SOCIETY AND ENVIRONMENT

Development Processes

Long type Answers:

Explain in brief some of the major aspects of development. Ans: Development is a total transformation of society and a movement in consciously c osen direction! T ere is no strai" t and linear pro"ress from traditional to modern society# and neit er is t is transition smoot ! Development is a comple$ one and involves several aspects% &'( &*( &+( &,( )olitical development Social development Economic development Intellectual development

(1) Political development T e first re-uirement of political development is a i" de"ree of role of speciali.ation &and differentiation( of political institutions and t e "ro/t of communication media! )olitical parties# trade unions# reli"ious or"ani.ations# pressure "roups and ot er similar or"ani.ations represent functional differentiation! In t e second place# t ere is "reater emp asis on rational# scientific and secular tec ni-ues for decision0ma1in"! T e developed system ac-uires an impersonal c aracter in / ic t e la/ 2ecomes more important t an t e / ims of men in po/er! (2) Social development 3 en a traditional society is developed# t ere is a mar1ed s iftin" of population from rural areas to ur2an centers under t e impact of industriali.ation# / ic is one of t e main a"ents of development In addition to mi"ration to cities and to/ns# t e "ro/t of tec nolo"y "radually reduces t e percenta"e of t e population en"a"ed in a"riculture! Social development 2rin"s a2out a mar1ed c an"e in t e outloo1 and 2e avior of social "roups / ic are c aracteri.ed 2y t e functions t ey perform rat er t an 2y t eir caste# lan"ua"e and ot er suc factors# 3it t e "ro/t of social development# t e individual finds imself in a /ider /orld of freedom in / ic t ere are fe/er restrictions on is a2ility to ta1e decision affectin" is life! 4e is free to c oose is o/n career rat er t an ave it determined on t e 2asis of is caster! ( ) Economic Development Economic development also 1no/n as 5economic "ro/t 5 covers many aspects of social life! In t e first place# it involves t e systematic application of science and tec nolo"y to t e processes of production and distri2ution of "oods and services! Secondly# it compels increasin" use of inanimate sources of ener"y in contrast to t e use of uman or animal ener"y in traditional societies! T is c an"e in t e pattern of ener"y consumption can only 2e sustained 2y a

evolution in t e consumption patterns of t e masses demandin" diversification of production in response to varied consumer needs! Diversified consumer needs lead to a i" de"ree of speciali.ation in production tec ni-ues and la2or s1ills! Rationality in economic decisions &in determinin" t e location of industry# for e$ample( results in increased mo2ility of la2or and emer"ence of a vast variety of mar1et processor! (!) "ntellect#al development Development cannot 2e sustained for lon" in any society /it out a correspondin" and self0sustainin" intellectual development c aracteri.ed 2y constantly increasin" 1no/led"e! T is involves t e e$istence of ade-uate num2er of fact0findin" and data0processin" a"encies# statistical units# Researc and development la2oratories# universities and similar institutions! Intellectual development implies t e e$istence of intellectual elites / o play a 1ey role in sustainin" t e "ro/t of tec nolo"y! Intellectual development leads# in all political systems# to "reater emp asis on secularism and on seculari.ation of t e process of "overnment and 2ureaucracy6! It also leads to an increasin" emp asis on stren"t enin" t e material 2asis of life! $ist the impediments to development. Explain these in brief. Ans: T ere are several impediments to development of a traditional society! Some of t e o2stacles are% &'( &*( &+( &,( &8( &9( &:( 7ac1 of s1ills! Ri"id administrative system! Impatience for rapid development! )assion for -uantitative e$pansion! )remature politici.ation! Strain on la/ and order resources! Rapid "ro/t of population!

(1) $ac% of s%ills: T e developin" countries are usually /ea1 in t e s1ills re-uired for development! T e real pro2lem in trainin" personnel for development pro"rams lies not in unpartin" information to t em# 2ut in elpin" t em to develop t e re-uired s1ills! It is necessary# to "ive field /or1ers and administrators more freedom to e$periment and to try ne/ approac es; 2ut t is is precisely / ere t e Indian pro"rams suffer! (2)&i'id Administrative S(stem: In India arid in many ot er Common/ealt countries# t e administrative system in erited from t e <ritis rule leaves little room for freedom to e$periment! T e in erited 2ureaucracy /it its outmoded procedures of /or1 and personal attitudes# inade-uate dele"ation at all levels# too formal supervision of field /or1ers and poor morale provide a ma=or impediment! f+> Impatience for Rapid Development It arises from t e 2elief t at a country must em2ar1 on all areas of development at one time! T is as led# amon" ot er t in"s# to sym2olic e$penditure on 2i" pro=ects to convince t e masses and t e outside /orld of t e country6s determination to 2ecome a modern nation in t e s ortest possi2le period of

time! Many poor countries ave spent u"e money on nuclear researc even t ou" t e 2asic amenities of life remain unprovided for a i" percenta"e of t eir population! ( ) "mpatience for rapid development: It arises from t e 2elief t at a country must em2ar1 on all areas of development at one time! T is as led# amon" ot er t in"s# to sym2olic e$penditure on 2i" pro=ects to convince t e masses and t e outside /orld of t e country6s determination to 2ecome a modern nation in t e s ortest possi2le period of time! Many poor countries ave spent u"e money on nuclear researc even t ou" t e 2asic amenities of life remain unprovided for a i" percenta"e of t eir population! (!) Passion for )#antitative Expansion: Anot er o2stacle arises from t e passion for a rapid -uantitative e$pansion /it out attention to -uality! Apart from community development# education as very rapidly e$panded in India since independence and ne/ universities and colle"es ave mus roomed under local pressure! T e result of t is e$pansion as 2een pumpin" into t e society a vast army of unemployed "raduates! (*) Premat#re Politici+ation: T e political leaders ip in developin" countries as a mar1ed tendency to politici.e t e mass prematurely! T e lar"e num2er of students and unemployed yout s# often recruited 2y various political parties# contri2ute to t e restlessness of t e political process! (,) Strain on $o- and .rder &eso#rces: )olitici.ation of t e mass results in considera2le strain on t e la/ and order resources of t e state! T e leaders ip in India as done very little since independence for re a2ilitatin" t e police in t e popular mind as protectors of t e la/! Attitude formed in t e popular mind to/ards police in t e era of our freedom stru""le as not yet died 2ut as produced a certain am2ivalence to/ards t e police! As a result# investment in improvement and stren"t enin" of t e police department as appeared to our leaders ip as 2ein" in some /ay contrary to t e spirit of democratic /elfare! (/) &apid 0ro-th of Pop#lation: Rapidly "ro/in" population is one of t e ma=or impediments to t e development of a traditional society! Rapid population "ro/t usually results from t e improvement in t e "eneral conditions of t e mass# 2etter ealt 0care facility and decline in morality! A i" rate of population "ro/t offsets t e economic "ro/t of a country! T is leads to frustration# social tension and mass violence Explain the role of science and technolo'( in development. Ans: In order to appreciate properly t e rationale and relevance of adoptin" science and tec nolo"y for development# it is necessary to dra/ a distinction 2et/een t e t/o terms 5science5 and 5tec nolo"y5! As e$plained earlier# science and tec nolo"y are closely related and i" ly interdependent! )olicy for t em# o/ever# as to 2e distinct! Science is t e result of man6s restless -uest to compre end t e p enomena of nature! <y its very nature#

development of science re-uires a lon"0term plannin"! No sc edule of time can 2e fi$ed in advance for ac ievin" a scientific 2rea1t rou" ! Tec nolo"y# on t e ot er and# is product or process specific and not universal! ?nli1e science# tec nolo"ies are not /idely pu2lici.ed and "enerally# not open to outsiders! T e inventor "uards t e secrets of is tec nolo"ical 2rea1t rou" 2y "ettin" a patent on it and t us preventin" ot ers from usin" t e process developed 2y im! T e possession of t e patent on a tec nolo"ical development "ives monopoly ri" ts to t e patent older to derive commercial 2enefits from it for a fi$ed period! Tec nolo"y is an essential input in all decisions relatin" to production in all sectors of t e economy! As a result# tec nolo"y is amena2le to time02ound pro"rams# policies# strate"ies and plannin" on a continuin" 2asis! All plans contain some specific pro=ects /it some tec nolo"ical contents in t em! )ro=ects launc ed for national development ave to 2e supported 2y appropriate tec nolo"ical inputs t at /ould improve productivity of 2ot men and materials! In t e process of moderni.ation# a country as to assimilate its o/n indi"enous tec nolo"y as /ell as t e relevant imported tec nolo"y! India as 2een doin" so ever since it launc ed its am2itious five0year )lans! T e role / ic relevant tec nolo"y can play in improvin" productivity can 2e clearly seen from t e e$perience of )un=a2 ! Su2sistence a"riculture in )un=a2 /as transformed into a commercial one# particularly after t e @reen Revolution in t e 'A9Bs# t rou" t e application of tec nolo"y! !.1 2rite a note on the obstacles to 3ransfer of 3echnolo'(. Ans: If t e e$perience of t e industriali.ed countries as 2een t at science and tec nolo"y ave 2een ma(or instruments for t eir economic development# one /ould assume t at t e same s ould 2e true for developin" countries too! Certainly# "reat advances ave 2een made in developin" countries 2y t e direct transfer of tec nolo"y from advanced countries! Cor e$ample# communications no/ form a /orld/ide net/or1; certain devastatin" diseases li1e malaria# smallpo$ and tu2erculosis ave 2een controlled; and a"riculture in t e t ird /orld countries as made rapid pro"ress 2y t e use of fertili.ers and i" 0yieldin" varieties of seeds! T e relative failure of t e process of tec nolo"y transfer is due to many causes# in addition to t e lac1 of indi"enous scientific and tec nolo"ical capacity! T e profit motive of t e donors of tec nolo"y does not al/ays armoni.e /it t e 2asic needs of t e receivers! Ot er causes of t e failure of tec nolo"y transfer lie in t e social and political factors in t e recipient nations! Anot er difficulty is t e scarcity of capital! Also# some tec nolo"ies are ener"y0intensive! In most T ird 3orld countries# unemployment and underemployment are /idespread and# t erefore# capital0intensive tec nolo"ies are not suita2le to t em! Anot er o2stacle to successful transfer of tec nolo"y is t e insufficient local availa2ility of t e necessary tec nical and mana"erial s1ills! At present# t e main political de2ate /it re"ard to t e use of science and tec nolo"y for development is concentrated on t e transfer process itself# and on t e improvement in t e access of advanced tec nolo"y to t e developin"

