ith ea#e, ("t ea#il c!"#hed hi+#el% ( a t!oo' o% (andit#, one a*ain#t all, and inca'a(le, on acco"nt o% +"t"al 2ealo"# , o% 2oinin* &ith hi# e."al# a*ain#t n"+e!o"# ene+ie# "nited ( the co++on ho'e o% 'l"nde!, the !ich +an, th"# "!*ed ( nece##it , conceived at len*th the '!o%o"nde#t 'lan that eve! ente!ed the +ind o% +an1 thi# &a# to e+'lo in hi# %avo"! the %o!ce# o% tho#e &ho attac)ed hi+, to +a)e allie# o% hi# adve!#a!ie#, to in#'i!e the+ &ith di%%e!ent +a0i+#, and to *ive the+ othe! in#tit"tion# a# %avo"!a(le to hi+#el% a# the la& o% nat"!e &a# "n%avo"!a(le3ith thi# vie&, a%te! havin* !e'!e#ented to hi# nei*h(o"!# the ho!!o! o% a #it"ation &hich a!+ed eve! +an a*ain#t the !e#t, and +ade thei! 'o##e##ion# a# ("!den#o+e to the+ a# thei! &ant#, and in &hich no #a%et co"ld (e e0'ected eithe! in !iche# o! in 'ove!t , he !eadil devi#ed 'la"#i(le a!*"+ent# to +a)e the+ clo#e &ith hi# de#i*n- 9Let "# 2oin,9 #aid he, 9to *"a!d the &ea) %!o+ o''!e##ion, to !e#t!ain the a+(itio"#, and #ec"!e to eve! +an the 'o##e##ion o% &hat (elon*# to hi+1 let "# in#tit"te !"le# o% 2"#tice and 'eace, to &hich all &itho"t e0ce'tion +a (e o(li*ed to con%o!+, !"le# that +a in #o+e +ea#"!e +a)e a+end# %o! the ca'!ice# o% %o!t"ne, ( #"(2ectin* e."all the 'o&e!%"l and the &ea) to the o(#e!vance o% !eci'!ocal o(li*ation#- Let "#, in a &o!d, in#tead o% t"!nin* o"! %o!ce# a*ain#t o"!#elve#, collect the+ in a #"'!e+e 'o&e! &hich +a *ove!n "# ( &i#e la&#, '!otect and de%end all the +e+(e!# o% the a##ociation, !e'"l#e thei! co++on ene+ie#, and +aintain ete!nal ha!+on a+on* "#-9 Fa! %e&e! &o!d# to thi# '"!'o#e &o"ld have (een eno"*h to i+'o#e on +en #o (a!(a!o"# and ea#il #ed"ced, e#'eciall a# the had too +an di#'"te# a+on* the+#elve# to do &itho"t a!(it!ato!#, and too +"ch a+(ition and ava!ice to *o lon* &itho"t +a#te!#- All !an headlon* to thei! chain#, in ho'e# o% #ec"!in* thei! li(e!t , %o! the had 2"#t &it eno"*h to 'e!ceive the advanta*e# o% 'olitical in#tit"tion#, &itho"t e0'e!ience eno"*h to ena(le the+ to %o!e#ee the dan*e!#- The +o#t ca'a(le o% %o!e#eein* the dan*e!# &e!e the ve! 'e!#on# &ho e0'ected to (ene%it ( the+, and even the +o#t '!"dent 2"d*ed it not ine0'edient to #ac!i%ice one 'a!t o% thei! %!eedo+ to en#"!e the !e#t, a# a &o"nded +an ha# hi# a!+ c"t o%% to #ave the !e#t o% hi# (od S"ch &a#, o! +a &ell have (een, the o!i*in o% #ociet and la&, &hich (o"nd ne& %ette!# on the 'oo!, and *ave ne& 'o&e!# to the !ich, &hich i!!et!ieva(l de#t!o ed nat"!al li(e!t , ete!nall %i0ed the la& o% '!o'e!t and ine."alit , conve!ted cleve! "#"!'ation into "nalte!a(le !i*ht, and, %o! the advanta*e o% a %e& a+(itio"# individ"al#, #"(2ected all +an)ind to 'e!'et"al la(o"!, #lave! and &!etchedne##- It i# ea# to #ee ho& the e#ta(li#h+ent o% one co++"nit +ade that o% all the !e#t nece##a! , and ho&, in o!de! to +a)e head a*ain#t "nited %o!ce#, the !e#t o% +an)ind had to "nite in t"!n- Societie# #oon +"lti'lied and #'!ead ove! the %ace o% the ea!th, till ha!dl a ;?

co!ne! o% the &o!ld &a# le%t in &hich a +an co"ld e#ca'e the o)e, and &ithd!a& hi# head %!o+ (eneath the #&o!d &hich he #a& 'e!'et"all han*in* ove! hi+ ( a th!ead- Civil !i*ht havin* th"# (eco+e the co++on !"le a+on* the +e+(e!# o% each co++"nit , the la& o% nat"!e +aintained it# 'lace onl (et&een di%%e!ent co++"nitie#, &he!e, "nde! the na+e o% the !i*ht o% nation#, it &a# ."ali%ied ( ce!tain tacit convention#, in o!de! to +a)e co++e!ce '!actica(le, and #e!ve a# a #"(#tit"te %o! nat"!al co+'a##ion, &hich lo#t, &hen a''lied to #ocietie#, al+o#t all the in%l"ence it had ove! individ"al#, and #"!vived no lon*e! e0ce't in #o+e *!eat co#+o'olitan #'i!it#, &ho, (!ea)in* do&n the i+a*ina! (a!!ie!# that #e'a!ate di%%e!ent 'eo'le#, %ollo& the e0a+'le o% o"! Sove!ei*n C!eato!, and incl"de the &hole h"+an !ace in thei! (enevolenceB"t (odie# 'olitic, !e+ainin* th"# in a #tate o% nat"!e a+on* the+#elve#, '!e#entl e0'e!ienced the inconvenience# &hich had o(li*ed individ"al# to %o!#a)e it, %o! thi# #tate (eca+e #till +o!e %atal to the#e *!eat (odie# than it had (een to the individ"al# o% &ho+ the &e!e co+'o#edHence a!o#e national &a!#, (attle#, +"!de!#, and !e'!i#al#, &hich #hoc) nat"!e and o"t!a*e !ea#on, to*ethe! &ith all tho#e ho!!i(le '!e2"dice# &hich cla## a+on* the vi!t"e# the hono"! o% #heddin* h"+an (lood- The +o#t di#tin*"i#hed +en hence lea!ned to con#ide! c"ttin* each othe!@# th!oat# a d"t , at len*th +en +a##ac!ed thei! %ello&7c!eat"!e# ( tho"#and# &itho"t #o +"ch a# )no&in* &h , and co++itted +o!e +"!de!# in a #in*le da @# %i*htin*, and +o!e violent o"t!a*e# in the #ac) o% a #in*le to&n, than &e!e co++itted in the #tate o% nat"!e d"!in* &hole a*e# ove! the &hole ea!th- S"ch &e!e the %i!#t e%%ect# &hich &e can #ee to have %ollo&ed the divi#ion o% +an)ind into di%%e!ent co++"nitie#- B"t let "# !et"!n to thei! in#tit"tion#I )no& that #o+e &!ite!# have *iven othe! e0'lanation# o% the o!i*in o% 'olitical #ocietie#, #"ch a# the con."e#t o% the 'o&e!%"l, o! the a##ociation o% the &ea)- It i#, indeed, indi%%e!ent to + a!*"+ent &hich o% the#e ca"#e# &e choo#e- That &hich I have 2"#t laid do&n, ho&eve!, a''ea!# to +e the +o#t nat"!al %o! the %ollo&in* !ea#on#- Fi!#t1 (eca"#e, in the %i!#t ca#e, the !i*ht o% con."e#t, (ein* no !i*ht in it#el%, co"ld not #e!ve a# a %o"ndation on &hich to ("ild an othe!, the victo! and the van."i#hed 'eo'le #till !e+ained &ith !e#'ect to each othe! in the #tate o% &a!, "nle## the van."i#hed, !e#to!ed to the %"ll 'o##e##ion o% thei! li(e!t , vol"nta!il +ade choice o% the victo! %o! thei! chie%- Fo! till then, &hateve! ca'it"lation +a have (een +ade (ein* %o"nded on violence, and the!e%o!e ipso facto void, the!e co"ld not have (een on thi# h 'othe#i# eithe! a !eal #ociet o! (od 'olitic, o! an la& othe! than that o% the #t!on*e#t- Secondl 1 (eca"#e the &o!d# strong and wea* a!e, in the #econd ca#e, a+(i*"o"#, %o! d"!in* the inte!val (et&een the e#ta(li#h+ent o% a !i*ht o% '!o'e!t , o! '!io! occ"'anc , and that o% 'olitical *ove!n+ent, the +eanin* o% the#e &o!d# i# (ette! e0'!e##ed ( the te!+# rich and poor1 (eca"#e, in %act, (e%o!e the in#tit"tion o% la&#, +en had no othe! &a o% !ed"cin* thei! e."al# to #"(+i##ion, than ( attac)in* thei! *ood#, o! +a)in* #o+e o% thei! o&n ove! to the+- Thi!dl 1 (eca"#e, a# the 'oo! had nothin* ("t thei! %!eedo+ to lo#e, it &o"ld have (een in the hi*he#t de*!ee a(#"!d %o! the+ to !e#i*n vol"nta!il the onl *ood the #till en2o ed, &itho"t *ettin* an thin* in e0chan*e1 &he!ea# the !ich havin* %eelin*#, i% I +a #o e0'!e## + #el%, in eve! 'a!t o% thei! 'o##e##ion#, it &a# +"ch ea#ie! to ha!+ the+, and the!e%o!e +o!e nece##a! %o! the+ to ta)e '!eca"tion# a*ain#t it, and, in #ho!t, (eca"#e it i# +o!e !ea#ona(le to #"''o#e a thin* to have (een invented ( tho#e to &ho+ it &o"ld (e o% #e!vice, than ( tho#e &ho+ it +"#t have ha!+edGove!n+ent had, in it# in%anc , no !e*"la! and con#tant %o!+- The &ant o% e0'e!ience and 'hilo#o'h '!evented +en %!o+ #eein* an ("t '!e#ent inconvenience#, and the tho"*ht o% '!ovidin* a*ain#t othe!# onl a# the '!e#ented the+#elve#- In #'ite o% the endeavo"!# o% the &i#e#t le*i#lato!#, the 'olitical #tate !e+ained i+'e!%ect, (eca"#e it &a# little +o!e than the &o!) o% chance, and, a# it had (e*"n ill, tho"*h ti+e !evealed it# de%ect# and #"**e#ted !e+edie#, the o!i*inal %a"lt# &e!e neve! !e'ai!ed- It &a# contin"all (ein* 'atched "', &hen the %i!#t ta#) #ho"ld have (een to *et the #ite clea!ed and all the old +ate!ial# !e+oved, a# &a# done ( L c"!*"# at S'a!ta, i% a #ta(le and la#tin* edi%ice &a# to (e e!ected- Societ con#i#ted at %i!#t ;4

