CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Reinforced concrete structures are the most common structures available today due to their relatively low cost and ease of construction (the materials for concrete are readily available in almost every community). There are two types of building structures, namely: i. ii. Unframed buildings: load carried by load bearing walls Framed buildings: building load carried by structural frames (i.e. members that transfer loads to each other and finally to the ground); there are two types of framed structures and there are: Braced: frame not providing lateral stability i.e. no sway. Unbraced: frame providing lateral stability i.e. structure will sway (Allen, 1988). A building supported on load bearing walls is limited to two-storey only and the soil bearing pressure should be in the order of 100KN/m2 or more, otherwise, the building should be framed (Oyenuga, 2005). A framed building is made up of the following basic structural members, listed in order of how they transfer loads to the soil: i. ii. iii. Slabs Beams Shear walls

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iv. v.

Columns Foundations.

The natural soil beneath the building is the final recipient of the loads coming from the building and must possess a certain minimum amount of load bearing capacity for the whole building to be safe from excessive settlement, sliding or even collapse. Prior to the construction of any building, two stages of work are required, namely: Analysis of structural members and the load they carry Design of the structural members, taking cognizance of the imposed load and making provisions, by way of reinforcing steel bars and grade of concrete, to sustain the load. Alongside these two stages of work, laboratory and field work are also carried out to ascertain material strength and, characteristic properties and bearing capacity of the soil on the site. Analysis of structural members as mentioned above is a task carried out to determine member behavior under load (i.e. self weight and imposed load); the analysis provides information on deflection or bending, shear forces, crack, compressive and tensile stresses, ultimate/yield stresses etc.

2.2 THEORIES AND CONCEPTS IN RC STRUCTURES

The design of reinforced concrete sections has evolved through several phases as engineers over the years attempted to provide the most stable, safe and economic design solution for civil engineering structures. There are three major theories that have ever been used in the design of RC structures and there are: Permissible Stress Method
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Load Factor Method Limit State Method

PERMISSBLE STRESS METHOD: in this method the ultimate strength of the materials are divided by an appropriate factor of safety (FOS>1.00); giving design stresses that are usually within the elastic limit of the said material. LOAD FACTOR METHOD: in this alternate method, the estimated load coming on the structure is multiplied by an appropriate factor of safety (FOS>1.00) in order to increase the load beyond a value that may cause failure. Thus design provides solution that takes into account the failure load for the structure. LIMIT STATE METHOD: this method is more or less a compromise of the two aforementioned methods of design, in that the method provides two partial Factors of Safety, one to reduce the material strength and the other to increase design load. All design codes used in Nigeria today for almost all structural members are based on this method. This project work shall be accomplished using this method.

2.3 LIMIT STATE DESIGNS

The basic principle of the method has been discussed above; here we shall review the underlying concepts and contributory factors that are useful in implementing this method.

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2.3.1 LIMIT STATE REQUIREMENTS

2.3.1.1 Ultimate Limit State The strength of the structure should be sufficient to withstand design loads (Allen, 1988), with an adequate factor of safety against collapse to ensure the safety of the occupants and/or the safety of the structure itself (Mosley et al, 2007). Provisions must be made against overturning. 2.3.1.2 Serviceability Limit State Limit state models the behavior of the structure at working loads (Allen, 1994). This requirement is grouped under the following: DEFLECTION: achieved by complying with the span/effective depth ratios given in section 3, BS 8110-1-1997, where the Actual span/effective depth ratio is recommended to be less than a Limiting span/effective depth ratio. Section 3, BS 8110-2-1997 gives certain basic rules: i. ii. Appearance: final deflection < span/250. Damage: movement of partition, cladding and finishes should not exceed the lesser of span/350 and 20mm for non-brittle material; and the lesser of span/500 and 20mm for brittle materials. iii. Horizontal deflection: lateral deflection in any one storey should not exceed Storey Height/500 (Allen, 1998). CRACKING: width of cracks should not exceed 0.3mm for appearance and corrosion; for water retaining structures, crack width < 0.3mm.

