National Cohesion and Integration Commission The Use of Coded Language and Stereotypes among Kenyan Ethnic Communities

Brief 1 Background
National Cohesion and Integration Commission conducted a nationwide study on the Use of Coded language and Stereotypes by various communities in Kenya and how they are perceived by the users and target groups. This study was prompted by the realization that individuals sometimes use stereotypes and coded language to invoke feelings of hate towards particular Kenyan ethnic communities which, in turn, raises the possibility of recurrence of ethnic conflicts. A stereotype is defined in this study as an entrenched generalised belief amongst a people about the typical behaviours, attributes, attitudes, abilities and weaknesses of other people such as members of other ethnic communities. Coded language is defined as the use of language in a manner intended to conceal the normal meanings of expressions (words, phrases, sentences etc.). Such stereotypes and coded language are usually known to the users (in this case the ethnic communities that use them) while the target communities may not be aware about them or their meanings

Objectives
Identify the common ethnic stereotypes and coded language used by Kenyan communities. Establish how the stereotypes and coded language are perceived by the user communities. Establish how the stereotypes and coded language are perceived by the target communities. Establish the common motivations for the use of the stereotypes and coded language.

Justification for the Study

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The PEV of 2007/2008 in Kenya was partly blamed on incitements some based on stereotypes & use of coded language. There is continued use of ST & CL to invoke hate and tension among Kenyan ethnic communities. There is lack of full awareness about ST & CL among Kenyans and how they are perceived by users and target communities. Social Cohesion and integration among Kenyan communities cannot be successfully achieved without awareness about ST & CL. There is not much empirical data/knowledge on the use of (upon which policy and practice may be anchored)

Significance
Timely as part of the process of reducing ethnic polarisation cause by the use of stereotypes and coded language especially in the electioneering year. Provide an empirical basis upon which relevant agencies may intervene and anchor policy. In order to facilitate and promote good relations, harmony and peaceful coexistence between persons of different ethnic and racial backgrounds in Kenya, the Commission needs to identify how Kenyan ethnic communities perceive one another and how these perceptions are expressed. The overall purpose of such a study (especially as conceived by the NCIC) is to raise awareness about these stereotypes and coded language and interrogate their implications on national cohesion and integration in Kenya. Stimulate discourse on CL and ST.

Methodology
Research design Qualitative survey Research site and sampling: purposive sampling - 39 counties spread all over Kenya, an average of 30 participants in every county = 1233 participants Data generation: Interviews, FGDs, Document analysis, open ended questionnaires, informal conversations (ethnographic interviews) Data analysed qualitatively Data transcribed, coded (open, axial and selective) County used as basic unit of analysis Presented under various research questions stereotypes, coded language, perceptions by users, and perceptions by target community.

