Dwi Setyati 2013

What is Plant Stress ?

Stress in biology is any change in environmental conditions that might reduce or adversely change a plants growth or development.

Stress Physiology
Resistance : resistance is the ability adaptive or tolerant to stresses. Resistance includes adaptation, avoidance and tolerance

Adaptation is permanent resistance to stress in morphology and structure , physiology and biochemistry under long-term stress condition. a well-developed aerenchyma in hydrophytes, a pattern for stomata movement in CAM plant. Tolerance is a resistant reaction to reduce or repair injury with morphology , structure, physiology, biochemistry or molecular biology, when plant counters with stresses.

pathogen microbe insects Allelopathy

Biotic stress

Abiotic stress

chilling stress freezing stress heat stress wet stress flood stress drought stress salt stress

temperatures stress

water stress

Biotic and abiotic stresses can reduce average productivity by 65%~87%

Crop

Record yield

Average yield

Average losses

Abiotic losses (% of record yield)

Biotic Corn

Abiotic

19300

4600

1952

12700

65.8

Wheat

14500 Soybean 7390 Sorghum 20100 Oat 10600 Barley 11400 Potato 94100 Sugar beet 121000

1880 1610 2830 1720 2050 28300 42600

726 666 1051 924 765 17775 17100

11900 5120 16200 7960 8590 50900 61300

82.1 69.3 80.6 75.1 75.4 54.1 50.7

 chilling stress freezing stress heat stress

Temperature stresses (high and low temperature) are the major environmental factors affecting plant growth, development and also induce morphological, physiological and biochemical changes in plants.

Effects of high temperature stress on plants

It induces the changes in water relations (accumulation of compatible osmolytes, decrease in photosynthesis, hormonal changes and cell membrane thermostability High temperatures stress (< 40"C) can cause : - scorching of leaves and twigs, - sunburns on leaves, - branches and stems, - leaf senescence and abscission, - shoot and root growth inhibition, - fruit discoloration and damage and reduced yield in plants

Leaf senescence and abscission

Formation of ROS is related to ethylene production and lipid peroxidation and results in membrane fluidity. Ethylene overproduction has also been found during or after recovery from water stress.

Heat Stress Berries are pink to bronze where directly exposed to sun Berries have a pleasant, wine smell Occurs in extreme heat at/near harvest

HEAT TEMPERATURE STRESS

-Environmental stresses in plants have been associated with production of activated forms of oxygen , including hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), singlet oxygen, superoxide, and the hydroxyl radical . Through a variety of reactions, O2*-leads to the formation of H2O2, OH* and other ROS. - Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are produced continuously as by products of different metabolic pathways which are located in different cellular compartments such as chloroplast, mitochondria and peroxisomes.

- The ROS comprising O2*-, H2O2, 1O2, HO2*-, OH*, ROOH, ROO+ and RO+ are highly reactive and toxic and causes damage to proteins, lipids, carbohydrates and DNA which ultimately results in cell death. Accumulation of ROS as a result of high temperature stress is a major cause of loss of crop productivity worldwide.

HEAT TEMPERATURE STRESS

-induces the rapid production and accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) (Mittler, 2002 Xu et al. 2008). - These high levels of ROS are harmful to all cellular compounds and negatively influence cellular metabolic processes (Breusegem et al., 2001). - The detoxification of these ROS is very important and plants have evolved complex strategies to deal with them (Asthir et al., 2009).

High temperature stress in Sugarcane causes a severe reduction : - in the first internode length resulting in premature death of plants. - exhibited smaller internodes, - early senescence, - and reduced total biomass

LOW/COLD TEMPERATURE
The plant life cycle both vegetative and reproductive phases are affected by the low temperature stress (Nishiyama, 1995). During reproductive development low temperature stress : - induces flower abscission, - pollen sterility, - pollen tube distortion, - ovule abortion and reduced fruit set, which ultimately lowers yield. During the reproductive phase cold stress has important economic and social consequences because the reproductive phase products are the key components of economic yield and are the principle source of food for entire humanity (Thakur et al, 2010).

The reproductive phase begins with transformation of the meristem into inflorescence and flower and, in annuals, ends upon seed reaching maturity. The reproductive phase consists of : - flower initiation, - differentiation of male and female floral parts, - micro- and mega-sporogenesis, - development of male and female gametophytes (pollen grain and embryo sac), - pollination, - micro- and mega-gametogenesis, - fertilization and seed development. All these stages respond differently to cold stress but collectively all responses are negative and reduce net yield.

 Freezing

injury is caused by low temp.<0 Supercooling

 Intercellular

crystallization crystallization

Ice crystals form between cells.

Intracellular

Ice crystals form in the cell.

 Freezing

Injury:

Direct injury: injury by crystal formation Indirect injury: dehydration, suffocating

Injury

mechanism:

Membrane injury Mechanical injury -SH theory

 Strategies

of increasing plant freezing tolerance:

Lower water content Reduce photosynthesis Increase ABA/GB Dormant Increase osmolytes

 Caused

by low temp. > 0 Damage

Membrane phase Root water absorption ability Dysfunction of respiration, accumulation of ethanol. Dysfunction of metabolism

 Mechanism

of chilling injury: membrane phase

transition:

LC phaseG phase
LC : Liquid crystalline phase G Phase : Gel phase

Liquid crystalline phase. The typical phase in biological membranes. The lipids have both lateral and kinetic motion and contain membrane proteins

Gel phase. The membrane lipids have less kinetic energy and lateral motion than in the liquid crystalline phase resulting in a regular spacing between the acyl tails

 Strategies

of improving plant chilling

tolerance:

Increase IUFA (index of unsaturated fatty acid), which leads to the decrease of phase transition temp. Synthesis of chilling-tolerant isoenzymes.