+e!el o% a %e& *ene!al convention#, &hich eve! +e+(e! (o"nd hi+#el% to o(#e!ve, and %o! the 'e!%o!+ance o% covenant# the &hole (od &ent #ec"!it to each individ"al- E0'e!ience onl co"ld #ho& the &ea)ne## o% #"ch a con#tit"tion, and ho& ea#il it +i*ht (e in%!in*ed &ith i+'"nit , %!o+ the di%%ic"lt o% convictin* +en o% %a"lt#, &he!e the '"(lic alone &a# to (e &itne## and 2"d*e1 the la&# co"ld not ("t (e el"ded in +an &a #, di#o!de!# and inconvenience# co"ld not ("t +"lti'l contin"all , till it (eca+e nece##a! to co++it the dan*e!o"# t!"#t o% '"(lic a"tho!it to '!ivate 'e!#on#, and the ca!e o% en%o!cin* o(edience to the deli(e!ation# o% the 'eo'le to the +a*i#t!ate- Fo! to #a that chie%# &e!e cho#en (e%o!e the con%ede!ac &a# %o!+ed, and that the ad+ini#t!ato!# o% the la&# &e!e the!e (e%o!e the la&# the+#elve#, i# too a(#"!d a #"''o#ition to con#ide! #e!io"#l It &o"ld (e a# "n!ea#ona(le to #"''o#e that +en at %i!#t th!e& the+#elve# i!!et!ieva(l and "nconditionall into the a!+# o% an a(#ol"te +a#te!, and that the %i!#t e0'edient &hich '!o"d and "n#"(d"ed +en hit "'on %o! thei! co++on #ec"!it &a# to !"n headlon* into #lave! - Fo! &hat !ea#on, in %act, did the ta)e to the+#elve# #"'e!io!#, i% it &a# not in o!de! that the +i*ht (e de%ended %!o+ o''!e##ion, and have '!otection %o! thei! live#, li(e!tie# and '!o'e!tie#, &hich a!e, #o to #'ea), the con#tit"ent ele+ent# o% thei! (ein*/ No&, in the !elation# (et&een +an and +an, the &o!#t that can ha''en i# %o! one to %ind hi+#el% at the +e!c o% anothe!, and it &o"ld have (een incon#i#tent &ith co++on7#en#e to (e*in ( (e#to&in* on a chie% the onl thin*# the &anted hi# hel' to '!e#e!ve- 3hat e."ivalent co"ld he o%%e! the+ %o! #o *!eat a !i*ht/ And i% he had '!e#"+ed to e0act it "nde! '!ete0t o% de%endin* the+, &o"ld he not have !eceived the an#&e! !eco!ded in the %a(le1 93hat +o!e can the ene+ do to "#/9 It i# the!e%o!e (e ond di#'"te, and indeed the %"nda+ental +a0i+ o% all 'olitical !i*ht, that 'eo'le have #et "' chie%# to '!otect thei! li(e!t , and not to en#lave the+- +f we have a prince, #aid 6lin to T!a2an, it is to save ourselves from having a master6olitician# ind"l*e in the #a+e #o'hi#t! a(o"t the love o% li(e!t a# 'hilo#o'he!# a(o"t the #tate o% nat"!e- The 2"d*e, ( &hat the #ee, o% ve! di%%e!ent thin*#, &hich the have not #een, and att!i("te to +an a nat"!al '!o'en#it to #e!vit"de, (eca"#e the #lave# &ithin thei! o(#e!vation a!e #een to (ea! the o)e &ith 'atience, the %ail to !e%lect that it i# &ith li(e!t a# &ith innocence and vi!t"e, the val"e i# )no&n onl to tho#e &ho 'o##e## the+, and the ta#te %o! the+ i# %o!%eited &hen the a!e %o!%eited the+#elve#- 9I )no& the cha!+# o% o"! co"nt! ,9 #aid B!a#ida# to a #at!a', &ho &a# co+'a!in* the li%e at S'a!ta &ith that at 6e!#e'oli#, 9("t o" cannot )no& the 'lea#"!e# o% +ine-9 An "n(!o)en ho!#e e!ect# hi# +ane, 'a&# the *!o"nd and #ta!t# (ac) i+'et"o"#l at the #i*ht o% the (!idle, &hile one &hich i# '!o'e!l t!ained #"%%e!# 'atientl even &hi' and #'"!1 #o #ava*e +an &ill not (end hi# nec) to the o)e to &hich civili#ed +an #"(+it# &itho"t a +"!+"!, ("t '!e%e!# the +o#t t"!("lent #tate o% li(e!t to the +o#t 'eace%"l #lave! - 3e cannot the!e%o!e, %!o+ the #e!vilit o% nation# al!ead en#laved, 2"d*e o% the nat"!al di#'o#ition o% +an)ind %o! o! a*ain#t #lave! , &e #ho"ld *o ( the '!odi*io"# e%%o!t# o% eve! %!ee 'eo'le to #ave it#el% %!o+ o''!e##ion- I )no& that the %o!+e! a!e %o! eve! holdin* %o!th in '!ai#e o% the t!an."illit the en2o in thei! chain#, and that the call a #tate o% &!etched #e!vit"de a #tate o% 'eace1 miserrimam servitutem pacem appellant-+ B"t &hen I o(#e!ve the latte! #ac!i%icin* 'lea#"!e, 'eace, &ealth, 'o&e! and li%e it#el% to the '!e#e!vation o% that one t!ea#"!e, &hich i# #o di#dained ( tho#e &ho have lo#t it, &hen I #ee %!ee7(o!n ani+al# da#h thei! (!ain# o"t a*ain#t the (a!# o% thei! ca*e, %!o+ an innate i+'atience o% ca'tivit , &hen I (ehold n"+(e!# o% na)ed #ava*e#, that de#'i#e E"!o'ean 'lea#"!e#, (!avin* h"n*e!, %i!e, the #&o!d and death, to '!e#e!ve nothin* ("t thei! inde'endence, I %eel that it i# not %o! #lave# to a!*"e a(o"t li(e!t 3ith !e*a!d to 'ate!nal a"tho!it , %!o+ &hich #o+e &!ite!# have de!ived a(#ol"te *ove!n+ent and all #ociet , it i# eno"*h, &itho"t *oin* (ac) to the cont!a! a!*"+ent# o% Loc)e and Sidne , ;D

to !e+a!) that nothin* on ea!th can (e %"!the! %!o+ the %e!ocio"# #'i!it o% de#'oti#+ than the +ildne## o% that a"tho!it &hich loo)# +o!e to the advanta*e o% hi+ &ho o(e # than to that o% hi+ &ho co++and#, that, ( the la& o% nat"!e, the %athe! i# the child@# +a#te! no lon*e! than hi# hel' i# nece##a! , that %!o+ that ti+e the a!e (oth e."al, the #on (ein* 'e!%ectl inde'endent o% the %athe!, and o&in* hi+ onl !e#'ect and not o(edience- Fo! *!atit"de i# a d"t &hich o"*ht to (e 'aid, ("t not a !i*ht to (e e0acted1 in#tead o% #a in* that civil #ociet i# de!ived %!o+ 'ate!nal a"tho!it , &e o"*ht to #a !athe! that the latte! de!ive# it# '!inci'al %o!ce %!o+ the %o!+e!- No individ"al &a# eve! ac)no&led*ed a# the %athe! o% +an , till hi# #on# and da"*hte!# !e+ained #ettled a!o"nd hi+- The *ood# o% the %athe!, o% &hich he i# !eall the +a#te!, a!e the tie# &hich )ee' hi# child!en in de'endence, and he +a (e#to& on the+, i% he 'lea#e#, no #ha!e o% hi# '!o'e!t , "nle## the +e!it it ( con#tant de%e!ence to hi# &ill- B"t the #"(2ect# o% an a!(it!a! de#'ot a!e #o %a! %!o+ havin* the li)e %avo"! to e0'ect %!o+ thei! chie%, that the the+#elve# and eve! thin* the 'o##e## a!e hi# '!o'e!t , o! at lea#t a!e con#ide!ed ( hi+ a# #"ch, #o that the a!e %o!ced to !eceive, a# a %avo"!, the little o% thei! o&n he i# 'lea#ed to leave the+- 3hen he de#'oil# the+, he doe# ("t 2"#tice, and +e!c in that he 'e!+it# the+ to liveB '!oceedin* th"# to te#t %act ( !i*ht, &e #ho"ld di#cove! a# little !ea#on a# t!"th in the vol"nta! e#ta(li#h+ent o% t !ann - It &o"ld al#o (e no ea# +atte! to '!ove the validit o% a cont!act (indin* on onl one o% the 'a!tie#, &he!e all the !i#) i# on one #ide, and none on the othe!, #o that no one co"ld #"%%e! ("t he &ho (o"nd hi+#el%- Thi# hate%"l # #te+ i# indeed, even in +ode!n ti+e#, ve! %a! %!o+ (ein* that o% &i#e and *ood +ona!ch#, and e#'eciall o% the )in*# o% F!ance, a# +a (e #een %!o+ #eve!al 'a##a*e# in thei! edict#, 'a!tic"la!l %!o+ the %ollo&in* 'a##a*e in a cele(!ated edict '"(li#hed in 5DDC in the na+e and ( o!de! o% Lo"i# JIV9Let it not, the!e%o!e, (e #aid that the Sove!ei*n i# not #"(2ect to the la&# o% hi# State, #ince the cont!a! i# a t!"e '!o'o#ition o% the !i*ht o% nation#, &hich %latte! ha# #o+eti+e# attac)ed ("t *ood '!ince# have al&a # de%ended a# the t"tela! divinit o% thei! do+inion#- Ho& +"ch +o!e le*iti+ate i# it to #a &ith the &i#e 6lato, that the 'e!%ect %elicit o% a )in*do+ con#i#t# in the o(edience o% #"(2ect# to thei! '!ince, and o% the '!ince to the la&#, and in the la&# (ein* 2"#t and con#tantl di!ected to the '"(lic *ood<9$ I #hall not #ta he!e to in."i!e &hethe!, a# li(e!t i# the no(le#t %ac"lt o% +an, it i# not de*!adin* o"! ve! nat"!e, !ed"cin* o"!#elve# to the level o% the (!"te#, &hich a!e +e!e #lave# o% in#tinct, and even an a%%!ont to the A"tho! o% o"! (ein*, to !eno"nce &itho"t !e#e!ve the +o#t '!ecio"# o% all Hi# *i%t#, and to (o& to the nece##it o% co++ittin* all the c!i+e# He ha# %o!(idden, +e!el to *!ati% a +ad o! a c!"el +a#te!, o! i% thi# #"(li+e c!a%t#+an o"*ht not to (e le## an*e!ed at #eein* Hi# &o!)+an#hi' enti!el de#t!o ed than th"# di#hono"!ed- I &ill &aive =i% + o''onent# 'lea#e> the a"tho!it o% Ba!(e !ac, &ho, %ollo&in* Loc)e, !o"ndl decla!e# that no +an can #o %a! #ell hi# li(e!t a# to #"(+it to an a!(it!a! 'o&e! &hich +a "#e hi+ a# it li)e#- ,or, he add#, this would be to sell his own life, of which he is not master- I #hall a#) onl &hat !i*ht tho#e &ho &e!e not a%!aid th"# to de(a#e the+#elve# co"ld have to #"(2ect thei! 'o#te!it to the #a+e i*no+in , and to !eno"nce %o! the+ tho#e (le##in*# &hich the do not o&e to the li(e!alit o% thei! '!o*enito!#, and &itho"t &hich li%e it#el% +"#t (e a ("!den to all &ho a!e &o!th o% it6"%%endo!% #a # that &e +a dive#t o"!#elve# o% o"! li(e!t in %avo"! o% othe! +en, 2"#t a# &e t!an#%e! o"! '!o'e!t %!o+ one to anothe! ( cont!act# and a*!ee+ent#- B"t thi# #ee+# a ve! &ea) a!*"+ent- Fo! in the %i!#t 'lace, the '!o'e!t I alienate (eco+e# ."ite %o!ei*n to +e, no! can I #"%%e! %!o+ the a("#e o% it, ("t it ve! nea!l conce!n# +e that + li(e!t #ho"ld not (e a("#ed, and I cannot &itho"t inc"!!in* the *"ilt o% the c!i+e# I +a (e co+'elled to co++it, e0'o#e + #el% to (eco+e an in#t!"+ent o% c!i+e- Be#ide#, the !i*ht o% '!o'e!t (ein* onl a convention o% h"+an in#tit"tion, +en +a di#'o#e o% &hat the 'o##e## a# the 'lea#e1 ("t thi# i# not the ca#e &ith the e##ential *i%t# o% nat"!e, #"ch a# li%e and li(e!t , &hich eve! +an i# ;C