Brief 2 Key Findings from the Study

i. Findings confirm that stereotypes and coded language have a more or less symbiotic relationship. Stereotypes especially negative ones about other ethnic communities - are normally expressed in coded language while some coded expressions reflect the stereotypes held by inner communities about outer community. In all Kenyan ethnic communities, there are entrenched beliefs amongst the people about the behaviour, attributes, attitudes, abilities and weaknesses of members of other ethnic communities. The study revealed that every linguistic community in Kenya has stereotypes / use coded expressions about other Kenyan Communities. Some of these are specific to particular communities while others are general referring to all other Kenyan communities. Similarly, practically all ethnic communities studied have stereotypes and/or coded expressions used to refer to them by other communities in Kenya. Almost every Kenyan ethnic community has both positive and negative stereotypes about them (by other communities) and about other Kenyan communities. The positive stereotypes reflect such beliefs as courage, generosity, business acumen, loyalty to deals, success in education and recognition of some unique characteristics about the target communities. The negative stereotypes, on the other hand show contempt, insult and sometimes outright hate about the target communities. Most of the stereotypes and even coded terms are historical and deeprooted and have been passed on from generation to generation to the extent that it was not possible to identify exactly when the community started holding/using them e.g. Emoit loa akwara, used by the Turkana in reference to the Pokot, which means enemy with a spear. However, there are more recent stereotypes and coded expressions associated with significant historical events, especially of a political nature. For example some stereotypes and coded words are associated with the 2007/2008 post-election violence in Kenya or political relationships and/or affiliations between different communities. For
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example, one Kenyan community is referred to by a few others as kabila choma due to their perceived roles (burning of houses) during the postelection violence. viii. The study reveals that several stereotypes and coded expressions reflect the cultures of the target communities. For example, the communities that practice male circumcision and those that do not, attract stereotypes and coded terms that reflect such identities. Many communities identify the Luo with expressions that identify them as noncircumcising. It is also common to find stereotypes and coded terms associated with the economic activities of the communities referred to such as; farming, fishing, pastoralism or business people. For example, most communities studied identify people from the Kikuyu community as being business men and women while some identify the Maasai as pastoralists. Still some stereotypes capture peaceful and close social relationships between communities such as, extent of intermarriage and /or whether the referent communities produce good wives or not. A relevant example is the reference to the Luhya by the Luo as kayuochwa, translated literally as our in-laws, which is interpreted to mean those from whom the user community have married and/or those who have married from the user community. The opposite of the kind of stereotype and coded expressions highlighted above are those stereotypes and coded expressions that are intended to refer to communities that are regarded as enemies in one way or the other or those communities whose members should never be trusted. For example, these kinds of stereotypes and coded expressions are held/used by the Turkana and Pokot with regard to one another and a number of other communities. The study also shows that the stereotypes and coded expressions are predominantly about neighbouring communities. However, some of them refer to communities that live quite far apart. For example, the Kamba have stereotypes about the Luhya, while the Kisii have stereotypes and coded expressions about the Meru. Furthermore, the study reveals that in the urban areas where there are different Kenyan communities living and/or working together the
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stereotypes held and coded expressions used reflect those of the counties of origin. For example, Kenyans who speak Luo, Kisii, Kamba or Bukusu languages generally hold stereotypes and used coded expressions similar to those held in the counties predominantly inhabited by these people. This is similar in counties that are cosmopolitan in nature (where many different ethnic communities have settled) such as Trans Nzoia, Uasin Gishu and Nakuru. xiv. The study further reveals that in many cases, the stereotypes held by many Kenyan communities and the coded expressions used are known to or understood by many people among the target communities. This is common among neighbouring ethnic communities, in urban areas, in cosmopolitan counties or amongst people who have lived extensively amongst other ethnic communities. The study revealed that the stereotypes in particular have been perpetuated by the local media (especially Radio and Television) through the many entertainment programmes where presenters or actors imitate the speeches or act out the perceived attitudes, behaviours and other characteristics associated with particular ethnic communities in Kenya. Generally, it has emerged from this study that stereotypes and coded expressions per se (even when they are negative) would not necessarily cause hate or cause people from particular ethnic communities to be violent against the other. Indeed, it emerged that ethnic hate and/or violence is largely associated with malicious individuals who would want to emphasise the negative stereotypes and possibly use coded expressions to incite particular ethnic communities against others for very selfish reasons, usually couched as community concerns or interests. Indeed it featured from the data that the use of stereotypes and coded expressions in this manner can be traced to specific contexts associated with crime, competition for resources or perhaps more commonly political contests. Some of the stereotypes have been passed on from generation to generation and have become an integral part of the identity of the target Kenyan communities in the view of the inner communities. It also emerged that sometimes language is coded in such a manner that even members of the same linguistic community who do not share specific codes would not understand the underlying meanings and intentions.

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It was confirmed that the use of coded language and stereotypes were widespread during the 2007 electioneering period in Kenya and partly contributing to heightening of inter-ethnic tensions which culminated in inter-ethnic violence. Some of the perceptions towards these stereotypes and coded language have the potential to advance hate, which could possibly precipitate violence in Kenya. Politicians tend to use stereotypes and coded language during political campaigns to rally support of members of inner communities (and sometimes other communities) against target communities. The implication here is that either very few Kenyans truly interact freely enough to enable them correct the stereotypes held or the possibility that these interactions are primarily on the surface - and have very minimal effects. Perhaps a more analytical way of putting it is that yes, Kenyans interact physically and socially in the urban areas and cosmopolitan counties but, in terms of general deep emotional engagement, they still retreat or feel safer to their ethnic boundaries. The import of this is that, it should not be assumed that Kenyans in the cosmopolitan counties and/or urban areas are free from the stereotypes they would also benefit from the educational interventions.