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2.3.1.3 Other Limit States EXCESSIVE VIBRATION: such structural movement has the tendency to instill fear in the occupants leading to discomfort. FIRE RESISTANCE: takes into account of the structures resistance to collapse, heat transfer and more importantly fire penetration. FATIGUE: provisions against the action of cyclic loading. In every project, there may be certain characteristics needing special requirements for the adequate performance of the structure; such requirements may not be covered by any of the aforementioned limit states, examples are seismic actions, radioactivity resistant structures etcetera. Limit state design method is disadvantaged in that it is quite impossible to design for all the limit states. The convention is to design for the highest limit state and then check for the adequacy of other limit states. In the case of Reinforced Concrete Design, the Ultimate Limit State (ULS) is used.

2.3.2 CHARACTERISTIC RESISTANCE

This is the resistance which takes account of the statistical variation of the resistance of the material (Hughes, 1978); this material strength may also be defined as the strength below which only 1 in 20 test results are likely to fall, the criterion is defined by the following equation: (2.1) Where, = characteristic resistance
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= mean resistance s = standard deviation z = coefficient, say 1.64, implying that 5% of the test result will be below

2.3.3 CHARACTERISTIC MATERIAL STRENGTH

STEEL STRENGTH, This refers to the minimum yield strength (or 0.2% proof stress) of the reinforcing steel. According to BS 4449, refer to the 0.2% proof stress as the stress at the point where the stress-strain curve deviates from the initial tangent modulus by 02% strain. The characteristic strength of steel reinforcing bars, commonly used in Nigeria, are listed on page 9, of chapter one. Steel has an elastic modulus of 200N/mm2. CONCRETE (CUBE) STRENGTH, The characteristic strength of concrete, , is the cube strength of concrete at 28 days. Note, in 300mm

some codes (e.g. EC2), it is the cylinder strength of concrete at 28 days a 150 cylinder. MATERIAL FACTOR

In the design of structural members, the exact strength of materials obtained from laboratory tests is not used; for safety requirements, these strengths are usually divided by a material factor, . The material factors as specified by BS8110 for the Ultimate Limit State are given

by S. S. Ray (1995:4) as: Reinforcement 1.15

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Concrete in flexure or axial load Concrete in shear Bond strength in concrete Bearing stress

1.50 1.25 1.40 1.50

For exceptional loads and for localized damage, = 1.30, for concrete = 1.00, for reinforcement MATERIAL STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONSHIP The figure shown in Fig. 1.1 (see chapter 1), illustrates the (compressive) stress-strain relationship for normal weight concrete in the short term; from the curve the following can be deduced: The Initial Elastic Modulus the initial tangent to the parabolic curve:

2.2

The Ultimate Stress: 2.3

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The Ultimate Strain: 2.4

2.5

Equation 2.4, gives the strain for general design purposes; while equation 2.5 gives strain when the curve reaches ultimate stress levels, Ray (1995:4-5). LOAD FACTOR For safe load on any structure, the code specifies a percentage increment in permanent and variable loads such that the final structure possess the capacity to sustain load under favorable and adverse conditions. The table below gives a typical outlay of these factors used to increase the calculated loads on a structure by a percentage as recommended by the code (Table 2.1 of BS8110-1-1997, abridged here as Table 2.1):

Load combination Dead Adverse Dead and Imposed Dead and Wind Dead, and wind 1.4 1.4 Beneficial 1.0 1.0 1.2 Imposed Adverse 1.6 1.2 Beneficial 0 1.2 1.4 1.2 Wind

Imposed 1.2

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Typical load combinations used are: 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 Where, Design load Dead load Imposed load Wind load These characteristic factors recommended by the code are the factor of safety (f) applied to the loads imposed on a structure and used here in several computations. A more comprehensive tabulation of these factors is in Table 2.1 of BS8110-1997.

2.4 ANALYSIS AT THE ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE

The critical limit for reinforced concrete structures will usually be the Ultimate (ULS), thus most design procedures for RC structures are based on analysis at the Ultimate Limit State (Allen, 1988:22).

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This analysis involves the determination of the distribution moments and forces in the structure. A structure of several storeys may be analyzed as frames with the aid of computer programs1. All methods that may be used for the analysis of a structure require that an assessment of section sizes must be carried out. Generally, slabs spanning in one direction, a minimum span/depth ratio of 30 and 12 to 15 for beams will be satisfactory, provided durability and fire requirements are satisfied (Allen, 1988:22). The process of design involves the determination of the worst effect due to the calculated imposed loads. The maximum moment in a continuous beam and in carry maximum design loads; while in obtaining maximum moments in a span, that span carries the maximum load with adjacent spans carrying the minimum load. Buildings with multiple floors are best analyzed as frames, since the interconnection between beams and columns allow the imposed moments to be shared between the beams and columns, thus reducing the design moments on each member which in turn reduces the reinforcement required for each member effectively lowering the construction cost. The code provides options for frame analysis depending on whether allocation is made for lateral stability2 or not. Clause 3.2.1.2 of the BS8110-1-1997 is for frames without provision for lateral stability whereas clause 3.2.1.3 serves frames providing for lateral stability.