'e!+itted to en2o , and o% &hich it i# at lea#t do"(t%"l &hethe! an have a !i*ht to dive#t the+#elve#- B *ivin* "' the one, &e de*!ade o"! (ein*, ( *ivin* "' the othe!, &e do o"! (e#t to ann"l it, and, a# no te+'o!al *ood can inde+ni% "# %o! the lo## o% eithe!, it &o"ld (e an o%%ence a*ain#t (oth !ea#on and nat"!e to !eno"nce the+ at an '!ice &hat#oeve!- B"t, even i% &e co"ld t!an#%e! o"! li(e!t , a# &e do o"! '!o'e!t , the!e &o"ld (e a *!eat di%%e!ence &ith !e*a!d to the child!en, &ho en2o the %athe!@# #"(#tance onl ( the t!an#+i##ion o% hi# !i*ht, &he!ea#, li(e!t (ein* a *i%t &hich the hold %!o+ nat"!e a# (ein* +en, thei! 'a!ent# have no !i*ht &hateve! to de'!ive the+ o% it- A# then, to e#ta(li#h #lave! , it &a# nece##a! to do violence to nat"!e, #o, in o!de! to 'e!'et"ate #"ch a !i*ht, nat"!e &o"ld have to (e chan*ed- A"!i#t#, &ho have *!avel dete!+ined that the child o% a #lave co+e# into the &o!ld a #lave, have decided, in othe! &o!d#, that a +an #hall co+e into the &o!ld not a +anI !e*a!d it then a# ce!tain, that *ove!n+ent did not (e*in &ith a!(it!a! 'o&e!, ("t that thi# i# the de'!avation, the e0t!e+e te!+, o% *ove!n+ent, and (!in*# it (ac), %inall , to 2"#t the la& o% the #t!on*e#t, &hich it &a# o!i*inall de#i*ned to !e+ed - S"''o#in*, ho&eve!, it had (e*"n in thi# +anne!, #"ch 'o&e!, (ein* in it#el% ille*iti+ate, co"ld not have #e!ved a# a (a#i# %o! the la&# o% #ociet , no!, con#e."entl , %o! the ine."alit the in#tit"ted3itho"t ente!in* at '!e#ent "'on the inve#ti*ation# &hich #till !e+ain to (e +ade into the nat"!e o% the %"nda+ental co+'act "nde!l in* all *ove!n+ent, I content + #el% &ith ado'tin* the co++on o'inion conce!nin* it, and !e*a!d the e#ta(li#h+ent o% the 'olitical (od a# a !eal cont!act (et&een the 'eo'le and the chie%# cho#en ( the+1 a cont!act ( &hich (oth 'a!tie# (ind the+#elve# to o(#e!ve the la&# the!ein e0'!e##ed, &hich %o!+ the tie# o% thei! "nion- The 'eo'le havin* in !e#'ect o% thei! #ocial !elation# concent!ated all thei! &ill# in one, the #eve!al a!ticle#, conce!nin* &hich thi# &ill i# e0'lained, (eco+e #o +an %"nda+ental la&#, o(li*ato! on all the +e+(e!# o% the State &itho"t e0ce'tion, and one o% the#e a!ticle# !e*"late# the choice and 'o&e! o% the +a*i#t!ate# a''ointed to &atch ove! the e0ec"tion o% the !e#t- Thi# 'o&e! e0tend# to eve! thin* &hich +a +aintain the con#tit"tion, &itho"t *oin* #o %a! a# to alte! it- It i# acco+'anied ( hono"!#, in o!de! to (!in* the la&# and thei! ad+ini#t!ato!# into !e#'ect- The +ini#te!# a!e al#o di#tin*"i#hed ( 'e!#onal '!e!o*ative#, in o!de! to !eco+'en#e the+ %o! the ca!e# and la(o"! &hich *ood ad+ini#t!ation involve#- The +a*i#t!ate, on hi# #ide, (ind# hi+#el% to "#e the 'o&e! he i# ent!"#ted &ith onl in con%o!+it &ith the intention o% hi# con#tit"ent#, to +aintain the+ all in the 'eacea(le 'o##e##ion o% &hat (elon*# to the+, and to '!e%e! on eve! occa#ion the '"(lic inte!e#t to hi# o&nBe%o!e e0'e!ience had #ho&n, o! )no&led*e o% the h"+an hea!t ena(led +en to %o!e#ee, the "navoida(le a("#e# o% #"ch a con#tit"tion, it +"#t have a''ea!ed #o +"ch the +o!e e0cellent, a# tho#e &ho &e!e cha!*ed &ith the ca!e o% it# '!e#e!vation had the+#elve# +o#t inte!e#t in it, %o! +a*i#t!ac and the !i*ht# attachin* to it (ein* (a#ed #olel on the %"nda+ental la&#, the +a*i#t!ate# &o"ld cea#e to (e le*iti+ate a# #oon a# the#e cea#ed to e0i#t, the 'eo'le &o"ld no lon*e! o&e the+ o(edience, and a# not the +a*i#t!ate#, ("t the la&#, a!e e##ential to the (ein* o% a State, the +e+(e!# o% it &o"ld !e*ain the !i*ht to thei! nat"!al li(e!t I% &e !e%lect &ith eve! #o little attention on thi# #"(2ect, &e #hall %ind ne& a!*"+ent# to con%i!+ thi# t!"th, and (e convinced %!o+ the ve! nat"!e o% the cont!act that it cannot (e i!!evoca(le1 %o!, i% the!e &e!e no #"'e!io! 'o&e! ca'a(le o% en#"!in* the %idelit o% the cont!actin* 'a!tie#, o! co+'ellin* the+ to 'e!%o!+ thei! !eci'!ocal en*a*e+ent#, the 'a!tie# &o"ld (e #ole 2"d*e# in thei! o&n ca"#e, and each &o"ld al&a # have a !i*ht to !eno"nce the cont!act, a# #oon a# he %o"nd that the othe! had violated it# te!+#, o! that the no lon*e! #"ited hi# convenience- It i# "'on thi# '!inci'le that the !i*ht o% a(dication +a 'o##i(l (e %o"nded- No&, i%, a# he!e, &e con#ide! onl &hat i# h"+an in thi# in#tit"tion, it i# ce!tain that, i% the +a*i#t!ate, &ho ha# all the 'o&e! in hi# o&n hand#, and a''!o'!iate# to hi+#el% all the advanta*e# o% the cont!act, ha# none ;F