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Brief 3 Positive stereotypes

i. From the findings stated above, it is clear that, generally, the positive stereotypes and coded expressions promote harmonious relationships/co-existence between the users and the target communities, for example the Luos and the Luhyas who regard each other as in-laws. Some of them invoke a sense of pride e.g. when the Kikuyus are recognised as astute business people and the Kambas are credited as great craftsmen or the Kalenjins are praised as gifted athletes. There are many more positive stereotypes and coded expressions as reported in the findings and generally the study shows that they elicit equally positive reactions. This is because the positive stereotypes reflect such beliefs as courage, generosity, business acumen, loyalty to deals, support of friendly communities success in education and recognition of some unique characteristics about the target communities. User Community Target community Coastal Kikuyu Communities Somalis and Non- Somalis Somalis Somalis and Non- A Somali Girl Somalis Non- Somalis Somalis Kamba Embu Meru and Tharaka Meru and Tharaka Maasai Kikuyu Anyone who walks in a hurry Ladies from Somali and Borana communities Any person who goes across river kuuru Luo Meaning Businessmen Somali Male A Daughter A slang term for Warriah as described above Entrepreneurs Doing things fast/in a hurry like a circumciser Ladies

Phrase Wanabiashara Warriahs Ghubr Walalo Aviasala Tiga kuviuka ta muruthia Wararu

Mbuna Kuura IIoobua

Across river kuuru This is a reference name for the Luo community because they are known to remove their teeth as a way of cultural rite of

Kap kulusia Kap mama Chitab Kipsongik Chitab Ndisiot Pik ap Ngokyet Chitab Ainet Chitab Kongoek Mogonik Toot Mumera Kamau Bababere Vechai Panandi Va mabwoni Vu khumatsi Chebo araraita Ngetik Rubwa Kamama Basuta Muka Baruka Njoya

Kalenjin Kalenjin Kalenjin Kalenjin Kalenjin Kalenjin Kalenjin Kalenjin Kalenjin Kikuyu Luhya Luhya Luhya Luhya Luhya Luhya Kalenjin Kalenjin Kikuyu Kalenjins Bukusu Bukusu

Bamasaba Bekhunyanja Basatumka

Bukusu Bukusu Bukusu

Onjelo Jarabuon Kaoche/koyuoro Abanyikwe Mwa Murume

Luo Luo Luo Kuria Mijikenda

passage Luhyas From the mountain Abagusii In- Laws Abagusii People of Millet Abagusii People of the Banana Luhyas People of chicken Luos People of the lake Luhyas People of Termites Kisii People of the banana Non-Kalenjin Visitor Kikuyu Gentleman Kikuyu Name from kikuyu tribe Kalenjin Milk lover Maragoli Love tea Kalenjin The Nandi community Kikuyu The people of potato Luos Water Luo Of the lake side Luo Boys Kipsigis Highlands Kikuyu Uncle Kalenjins The ones that carry the milk guard Other Luhya The ones that crossed communities that River Nzoia neighbour the Bukusu Abagishu of The people from the Uganda and shores of Mt. Elgon Kenya Luos From the lakeside Kalenjins Kalenjins are cattle keepers and keep milk in guards. Belittling when they say Khasutamka Kalenjin An athlete Kikuyu From the land of sweet potatoes Luhya In-laws Kalenjin Athlete Kamba Brother Meru Gentleman
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Akavi Ero Mumbele Uju ni muruguru Pik ap Nyanja Kap Chelit Lemeek Cheptukenyot Kokoiyot Sambur Basuta Muka Basomeki Bikaap beko Bandu bengaaki Jagot

Kamba Kamba Kamba Tharaka, Nithi and Meru Kalenjin Kalenjin Kalenjin, (Keiyo) Kalenjin (KeiyoMarakwet) Kalenjin (KeiyoMarakwet) Turkana Bukusu Bukusu Bukusu Bukusu Luo