countries! T e ar"uments used in t e de2ate are i" ly politici.ed and centre around t e effectiveness and motivation of t e multinational corporations &MNCs( as t e main a"ents of tec nolo"y transfer! T e MNCs are needed 2y t e developin" countries# 2ut t ey are not encoura"ed! It is necessary t at t e multinationals and t e developin" countries come to terms! T e multinational corporations /ill ave to 2e encoura"ed to esta2lis lastin" relations ip /it t e ost country! T e multinationals# as a matter of self0interest# /ill ave to learn to 2alance t e need for ne$t year6s profits /it t eir lon"0term survival in t e ost country! Explain the role of science and technolo'( in r#ral development. Ans: Application of science and tec nolo"y for rural development as ac-uired a special si"nificance in India 6s development pro"rams! Rural people occupy t e pivotal position in t e conte$t of anti0poverty pro"rams! It as 2een /ell reco"ni.ed t at t e p ysical resources alone are not t e only constraint for development! Even if p ysical resources are availa2le# t eir inefficient0 utili.ation can result in under0development! T us# science and tec nolo"y assume a "reater si"nificance in t e conte$t of rural development since t ey can increase t e efficiency of resource utili.ation! T e areas of economy# / ic can 2e su2stantially influenced t rou" t e adoption of science and tec nolo"y# can 2e "rouped under production and development! )roduction efficiency in respect of t e rural people relates to t e follo/in" t/o aspects% &'( Increasin" efficiency of resource use for productive enterprise ta1en up 2y t e rural people# eit er individually or uncooperative "roups! &*( Increasin" efficiency of la2or t at t e rural people provide to t e economy t rou" s1ill development! Developments in science and tec nolo"y can 2e fruitfully utili.ed for rural development t rou" an improvement in t e production efficiency of investment resources as /ell as t at of t e rural la2or force# conservation of resources used 2y t em and improvement in t eir ealt and livin" conditions! A "reat deal of effort as "one into t e application of science and tec nolo"y for rural development# 2ut it as not yet produced desired results! 3 ile some tec nolo"ies appropriate for rural development ave 2een developed# t eir com2ined pac1a"e &innovation# adoption# utili.ation# uman resources# ra/ materials and mar1etin"( as not made su2stantial c an"e in t e productivity# income and livin" condition of t e rural people in "eneral! T e o2=ectives s ould 2e% &'( Development of tec nolo"ies appropriate to rural areas in t e e$istin" Socioeconomic conte$t of 2ot producers and t eir customers! &*( A 5delivery system5 or met odolo"y to ensure t e self0sustainin" adoption and utili.ation of t ese tec nolo"ies!

&+( Ma$imi.ation of t eir 2enefits to t e rural poor! Define plannin'. 2hat are its characteristics4 Ans: Defination of plannin" "iven 2y )rof! Dic1inson! Accordin" to im# 5Economic plannin" is t e ma1in" of ma(or economic decisions 0 / at and o/ muc is to 2e produced; o/# / en and / ere it is to 2e produced and to / om it is to 2e allocated 0 2y t e conscious decision of a compre ensive survey of t e system as a / ole5! )rof! 7ouc1s defines plannin" as 5t e s apin" of all economic activities into "roup0defined sp eres of action# / ic are rationally mapped out and fitted# as parts of a mosaic# into a coordinated / ole# for t e purpose of ac ievin" certain nationally conceived and socially compre ensive "oals! T ere are t ree important c aracteristics of plannin"! In t e first place# t ere is a definite plannin" aut ority# / et er it 2e t e "overnment or anot er 2ody specially constituted li1e t e )lannin" Commission in India ! T is plannin" aut ority is entrusted /it t e tas1 of surveyin" t e resource of t e country# fi$in" up tar"ets and layin" do/n t e met ods for reac in" t ese tar"ets! If t e "overnment itself is t e plannin" 2ody# it also e$ecutes t e plan t us formulated! It is not necessary t at t e plannin" aut ority s ould ave supreme or dictatorial po/ers! It may 2e dictatorial# or it may /or1 su2=ect to t e democratic control of a parliament as in India ! It may even dele"ate some of its po/ers to ot er a"encies# 2ut t e plans of all suc a"encies ta1en to"et er must fit into t e common pattern laid do/n 2y t e plannin" aut ority! T e second c aracteristic of plannin" is t at t e decisions are 2ased on a survey of t e economy as a / ole! T e plannin" aut ority ac-uires compre ensive 1no/led"e of all resources t at t e economy possesses! Moreover# it 1eeps in vie/ t e needs and re-uirements of t e economy as a / ole# and not merely of some particular sectors of it# / en it allocates t e resources for various uses! In t ird place# t e plannin" aut ority deli2erately ta1es decisions /it re"ard to t e use to / ic various resources in t e economy are put in! T e economic life of t e country concerned is not left to mere c ance# or to t e /or1in" of free competition! )lannin" implies t e conscious and deli2erate c oice of economic priorities 2y t e plannin" aut ority! An unplanned economy is c aracteri.ed 2y t e a2sence of t ese t ree c aracteristics! In an unplanned society# eac individual is free# /it in suc le"al limits as may 2e laid do/n 2y t e state# to ma1e use of t e resources at is command in t e manner e t in1s 2est! Naturally# e does not ta1e a compre ensive vie/ of t e economy as a / ole! 4e as# at is command# only a part of t e total resources of t e community! 4e uses t ese resources in suc a /ay as to ma1e t e lar"est profit for imself# /it out any t ou" t of t e effects of is actions on ot ers or on t e economy of t e country as a / ole !512 Explain the objectives of plannin'. Ans: T e o2=ectives of plannin"# o/ever# are not t e same for all countries# nor are t ey t e same for any country at all times! 3 at precisely arc t e o2=ectives of plannin" depend on t e sta"e of economic development of t e country concerned# t e socio0economic conditions prevalent t ere at t e time

of plannin"# and t e re-uirements for a particular situation! Deepin" t e 2road o2=ective of acceleratin" economic "ro/t and of raisin" t e standard of livin" of t e people# t e ma=or o2=ectives may 2e listed as follo/s% &'( &*( &+( &,( &8( &9( Ac ievin" full employment! Ma$imi.in" national income and raisin" livin" standards! Rapid industriali.ation! Ac ievin" self0sufficiency m food and ra/ materials! Reducin" ine-ualities! Redressin" un2alances in t e economy!

It may 2e noted# o/ever# t at t ese o2=ectives are interrelated and complementary# and not mutually e$clusive of one anot er! (1) Achievin' 6#ll Emplo(ment: One of t e ma=or o2=ectives of plannin" especially in economically advanced countries is to provide full employment to its citi.ens! ?nemployment is one of t e 2y0products of capitalism# and is considered 2y many to 2e t e 2i""est curse of a modern capitalist society! In order to end unemployment# t e development plans are directed to t ose directions and t ose sectors of t e economy / ere t ere is more unemployment! To/ards t is end# t e state can redistri2ute t e la2or force and productive resources# and t us create more =o2s in t ose sectors! )lannin" in a developin" country li1e India may not 2e a2le to create t e conditions for full employment in t e near future# 2ut it can reduce t e incidence of unemployment! (2) 7aximi+in' 8ational "ncome: Anot er lauda2le o2=ective of economic plannin" is to ma$imi.e t e national income and to raise t e livin" standard of t e people! T e planners pursue t is o2=ective relentlessly! T e reason is t at only planned efforts can raise t e national income apprecia2ly! T e unplanned development efforts do not 2rin" any su2stantial pro"ress in t is direction since t e productive efforts are frittered a/ay in an uncoordinated economic activity! ( ) &apid "nd#striali+ation: T is o2=ective assumes more importance in t e case of t ose countries / ic ave 2een left 2e ind in t e race for industriali.ation# it as 2een reali.ed t at industriali.ation plays a very important role in raisin" t e national income and in solvin" t e pro2lem of unemployment# it is difficult for a country to ac ieve prosperity 2y merely confinin" itself to a"riculture! T e economies# / ic are predominantly a"ricultural# are 2ound to remain 2ac1/ard unless attention is paid to industriali.ation! (!) Achievin' self9s#fficienc(: As a first step to/ards more systematic and intensive plannin"# it is important to ma1e t e country self0sufficient in t e matter of food and essential ra/ materials! T is self0sufficiency provides a solid 2ase for t e country and prepares it for furt er development t rou"