1
2

This project work involved a partial frame analysis by manual computations, while the complete analysis and design was

done using ORION software

Lateral stability implies provision to support vertical and lateral loads or actions.

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This project work was concerned with the design of a structure with provision for lateral stability3. It must be stated at this juncture that a building may sway under vertical loads only if the load is asymmetrical loading arrangement (Allen, 1988:22).

2.4.1 UNBRACED FRAMES

The analysis and subsequent design of an unbraced (frame) structure is quite complex, tedious and time consuming, thus in this project work the analysis was done partially by hand and completed using a computer program (i.e. ORION). Lateral loads causing sway input in a structure, is usually a relatively small amount of effect on the behavior of a structure under load and in time past unbraced framed structures were designed with this effect ignored (Allen, 1988:22); though in some cases the magnitude may be large enough to cause concern therefore in this work the analysis shall be carried out to ensure that the variations do not exceed acceptable limits. The analysis that shall be carried out later, based on recommendations of the code, shall be broken into: Frame analysis with vertical loads only (Clause 3.2.1.3.2(a)) Frame analysis with horizontal loads only (Clause 3.2.1.3.2(b))

The procedure and typical frame analysis are discussed in detail kin chapters 3 and 4 respectively.

Wind action assumed to occur at the eastern wing of the structure.

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2.4.2 SLABS
Types The choice of slabs for any structure may depend on the following as stated by Oyenuga (2007): i. ii. iii. iv. The span of the slab The use of the space which may determine the span The load to be carried, and Architectural aesthetics that are required

The following are the basic types of slabs: Solid slab4 Ribbed slab Flat slab Waffle slab5

Analysis There are four available methods for the analysis of slabs and there are as follows (Ray, 1995): i. ii. iii.
4 5

Code: BS8110-1-1985 Clauses 3.5.2 and 3.5.3, Table 3.15 Yield line method (non linear) Finite difference (linear elastic)

This may be cantilever, simply-supported, continuous, and two-way spanning slabs, (Oyenuga, 2007) With beams, or mushroom waffle

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iv.

Finite element analysis

The detailed analysis of slabs are beyond the scope of this work, nevertheless, a brief analogy of the yield line method shall be given here while its application shall be used (limitedly) in chapter 4. THE YIELD LINE METHOD The yield line theory gives an upper-bound solution which ensures that the most critical collapse mechanism has been selected, if the load-carrying capacity of the slab is not to be over-estimated (Hughes, 1976). These collapse mechanisms can be represented by superimposed yield line patterns, creating rigid regions between the yield lines which are also uncracked assumed (Mosley et al, 2007). Rotation along the yield lines will occur at a constant moment equal to the ultimate moment of resistance of the section, and will absorb energy (Mosley et al, 2007). This allows the application of the virtual work method for applied load undergoing displacement (Khurmi, 2010). The virtual work method gives the following applicable expressions (Paraphrased from Mosley et al, 2007): ( ) 2.10 ( ) as shown below with, 2.11

For a square one-way slab, Displacement, d

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Rotation, r Moment, m, and Load, w Therefore, ( ) , also , and 2.12 2.13

( )

2.14

a. slab Figure 2.2: Collapse Mechanism for Slabs

b. Collapse mechanism

equating 2.12 and 2.13

2.15

rearranging,

2.16

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Equation 2.16 gives the ultimate moment of resistance of a slab when load is maximum (i.e. critical). Design The design of a slab is basically rudimentary as the designer already has a clear knowledge of the failure pattern of a slab based on its dimensions and ultimate moment of resistance6. The object of design is to provide reinforcement for the slab such that the imposed load on the slab is less likely to cause a moment exceeding the ultimate moment of resistance. The details for the design of slabs peculiar to this project work are in chapters 3 and 4.