the le## a !i*ht to !eno"nce hi# a"tho!it , the 'eo'le, &ho #"%%e! %o! all the %a"lt# o% thei! chie%, +"#t have a +"ch (ette! !i*ht to !eno"nce thei! de'endence- B"t the te!!i(le and inn"+e!a(le ."a!!el# and di#o!de!# that &o"ld nece##a!il a!i#e %!o+ #o dan*e!o"# a '!ivile*e, #ho&, +o!e than an thin* el#e, ho& +"ch h"+an *ove!n+ent #tood in need o% a +o!e #olid (a#i# than +e!e !ea#on, and ho& e0'edient it &a# %o! the '"(lic t!an."illit that the divine &ill #ho"ld inte!'o#e to inve#t the #ove!ei*n a"tho!it &ith a #ac!ed and inviola(le cha!acte!, &hich +i*ht de'!ive #"(2ect# o% the %atal !i*ht o% di#'o#in* o% it- I% the &o!ld had !eceived no othe! advanta*e# %!o+ !eli*ion, thi# &o"ld (e eno"*h to i+'o#e on +en the d"t o% ado'tin* and c"ltivatin* it, a("#e# and all, #ince it ha# (een the +ean# o% #avin* +o!e (lood than %anatici#+ ha# eve! #'ilt- B"t let "# %ollo& the th!ead o% o"! h 'othe#i#The di%%e!ent %o!+# o% *ove!n+ent o&e thei! o!i*in to the di%%e!in* de*!ee# o% ine."alit &hich e0i#ted (et&een individ"al# at the ti+e o% thei! in#tit"tion- I% the!e ha''ened to (e an one +an a+on* the+ '!e7e+inent in 'o&e!, vi!t"e, !iche# o! 'e!#onal in%l"ence, he (eca+e #ole +a*i#t!ate, and the State a##"+ed the %o!+ o% +ona!ch - I% #eve!al, nea!l e."al in 'oint o% e+inence, #tood a(ove the !e#t, the &e!e elected 2ointl , and %o!+ed an a!i#toc!ac - A*ain, a+on* a 'eo'le &ho had deviated le## %!o+ a #tate o% nat"!e, and (et&een &ho#e %o!t"ne o! talent# the!e &a# le## di#'!o'o!tion, the #"'!e+e ad+ini#t!ation &a# !etained in co++on, and a de+oc!ac &a# %o!+ed- It &a# di#cove!ed in '!oce## o% ti+e &hich o% the#e %o!+# #"ited +en the (e#t- So+e 'eo'le# !e+ained alto*ethe! #"(2ect to the la&#, othe!# #oon ca+e to o(e thei! +a*i#t!ate#- The citi$en# la(o"!ed to '!e#e!ve thei! li(e!t , the #"(2ect#, i!!itated at #eein* othe!# en2o in* a (le##in* the had lo#t, tho"*ht onl o% +a)in* #lave# o% thei! nei*h(o"!#- In a &o!d, on the one #ide a!o#e !iche# and con."e#t#, and on the othe! ha''ine## and vi!t"eIn the#e di%%e!ent *ove!n+ent#, all the o%%ice# &e!e at %i!#t elective, and &hen the in%l"ence o% &ealth &a# o"t o% the ."e#tion, the '!e%e!ence &a# *iven to +e!it, &hich *ive# a nat"!al a#cendanc , and to a*e, &hich i# e0'e!ienced in ("#ine## and deli(e!ate in co"ncil- The Elde!# o% the He(!e&#, the Ge!onte# at S'a!ta, the Senate at Ro+e, and the ve! et +olo* o% o"! &o!d Sei*ne"!, #ho& ho& old a*e &a# once held in vene!ation- B"t the +o!e o%ten the choice %ell "'on old +en, the +o!e o%ten election# had to (e !e'eated, and the +o!e the (eca+e a n"i#ance, int!i*"e# #et in, %action# &e!e %o!+ed, 'a!t %eelin* *!e& (itte!, civil &a!# (!o)e o"t, the live# o% individ"al# &e!e #ac!i%iced to the '!etended ha''ine## o% the State, and at len*th +en &e!e on the 'oint o% !ela'#in* into thei! '!i+itive ana!ch - A+(itio"# chie%# '!o%ited ( the#e ci!c"+#tance# to 'e!'et"ate thei! o%%ice# in thei! o&n %a+ilie#1 at the #a+e ti+e the 'eo'le, al!ead "#ed to de'endence, ea#e, and the convenience# o% li%e, and al!ead inca'a(le o% (!ea)in* it# %ette!#, a*!eed to an inc!ea#e o% it# #lave! , in o!de! to #ec"!e it# t!an."illit - Th"# +a*i#t!ate#, havin* (eco+e he!edita! , cont!acted the ha(it o% con#ide!in* thei! o%%ice# a# a %a+il e#tate, and the+#elve# a# '!o'!ieto!# o% the co++"nitie# o% &hich the &e!e at %i!#t onl the o%%ice!#, o% !e*a!din* thei! %ello&7citi$en# a# thei! #lave#, and n"+(e!in* the+, li)e cattle, a+on* thei! (elon*in*#, and o% callin* the+#elve# the e."al# o% the *od# and )in*# o% )in*#I% &e %ollo& the '!o*!e## o% ine."alit in the#e va!io"# !evol"tion#, &e #hall %ind that the e#ta(li#h+ent o% la&# and o% the !i*ht o% '!o'e!t &a# it# %i!#t te!+, the in#tit"tion o% +a*i#t!ac the #econd, and the conve!#ion o% le*iti+ate into a!(it!a! 'o&e! the thi!d and la#t, #o that the condition o% !ich and 'oo! &a# a"tho!i#ed ( the %i!#t 'e!iod, that o% 'o&e!%"l and &ea) ( the #econd, and onl ( the thi!d that o% +a#te! and #lave, &hich i# the la#t de*!ee o% ine."alit , and the te!+ at &hich all the !e#t !e+ain, &hen the have *ot #o %a!, till the *ove!n+ent i# eithe! enti!el di##olved ( ne& !evol"tion#, o! (!o"*ht (ac) a*ain to le*iti+ac To "nde!#tand thi# '!o*!e## a# nece##a! &e +"#t con#ide! not #o +"ch the +otive# %o! the e#ta(li#h+ent o% the (od 'olitic, a# the %o!+# it a##"+e# in act"alit , and the %a"lt# that nece##a!il attend it1 %o! the %la&# &hich +a)e #ocial in#tit"tion# nece##a! a!e the #a+e a# +a)e ;H

the a("#e o% the+ "navoida(le- I% &e e0ce't S'a!ta, &he!e the la&# &e!e +ainl conce!ned &ith the ed"cation o% child!en, and &he!e L c"!*"# e#ta(li#hed #"ch +o!alit a# '!acticall +ade la&# needle# G %o! la&# a# a !"le, (ein* &ea)e! than the 'a##ion#, !e#t!ain +en &itho"t alte!in* the+ G it &o"ld not (e di%%ic"lt to '!ove that eve! *ove!n+ent, &hich #c!"'"lo"#l co+'lied &ith the end# %o! &hich it &a# in#tit"ted, and *"a!ded ca!e%"ll a*ain#t chan*e and co!!"'tion, &a# #et "' "nnece##a!il - Fo! a co"nt! , in &hich no one eithe! evaded the la&# o! +ade a (ad "#e o% +a*i#te!ial 'o&e!, co"ld !e."i!e neithe! la&# no! +a*i#t!ate#6olitical di#tinction# nece##a!il '!od"ce civil di#tinction#- The *!o&in* e."alit (et&een the chie%# and the 'eo'le i# #oon %elt ( individ"al#, and +odi%ied in a tho"#and &a # acco!din* to 'a##ion#, talent# and ci!c"+#tance#- The +a*i#t!ate co"ld not "#"!' an ille*iti+ate 'o&e!, &itho"t *ivin* di#tinction to the c!eat"!e# &ith &ho+ he +"#t #ha!e it- Be#ide#, individ"al# onl allo& the+#elve# to (e o''!e##ed #o %a! a# the a!e h"!!ied on ( (lind a+(ition, and, loo)in* !athe! (elo& than a(ove the+, co+e to love a"tho!it +o!e than inde'endence, and #"(+it to #lave! , that the +a in t"!n en#lave othe!#- It i# no ea# +atte! to !ed"ce to o(edience a +an &ho ha# no a+(ition to co++and, no! &o"ld the +o#t ad!oit 'olitician %ind it 'o##i(le to en#lave a 'eo'le &ho#e onl de#i!e &a# to (e inde'endent- B"t ine."alit ea#il +a)e# it# &a a+on* co&a!dl and a+(itio"# +ind#, &hich a!e eve! !ead to !"n the !i#)# o% %o!t"ne, and al+o#t indi%%e!ent &hethe! the co++and o! o(e , a# it i# %avo"!a(le o! adve!#e- Th"#, the!e +"#t have (een a ti+e, &hen the e e# o% the 'eo'le &e!e #o %a#cinated, that thei! !"le# had onl to #a to the lea#t o% +en, 9Be *!eat, o" and all o"! 'o#te!it ,9 to +a)e hi+ i++ediatel a''ea! *!eat in the e e# o% eve! one a# &ell a# in hi# o&n- Hi# de#cendant# too) #till +o!e "'on the+, in '!o'o!tion to thei! di#tance %!o+ hi+, the +o!e o(#c"!e and "nce!tain the ca"#e, the *!eate! the e%%ect1 the *!eate! the n"+(e! o% idle!# one co"ld co"nt in a %a+il , the +o!e ill"#t!io"# it &a# held to (eI% thi# &e!e the 'lace to *o into detail#, I co"ld !eadil e0'lain ho&, even &itho"t the inte!vention o% *ove!n+ent, ine."alit o% c!edit and a"tho!it (eca+e "navoida(le a+on* '!ivate 'e!#on#, a# #oon a# thei! "nion in a #in*le #ociet +ade the+ co+'a!e the+#elve# one &ith anothe!, and ta)e into acco"nt the di%%e!ence# &hich the %o"nd o"t %!o+ the contin"al inte!co"!#e eve! +an had to have &ith hi# nei*h(o"!#-, The#e di%%e!ence# a!e o% #eve!al )ind#, ("t !iche#, no(ilit o! !an), 'o&e! and 'e!#onal +e!it (ein* the '!inci'al di#tinction# ( &hich +en %o!+ an e#ti+ate o% each othe! in #ociet , I co"ld '!ove that the ha!+on o! con%lict o% the#e di%%e!ent %o!ce# i# the #"!e#t indication o% the *ood o! (ad con#tit"tion o% a State- I co"ld #ho& that a+on* the#e %o"! )ind# o% ine."alit , 'e!#onal ."alitie# (ein* the o!i*in o% all the othe!#, &ealth i# the one to &hich the a!e all !ed"ced in the end, %o!, a# !iche# tend +o#t i++ediatel to the '!o#'e!it o% individ"al#, and a!e ea#ie#t to co++"nicate, the a!e "#ed to '"!cha#e eve! othe! di#tinction- B thi# o(#e!vation &e a!e ena(led to 2"d*e '!ett e0actl ho& %a! a 'eo'le ha# de'a!ted %!o+ it# '!i+itive con#tit"tion, and o% it# '!o*!e## to&a!d# the e0t!e+e te!+ o% co!!"'tion- I co"ld e0'lain ho& +"ch thi# "nive!#al de#i!e %o! !e'"tation, hono"!# and advance+ent, &hich in%la+e# "# all, e0e!ci#e# and hold# "' to co+'a!i#on o"! %ac"ltie# and 'o&e!#, ho& it e0cite# and +"lti'lie# o"! 'a##ion#, and, ( c!eatin* "nive!#al co+'etition and !ival! , o! !athe! en+it , a+on* +en, occa#ion# n"+(e!le## %ail"!e#, #"cce##e# and di#t"!(ance# o% all )ind# ( +a)in* #o +an a#'i!ant# !"n the #a+e co"!#e- I co"ld #ho& that it i# to thi# de#i!e o% (ein* tal)ed a(o"t, and thi# "n!e+ittin* !a*e o% di#tin*"i#hin* o"!#elve#, that &e o&e the (e#t and the &o!#t thin*# &e 'o##e##, (oth o"! vi!t"e# and o"! vice#, o"! #cience and o"! e!!o!#, o"! con."e!o!# and o"! 'hilo#o'he!#, that i# to #a , a *!eat +an (ad thin*#, and a ve! %e& *ood one#- In a &o!d, I co"ld '!ove that, i% &e have a %e& !ich and 'o&e!%"l +en on the 'innacle o% %o!t"ne and *!ande"!, &hile the c!o&d *!ovel# in &ant and o(#c"!it , it i# (eca"#e the %o!+e! '!i$e &hat the en2o onl in #o %a! a# othe!# a!e de#tit"te o% it, and (eca"#e, &itho"t chan*in* thei! condition, the &o"ld cea#e to (e ha'' the +o+ent the 'eo'le cea#ed to (e &!etched?I