industriali.ation! If a country is not self0sufficient in t e matter of food and ra/ materials# mere political freedom may prove to 2e a myt ! (*) &ed#cin' "ne:#alities: It is "enerally reali.ed t at political e-uality is meanin"less unless it is accompanied 2y economic e-uality! @larin" ine-ualities of /ealt # income and opportunities are a"ainst t e spirit of democracy! <rid"in" t e "ulf 2et/een t e ric and t e poor is one of t e most important o2=ectives of plannin"! (,) &edressin' "mbalances in the Econom(: Often it is found t at t e economic development in a country is lopsided! An economy# for e$ample# may 2e predominantly a"ricultural# or it may depend too muc on t e e$port of oil or minerals! In our o/n country# nearly :8E of t e people are dependent on a"riculture and related activities! T is is an e$ample of an un2alanced economy! To lend sta2ility to t e economy# it 2ecomes essential to reduce t is im2alance! If t ere are suc im2alances in t e economy of a country# removin" t em 2ecomes an important o2=ective of plannin"! In addition# t ere is usually a re"ional im2alance in respect of industriali.ation in many of t e developin" countries! 3 en t is is t e case# t e plans are aimed to correct suc re"ional im2alances too! Define plannin'. 2hat are its characteristics4 Ans% Defination of plannin" "iven 2y )rof! Dic1inson! Accordin" to im# 5Economic plannin" is t e ma1in" of ma(or economic decisions 0 / at and o/ muc is to 2e produced; o/# / en and / ere it is to 2e produced and to / om it is to 2e allocated 0 2y t e conscious decision of a compre ensive survey of t e system as a / ole5! )rof! 7ouc1s defines plannin" as 5t e s apin" of all economic activities into "roup0defined sp eres of action# / ic are rationally mapped out and fitted# as parts of a mosaic# into a coordinated / ole# for t e purpose of ac ievin" certain nationally conceived and socially compre ensive "oals! T ere are t ree important c aracteristics of plannin"! In t e first place# t ere is a definite plannin" aut ority# / et er it 2e t e "overnment or anot er 2ody specially constituted li1e t e )lannin" Commission in India ! T is plannin" aut ority is entrusted /it t e tas1 of surveyin" t e resource of t e country# fi$in" up tar"ets and layin" do/n t e met ods for reac in" t ese tar"ets! If t e "overnment itself is t e plannin" 2ody# it also e$ecutes t e plan t us formulated! It is not necessary t at t e plannin" aut ority s ould ave supreme or dictatorial po/ers! It may 2e dictatorial# or it may /or1 su2=ect to t e democratic control of a parliament as in India ! It may even dele"ate some of its po/ers to ot er a"encies# 2ut t e plans of all suc a"encies ta1en to"et er must fit into t e common pattern laid do/n 2y t e plannin" aut ority! T e second c aracteristic of plannin" is t at t e decisions are 2ased on a survey of t e economy as a / ole! T e plannin" aut ority ac-uires compre ensive 1no/led"e of all resources t at t e economy possesses! Moreover# it 1eeps in vie/ t e needs and re-uirements of t e economy as a / ole# and not merely of some particular sectors of it# / en it allocates t e resources for various uses! In t ird place# t e plannin" aut ority deli2erately ta1es decisions /it re"ard to t e use to / ic various resources

in t e economy are put in! T e economic life of t e country concerned is not left to mere c ance# or to t e /or1in" of free competition! )lannin" implies t e conscious and deli2erate c oice of economic priorities 2y t e plannin" aut ority! An unplanned economy is c aracteri.ed 2y t e a2sence of t ese t ree c aracteristics! In an unplanned society# eac individual is free# /it in suc le"al limits as may 2e laid do/n 2y t e state# to ma1e use of t e resources at is command in t e manner e t in1s 2est! Naturally# e does not ta1e a compre ensive vie/ of t e economy as a / ole! 4e as# at is command# only a part of t e total resources of t e community! 4e uses t ese resources in suc a /ay as to ma1e t e lar"est profit for imself# /it out any t ou" t of t e effects of is actions on ot ers or on t e economy of t e country as a / ole !512 Explain the objectives of plannin'. Ans % T e o2=ectives of plannin"# o/ever# are not t e same for all countries# nor are t ey t e same for any country at all times! 3 at precisely arc t e o2=ectives of plannin" depend on t e sta"e of economic development of t e country concerned# t e socio0economic conditions prevalent t ere at t e time of plannin"# and t e re-uirements for a particular situation! Deepin" t e 2road o2=ective of acceleratin" economic "ro/t and of raisin" t e standard of livin" of t e people# t e ma=or o2=ectives may 2e listed as follo/s% &'( &*( &+( &,( &8( &9( Ac ievin" full employment! Ma$imi.in" national income and raisin" livin" standards! Rapid industriali.ation! Ac ievin" self0sufficiency m food and ra/ materials! Reducin" ine-ualities! Redressin" un2alances in t e economy!

It may 2e noted# o/ever# t at t ese o2=ectives are interrelated and complementary# and not mutually e$clusive of one anot er! (1) Achievin' 6#ll Emplo(ment: One of t e ma=or o2=ectives of plannin" especially in economically advanced countries is to provide full employment to its citi.ens! ?nemployment is one of t e 2y0products of capitalism# and is considered 2y many to 2e t e 2i""est curse of a modern capitalist society! In order to end unemployment# t e development plans are directed to t ose directions and t ose sectors of t e economy / ere t ere is more unemployment! To/ards t is end# t e state can redistri2ute t e la2or force and productive resources# and t us create more =o2s in t ose sectors! )lannin" in a developin" country li1e India may not 2e a2le to create t e conditions for full employment in t e near future# 2ut it can reduce t e incidence of unemployment! (2) 7aximi+in' 8ational "ncome: Anot er lauda2le o2=ective of economic plannin" is to ma$imi.e t e national income and to raise t e livin" standard of t e people! T e planners pursue t is o2=ective relentlessly! T e reason is t at only planned efforts can raise t e national income apprecia2ly! T e unplanned

development efforts do not 2rin" any su2stantial pro"ress in t is direction since t e productive efforts are frittered a/ay in an uncoordinated economic activity! ( ) &apid "nd#striali+ation: T is o2=ective assumes more importance in t e case of t ose countries / ic ave 2een left 2e ind in t e race for industriali.ation# it as 2een reali.ed t at industriali.ation plays a very important role in raisin" t e national income and in solvin" t e pro2lem of unemployment# it is difficult for a country to ac ieve prosperity 2y merely confinin" itself to a"riculture! T e economies# / ic are predominantly a"ricultural# are 2ound to remain 2ac1/ard unless attention is paid to industriali.ation! (!) Achievin' self9s#fficienc(: As a first step to/ards more systematic and intensive plannin"# it is important to ma1e t e country self0sufficient in t e matter of food and essential ra/ materials! T is self0sufficiency provides a solid 2ase for t e country and prepares it for furt er development t rou" industriali.ation! If a country is not self0sufficient in t e matter of food and ra/ materials# mere political freedom may prove to 2e a myt ! (*) &ed#cin' "ne:#alities: It is "enerally reali.ed t at political e-uality is meanin"less unless it is accompanied 2y economic e-uality! @larin" ine-ualities of /ealt # income and opportunities are a"ainst t e spirit of democracy! <rid"in" t e "ulf 2et/een t e ric and t e poor is one of t e most important o2=ectives of plannin"! (,) &edressin' "mbalances in the Econom(: Often it is found t at t e economic development in a country is lopsided! An economy# for e$ample# may 2e predominantly a"ricultural# or it may depend too muc on t e e$port of oil or minerals! In our o/n country# nearly :8E of t e people are dependent on a"riculture and related activities! T is is an e$ample of an un2alanced economy! To lend sta2ility to t e economy# it 2ecomes essential to reduce t is im2alance! If t ere are suc im2alances in t e economy of a country# removin" t em 2ecomes an important o2=ective of plannin"! In addition# t ere is usually a re"ional im2alance in respect of industriali.ation in many of t e developin" countries! 3 en t is is t e case# t e plans are aimed to correct suc re"ional im2alances too!

!. ; 6ill #p the blan%s: Some of t e impediments to development are% 7ac1 of s1ill# Ri"id administrative system !# Impatience for rapid development !; And premature politici.ation!

<=AP3E&9, E8>.&.87E83
? 0ive most s#itable definitions of @environment@ and @environmental poll#tion@. 2hat is a poll#tant as defined b( the 0overnment of "ndia in its Environmental Protection Act (1A1,)4 Ans % Eart is t e only planet / ere ot er livin" 2ein"s ave evolved 2ecause of t e availa2ility of all t e in"redients suc as air# /ater# food# ener"y# etc!# / ic are essential for life! T ese to"et er constitute t e environment ! T e environment can 2e defined as one6s surroundin"s Environmental pollution may 2e 2roadly defined as 5addin" to t e environment a potentially a.ardous su2stance or source of ener"y faster t an t e rate at / ic t e environment can accommodate it5! Alternately# environmental pollution may also 2e defined as% 5An undesira2le c an"e in p ysical# c emical or 2iolo"ical c aracteristics of air# /ater and land t at may 2e or /ill 2e armful to uman life and ot er livin" or"anisms# livin" conditions# industrial pro"ress and cultural assets and /ill deteriorate ra/ material resources5! In 2rief# one may define t e environmental pollution as 5an unfavoura2le alteration of environment lar"ely as a result of uman activities5! A pollutant is a su2stance t at affects adversely or alters t e environment 2y c an"in" t e "ro/t rate of species# interferes /it t e food c ain# ealt # comfort and amenities of t e people and is to$ic! In t e Environment )rotection Act &'AF9(# passed 2y t e @overnment of India# an environmental pollutant is defined as % 5Any solid# li-uid or "aseous su2stance present in suc con0 centration as may 2e or tends to 2e in=urious to t e environment and t e environmental pollution means t e presence in t e environment of any environmental pollutant5! ? 2rite brief notes on atmosphereB h(drosphere and lithosphere. Ans % T e "lo2al environment consists of atmosp ere# ydrosp ere and lit osp ere in / ic t e life0sustainin" resources of t e eart are contained! T e atmosp ere # / ic is a mi$ture of various "ases &mainly nitro"en# o$y"en# car2on dio$ide and /ater vapour( e$tendin" out/ard from t e surface of t e eart # evolved from t e elements of t e eart t at /ere "asified durin" its formation! T e ydrosp ere consists of oceans# la1es and streams and s allo/ "round /ater 2odies! T e lit osp ere # on t e ot er and# is t e soil mantle t at /raps t e core of t e eart ! &T e 2iosp ere# a t in layer t at encapsulates &enclose in( t e eart # is made up of atmosp ere and lit osp ere ad=acent to t e surface of t e eart # to"et er /it ydrosp ere It is /it in t e