Maasai Maasai Mbeere Those living near the mountain Luos Kamba Luhya/Luo Tribe Tugen Kikuyu Samburu Kalenjin Nandi Luo Sabaot Kalenjins

Wood artists Maasai greetings Mbeere tribe This one is from the uphill People from the lake Sharpening of teeth Luhya/Luo People A Tugen lady A Kikuyu Samburu tribe Guard carriers Nomads People from the lake People from the hills People who live in the mountains

Brief 4 The negative stereotypes,

i. The negative stereotypes show contempt, insult and sometimes outright hate about the target communities. Most of them stereotypes and even coded terms are historical and deep-rooted in the sense that they have been passed on from generation to generation to the extent that it was not possible to identify exactly when the community started holding/using them. ii. In relevance to the stereotypes and coded expressions that could be considered negative, four possible scenarios are identifiable from the findings: 1. Identification of a community with a bad practice, 2. expression of contempt due to a trait considered immoral or childish, 3. Instilling of a sense of suspicion and /or mistrust about the target community 4. Expression of deep seated hate of the target community. Negative and emotive stereotypes Although the study revealed that the use of coded language and stereotypes can stir ethnic animosity depends a lot on the context, the respondents identified some stereotypes and coded language seemed to evoke emotive and negative feelings among the target communities and should be discouraged all the times. Data relevant to this issue was generated from elders, opinion leaders, professionals, businessmen and even politicians. The general finding is that, granted, some of the stereotypes and coded expressions amounted to insult; show of contempt and sometimes even hate. The participants acknowledged that naturally some of these would cause annoyance, invoke ill feelings, discourage combined ventures such as in business or entrench mistrust and could discourage other forms of social interactions. Some of these include:

1. Thief
While the word thief a normal term in day today life, it emerged from the study that many communities have terms that connote negative emotive feelings where referring to the members of the Kikuyu community. This term tends to stir ethnic animosity anytime it is used to refer to members of the Kikuyu community.

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Phrase/Word in Local Language Tugo

User Community Somali

Target Community Kikuyu

Meaning. These are words/phases used to refer to the members of the Kikuyu community and are always used in a negative intensions. Thief Thief They are always seen as those who love money and always ready to steal or use any means to obtain it. Thieves, Someone who cannot be trusted

Sokomokabul Imeet Chorik

Somali Maasai Kalenjin

Kikuyu Kikuyu Kikuyu

Jokuoye Osuuji

Luo Maasai

Kikuyu Kikuyu

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2. Uncircumcised
This term has been used repeatedly to refer to the members of the Luo ethnic community who culturally did not use circumcision to initiate the youth into adulthood. The term is therefore used negatively by various communities to portray all the members of the Luo community as children, premature, not fully developed etc. It is also used to refer to some other communities such as the Turkana. Phrase/Word in Local Language Mwiji Jathi Kabisi Serikal Kavirondo Lememurata User Community Embu Embu Embu Embu Embu Samburu Target Meaning. Community Luo An uncircumcised man often demeaning Luo Uncircumcised man Luo Uncircumcised man Luo Uncircumcised man Luo Uncircumcised man Turkana Used to refer to the Turkana since some they are uncircumcised. Luo Uncircumcised man Luo Uncircumcised man Luo Uncircumcised man

Kihii Ngetik Abachabu/abaisia /abagima

Kikuyu Kalenjin Kisii

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3. Animals, Smelly, Foolish, Dogs, Bushmen, Monkey The following table shows various stereotypes on coded language used by various communities to refer to others which the target community identify as offensive and cause tension. Phrase/Word in Local Language Macengi Nyamu cia ruguru Ajayee Longuulkitkit Longuu Uriti ja mutigania wa wa kunati Rubwa Pik ap kongoek Soqi Emoit Bosyanju Avalivavandu/Avas eeve. User Community Akamba Kikuyu Kamba Maasai Samburu Tharaka Kikuyu Kalenjin Samburu Turkana Luhya Luhya Target Community Mbeere People from upcountry Maasai Kamba Turkana People from Tigania Kalenjin Luhya Pokot Pokot Sabaot Kikuyu/Em bu/Meru Meaning. Dangerous small animal that destroys crops. Animals from upcountry Smelly Smelly armpits Smelly and unclean people. Foolish like Tigania from Kunati People who eat dogs People who eat termites The inhuman, beasts and cattle rustlers A cattle thief Arsonist. The Kikuyu will eat people the way a hyena does. This means that they can con someone until the person is financially or materially drained.