The#e detail# alone, ho&eve!, &o"ld %"!ni#h +atte! %o! a con#ide!a(le &o!), in &hich the advanta*e# and di#advanta*e# o% eve! )ind o% *ove!n+ent +i*ht (e &ei*hed, a# the a!e !elated to +an in the #tate o% nat"!e, and at the #a+e ti+e all the di%%e!ent a#'ect#, "nde! &hich ine."alit ha# "' to the '!e#ent a''ea!ed, o! +a a''ea! in a*e# et to co+e, acco!din* to the nat"!e o% the #eve!al *ove!n+ent#, and the alte!ation# &hich ti+e +"#t "navoida(l occa#ion in the+, +i*ht (e de+on#t!ated- 3e #ho"ld then #ee the +"ltit"de o''!e##ed %!o+ &ithin, in con#e."ence o% the ve! '!eca"tion# it had ta)en to *"a!d a*ain#t %o!ei*n t !ann - 3e #ho"ld #ee o''!e##ion contin"all *ain *!o"nd &itho"t it (ein* 'o##i(le %o! the o''!e##ed to )no& &he!e it &o"ld #to', o! &hat le*iti+ate +ean# &a# le%t the+ o% chec)in* it# '!o*!e##- 3e #ho"ld #ee the !i*ht# o% citi$en#, and the %!eedo+ o% nation# #lo&l e0tin*"i#hed, and the co+'laint#, '!ote#t# and a''eal# o% the &ea) t!eated a# #editio"# +"!+"!in*#- 3e #ho"ld #ee the hono"! o% de%endin* the co++on ca"#e con%ined ( #tatec!a%t to a +e!cena! 'a!t o% the 'eo'le- 3e #ho"ld #ee ta0e# +ade nece##a! ( #"ch +ean#, and the di#hea!tened h"#(and+an de#e!tin* hi# %ield# even in the +id#t o% 'eace, and leavin* the 'lo"*h to *i!d on the #&o!d- 3e #ho"ld #ee %atal and ca'!icio"# code# o% hono"! e#ta(li#hed, and the cha+'ion# o% thei! co"nt! #oone! o! late! (eco+in* it# ene+ie#, and %o! eve! holdin* thei! da**e!# to the (!ea#t# o% thei! %ello&7citi$en#- The ti+e &o"ld co+e &hen the &o"ld (e hea!d #a in* to the o''!e##o! o% thei! co"nt! G Pectore si fratris gladium &uguloque parentis -ondere me &ubeas, gravid"que in viscera partu -on&ugis, invita peragam tamen omnia dextr.. L"can, i- ;CD F!o+ *!eat ine."alit o% %o!t"ne# and condition#, %!o+ the va#t va!iet o% 'a##ion# and o% talent#, o% "#ele## and 'e!nicio"# a!t#, o% vain #cience#, &o"ld a!i#e a +"ltit"de o% '!e2"dice# e."all cont!a! to !ea#on, ha''ine## and vi!t"e- 3e #ho"ld #ee the +a*i#t!ate# %o+entin* eve! thin* that +i*ht &ea)en +en "nited in #ociet , ( '!o+otin* di##en#ion a+on* the+, eve! thin* that +i*ht #o& in it the #eed# o% act"al divi#ion, &hile it *ave #ociet the ai! o% ha!+on , eve! thin* that +i*ht in#'i!e the di%%e!ent !an)# o% 'eo'le &ith +"t"al hat!ed and di#t!"#t, ( #ettin* the !i*ht# and inte!e#t# o% one a*ain#t tho#e o% anothe!, and #o #t!en*then the 'o&e! &hich co+'!ehended the+ allIt i# %!o+ the +id#t o% thi# di#o!de! and the#e !evol"tion#, that de#'oti#+, *!ad"all !ai#in* "' it# hideo"# head and devo"!in* eve! thin* that !e+ained #o"nd and "ntainted in an 'a!t o% the State, &o"ld at len*th t!a+'le on (oth the la&# and the 'eo'le, and e#ta(li#h it#el% on the !"in# o% the !e'"(lic- The ti+e# &hich i++ediatel '!eceded thi# la#t chan*e &o"ld (e ti+e# o% t!o"(le and cala+it , ("t at len*th the +on#te! &o"ld #&allo& "' eve! thin*, and the 'eo'le &o"ld no lon*e! have eithe! chie%# o! la&#, ("t onl t !ant#- F!o+ thi# +o+ent the!e &o"ld (e no ."e#tion o% vi!t"e o! +o!alit , %o! de#'oti#+ cui ex honesto nulla est spes, &he!eve! it '!evail#, ad+it# no othe! +a#te!, it no #oone! #'ea)# than '!o(it and d"t lo#e thei! &ei*ht and (lind o(edience i# the onl vi!t"e &hich #lave# can #till '!acti#eThi# i# the la#t te!+ o% ine."alit , the e0t!e+e 'oint that clo#e# the ci!cle, and +eet# that %!o+ &hich &e #et o"t- He!e all '!ivate 'e!#on# !et"!n to thei! %i!#t e."alit , (eca"#e the a!e nothin*, and, #"(2ect# havin* no la& ("t the &ill o% thei! +a#te!, and thei! +a#te! no !e#t!aint ("t hi# 'a##ion#, all notion# o% *ood and all '!inci'le# o% e."it a*ain vani#h- The!e i# he!e a co+'lete !et"!n to the la& o% the #t!on*e#t, and #o to a ne& #tate o% nat"!e, di%%e!in* %!o+ that &e #et o"t %!o+, %o! the one &a# a #tate o% nat"!e in it# %i!#t '"!it , &hile thi# i# the con#e."ence o% e0ce##ive co!!"'tion- The!e i# #o little di%%e!ence (et&een the t&o #tate# in othe! !e#'ect#, and the cont!act o% *ove!n+ent i# #o co+'letel di##olved ( de#'oti#+, that the de#'ot i# +a#te! onl #o lon* a# he !e+ain# the #t!on*e#t, a# #oon a# he can (e e0'elled, he ha# no !i*ht to ?5

co+'lain o% violence- The 'o'"la! in#"!!ection that end# in the death o! de'o#ition o% a S"ltan i# a# la&%"l an act a# tho#e ( &hich he di#'o#ed, the da (e%o!e, o% the live# and %o!t"ne# o% hi# #"(2ect#- A# he &a# +aintained ( %o!ce alone, it i# %o!ce alone that ove!th!o&# hi+- Th"# eve! thin* ta)e# 'lace acco!din* to the nat"!al o!de!, and, &hateve! +a (e the !e#"lt o% #"ch %!e."ent and '!eci'itate !evol"tion#, no one +an ha# !ea#on to co+'lain o% the in2"#tice o% anothe!, ("t onl o% hi# o&n ill7%o!t"ne o! indi#c!etionI% the !eade! th"# di#cove!# and !et!ace# the lo#t and %o!*otten !oad, ( &hich +an +"#t have 'a##ed %!o+ the #tate o% nat"!e to the #tate o% #ociet , i% he ca!e%"ll !e#to!e#, alon* &ith the inte!+ediate #it"ation# &hich I have 2"#t de#c!i(ed, tho#e &hich &ant o% ti+e ha# co+'elled +e to #"''!e##, o! + i+a*ination ha# %ailed to #"**e#t, he cannot %ail to (e #t!"c) ( the va#t di#tance &hich #e'a!ate# the t&o #tate#- It i# in t!acin* thi# #lo& #"cce##ion that he &ill %ind the #ol"tion o% a n"+(e! o% '!o(le+# o% 'olitic# and +o!al#, &hich 'hilo#o'he!# cannot #ettle- He &ill %eel that, +en (ein* di%%e!ent in di%%e!ent a*e#, the !ea#on &h Dio*ene# co"ld not %ind a +an &a# that he #o"*ht a+on* hi# conte+'o!a!ie# a +an o% an ea!lie! 'e!iod- He &ill #ee that Cato died &ith Ro+e and li(e!t , (eca"#e he did not %it the a*e in &hich he lived, the *!eate#t o% +en #e!ved onl to a#toni#h a &o!ld &hich he &o"ld ce!tainl have !"led, had he lived %ive h"nd!ed ea!# #oone!- In a &o!d, he &ill e0'lain ho& the #o"l and the 'a##ion# o% +en in#en#i(l chan*e thei! ve! nat"!e, &h o"! &ant# and 'lea#"!e# in the end #ee) ne& o(2ect#, and &h , the o!i*inal +an havin* vani#hed ( de*!ee#, #ociet o%%e!# to "# onl an a##e+(l o% a!ti%icial +en and %actitio"# 'a##ion#, &hich a!e the &o!) o% all the#e ne& !elation#, and &itho"t an !eal %o"ndation in nat"!e- 3e a!e ta"*ht nothin* on thi# #"(2ect, ( !e%lection, that i# not enti!el con%i!+ed ( o(#e!vation- The #ava*e and the civili#ed +an di%%e! #o +"ch in the (otto+ o% thei! hea!t# and in thei! inclination#, that &hat con#tit"te# the #"'!e+e ha''ine## o% one &o"ld !ed"ce the othe! to de#'ai!- The %o!+e! (!eathe# onl 'eace and li(e!t , he de#i!e# onl to live and (e %!ee %!o+ la(o"!, even the ataraxia o% the Stoic %all# %a! #ho!t o% hi# '!o%o"nd indi%%e!ence to eve! othe! o(2ect- Civili#ed +an, on the othe! hand, i# al&a # +ovin*, #&eatin*, toilin* and !ac)in* hi# (!ain# to %ind #till +o!e la(o!io"# occ"'ation#1 he *oe# on in d!"d*e! to hi# la#t +o+ent, and even #ee)# death to '"t hi+#el% in a 'o#ition to live, o! !eno"nce# li%e to ac."i!e i++o!talit - He 'a # hi# co"!t to +en in 'o&e!, &ho+ he hate#, and to the &ealth , &ho+ he de#'i#e#, he #to'# at nothin* to have the hono"! o% #e!vin* the+, he i# not a#ha+ed to val"e hi+#el% on hi# o&n +eanne## and thei! '!otection, and, '!o"d o% hi# #lave! , he #'ea)# &ith di#dain o% tho#e, &ho have not the hono"! o% #ha!in* it- 3hat a #i*ht &o"ld the 'e!'le0in* and envied la(o"!# o% a E"!o'ean +ini#te! o% State '!e#ent to the e e# o% a Ca!i((ean< Ho& +an c!"el death# &o"ld not thi# indolent #ava*e '!e%e! to the ho!!o!# o% #"ch a li%e, &hich i# #eldo+ even #&eetened ( the 'lea#"!e o% doin* *ood< B"t, %o! hi+ to #ee into the +otive# o% all thi# #olicit"de, the &o!d# power and reputation, &o"ld have to (ea! #o+e +eanin* in hi# +ind, he &o"ld have to )no& that the!e a!e +en &ho #et a val"e on the o'inion o% the !e#t o% the &o!ld, &ho can (e +ade ha'' and #ati#%ied &ith the+#elve# !athe! on the te#ti+on o% othe! 'eo'le than on thei! o&n- In !ealit , the #o"!ce o% all the#e di%%e!ence# i#, that the #ava*e live# &ithin hi+#el%, &hile #ocial +an live# con#tantl o"t#ide hi+#el%, and onl )no&# ho& to live in the o'inion o% othe!#, #o that he #ee+# to !eceive the con#cio"#ne## o% hi# o&n e0i#tence +e!el %!o+ the 2"d*+ent o% othe!# conce!nin* hi+- It i# not to + '!e#ent '"!'o#e to in#i#t on the indi%%e!ence to *ood and evil &hich a!i#e# %!o+ thi# di#'o#ition, in #'ite o% o"! +an %ine &o!)# on +o!alit , o! to #ho& ho&, eve! thin* (ein* !ed"ced to a''ea!ance#, the!e i# ("t a!t and +"++e! in even hono"!, %!iend#hi', vi!t"e, and o%ten vice it#el%, o% &hich &e at len*th lea!n the #ec!et o% (oa#tin*, to #ho&, in #ho!t, ho&, al&a # a#)in* othe!# &hat &e a!e, and neve! da!in* to a#) o"!#elve#, in the +id#t o% #o +"ch 'hilo#o'h , h"+anit and civili#ation, and o% #"ch #"(li+e code# o% +o!alit , &e have nothin* to #ho& %o! o"!#elve# ("t a %!ivolo"# and deceit%"l a''ea!ance, hono"! &itho"t vi!t"e, !ea#on &itho"t &i#do+, and 'lea#"!e &itho"t ha''ine##- It i# #"%%icient that I have '!oved that thi# i# not ( an +ean# the o!i*inal #tate o%