2iosp ere t at all t e life0forms of eart live! 7ife0sustainin" materials in solid# li-uid and "aseous forms are cycled t rou" 2iosp ere# "ivin" sustenance to all t e livin" or"anisms! 7ife0sustainin" resources# air# /ater and food# are /it dra/n from t e 2iosp ere! ? State air poll#tion as defined b( the 2.=... $ist the major ca#ses of air poll#tion. Ans % T e 3orld 4ealt Or"ani.ation &34O( as defined air pollution as 5t e presence of materials in t e air in suc concentration / ic are armful to man and is environment5! In addition to industries# t ere are various ot er sources of air pollution in India# e!"!# domestic com2ustion of lo/0"rade fuels# fine dusts contri2uted 2y t e deserts and ot er open and dry fields and uman activities causin" eavy pollution of t e ur2an air &/it suspended particulate matters and e$ aust from motor ve icles(! T e main pollutants of air are car2on mono$ide sulp ur dio$ide#o$ides of nitro"en#car2on dio$ide and particulates! Air pollution affects "ro/t #livin" and life of umans# plants# or"anisms and all ot er livin" 2ein"s! ? 2hat are the major so#rces of -ater poll#tion 4 Explain in brief. Ans % 3ater pollution may 2e defined as 5t e addition of su2stances &or"anic# inor"anic# 2iolo"ical or radiolo"ical( or factors &e!"!# eat( / ic de"rade t e -uality of /ater so t at eit er it 2ecomes a ealt a.ard or unfit for useG T e ma=or sources of /ater pollution are% &'( &*( &+( &,( &8( Domestic! Industrial /astes! a"ricultural c emical E$cess eat &from nuclear po/er plants# for e$ample( 0 Oil spills &from tan1ers or coastal oil /ells(!

Explain in brief the environmental ethic9, Ans % T e /ord 5et ic5 is derived from t e @ree1 /or1 5et os5# / ic means t e c aracter of a person as defined 2y is actions! T is c aracter as 2een developed durin" t e evolutionary process and as 2een influenced 2y t e need for adoptin" to t e environment! T e 5et ic5# in s ort "overns our /ay of doin" t in"s and t is is a direct result of our environment! Ecolo"y and economics are on a collision course no/! T e conflict 2et/een t e ecolo"ists and economists as 2een aptly summari.ed 2y Dennet <ouldin"% 5Ecolo"y is uneconomic! <ut /it anot er 1ind of lo"ic# Economy is unecolo"ic5! In t e ecolo"ical conte$t# maladaptation to t e environment 2y an or"anism results in t/o options% &'( T e or"anism dies out or &*( T e or"anism evolves to a form and c aracter / ere it is once a"ain

compati2le /it t e environment! T e accepta2le option is one in / ic /e must learn to s are# in an e-uita2le manner# our vast 2ut finite natural resources to re"ain a 2alance! T is re-uires t at our needs 2e reduced and t at t e materials t at /e do use must 2e replenis a2le! T e reco"nition of t e need for suc adaptation as a means of survival as developed into / at /e no/ call t e 5environmental et ic5! T e 2irt of environmental et ic as a force is partly a result of our concern for our o/n lon"0term survival# as /ell as our reali.ation t at umans are 2ut one form of life and t at /e s ould s are our eart /it our fello/ travelers! Environmental et ic is not a reli"ion since it is 2ased not only on fait # 2ut also on ard facts and t rou" analysis! T e environmental et ic is very ne/ and none of t e doctrine is cast in immuta2le decrees and do"mas! Education of t e pu2lic to environmental pro2lems and solutions is of prime importance! ? Explain the role of an Environmental En'ineer. Ans % As pollutants enter air# /ater or soil# natural processes suc as dilution# 2io 0de"radation and c emical reactions convert /aste materials to more accepta2le forms and disperse t em t rou" a lar"er volume! 4o/ever# t ese natural processes can no lon"er perform t e clean0up alone due to t e enormous amount of /astes "enerated no/! T e /aste treatment facilities desi"ned 2y t e environmental en"ineer are mostly 2ased on t e principles of self0cleansin" o2served in nature# 2ut t e en"ineered processes amplify and optimi.e t e operations o2served in nature to andle lar"er volumes of pollutants and to treat t em more rapidly! Environmental en"ineers adapt t e principles of natural mec anisms to en"ineered systems for pollution control / en % &'( t ey construct tall stac1s to disperse and dilute air pollutants# &*( desi"n 2iolo"ical treatment facilities for t e removal of or"anic materials from /aste /ater# &+( use c emicals to o$idi.e and precipitate iron and man"anese in drin1in" /ater supplies# or &,( 2ury solid /astes in sanitary land0fill operations! Occasionally# t e environmental en"ineer must also desi"n to counteract or even reverse natural processes &O2=ectiveHS ort Type( ? $ist major fo#r nat#ral needs of man%ind. Ans % 4uman 2ein"s used natural resources are air# /ater# food and s elter! ? $ist major fo#r ac:#ired needs of man%ind. Ans % ac-uired needs % automo2iles# appliances# processed food and 2evera"e ? A poll#tant ma( be: &a( <iode"rada2le &2( To$ic &c( Only &2( &d( <ot !

9!'B Matc t e follo/in"% &A( A"ricultural /astes 0 D &a( Air pollution <( Catalytic converter 0 A &2( Motor ve icles C( Incinerators 0 < &c( Non2iode"rada2le &D( )esticides 0 C &d( Soil pollution ? 2rite tr#e or false: Domestic se/a"e as mainly 2iode"rada2le pollutants ! ICA7SE Ans % Domestic se/a"e as mainly non 02iode"rada2le pollutants ! ? 8ame the odd ones: & a( )overty &2( Economic "ro/t &c( )opulation &d( )ollution ! ? 6ill #p the blan%s : T e "lo2asssl environment consists of atmosp ere ydrosp ere and lit osp ere 2rite a critical note on the principles of ecobalance. Ans % <y its very nature# ecolo"y is a rnultidisciplinary science! It involves plant and animal 2iolo"y# ta$onomy# p ysiolo"y# "enetics# 2e avioral science# meteorolo"y# pedolo"y# "eolo"y# sociolo"y# ant ropolo"y# p ysics# c emistry# mat ematics and electronics! Often# it is very difficult to dra/ a s arp line 2et/een ecolo"y and any of t e a2ove disciplines since all impin"e on it! E$actly t e same situation e$ists also /it in ecolo"y# In order to understand t e interactions 2et/een t e or"anism and t e environment# or 2et/een or"anisms# it is often difficult to separate 2e avior from p ysiolo"y# adaptation from evolution and "enetics# or animal ecolo"y from plant ecolo"y! 4istorically# ecolo"y developed alon" t/o lines# vi.!# t e study of plants &plant ecolo"y( and t e study of animals & animal ecolo"y (! )lant ecolo"y focuses on t e relations ip of plants to ot er plants and t eir environment! T e approac of plant ecolo"y is lar"ely descriptive of t e ve"etational and floristic composition of an area and usually i"nores t e influence of animals on t e plants! Animal ecolo"y# deals /it t e study of population dynamics# population distri2ution# animal 2e avior and t e relations ips of animals and t eir environment! <ecause animals depend upon plants for food and s elter# animal ecolo"y cannot 2e fully understood /it out a considera2le 2ac1"round of plant ecolo"y! T is is particularly true in t e areas of applied ecolo"y li1e /ildlife mana"ement! <ot plant and animal ecolo"y may 2e approac ed as t e study of t e interrelations of an individual or"anism /it its environment & autecolo"y (# or as t e study of "roups of or"anisms & synecolo"y (! In many /ays# autecolo"y is t e classical study of ecolo"y# / ic is e$perimental and inductive! <ecause autecolo"y is usually concerned /it t e relations ip of an or"anism to one or more varia2les li1e umidity# li" t# salinity or nutrient levels# it is easily -uantified and lends itself to e$perimental desi"n 2ot in t e la2oratory and in t e field! Autocolo"y as# t erefore# 2orro/ed e$perimental tec ni-ues from p ysics# c emistry and p ysiolo"y!