2.4.3 BEAMS
Beams are structural elements primarily designed to provide adequate resistance to the ultimate bending moments, shear forces and torsional moments (Mosley et al, 2007). Beams also carry the lateral loads in roofs and floors, whose design stages may be condensed as (from Mosley, et al 2007:169): Preliminary analysis and member sizing Detailed analysis and design of reinforcement Serviceability checks

Research over the years has enabled engineers to satisfactorily define the critical failure patterns of most slab shapes.

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Types Beams may be grouped and classified as follows (Arya): i. ii. iii. Cross-section: Rectangular T-section beams L-section beams Position of reinforcement Singly Reinforced beams Doubly reinforced beams Support conditions Simply supported Continuous beams

The aforementioned parameters help to define the behaviour of the beam section in relation to bending, shear and deflection (Oyenuga, 2005). Following the analysis of the beam, Draycott (1990) stated the following dimensional restraints and limitations as applicable to the design: Effective span of beams Deep and/or slender beams Main reinforcement areas Minimum spacing of reinforcement Maximum spacing of reinforcement

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Analysis Beams may be analyzed as simply supported where the end moments are zero and the span moment is:

For beams spanning over several supports they are analyzed as continuous with the end fixed (i.e. rigid) or more simply with the ends free. The beams are analyzed and designed in this work were analyzed as rigid members of braced frames (see chapters 3 and 4). The Moment Distribution Method is the common method used in the analysis of frames. This analysis is very tedious and most were accomplished using Orion analysis and design software. Design The beams designed in this project work were all of the continuous type and were designed following a strict regimen of sequential operations as recommended by several textbooks: Preliminary sizing Analysis of loads obtaining moments (and reactions) at the spans and support connections respectively Checking that imposed moments does not exceed ultimate bending moment of the beam, otherwise adequate provisions were made for sustenance (in the form compression steel). Design of reinforcement at span and at support (against bending and shear) Checks were also instituted to ensure that shear, deflection, and area of reinforcements were all adequate.
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Regions of the structure lacking walls for lateral resistance were designed with additional moment and shear from wind load analysis.

2.4.4 COLUMN
Columns are largely compression members which may be subjected to bending due to their slenderness and/or asymmetrical loading from beams (Oyenuga, 2005:201). Columns are the vertical sections of a structure and are best analyzed as part of a frame enabling the determination of the imposed moment and in turn ensuring design provisions are adequate and economic. The code (in clause 3.8) makes provision solely for columns whose greater overall dimensions does not exceed four times its smaller dimensions. Columns may be grouped into (see clause 3.8.1.5): Braced: when stability of the structure as a whole is provided by wall, bracing, or buttressing designed to resist all lateral forces in that plane. Unbraced: column provides lateral support for the entire structure (lateral load analysis required). A further classification of columns is: Short column: lex/h and ley/b less than 15 (braced) lex/h and ley/b less than 10 (unbraced) It should be noted that columns may not possess reinforcement (i.e. plain columns), if the cross section is large enough to provide support for the ultimate loads.

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Analysis The bending moment and forces acting on a column are: Imposed moment (from frame analysis) Moments from column deflection (if the column is slender) Axial forces (from frame analysis) Imposed axial load (or force) from area of beam, wall and slab controlled by the column The type and number of moments and forces acting on a column determine if the column is to be designed as axial, uniaxial, or biaxial column (see typical frame analysis in chapter 4). The analysis of columns as recommended by the code, clause 3.8.2.4 requires that a nominal eccentricity of vertical loads equal to 0.05 times the overall dimensions in the plane of bending, not to exceed 20mm. biaxial bending only requires minimum eccentricity checks about one axis at a time. Design The design of columns (as with all RC members) follows a strict regimen controlled by codes BS8110 mostly. In this work, the manual analysis and design of biaxial columns were considered as the structural analysis data was readily available7.

Design for other types of columns would have required a manual analysis of the whole structure an impractical and time-consuming venture.

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PRELIMINARY DETERMINATION OF IMPORTANT PARAMETERS The following parameters are vital to the design of a column: a. Sizing: based on durability, fire resistance and architectural aesthetics. b. Effective Height: Table 3.19 and 3.20 of the code makes provision of multiplication factors used to reduce or increase the clear distance between floors to give its effective value at each axis column end conditions are taken into account. c. Slenderness Limit: the clear distance between floors is expected not to exceed 60 times the minimum thickness of the column clause 3.8.1.7. d. Minimum eccentricity, as stated above. e. Procedures for the design of biaxial columns are available in chapter 3 f. Typical biaxial column analysis (i.e. frame analysis) are available in chapter 4

2.4.5 WALLS
A wall is a vertical load-bearing member, whose length exceeds four times its thickness (Ray,). Walls may be categorized as Unbraced: designed to carry lateral loads Braced: does not carry any lateral loads, and Reinforced walls: contains at least the minimum quantities of reinforcement Plain walls: contains no reinforcement or less than the minimum quantity of reinforcement (Ray,). The analysis and design of walls was performed via computer application.