?8

+an, ("t that it i# +e!el the #'i!it o% #ociet , and the ine."alit &hich #ociet '!od"ce#, that th"# t!an#%o!+ and alte! all o"! nat"!al inclination#I have endeavo"!ed to t!ace the o!i*in and '!o*!e## o% ine."alit , and the in#tit"tion and a("#e o% 'olitical #ocietie#, a# %a! a# the#e a!e ca'a(le o% (ein* ded"ced %!o+ the nat"!e o% +an +e!el ( the li*ht o% !ea#on, and inde'endentl o% tho#e #ac!ed do*+a# &hich *ive the #anction o% divine !i*ht to #ove!ei*n a"tho!it - It %ollo&# %!o+ thi# #"!ve that, a# the!e i# ha!dl an ine."alit in the #tate o% nat"!e, all the ine."alit &hich no& '!evail# o&e# it# #t!en*th and *!o&th to the develo'+ent o% o"! %ac"ltie# and the advance o% the h"+an +ind, and (eco+e# at la#t 'e!+anent and le*iti+ate ( the e#ta(li#h+ent o% '!o'e!t and la&#- Secondl , it %ollo&# that +o!al ine."alit , a"tho!i#ed ( 'o#itive !i*ht alone, cla#he# &ith nat"!al !i*ht, &heneve! it i# not '!o'o!tionate to 'h #ical ine."alit , a di#tinction &hich #"%%icientl dete!+ine# &hat &e o"*ht to thin) o% that #'ecie# o% ine."alit &hich '!evail# in all civili#ed, co"nt!ie#, #ince it i# 'lainl cont!a! to the la& o% nat"!e, ho&eve! de%ined, that child!en #ho"ld co++and old +en, %ool# &i#e +en, and that the '!ivile*ed %e& #ho"ld *o!*e the+#elve# &ith #"'e!%l"itie#, &hile the #ta!vin* +"ltit"de a!e in &ant o% the (a!e nece##itie# o% li%e4- Ovid, Metamorphoses, 0i- 58C/oth rich and poor, shoc*ed at their new0found ills, Would fly from wealth, and lose what they had sought. D- Tacit"#, ist. iv- 5C- The +o#t &!etched #lave! the call 'eaceC- O% the Ri*ht# o% the Mo#t Ch!i#tian K"een ove! Va!io"# State# o% the Mona!ch o% S'ain, 5DDCF- Di#t!i("tive 2"#tice &o"ld o''o#e thi# !i*o!o"# e."alit o% the #tate o% nat"!e, even &e!e it '!actica(le in civil #ociet , a# all the +e+(e!# o% the State o&e it thei! #e!vice# in '!o'o!tion to thei! talent# and a(ilitie#, the o"*ht, on thei! #ide, to (e di#tin*"i#hed and %avo"!ed in '!o'o!tion to the #e!vice# the have act"all !ende!ed- It i# in thi# #en#e &e +"#t "nde!#tand that 'a##a*e o% I#oc!ate#, in &hich he e0tol# the '!i+itive Athenian#, %o! havin* dete!+ined &hich o% the t&o )ind# o% e."alit &a# the +o#t "#e%"l, vi$-, that &hich con#i#t# in dividin* the #a+e advanta*e# indi#c!i+inatel a+on* all the citi$en#, o! that &hich con#i#t# in di#t!i("tin* the+ to each acco!din* to hi# de#e!t#- The#e a(le 'olitician#, add# the o!ato!, (ani#hin* that "n2"#t ine."alit &hich +a)e# no di#tinction (et&een *ood and (ad +en, adhe!ed inviola(l to that &hich !e&a!d# and '"ni#he# eve! +an acco!din* to hi# de#e!t#B"t in the %i!#t 'lace, the!e neve! e0i#ted a #ociet , ho&eve! co!!"'t #o+e +a have (eco+e, &he!e no di%%e!ence &a# +ade (et&een the *ood and the (ad, and &ith !e*a!d to +o!alit , &he!e no +ea#"!e# can (e '!e#c!i(ed ( la& e0act eno"*h to #e!ve a# a '!actical !"le %o! a +a*i#t!ate, it i# &ith *!eat '!"dence that, in o!de! not to leave the %o!t"ne o! ."alit o% the citi$en# to hi# di#c!etion, it '!ohi(it# hi+ %!o+ 'a##in* 2"d*+ent on 'e!#on# and con%ine# hi# 2"d*+ent to action#- Onl +o!al# #"ch a# tho#e o% the ancient Ro+an# can (ea! cen#o!#, and #"ch a t!i("nal a+on* "# &o"ld th!o& eve! thin* into con%"#ion- The di%%e!ence (et&een *ood and (ad +en i# dete!+ined ( '"(lic e#tee+, the +a*i#t!ate (ein* #t!ictl a 2"d*e o% !i*ht alone, &he!ea# the '"(lic i# the t!"e#t 2"d*e o% +o!al#, and i# o% #"ch inte*!it and 'enet!ation on thi# head, that altho"*h it +a (e #o+eti+e# deceived, it can neve! (e co!!"'ted- The !an) o% citi$en# o"*ht, the!e%o!e, to (e !e*"lated, not acco!din* to thei! 'e!#onal +e!it G %o! thi# &o"ld '"t it in the 'o&e! o% the +a*i#t!ate to a''l the la& al+o#t a!(it!a!il G ("t acco!din* to the act"al #e!vice# done to the State, &hich a!e ca'a(le o% (ein* +o!e e0actl e#ti+ated-

APPENDI-. A FAMOUS a"tho!, !ec)onin* "' the *ood and evil o% h"+an li%e, and co+'a!in* the a**!e*ate#,
%ind# that o"! 'ain# *!eatl e0ceed o"! 'lea#"!e#1 #o that, all thin*# con#ide!ed, h"+an li%e i# not at all a val"a(le *i%t- Thi# concl"#ion doe# not #"!'!i#e +e, %o! the &!ite! d!e& all hi# a!*"+ent# %!o+ +an in civili#ation- Had he *one (ac) to the #tate o% nat"!e, hi# in."i!ie# &o"ld clea!l ?;

have had a di%%e!ent !e#"lt, and +an &o"ld have (een #een to (e #"(2ect to ve! %e& evil# not o% hi# o&n c!eation- It ha# indeed co#t "# not a little t!o"(le to +a)e o"!#elve# a# &!etched a# &e a!e- 3hen &e con#ide!, on the one hand, the i++en#e la(o"!# o% +an)ind, the +an #cience# (!o"*ht to 'e!%ection, the a!t# invented, the 'o&e!# e+'lo ed, the dee'# %illed "', the +o"ntain# levelled, the !oc)# #hatte!ed, the !ive!# +ade navi*a(le, the t!act# o% land clea!ed, the la)e# e+'tied, the +a!#he# d!ained, the eno!+o"# #t!"ct"!e# e!ected on land, and the tee+in* ve##el# that cove! the #ea, and, on the othe! hand, e#ti+ate &ith eve! #o little tho"*ht, the !eal advanta*e# that have acc!"ed %!o+ all the#e &o!)# to +an)ind, &e cannot hel' (ein* a+a$ed at the va#t di#'!o'o!tion the!e i# (et&een the#e thin*#, and de'lo!in* the in%at"ation o% +an, &hich, to *!ati% hi# #ill '!ide and vain #el%7ad+i!ation, ind"ce# hi+ ea*e!l to '"!#"e all the +i#e!ie# he i# ca'a(le o% %eelin*, tho"*h (ene%icent nat"!e had )indl 'laced the+ o"t o% hi# &a That +en a!e act"all &ic)ed, a #ad and contin"al e0'e!ience o% the+ '!ove# (e ond do"(t1 ("t, all the #a+e, I thin) I have #ho&n that +an i# nat"!all *ood- 3hat then can have de'!aved hi+ to #"ch an e0tent, e0ce't the chan*e# that have ha''ened in hi# con#tit"tion, the advance# he ha# +ade, and the )no&led*e he ha# ac."i!ed/ 3e +a ad+i!e h"+an #ociet a# +"ch a# &e 'lea#e, it &ill (e none the le## t!"e that it nece##a!il lead# +en to hate each othe! in '!o'o!tion a# thei! inte!e#t# cla#h, and to do one anothe! a''a!ent #e!vice#, &hile the a!e !eall doin* eve! i+a*ina(le +i#chie%- 3hat can (e tho"*ht o% a !elation, in &hich the inte!e#t o% eve! individ"al dictate# !"le# di!ectl o''o#ite to tho#e the '"(lic !ea#on dictate# to the co++"nit in *ene!al G in &hich eve! +an %ind# hi# '!o%it in the +i#%o!t"ne# o% hi# nei*h(o"!/ The!e i# not 'e!ha'# an +an in a co+%o!ta(le 'o#ition &ho ha# not *!eed hei!#, and 'e!ha'# even child!en, #ec!etl &i#hin* %o! hi# death, not a #hi' at #ea, o% &hich the lo## &o"ld not (e *ood ne&# to #o+e +e!chant o! othe!, not a ho"#e, &hich #o+e de(to! o% (ad %aith &o"ld not (e *lad to #ee !ed"ced to a#he# &ith all the 'a'e!# it contain#, not a nation &hich doe# not !e2oice at the di#a#te!# that (e%all it# nei*h(o"!#- Th"# it i# that &e %ind o"! advanta*e in the +i#%o!t"ne# o% o"! %ello&7 c!eat"!e#, and that the lo## o% one +an al+o#t al&a # con#tit"te# the '!o#'e!it o% anothe!- B"t it i# #till +o!e 'e!nicio"# that '"(lic cala+itie# a!e the o(2ect# o% the ho'e# and e0'ectation# o% inn"+e!a(le individ"al#- So+e de#i!e #ic)ne##, #o+e +o!talit , #o+e &a!, and #o+e %a+ine- I have #een +en &ic)ed eno"*h to &ee' %o! #o!!o& at the '!o#'ect o% a 'lenti%"l #ea#on, and the *!eat and %atal %i!e o% London, &hich co#t #o +an "nha'' 'e!#on# thei! live# o! thei! %o!t"ne#, +ade the %o!t"ne# o% 'e!ha'# ten tho"#and othe!#- I )no& that Montai*ne cen#"!e# De+ade# the Athenian %o! havin* ca"#ed to (e '"ni#hed a &o!)+an &ho, ( #ellin* hi# co%%in# ve! dea!, &a# a *!eat *aine! ( the death# o% hi# %ello&7citi$en#, ("t, the !ea#on alle*ed ( Montai*ne (ein* that eve! (od o"*ht to (e '"ni#hed, + 'oint i# clea!l con%i!+ed ( it- Let "# 'enet!ate, the!e%o!e, the #"'e!%icial a''ea!ance# o% (enevolence, and #"!ve &hat 'a##e# in the in+o#t !ece##e# o% the hea!t- Let "# !e%lect &hat +"#t (e the #tate o% thin*#, &hen +en a!e %o!ced to ca!e## and de#t!o one anothe! at the #a+e ti+e, &hen the a!e (o!n ene+ie# ( d"t , and )nave# ( inte!e#t- It &ill 'e!ha'# (e #aid that #ociet i# #o %o!+ed that eve! +an *ain# ( #e!vin* the !e#t- That &o"ld (e all ve! &ell, i% he did not *ain #till +o!e ( in2"!in* the+- The!e i# no le*iti+ate '!o%it #o *!eat, that it cannot (e *!eatl e0ceeded ( &hat +a (e +ade ille*iti+atel , &e al&a # *ain +o!e ( h"!tin* o"! nei*h(o"!# than ( doin* the+ *oodNothin* i# !e."i!ed ("t to )no& ho& to act &ith i+'"nit , and to thi# end the 'o&e!%"l e+'lo all thei! #t!en*th, and the &ea) all thei! c"nnin*Sava*e +an, &hen he ha# dined, i# at 'eace &ith all nat"!e, and the %!iend o% all hi# %ello&7 c!eat"!e#- I% a di#'"te a!i#e# a(o"t a +eal, he !a!el co+e# to (lo&#, &itho"t havin* %i!#t co+'a!ed the di%%ic"lt o% con."e!in* hi# anta*oni#t &ith the t!o"(le o% %indin* #"(#i#tence el#e&he!e1 and, a# '!ide doe# not co+e in, it all end# in a %e& (lo&#, the victo! eat#, and the van."i#hed #ee)# '!ovi#ion #o+e&he!e el#e, and all i# at 'eace- The ca#e i# ."ite di%%e!ent &ith +an in the #tate o% #ociet , %o! &ho+ %i!#t nece##a!ie# have to (e '!ovided, and then #"'e!%l"itie#, delicacie# %ollo& ne0t, then i++en#e &ealth, then #"(2ect#, and then #lave#- He ??