Synecolo"y# is p ilosop ical and deductive in nature! It is lar"ely descriptive and not easily -uantified! Some of t e important concepts developed 2y synecolo"y are t ose concerned /it nutrient cycles# ener"y 2ud"ets and ecosystern developments! Synecolo"y as stron" ties /it "eolo"y# meteorolo"y and cultural ant ropolo"y! Synecolo"y may 2e su2divided accordin" to environmental types# e!"!# terrestrial ora-uatic ecolo"y! Terrestrial ecolo"y may2e furt er su2divided into forest# "rassland# desert and arctic ecolo"y! It concerns /it suc aspects of terrestrial ecosysterms as microclimate# soil c emistry# soil fauna# ydrolo"ic cycles# eco"enetics and productivity! Terrestrial ecosystems are more influenced 2y or"anism and arc su2=ect to muc /ider environmental fluctuations t an a-uatic ecosystems! <ecause t e p ysical environment is so important in controllin" t e a-uatic ecosystern# considera2le attention is paid to t e c emical and p ysical c aracteristics of t e ecosystem# suc as t e current and t e c emical composition of t e /ater! <y convention# a-uatic ecolo"y &1no/n as limnolo"y( is limited to stream ecolo"y and la1e ecolo"y! Stream ecolo"y concerns life inflo/in" /aters# / ile la1e ecolo"y deals /it life in relatively still /ater! Marine ecolo"y# on t e ot er and# concerns life in open seas and estuaries! Ot er ecolo"ical approac es concern speciali.ed areas! T e study of t e "eo"rap ic distri2ution of plants and animals is 1no/n as ecolo"ical plant and animal "eo"rap y! T e study of population "ro/t and mortality# is 1no/n as population ecolo"y! T e study of t e "enetics and ecolo"y of local races and distinct species is called ecolo"ical "enetics! T e study of t e 2e avioral responses of animals to t eir environment is 1no/n as 2e avioral ecolo"y! Investi"ations of t e interactions 2et/een t e p ysical environment and t e or"anism 2elon" to ecoclimatolo"y and p ysiolo"ical ecolo"y! T e study of t e "roups of or"anisms is 1no/n as community ecolo"y! T e part of ecolo"y concerned /it t e analysis and understandin" of t e structure and function ofecosystems 2y usin" applied mat ematics# mat ematical models and computer pro"rams is 1no/n as systems ecolo"y! Applied ecolo"y# on t e ot er and# is concerned /it t e applications of ecolo"ical principles to t e mana"ement of natural resources# a"ricultural production and pro2lems of environmental pollution! /.2 2rite a short note on biosphere c(cles. Ans% T e 2io0sp ere cycle may 2e defined as Jt e flo/ of various elements of t e 2iosp ere from environment to t e or"anisms i!e!# plants and elements and vice0versa!G In soil ABE of t e nitro"en is or"anic o2tained from decay of dead plants &2iomass(# animals and plants residue# faeces and urine of animals etc! It is ydroly.ed ammonium ion &N4,K(/ ic is o$idi.ed to no++! T e 2io0 sp ere cycle are 2roadly of t ree types as mentioned 2elo/ % '! 4ydrolo"ical cycle *! @aseous cycle +! Sedimentary cycle

3 at are t e adverse effects due to eco0im2alance L Ans % Some important polluted environment and im2alanced ecosystems are as follo/s % M M M M M M M M Ill effect on uman ealt ! Soil de"radation! Desetification! Contamination of food ! Trace su2stances in t e troposp ere! @enetic resource depletion Depletion of t e stratosp eric o.one layer @lo2al /armin"!

? $ist and explain the pra'matic remedies to prevent eco9imbalance. Ans% Remediesfor Eco0Im2alance % Some important strate"ies &pro"ramme and plans( for reducin" t e ecolo"ical im2alance in t e /orld eco0system are "iven 2elo/% &I( Road construction activities must 2e minimum on reserve forests in order to avoid and distur2ance to natural /ealt ! It is 2etter to consult an environmentalist prior to road construction! &II( In order to avoid any "eolo"ical avoc# 2lastin" and c ippin" mountain slopes must 2e done under t e instructions of "eolo"ical investi"ators! &III( 3ood 2urnin" as a source of ener"y is very popular in t ose area / ere oil# "as and coal prices are very i" ! <esides t is /ood 2urnin" 2rin" fort a.ardous amounts of car2on mono$ide &CO( and ydrocar2ons &4C due to inefficient and incomplete 2urnin" of /ood! E)A &Environmental )ro tection A"ency( recommend use of 3ood Stoves nation /ide & illy areas and plains( to over0po/er eco0im2alance as a remedial measure and attempt deal 2urnin"! &IV( <io"as is anot er /ay# t e use of / ic can elp in maintainin" eco0 2alance! It is a source of rene/a2le ener"y! I!I!T!# Ne/ Del i as develops tec nolo"y of 2ri-uettin" sa/ dust into smo1eless fuelN a "ood and eco0 friendly source of ener"y / ic yields <io"as and pyno"as! <io"as is mainly produced from cattle dun"# uman e$creta# stra/# plant# leaves# paddy us1 slud"e# food industries and paper mills# Its use is "ood remedy for eco0 im2alance 2esides 2ein" c eaper! &V( )ro"ramme of social forestry must 2e ta1en upto t e "rass root level! T e /astelands must 2e "arlanded /it trees# and valua2le er2s and s ru2s! T e 2est e$ample of social forestry is found in C ina / ere even sin"le inc of /asteland is not left /it out plantation! De2ris o2tained durin" road cut0tin"s must 2e accumulated at some appropriate place and plantation must 2e done on t e same!T is plantation /ill elp in retainin" t e natural environment!

)lantation must 2e done alon" t e 2an1s of rivers# nalla a etc! in order to avoid any furt er cuttin" of soil and to protect t e /ater reservoir and dams from more siltation# Small /ater tan1s alon" /it t e proper draina"e system must 2e constructed alon" t e roadsides in order to protect 2ot flora and fauna! &O2=ectiveHS ort Type( ? 0ive a s#itable definition of ecolo'(. Ans % A!Mac fadyen % JEcolo"y is a science / ic concerns itself /it t e inter0 relations ips of livin" or"anisms# plants and animals and t eir environments6 S!C!Dendei" % J Ecolo"y is t e study of animals and plants in t eir relation to eac ot er and to t eir environment ! G ? -hat is food chain4 Ans % Ecosystems function 2y maintainin" a flo/ of ener"y and a cyclin" of nutrients t rou" a series of steps of eatin" and 2ein" eaten# of utili.ation and conversion# / ic is 1no/n as food c ain! ? -hat are the decomposers4 Ans% Microconsumers or decomposers small eterotrop s# mainly t e 2acteria and fun"i# / ic decompose t e dead remains of plants and animals# utili.e a part of t e products of t is decomposition for t eir o/n nouris ment and# in t e process# release simple su2stances / ic can 2e reutili.ed as nutrients 2y t e producers! ? Define detrit#s :!'+ T e a2iotic components of t e ecosystem are% &a( Or"anic compounds &2( Microconsumers &c( Inor"anic su2stances &d( None of t ese! :!', Macronutrients are% &a( O$y"en &2( Sulp ur &c( C lorine &d( Sodium :!'8 Matc t e follo/in"% &A( Ecolo"y !!!!!!!! &a( MicTo2es &<( <iotic !!!! !!! !!!!&2( Microclimate &C( Synecolo"y ! ! &c( 3ater &D( A2iotic !!!!!!!!!!!!&d( Meteorolo"y

:!'9 Matc t e follo/in"% &A( <iosp ere cycle!!!!!! &a( Calcium car2onate &<( C lorop ylis!!!!!!!!!!!!! &2( Ma"nesium &c( Sedimentary cycle!!! &c( <io"eoc emical cycle &D( Oysters!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! &d( Sulp ur cycle :!': 3rite true or false% Ans% An ecosystem may 2e a sin"le tree! I True :!'F 3rite true or false% T e c emosynt etic 2acteria o2tain ener"y from t e sun! 0 Calse Ans% T e c emosynt etic 2acteria o2tain ener"y directly from c emical reaction M 3rite true or false% Cun"i# 2acteria and animals can 2e called autotrop s! Ans% Cun"i# 2acteria and animal can 2e called eterotropns! :!*B Name t e odd ones% &a( Car2on dio$ide cycle &2( Sulp ur cycle &c( O$y"en cycle &d( Nitro"en cycle :!*' Cill up t e 2lan1% Durin" p otosynt esis# atmosp eric co* is incorporated into t e production of t e car2o ydrate / ic iO 1no/n as @lucose &C9 4'* O9( :!** Cill up t e 2lan1s % Cats are formed 2y t e elements car2on # ydro"en and o$y"en!

<=AP3E&91 E8>.&.87E83 DE0&ADA"3.8

MODE7 P?ESTIONS &EssayH7on" type( 1: 1 Explain in brief the ca#ses for environmental de'radation in the 3hird 2orld co#ntries. Ans % India today is one of t e Cirst ten industriali.ed countries of t e /orld! 3 at t ese industries ave provided and / at as come out is note/ort y! T ere is no sustaina2le development! 3e ave 2ot non0de"rada2le and 2io0 de"rada2le pollutants! )ollutant emission /it in t e permissi2le limit is a fine approac of development 2ut t e moment permissi2le limit is crossed may 2e due to anyone6s carelessnessit 2ecomes a.ardous to t e ealt of 2ot livin" and non0livin" or"anisms! Air# /ater# soil and noise pollution is 2ein" e$perienced 2y society! T is is not sustaina2le development 3e all 1no/ t at