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2.4.6 FOUNDATION
Foundations serve the primary function of transferring and spreading the loads from a structures columns and walls to the ground (Mosley, et al,). The ground must possess a bearing capacity that reasonably exceeds the load transferred to it per meter square. An effective foundation provides resistance against sliding, uplift, and overturning. The design of foundations takes into account of both structural and geotechnical failure. Foundation structures are founded on soils, thus soil mechanics plays a vital role in the selection of footing types, sizing of footing base, founding depth, thickness of footing. The following are the basic types of footing and a description of situations in which they are used (Arya, 1994): a) CONTINOUS STRIP FOOTING: To support load-bearing walls or under a line of closely spread columns b) PAD FOOTING: To support a single column; it may be reinforced or plain concrete form depending on magnitude of loading. c) RAFT FOOTING: Used where ground conditions are relatively poor. This type of footing distributes the load over a large area and allows the uniform settlement of the structure. d) PILE FOOTING: Applicable where the ground conditions are so poor that it is impractical to use strip or pad footing, as well as where better soil is present at lower depths.

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2.4.7 STAIRCASE
These are structural members added to a structure to bridge the gap between two (say, floors) levels by breaking up the distance into smaller vertical distances spread out in a slope length between these levels. Staircases may be classified into transverse spanning stairs and longitudinal spanning stairs. TRANSVERSE SPAN STAIRS This type of stairs allow for smaller thickness of slab waist. Allen () categorized this type of stairs as: a. Cantilever stairs spanning from walls at one side b. Stairs spanning between support at each side, with support provided by walls or stringer beams c. Cantilever stairs across a central spine beam; no lateral distribution between adjacent treads so that each tread must be designed for concentrated loads. Categories (a) and (b) above requires minimal waist thickness for adequate and effective lateral distribution of load only uniformly distributed load are thus considered in the design. LONGITUDINAL SPAN STAIRS These stairs span between supports at the top and bottom of the flight and are unsupported at the sides (Allen,). The supports are provided by beams or walls cast monolithically with the

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stairs, or spanning across the edges of the landing. The span of the stairs will be taken as the distance between the centers of the beam or walls. The staircases designed in this project work are three flights surrounding an elevator opening (or well). They were designed individually with their spans taken as the distance between half the landing on both ends of the stairs, as recommended by MacGinley, (1990).

2.4.8 WIND LOAD ON TALL STRUCTURES

Wind is a source of lateral action on high rise buildings and must be taken into account for any (unbraced building) structure rising above 4 storeys or above 12 metres at least.

Fig 2.3: typical structure subjected to wind action (Source: Smith and coull, 1991. Page 49)

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Failure to take wind actions into consideration during design may lead to excessive sway or even catastrophic failure due to overturning or flutter from aero-elastic effects (Ameen-Ikoyi, 2005). Wind action is not constant with height of structure or duration of impact. Thus wind load (or action) on the side of a building is not uniform and its effect may be favorable or unfavourable to the amount of imposed load to which a structure is subjected (Ameen-Ikoyi, 2005). However in executing this project work, for simplicity, the wind load was assumed to vary uniformly across the entire height of the structure8. WIND VELOCITY PROFILE The earths rough surface causes turbulence and frictional drag which reduces the wind speed at lower levels; these turbulence and friction decreases with height, allowing the wind velocity to increase towards a maximum value. But for simplification purposes again, this work involved the application of a constant wind velocity, v = 43m/s, as was recommended for North-central Nigeria (Aguwa, 2013)9. It should be noted that a wind design load of 1.2Wk was applied to the building (lateral) frame analysis process prior to the design. The conventional vertical load factor of safety remained unchanged.

The accurate determination of the variation of wind action on the structure would have required intensive test simulation and wind speed evaluations, which both exceed the scope of work for this project. 9 Authority obtained from supervisors verbal communication to student.

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