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Brief 5
Main Causes/Motivations Most participants attributed the use of stereotypes and coded expressions to; i. Ignorance about the referent communities. Some stereotypes and coded expressions seem to be associated also with lack of reasonable awareness about other ethnic communities in terms of cultural orientations, economic activities and religious practices, among other issues. Apparently, it has emerged that there is the presumption that the cultures of the inner communities and other socio economic issues raised above, are more superior to that of the outer communities. There are also stereotypes and coded expressions that seem to capture the sheer suspicion of one ethnic community by another due to lack of adequate information or interaction. ii. Lack of reasonably long interactions, iii. Unfair generalisation of isolated incidents. iv. Most of these participants attributed the use of stereotypes and coded expressions to propagate hate and to incite people to violent conflict or conflict of various forms by a section of ill-motivated politicians or other influential members of the communities with personal motives such as to win support against political opponents, instil fear in some sections (e.g. to stop them from supporting someone) or to rally support when threatened with certain consequences e.g. by being sacked from positions held in the government.

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Brief 6
Recommendations
The study illustrates that there are plenty of good perceptions about Kenyan ethnic communities other than bad ones. The task for all Kenyans is to promote equal opportunities for Kenyans so as to create the chance to bring out the different strengths for recognition by others. Perhaps in this way, the seemingly entrenched notion (through) the stereotypes that some ethnic communities are more endowed, gifted, favoured, suited or preferable in particular professions, occupations, activities or situations would be demystified. Thus, highlight the positive stereotypes that unite us than focus on the negative ones that divide us. There is need to strongly discourage the use of negative emotive stereotypes and coded language that have the intrinsic potential of causing tension and conflict between different ethnic groups. There is need to embark on massive education of Kenyan ethnic communities about others. This kind of education would target the stereotypes and coded expressions that particularly seem to stem from the lack of appreciation of different social-cultural- economic orientations of Kenyan ethnic communities. Such educational endeavours could target particularly young people, preferably those of the primary school going age who face the immediate danger of imbibing the stereotypes and coded expressions before they are able to fully comprehend their meanings. The education could build on the findings from various groups that they are aware of these stereotypes but, in normal circumstances, would not bother about the stereotypes or stop them from relating with members of other ethnic communities as they had done before. For example, practically all the Kikuyu participants interviewed said they would continue running their businesses even amongst some communities that they know stereotypically brand some Kikuyu as thieves; many Kisii and Kamba participants declared they would continue to interact freely even with people from other ethnic communities that they were aware branded them as witches; The Luo participants reiterated that they would not normally feel inferior even when working amongst ethnic communities that branded them as big children, because they come from a community that traditionally does not circumcise males, and the list goes on, practically with regard to all Kenyan communities in the study. The civic education alongside the more formalised educational programmes would probably enhance the achievement. It should be
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acknowledged that the NCIC has already began doing this kind of educational activity through the sponsorship of certain co-curricular events such as the Kenya Schools and Colleges Drama and Music Festivals. Such activities could be continued but with clearer direction benefitting from the findings of this study.

There is need to tackle the opportunistic use of stereotypes and coded expressions that would be to demonstrate that in the specific contexts, the given stereotype and/or coded language would aim at invoking a particular perception (usually a negative one) with the intention of incitement or expression of hate. In this way, the study also offers empirical data that may hopefully be cited on legal interventions aimed at correcting and or preventing misuse of stereotypes and coded language. There is need to enlighten Kenyans about the diversity expressed in the stereotypes and acknowledge the inevitable existence of various sociocultural-economic orientations among Kenyan communities none of which is superior whatsoever to any other.

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