pollutants are present in /ater# air# soil and sound! T eir dimension# source and reduction procedures upto tolera2le limits is discussed 2elo/ one 2y one! ? 2hat is @or'anic 'ro-th@4 0ive some examples of #nplanned 'ro-ths . Ans % /e ad un2ounded fait in science and tec nolo"y and t e miracles t ey /ould5 /or1 to eradicate poverty# disease and ot er ills of t e society! Since independence# India as made tremendous pro"ress on all fronts! India as also ac ieved near self0reliance in many core sectors suc as iron and steel# crude oil refinin" and petroc emicals# dru"s and p armaceuticals# fertili.ers# en"ineerin" "oods# food and food processin"# 2uildin" materials and consumer "oods! ?nfortunately# t is industrial transformation of t e country /as not /ell0planned from t e point of vie/ of environmental conservation and t is improperly planned development as resulted in pollution of our air# /ater and land! T e main factor of environmental pollution in t e Indian su20continent &i!e!# in India# )a1istan# <an"alades # Nepal# < utan# Myanmar and Sri 7an1a( appears to 2e over0population t at t ro/s eavy demands on natural resources includin" air# /ater# soil# flora and fauna resultin" in a serious im2alance in t e ecosystem! An e$treme e$ample of t is /as t e < opal @as Tra"edy ! In >anuary# 'AF,# an insecticide plant of ?nion Car2ide lea1ed a to$ic "as# met yl isocyanate# , t at 1illed more t an *#BBB people /it in ours and 2linded or ot er/ise sic1ened t ousands! Most of t e victims of t is 2i""est industrial accident in t e /orld /ere t e poor people livin" in t e slums ad=acent to t e plant! Accordin" to many aut orities# t e main pro2lem concernin" environmental de"radation is not 5"ro/t 5 2ut 5unplanned "ro/t 5! T ese aut orities ave formulated a ne/ concept 1no/n as Jor"anic "ro/t 5! As an ans/er to t e pro2lem of environmental de"radation! Accordin" to t e principal of or"anic "ro/t # t e only ans/er to t is universal pro2lem is t at "overnments s ould ma1e universal decisions a2ove t eir s ort0term and narro/ national interests! Ric countries s ould transfer more of t eir resources to poor nations# and eac country s ould speciali.e in / at it is 2est e-uipped to produce! Development in armony /it t e environment s ould 2e t e spirit of our Cive0Year )lans! If /e 2uild a lar"e dam# for e$ample# undreds of t ousands of trees are felled# t ousands of acres of fertile land is lost# and t ousands of poor people are displaced! T is is t e dilemma of development No one can deny t e need for development; 2ut every effort s ould 2e made to minimi.e its environ0mental cost! 3 ile plannin" for any developmental pro=ect# t ere s ould 2e specific provisions for environmental protection! Attempts s ould also 2e made to remove some of t e /ea1nesses e$istin" in t e plannin" system# / ic include t e lac1 of co0ordinated institutional support# "aps in t e necessary information and data re-uired for t e assessment of environmental impact of various developmental pro=ects# inade-uate availa2ility of trained manpo/er and lac1 of stron" pu2lic interest in environment issues!

? 2rite a critical note on @Environmental De'radation b( the &ich@. Ans% T e food re-uirements and a2it of t e ric 3estern countries ave 2een instrumental in destroyin" t e forests and de"radin" t e land of many poor T ird 3orld countries! Despite t e /orld/ide process of decoloni.ation after t e Second 3orld 3ar# it is almost certain t at muc more land is 2ein" used today in t e developin" countries to meet t e food re-uirements of t e 3estern countries t an in t e years 2efore t e Second 3orld 3ar! More t an one0fourt of all t e Central American forests ave 2een cleared since 'A9B for t e purpose of cattle ranc in" and a2out ABE of t e 2eef produced in t ese ranc es are 2ein" e$ported to t e ?SA# / ile t e domestic consumption of 2eef in Central America as fallen dramatically durin" t is period! In t e ?S# on t e ot er and# t e 2eef imported from Central America is mostly used to ma1e pet food and am2ur"ers! T e price of t e Central American 2eef in t e ?S &/ ic is rou" ly alf t e price of t e 2eef produced in t e ?S from "rass0 fed cattle( does not represent its real ecolo"ical cost! T e reason is t at cattle ranc in" as proved to 2e t e /orst form of land use for t e fra"ile soil of Central America on / ic t e tropical forests e$isted 2efore 'A9B! It /as found t at /it in 8 to : years of clearin" t e forest# t e productivity of t e soil dropped dramatically and t e cattle ranc es ad to move on to some ot er areas and clear more forests! In our o/n country# t e first ma=or attac1 on t e forests of t e Nort 0Eastern India came / en tea plantations /ere esta2lis ed! T e current over fis in" on India6s coast is ta1in" place mainly 2ecause of t e eavy demand for pra/ns in t e mar1ets of ric 3estern countries and >apan! T is over0 fis in" often leads to tension and violent encounter 2et/een traditional fis ermen and t e o/ners of t e mec ani.ed tra/lers! As a result# India and several ot er countries in Sout 0East Asia ave esta2lis ed re"ulations to prevent tra/ler operators from fis in" in t e first fe/ 1ilometers from t e coast# a .one reserved for t e traditional fis ermen! Similarly# t e e$port of fro"0le"s from India to Crance and ot er European countries to cater to t e palates of ric 3estern consumers as led to tremendous increase in t e population of a"ricultural pests in t e affected areas! To control t ese pests# farmers ave to use lar"e amounts of costly pesticides / ic # in turn# leads to more environmental pollution! T e pattern of mindless e$ploitation of natural resources t at /e see on t e "lo2al scale simply repeats itself on t e national scale! E$actly / at t e industry of t e ric 3estern countries does to t e environment of poor T ird 3orld countries# t e Indian industry does t e same to t e environment of t e resource0ric and economically poor states of India li1e Orissa# > ar1 and and C attis"ar ! Nearly alf t e industrial output in India comes from 2iomass0 2ased industries li1e cotton# te$tiles# rayon# paper# ply/ood# ru22er# soap# su"ar# to2acco# =ute# c ocolate# tea# coffee# food processin"# pac1a"in" and ve"eta2le oils! Eac of t ese industries e$erts eavy pressure on t e cultivated and forest lands of t e country! T ese 2iomass02ased industries need crop lands# forests# irri"ation and ener"y! T us# /e see t at one of t e main sources of environmental de"radation in t e /orld is t e eavy demand for natural resources 2y t e i" rate of consumption of t e ric # / et er t ey

are ric nations or ric "roups and individuals /it in t e nation itself# and it is mainly t eir /astes t at contri2ute to t e "lo2al pollution! ? Explain in brief the effects of environmental de'radation in "ndia Ans % One of t e ma=or effects of environmental de"radation due to industriali.ation is t e lar"e0scale destruction of our forests# and t is as a ma=or impact on t e productivity of our crop lands! T e reduction of crop0land productivity due to t e destruction of forests occurs in t/o /ays! In t e first place# / en forests arc destroyed# t ere is a many0fold increases in t e rate of soil erosion! T e result is t at t e soil literally "ets /as ed leadin" to an intensified cycle of floods and drou" t! Secondly# t e destruction of forests leads to t e s orta"e of fire/ood and t is as an adverse impact on t e productivity of crop lands! T e reason is t at / en fire/ood 2ecomes scarce# people 2e"in to use co/dun" and crop /astes as fuel for coo1in" and ot er purposes! As a result# every part of crop plants "ets used &as fodder or fuel( and not in" "oes 2ac1 to t e soil to enric it! Over a period of time# t is constant drain of nutrients from t e soil adversely affects it productivity! T e more intensive t e a"riculture &due to t e use of i" 0yieldin" varities(; /it out any manure and crop /astes "oin" 2ac1 into t e soil# t e faster is t e nutrient drain! T e district of 7ud iana in )un=a2# for e$ample# as t e i" est yield per ectare of many cereals today; 2ut 7ud iana as also t e i" est deficiency of many micronutrients in its soil! In )un=a2# many fanners ave already started usin" .inc routinely as a fertili.er! If t e dram of micronutrients from t e soil continues# t e farmers /ill soon 2e usin" sulp ur# man"anese and iron as fertili.ers! T e micronutrient fertili.er industry is li1ely to 2ecome a 2oom industry in t e near future! 1.* =o- is the o+one la(er bein' destro(ed4 Explain in detail. Ans% ln t e stratosp ere# t e destruction &or depletion( of t e o.one layer is mostly Caused 2y elemental c lorine a toms! T e mec anism for t is destruction of o.one involves t e follo/in" t/o reactions% O + K Cl 000000000000QClOKO* ClO K O +00000000000Q Cl AK*O* Of course# t ere are some ot er c emical reactions "oin" on in t e stratosp ere t at modify and compete /it t e a2ove t/o reactions! <ut if /e i"nore t e ot er reactions and add t e a2ove t/o reactions# t en /e find t at t e net result is t e follo/in" reaction% *O + K Cl0000000000000Q+O * KCl T us# in t e presence of c lorine atoms &Cl(# t/o o.one molecules are converted into t ree o$y"en molecules# / ile t ere is no net consumption of Cl atoms# / ic merely act as a catalyst! As a result# one Cl atom can "o on convertin" many o.one molecules &O + ( to ordinary o$y"en molecules &O * ( 2efore it is consumed 2y some ot er c emical reactions! It as 2een estimated t at a sin"le c lorine atom in t e stratosp ere can convert as many as 'B 9 to 'B 9 O + molecules to B# molecules 2efore 2ein" consumed 2y some ot er