en2o # not a +o+ent@# !ela0ation, and &hat i# et #t!an*e!, the le## nat"!al and '!e##in* hi# &ant#, the +o!e head#t!on* a!e hi# 'a##ion#, and, #till &o!#e, the +o!e he ha# it in hi# 'o&e! to *!ati% the+, #o that a%te! a lon* co"!#e o% '!o#'e!it , a%te! havin* #&allo&ed "' t!ea#"!e# and !"ined +"ltit"de#, the he!o end# "' ( c"ttin* eve! th!oat till he %ind# hi+#el%, at la#t, #ole +a#te! o% the &o!ld- S"ch i# in +iniat"!e the +o!al 'ict"!e, i% not o% h"+an li%e, at lea#t o% the #ec!et '!eten#ion# o% the hea!t o% civili#ed +anCo+'a!e &itho"t 'a!tialit the #tate o% the citi$en &ith that o% the #ava*e, and t!ace o"t, i% o" can, ho& +an inlet# the %o!+e! ha# o'ened to 'ain and death, (e#ide# tho#e o% hi# vice#, hi# &ant# and hi# +i#%o!t"ne#- I% o" !e%lect on the +ental a%%liction# that '!e on "#, the violent 'a##ion# that &a#te and e0ha"#t "#, the e0ce##ive la(o"! &ith &hich the 'oo! a!e ("!dened, the #till +o!e dan*e!o"# indolence to &hich the &ealth *ive the+#elve# "', #o that the 'oo! 'e!i#h o% &ant, and the !ich o% #"!%eit, i% o" !e%lect ("t a +o+ent on the hete!o*eneo"# +i0t"!e# and 'e!nicio"# #ea#onin*# o% %ood#, the co!!"'t #tate in &hich the a!e %!e."entl eaten, on the ad"lte!ation o% +edicine#, the &ile# o% tho#e &ho #ell the+, the +i#ta)e# o% tho#e &ho ad+ini#te! the+, and the 'oi#ono"# ve##el# in &hich the a!e '!e'a!ed, on the e'ide+ic# (!ed ( %o"l ai! in con#e."ence o% *!eat n"+(e!# o% +en (ein* c!o&ded to*ethe!, o! tho#e &hich a!e ca"#ed ( o"! delicate &a o% livin*, ( o"! 'a##in* %!o+ o"! ho"#e# into the o'en ai! and (ac) a*ain, ( the '"ttin* on o! th!o&in* o%% o"! clothe# &ith too little ca!e, and ( all the '!eca"tion# &hich #en#"alit ha# conve!ted into nece##a! ha(it#, and the ne*lect o% &hich #o+eti+e# co#t# "# o"! li%e o! health, i% o" ta)e into acco"nt the con%la*!ation# and ea!th."a)e#, &hich, devo"!in* o! ove!&hel+in* &hole citie#, de#t!o the inha(itant# ( tho"#and#, in a &o!d, i% o" add to*ethe! all the dan*e!# &ith &hich the#e ca"#e# a!e al&a # th!eatenin* "#, o" &ill #ee ho& dea!l nat"!e +a)e# "# 'a %o! the conte+'t &ith &hich &e have t!eated he! le##on#I #hall not he!e !e'eat, &hat I have el#e&he!e #aid o% the cala+itie# o% &a!, ("t &i#h that tho#e, &ho have #"%%icient )no&led*e, &e!e &illin* o! (old eno"*h to +a)e '"(lic the detail# o% the villainie# co++itted in a!+ie# ( the cont!acto!# %o! co++i##a!iat and ho#'ital#1 &e #ho"ld #ee 'lainl that thei! +on#t!o"# %!a"d#, al!ead none too &ell concealed, &hich c!i''le the %ine#t a!+ie# in le## than no ti+e, occa#ion *!eate! de#t!"ction a+on* the #oldie!# than the #&o!d# o% the ene+ The n"+(e! o% 'eo'le &ho 'e!i#h ann"all at #ea, ( %a+ine, the #c"!v , 'i!ate#, %i!e and #hi'&!ec)#, a%%o!d# +atte! %o! anothe! #hoc)in* calc"lation- 3e +"#t al#o 'lace to the c!edit o% the e#ta(li#h+ent o% '!o'e!t , and con#e."entl to the in#tit"tion o% #ociet , a##a##ination#, 'oi#onin*#, hi*h&a !o((e!ie#, and even the '"ni#h+ent# in%licted on the &!etche# *"ilt o% the#e c!i+e#, &hich, tho"*h e0'edient to '!event *!eate! evil#, et ( +a)in* the +"!de! o% one +an co#t the live# o% t&o o! +o!e, do"(le the lo## to the h"+an !ace3hat #ha+e%"l +ethod# a!e #o+eti+e# '!acti#ed to '!event the (i!th o% +en, and cheat nat"!e, eithe! ( (!"tal and de'!aved a''etite# &hich in#"lt he! +o#t (ea"ti%"l &o!)7a''etite# "n)no&n to #ava*e# o! +e!e ani+al#, &hich can #'!in* onl %!o+ the co!!"'t i+a*ination o% +an)ind in civili#ed co"nt!ie#, o! ( #ec!et a(o!tion#, the %ittin* e%%ect# o% de(a"che! and vitiated notion# o% hono"!, o! ( the e0'o#"!e o! +"!de! o% +"ltit"de# o% in%ant#, &ho %all victi+# to the 'ove!t o% thei! 'a!ent#, o! the c!"el #ha+e o% thei! +othe!#, o!, %inall , ( the +"tilation o% "nha'' &!etche#, 'a!t o% &ho#e li%e, &ith thei! ho'e o% 'o#te!it , i# *iven "' to vain #in*in*, o!, #till &o!#e, the (!"tal 2ealo"# o% othe! +en1 a +"tilation &hich, in the la#t ca#e, (eco+e# a do"(le o"t!a*e a*ain#t nat"!e %!o+ the t!eat+ent o% tho#e &ho #"%%e! it, and %!o+ the "#e to &hich the a!e de#tined- B"t i# it not a tho"#and ti+e# +o!e co++on and +o!e dan*e!o"# %o! 'ate!nal !i*ht# o'enl to o%%end a*ain#t h"+anit / Ho& +an talent# have not (een th!o&n a&a , and inclination# %o!ced, ( the "n&i#e con#t!aint o% %athe!#/ Ho& +an +en, &ho &o"ld have di#tin*"i#hed the+#elve# in a %ittin* e#tate, have died di#hono"!ed and &!etched in anothe! %o! ?4