reactions! T is mec anism is often referred to as t e catalytic destruction of o.one since t e c lorine atoms act as a catalyst for t e reaction! Most of t e c lorine in t e /orld is in t e form of c emically sta2le sodium c loride &NaCI(# eit er dissolved in t e oceans or in under"round salt deposits formed 2y t e evaporation of ancient oceans! Elemental c lorine &Cl(# / ic is a very reactive c emical# as a very s ort life0time in t e lo/er atmosp ere and as fe/ natural /ays to "et from t e lo/er atmosp ere up to t e o.one layer in t e stratosp ere! T e only naturally occurrin" c emical t at can transport muc c lorine i" enou" into6 t e stratosp ere to dama"e t e o.one layer is met yl c loride &C4 + CI(# / ic is produced in lar"e -uantities 2y 2iolo"ical processes in s allo/ oceans! Most of t is met yl c loride is destroyed in t e troposp ere &t e lo/er atmosp ere(# 2ut appro$imately +E of t e /orld0/ide met yl c loride emissions reac t e stratosp eric o.one layer! C emically active solar ultraviolet li" t in t e ran"e of *BB to *FB nm# / ic enters t e o.one layer 2ut does not penetrate 2elo/ it# is stron" enou" to split up t e met yl c loride molecules# releasin" Cl atoms# / ic initiate t e reactions "iven earlier and destroy t e o.one molecules! <efore /e ad t e synt etic alo"en compounds 1no/n as c lorofluorocar2ons &CCCs(# met yl /as pro2a2ly t e main natural destroyer of t e o.one layer! 4o/ever# t is destruction of t e o.one /as in 2alance /it its natural production mec anisms# leadin" to a steady0state o.one layer! Startin" a2out a undred years a"o &i!e!# from t e first decade of t e t/entiet century(# umans 2e"an releasin" into t e atmosp ere synt etic c lorine0 containin" compounds in si"nificant amount! T e compounds li1e met yl c loride &C4 + CI( t at also contain ydro"en atoms can 2e attac1ed in t e atmosp ere 2y t e O4 radical! As a result# most of suc c lorine0 containin" compounds do not survive lon" enou" in t e atmosp ere to reac t e stratosp ere! Car2on tetrac loride &CCI#(# on t e ot er and# as no ydro"en atom; so most of it is 2elieved to reac t e stratosp ere and participate in t e destruction of t e o.one layer! T e /orld production of car2on tetrac loride# o/ever# as remained more or less constant over t e last :B0FB years! ? =o- sho#ld -e protect the o+one la(er4 2rite in brief ! Ans% So far t e only met od /e 1no/ to protect t e stratosp eric o.one layer is to limit t e emission of t ose su2stances &mainly CCCs( t at can destroy it! No one 1no/s of anot er material /e could send into t e stratosp ere to protect t e o.one layer from CCCs! T e t reat to t e o.one layer is so severe t at international conferences ave 2een eld and declarations and treaties ave 2een adopted t at commit t e nations to restrict and eventually eliminate t e use of CCCs! Cor some applications of t e CCCs# satisfactory replacements are alread availa2le and for ot ers# t ey are 2ein" sou" t on an emer"ency 2asis! Many of t e proposed su2stitutes for CCCs are ydroc lorofluorocar2ons &4CCCs(# / ic contain atleast one ydro"en atom; so t ey are suscepti2le to attac1 2y O4 radicals in t e stratosp ere!

4u"e amounts of money and effort are 2ein" spent no/ to develop suita2le su2stitutes for t e CCCs! T e ori"inal CCCs /ere desi"ned to 2e non0 to$ic# non0flamma2le and c emically inert! T ere replacements s ould ave all t ese properties and# in addition# a lo/ o.one depletion potential &OD)(! T e OD) is a relative measure of t e a2ility of a "as or vapour to attac1 and destroy t e stratosp eric o.one layer! It is e$pressed as a function of t e percenta"e /ei" t of c lorine in t e alo"enated ydrocar2on &to 2e used a CCC su2stitute( and its lifetime in t e stratosp ere! T e c emical industry6 is developin" t/o ma=or types of CCC su2stitutes! One of t ese# 1no/n as t e ydroc lorofluorocar2on &4CCC( family# as a fairly lo/ OD)! T e ot er "roup# 1no/n as t e ydrofluorocar2on &4CC( family# as .ero o.one depletion potential since t e mem2ers of t is family ave no c lorine atoms in t eir molecules! It may 2e noted# o/ever# t at t e mem2ers of 2ot families &4CCC and 4CC( contri2ute to t e "reen ouse effect and "lo2al /armin"! Many c emical companies# includin" t e industrial "iants li1e Du Cont &?SA( and t e Imperial C emical Industries &?D(# ar"ue t at t e /orld s ould s/itc over to t e 4CCCs as an interim step 2ecause t ey are c eaper to produce and simpler to use! Compared to t e CCCs# t e ydrofluorocar2on &4CCs( are less sta2le and readily ydrolysed in t e troposp ere 2y t e O4 attac1; so t ey are 2elieved to 2e more environment tally accepta2le t an t e CCCs! T e data on t e ne/ 4CCs are# o/ever# scarce and of 7imited accuracy and t is is a ma=or deterrent to t eir adoption as CCC su2stitutes! Anot er pro2lem /it t e CCC su2stitutes is t at t ey are not as "ood as t e CCCs! Cor e$ample# one 4CCC &1no/n as 4CCC0*(# / ic # is already 2ein" used in lar"e0scale refri"erator installations in supermar1ets# etc!# cannot 2e used in domestic refri"erators! Anot er su2stitute# a ydrofluorocar2on 1no/n as 4CC0'+,a# is under development for domestic refri"erators; 2ut it is li1ely to cost at least five times more t an t e CCCs used currently for t is purpose! In addition to t e pro2lems mentioned a2ove# t e CCC su2stitutes /ill re-uire a su2stantial amount of re0en"ineerin" in many applications! In case of domestic refri"erators# for e$ample# lar"er compressors and pumps may 2e needed / en CCC replacements are used! T ese su2stitutes may also re-uire more ener"y# t us forcin" us to 2urn lar"er amount of fossil fuel# leadin" to more "lo2al /armin"! ? Describe some methods to treat and dispose the m#nicipal se-a'e. Ans% In developin" countries# t e or"anic pollutional load &contri2uted mainly 2y municipal se/a"e( is a ma=or pro2lem in connection /it /ater pollution! In India# it as 2een estimated t at municipal se/a"e contri2utes ABE or"anic pollutants to our river systems# :E is contri2uted 2y lar"e and medium industries# / ile t e remainin" +E comes from small0scale industries! T us treatment# utili.ation and proper disposal of municipal se/a"e are very

important steps to/ards t e control of /ater pollution! Some of t e important met ods used for t e disposal of se/a"e are as follo/s % (1) $and Disposal and Se-a'e "rri'ation! In t is met od# t e se/a"e is disposed off on land &often for t e purpose of irri"ation( instead of disc ar"in" it into a /ater 2ody! In t is case# t e land area acts as a crude filter and sta2ili.es t e se/a"e 2y aero2ic filtration! T e se/a"e is usually "iven primary treatment 2efore its disposal on land! T is met od is very similar to intermittent sand filtration! In case of se/a"e irri"ation# t e /ater and t e fertili.in" elements in t e se/a"e# vi.!# nitro"en# p osp orous and potassium# are utili.ed to raise crops! 4ence# t is met od as t e special advanta"e of fertili.in" t e land! (2) Dil#tion! In t is met od# t e se/a"e is disc ar"ed into a lar"e 2ody of /ater li1e river la1e or sea! T e se/a"e is usually treated 2efore disc ar"in" it into a /ater 2ody to ensure t at t e condition of t e receivin" /ater 2ody does not deteriorate to t e e$tent of impactin" on its normal use! I e cities arid to/ns / ic are situated near a lar"e river &Alla a2ad# Danpur# Varanasi and )atna# all of / ic are situated near t e river @an"a( mainly use t e met od of dilution to dispose off t eir se/a"e! T is met od is considered -uite satisfactory durin" t e rainy season / en t e dilutionfactor is e$tremely i" # 2ut not suita2le for t e period from Novem2er to >une# / en t e volume of river flo/ or t e volume of /ater in t e river is lo/# Treatment of Se/a"e Primar( 3reatment% T e primary treatment of se/a"e mainly consists of p ysical separation of floatin" and suspended solids &t at are settlea2le( from t e se/a"e! T e main e-uipment used for t e primary treatment are screens# "rit c am2ers# detritus tan1s# s1immin" tan1s and settlin" tan1s! Secondary Treatment % T e secondary treatment of se/a"e includes flocculation and precipitation of t e remainin" materials in t e se/a"e /it t e elp of 2iolo"ical a"encies# and t eir p ysical separation in secondary settlin" tan1s! T e 2y0products of t e secondary treatment process are screenin"s# "rit and slud"es of different 1inds! Out of t ese# t e first t/o can 2e easily disposed off 2y 2urial or 2urnin"! Slud"e# on t e ot er and# contains unsta2le volatile or"anic su2stances; so it may 2e treated 2y t e met od of di"estion! In t e process of di"estion of slud"es# various "ases are produced /it i" calorific value / ic can 2e successfully utili.ed for eatin" or po/er "eneration! T e solid materials left 2e ind &i!e!# t e di"ested slud"e( contain many fertili.in" materials and are useful as manure or soil 2uilder! Sl#d'e Di'estion % T e process of slud"e di"estion consists of li-uefaction of or"anic materials in t e slud"e 2y anaero2ic 2acteria# / ic produce an al1aline reaction! 3 en t e slud"e is first placed in t e di"estin" tan1!# acid di"estion /it t e production of no$ious "ases results and eventually# al1aline di"estion prevails! Once esta2lis ed# t e al1aline condition remains in t e di"estor for an indefinite period! T e "ases "iven off 2y t e slud"e are mainly met ane &C4R( /it some car2on dio$ide &CO;( and small -uantities of ot er

"ases! Amon" t e slud"e "ases# met ane as a calorific value of F#BBB 1calHm+ Since met ane forms a2out 9:E of t e slud"e "ases# t e calorific value of t e slud"e "as can 2e ta1en to 2e appro$imately 8#++, 1calHm+ T e slud"e "as occupies a2out B!A8 m+H1" of volume at normal temperature and atmosp eric pressure! T e main use of t e slud"e "as# apart from eatin" t e di"estion tan1s# is for "eneratin" po/er! T e po/er t us "enerated is enou" to pump t e entire se/a"e! Dried di"ested slud"e can 2e used as a fertili.er since it contains B!FE to +!8!E nitro"en# a2out '!9E p osp orous and B!+8E potassium on t e 2asis of t e dry /ei" t of solids! T e di"ested slud"e may also 2e used for land fillin"# incinerated to produce eat and po/er# or dumped into lar"e 2odies of /ater! 2hat are S.x and 8.x.4 Ans; T e t/o o$ides of sulp er are sulp er dio$ide &SO * ( and sulp er trio$ide &SO + (# / ic are collectively 1no/n as SO$ # / ere $S* or $S+! T ere are several o$ide of nitro"en &suc as N * O# NO#NO * #N*O * and N * O 8 (# 3 ic are collectively 1no/n as NO$! ? $ist fo#r hea v( me tals that poll#te -ater. Ans% eavy metals li1e 4" &murcury(# Cd &cadmium(# )2 &lead(# As # Se and S2! ? 2hat is a septic tan% 4 Ans % An important met od used to process t e domestic se/a"e is t e septic tan1# / ic is an under"round se/a"e container madeof concrete!