&hich the had no ta#te< Ho& +an ha'' , ("t "ne."al, +a!!ia*e# have (een (!o)en o! di#t"!(ed, and ho& +an cha#te &ive# have (een di#hono"!ed, ( an o!de! o% thin*# contin"all in cont!adiction &ith that o% nat"!e< Ho& +an *ood and vi!t"o"# h"#(and# and &ive# a!e !eci'!ocall '"ni#hed %o! havin* (een ill7a##o!ted< Ho& +an o"n* and "nha'' victi+# o% thei! 'a!ent#@ ava!ice 'l"n*e into vice, o! 'a## thei! +elanchol da # in tea!#, *!oanin* in the indi##ol"(le (ond# &hich thei! hea!t# !e'"diate and *old alone ha# %o!+ed< Fo!t"nate #o+eti+e# a!e tho#e &ho#e co"!a*e and vi!t"e !e+ove the+ %!o+ li%e (e%o!e inh"+an violence +a)e# the+ #'end it in c!i+e o! in de#'ai!- Fo!*ive +e, %athe! and +othe!, &ho+ I #hall eve! !e*!et1 + co+'laint e+(itte!# o"! *!ie%#, ("t &o"ld the +i*ht (e an ete!nal and te!!i(le e0a+'le to eve! one &ho da!e#, in the na+e o% nat"!e, to violate he! +o#t #ac!ed !i*htI% I have #'o)en onl o% tho#e ill7#ta!!ed "nion# &hich a!e the !e#"lt o% o"! # #te+, i# it to (e tho"*ht that tho#e ove! &hich love and # +'ath '!e#ide a!e %!ee %!o+ di#advanta*e#/ 3hat i% I #ho"ld "nde!ta)e to #ho& h"+anit attac)ed in it# ve! #o"!ce, and even in the +o#t #ac!ed o% all tie#, in &hich %o!t"ne i# con#"lted (e%o!e nat"!e, and, the di#o!de!# o% #ociet con%o"ndin* all vi!t"e and vice, continence (eco+e# a c!i+inal '!eca"tion, and a !e%"#al to *ive li%e to a %ello&7 c!eat"!e, an act o% h"+anit / B"t, &itho"t d!a&in* a#ide the veil &hich hide# all the#e ho!!o!#, let "# content o"!#elve# &ith 'ointin* o"t the evil &hich othe!# &ill have to !e+ed To all thi# add the +"lti'licit o% "nhealth t!ade#, &hich #ho!ten +en@# live# o! de#t!o thei! (odie#, #"ch a# &o!)in* in the +ine#, and the '!e'a!in* o% +etal# and +ine!al#, 'a!tic"la!l lead, co''e!, +e!c"! , co(alt, and a!#enic1 add tho#e othe! dan*e!o"# t!ade# &hich a!e dail %atal to +an tile!#, ca!'ente!#, +a#on# and +ine!#1 '"t all the#e to*ethe! and &e can #ee, in the e#ta(li#h+ent and 'e!%ection o% #ocietie#, the !ea#on# %o! that di+in"tion o% o"! #'ecie#, &hich ha# (een noticed ( +an 'hilo#o'he!#L"0"! , &hich cannot (e '!evented a+on* +en &ho a!e tenacio"# o% thei! o&n convenience and o% the !e#'ect 'aid the+ ( othe!#, #oon co+'lete# the evil #ociet had (e*"n, and, "nde! the '!etence o% *ivin* (!ead to the 'oo!, &ho+ it #ho"ld neve! have +ade #"ch, i+'ove!i#he# all the !e#t, and #oone! o! late! de'o'"late# the State- L"0"! i# a !e+ed +"ch &o!#e than the di#ea#e it #et# "' to c"!e, o! !athe! it i# in it#el% the *!eate#t o% all evil#, %o! eve! State, *!eat o! #+all1 %o!, in o!de! to +aintain all the #e!vant# and va*a(ond# it c!eate#, it (!in*# o''!e##ion and !"in on the citi$en and the la(o"!e!, it i# li)e tho#e #co!chin* &ind#, &hich, cove!in* the t!ee# and 'lant# &ith devo"!in* in#ect#, de'!ive "#e%"l ani+al# o% thei! #"(#i#tence and #'!ead %a+ine and death &he!eve! the (lo&F!o+ #ociet and the l"0"! to &hich it *ive# (i!th a!i#e the li(e!al and +echanical a!t#, co++e!ce, lette!#, and all tho#e #"'e!%l"itie# &hich +a)e ind"#t! %lo"!i#h, and en!ich and !"in nation#- The !ea#on %o! #"ch de#t!"ction i# 'lain- It i# ea# to #ee, %!o+ the ve! nat"!e o% a*!ic"lt"!e, that it +"#t (e the lea#t l"c!ative o% all the a!t#, %o!, it# '!od"ce (ein* the +o#t "nive!#all nece##a! , the '!ice +"#t (e '!o'o!tionate to the a(ilitie# o% the ve! 'oo!e#t o% +an)indF!o+ the #a+e '!inci'le +a (e ded"ced thi# !"le, that the a!t# in *ene!al a!e +o!e l"c!ative in '!o'o!tion a# the a!e le## "#e%"l, and that, in the end, the +o#t "#e%"l (eco+e# the +o#t ne*lected- F!o+ thi# &e +a lea!n &hat to thin) o% the !eal advanta*e# o% ind"#t! and the act"al e%%ect# o% it# '!o*!e##S"ch a!e the #en#i(le ca"#e# o% all the +i#e!ie#, into &hich o'"lence at len*th 'l"n*e# the +o#t cele(!ated nation#- In '!o'o!tion a# a!t# and ind"#t! %lo"!i#h, the de#'i#ed h"#(and+an, ("!dened &ith the ta0e# nece##a! %o! the #"''o!t o% l"0"! , and conde+ned to 'a## hi# da # (et&een la(o"! and h"n*e!, %o!#a)e# hi# native %ield, to #ee) in to&n# the (!ead he o"*ht to ca!! ?D

thithe!- The +o!e o"! ca'ital citie# #t!i)e the v"l*a! e e &ith ad+i!ation, the *!eate! !ea#on i# the!e to la+ent the #i*ht o% the a(andoned co"nt! #ide, the la!*e t!act# o% land that lie "nc"ltivated, the !oad# c!o&ded &ith "n%o!t"nate citi$en# t"!ned (e**a!# o! hi*h&a +en, and doo+ed to end thei! &!etched live# eithe! on a d"n*hill o! on the *allo&#- Th"# the State *!o&# !ich on the one hand, and %ee(le and de'o'"lated on the othe!, the +i*htie#t +ona!chie#, a%te! havin* ta)en i++en#e 'ain# to en!ich and de'o'"late the+#elve#, %all at la#t a '!e to #o+e 'oo! nation, &hich ha# ielded to the %atal te+'tation o% invadin* the+, and then, *!o&in* o'"lent and &ea) in it# t"!n, i# it#el% invaded and !"ined ( #o+e othe!Let an one in%o!+ "# &hat '!od"ced the #&a!+# o% (a!(a!ian#, &ho ove!!an E"!o'e, A#ia and A%!ica %o! #o +an a*e#- 3a# thei! '!odi*io"# inc!ea#e d"e to thei! ind"#t! and a!t#, to the &i#do+ o% thei! la&#, o! to the e0cellence o% thei! 'olitical # #te+/ Let the lea!ned tell "# &h , in#tead o% +"lti'l in* to #"ch a de*!ee, the#e %ie!ce and (!"tal +en, &itho"t #en#e o! #cience, &itho"t ed"cation, &itho"t !e#t!aint, did not de#t!o each othe! ho"!l in ."a!!ellin* ove! the '!od"ction# o% thei! %ield# and &ood#- Let the+ tell "# ho& the#e &!etche# co"ld have the '!e#"+'tion to o''o#e #"ch cleve! 'eo'le a# &e &e!e, #o &ell t!ained in +ilita! di#ci'line, and 'o##e##ed o% #"ch e0cellent la&# and in#tit"tion#1 and &h , #ince #ociet ha# (een (!o"*ht to 'e!%ection in no!the!n co"nt!ie#, and #o +"ch 'ain# ta)en to in#t!"ct thei! inha(itant# in thei! #ocial d"tie# and in the a!t o% livin* ha''il and 'eacea(l to*ethe!, &e #ee the+ no lon*e! '!od"ce #"ch n"+(e!le## ho#t# a# the "#ed once to #end %o!th to (e the 'la*"e and te!!o! o% othe! nation#- I %ea! #o+e one +a at la#t an#&e! +e ( #a in*, that all the#e %ine thin*#, a!t#, #cience# and la&#, &e!e &i#el invented ( +en, a# a #al"ta! 'la*"e, to '!event the too *!eat +"lti'lication o% +an)ind, le#t the &o!ld, &hich &a# *iven "# %o! a ha(itation, #ho"ld in ti+e (e too #+all %o! it# inha(itant#3hat, then, i# to (e done/ M"#t #ocietie# (e totall a(oli#hed/ M"#t meum and tuum (e annihilated, and +"#t &e !et"!n a*ain to the %o!e#t# to live a+on* (ea!#/ Thi# i# a ded"ction in the +anne! o% + adve!#a!ie#, &hich I &o"ld a# #oon antici'ate a# let the+ have the #ha+e o% d!a&in*- O o", &ho have neve! hea!d the voice o% heaven, &ho thin) +an de#tined onl to live thi# little li%e and die in 'eace, o", &ho can !e#i*n in the +id#t o% 'o'"lo"# citie# o"! %atal ac."i#ition#, o"! !e#tle## #'i!it#, o"! co!!"'t hea!t# and endle## de#i!e#, !e#"+e, #ince it de'end# enti!el on o"!#elve#, o"! ancient and '!i+itive innocence1 !eti!e to the &ood#, the!e to lo#e the #i*ht and !e+e+(!ance o% the c!i+e# o% o"! conte+'o!a!ie#, and (e not a''!ehen#ive o% de*!adin* o"! #'ecie#, ( !eno"ncin* it# advance# in o!de! to !eno"nce it# vice#- A# %o! +en li)e +e, &ho#e 'a##ion# have de#t!o ed thei! o!i*inal #i+'licit , &ho can no lon*e! #"(#i#t on 'lant# o! aco!n#, o! live &itho"t la&# and +a*i#t!ate#, tho#e &ho &e!e hono"!ed in thei! %i!#t %athe! &ith #"'e!nat"!al in#t!"ction#, tho#e &ho di#cove!, in the de#i*n o% *ivin* h"+an action# at the #ta!t a +o!alit &hich the +"#t othe!&i#e have (een #o lon* in ac."i!in*, the !ea#on %o! a '!ece't in it#el% indi%%e!ent and ine0'lica(le on eve! othe! # #te+, tho#e, in #ho!t, &ho a!e 'e!#"aded that the Divine Bein* ha# called all +an)ind to (e 'a!ta)e!# in the ha''ine## and 'e!%ection o% cele#tial intelli*ence#, all the#e &ill endeavo"! to +e!it the ete!nal '!i$e the a!e to e0'ect %!o+ the '!actice o% tho#e vi!t"e#, &hich the +a)e the+#elve# %ollo& in lea!nin* to )no& the+- The &ill !e#'ect the #ac!ed (ond# o% thei! !e#'ective co++"nitie#, the &ill love thei! %ello&7citi$en#, and #e!ve the+ &ith all thei! +i*ht1 the &ill #c!"'"lo"#l o(e the la&#, and all tho#e &ho +a)e o! ad+ini#te! the+, the &ill 'a!tic"la!l hono"! tho#e &i#e and *ood '!ince#, &ho %ind +ean# o% '!eventin*, c"!in* o! even 'alliatin* all the#e evil# and a("#e#, ( &hich &e a!e con#tantl th!eatened, the &ill ani+ate the $eal o% thei! de#e!vin* !"le!#, ( #ho&in* the+, &itho"t %latte! o! %ea!, the i+'o!tance o% thei! o%%ice and the #eve!it o% thei! d"t - B"t the &ill not the!e%o!e have le## conte+'t %o! a con#tit"tion that cannot #"''o!t it#el% &itho"t the aid o% #o +an #'lendid cha!acte!#, +"ch o%tene! &i#hed %o! than %o"nd, and %!o+ &hich, not&ith#tandin* all thei! 'ain# and #olicit"de, the!e al&a # a!i#e +o!e !eal cala+itie# than even a''a!ent advanta*e#?C

?F