? 2hat are the c9-astes 4 Ans % It as 2een estimated t at more t an one 2illion )Cs &personal computers( ave already 2een sold "lo2ally and t ere as also 2een a spurt in t e sales of ot er electronic items li1e refri"erators# air conditioners# cellular p ones and personal stereos! As a result# t e -uantum of electronic As a result# t e -uantum of electronic /aste &discarded electronic items or J e0 /aste G( ? 2hat is o+one4 Ans % T e o.one &O + ( is a variant of o$y"en &O * (# / ic contains t ree o$y"en atoms instead of t e usual t/o# as in t e case of t e o$y"en molcule! M T e common met ods for t e disposal of solid /astes are% &A( Sanitary land0fill &2( Incineration &c( Compostin" &d( None of t ese! M India is a% &a( Developed country amon" developin" nations

&2( Developin" country amon" developed nations &c( <ot &d( Only &a(! M T ermal po/er plants use% &a( Coal &2( Oil &c( ?ranium &d( Strontium M )urification of "aseous pollutants may2e ac ieved 2y; &a( Catalyric conversion &2( Adsorption &c( A2sorption &d( All of t ese! M Comple$ soil pollutants include% &a( Cly0as &2( )lastics &c( <ot &d( Neit er! M 3rite true or false% Pua % 4er2icides# fun"icides and insecticides 2elon" to t e family of pesticides! Ans % True M 3rite true or falseN Pua % Deter"ents are inor"anic c emicals! Ans % Deter"ents are or"anic c emicals! M 3rite true or false% Pua % Radioactive isotopes ave a Very lon" alf0life! Ans % Radioactive isotopes ave a s ort alf0life! M 3rite true or false% Pua % Cadmium poisonin" may lead to formation of 1idney stones Ans% Cadmium poisonin" may lead to to$ic effect M 3rite true or false% Pua % Increase in dissolved o$y"en adversely affects t e a-uatic plants and animals! Ans % Reduce in dissolved o$y"en adversely affects t e a-uatic plants and animals! F!*+ 3rite true or false% Pua % 7ime can not 2e used to precipitate p osp orous! Ans % 7ime can 2e used to precipitate p osp orous! M 3rite true or false% Pua % T e anaero2ic treatment process is not effective for effluents containin" i" concentration of or"aiuc matters! pa"e'+ Ans% T e anaero2ic treatment process as 2een effective for effluents containin" i" concentration of or"aiuc matters!

M Cill up t e 2lan1% )rolon"ed e$posure to noise may cause earin" loss ! F!*8 Cill up t e 2lan1% @o2ar "as is a mi$ture of met ane &9BE ( and car2on dio$ide &+8E( F!*: Cill up t e 2lan1% 4eat is an e$ample of T ermal pollutant F!*F Matc t efollo/in"% &A( Noise pollution &a( Carcino"in &<( Dio$in &2( Detritus tan1 &C( Cly0as &c( Auditory effect &D( Se/a"e &d( )o/er plant A0c#<0a#C0d#D02 M Matc t e follo/in"% &A( <rain dama"e &a( DDT &<( Deforestation &2( )opulation &C( T ird 3orld countries &c( Soil erosion &D( 3 ite lun" lun" &d( Te$tiles A0c#<0a#C0d#D02 3rite t e odd ones % &a( @reen ouse effect &2( @lo2al /armin" &c( Suspended particulate matters &d( Acid rain!

<=AP3E& CA 2AS3E 7A8A0E7E83

7on" Type Puestions% M Descri2e in 2rief t e sanitary land0fillin" met od for solid /astes disposal! Ans% T e 2asic principle of a landfill operation is to deposit t e refuse# compact it /it t e elp of 2ulldo.ers and t en cover t e material /it at least '8cm of dirt at t e conclusion of eac day6s operation! 3 en t e area is full# a final cover of a2out 9Bcm of dirt is applied# / ic is necessary to prevent rodents from 2urro/in" into t e refuse! T e selection of a proper land0fill site is a difficult pro2lem! T e en"ineerin" aspects of land0fill site selection include% (1) Draina'e: Rapid runoff reduces t e mos-uito pro2lems# 2ut close pro$imity to streams or du"0/ells may result in /ater pollution! (2) 2ind: It is prefera2le t at t e sanitary land0fill 2e situated in t e do/n /ind direction from t e city or to/n! ( ) Si+e: A small land0fill site /it limited capacity is "enerally not accepta2le 2ecause findin" a ne/ site involves considera2le amount of trou2le! (!) Dltimate Dse: At t e plannin" sta"e# one as to consider / et er t e area can 2e utilised for pu2lic or private use after t e land0fillin" operation is completed! T e a2ove en"ineerin" pro2lems are -uite important# 2ut even more important are t e social and psyc olo"ical pro2lems of sanitary land0fills! No one in is ri" t mind /ill 2e appy a2out avin" a sanitary land0fill near is ouse! A community may 2e re/arded /it play"rounds# tennis courts# "olf courses# etc!# for toleratin" a land0fill operation for a fe/ years! If t is operation is conducted accordin" to accepted practice# t ere /ill 2e very little adverse environmental impact; 2ut it is very difficult to convince and e$plain t is to t e people livin" near a land0fill! T e reason is t at most of t e sanitary land0fills in t e past /ere not in" 2ut "lorified "ar2a"e dumps! T e sanitary land0fill operation is# in fact# a 2iolo"ical met od of /aste treatment! In t e a2sence of o$y"en# anaero2ic decomposition steadily de"rades t e or"anic material to more sta2le form! T is process# o/ever# is very slo/! T e decomposition may still 2e "oin" on after *8 years! T e end products of anaero2ic decomposition are mostly "ases li1e car2on dio$ide &CO * (# met ane &C4 , (# aminoma &N4 + (# and a small amount of ydro"en sulp ide &4 * S(! Since t ese "ases ave to find an escape# it is a "ood practice to install vents in land0fills to prevent t e 2uild0up of t e a2ove "ases! T e decomposition reactions are self0sustainin" and temperature inside t e land0fill often reac es 8809BT C! T e 2iolo"ical aspects of t e land0fill as /ell as t e structural properties of t e compacted solid /aste dictate t e ultimate use of sanitary land0fill sites! It is su""ested t at not in" s ould 2e constructed on a land0fill site for at least t/o

years 2ecause uneven settin" may often create pro2lems! If initial compaction is poor# it may ta1e as lon" as five years for =ust 8BE settlin" to occur! If pilin"s are used as foundations on a land0fill# t ey s ould e$tend t rou" t e fill and onto roc1 or some ot er sufficiently stron" material! A.2 Describe a modem compostin' method. Ans% compostin" of solid /astes is an aero2ic met od of decomposin" t e /astes! Many types of micro0or"anisms# / ic are already present in t e /astes# sta2ili.e t e or"anic matters in it to produce a soil conditioner! T e micro0or"anisms t at decompose t e /astes include 2acteria &/ ic predominate at all sta"es of t e process(# fun"i &/ ic often appear after t e first /ee1( and actinomycetes &/ ic e$ist durin" t e final sta"es(! Initially# t e process starts /it t e mesop ilic 2acteria# / ic o$idi.e t e or"anic matters in t e /astes to car2on dio$ide &CO * ( and li2erate eat! As a result# t e temperature rises to a2out ,8TC! At t is point# t e t ermop ilic 2acteria ta1e over and continue t e decomposition! Durin" t is p ase of decomposition# t e temperature rises furt er to a2out 9BTC! T e refuse is periodically turned over to a 4o/ enou" o$y"en to penetrate all parts of t e material to support t e process! T e compost is sta2ili.ed after a2out t ree /ee16s! T e end point of a compostin" operation can 2e determined 2y notin" a drop in t e temperature# eart y smell and a dar1 2ro/n colour! T e moisture content of t e /astes is a critical factor in t e aero2ic compostin" process! E$cessive moisture ma1es it difficult to maintain aero2ic conditions! Deart of moisture# on t e ot er and# in i2its t e "ro/t of microor"anisms! Cor an optimum rate of compostin"# a moisture content of a2out 88E is re-uired# and it may 2e necessary to add /ater in order to maintain a satisfactory moisture content! Modern met ods of compostin" may 2e classified into t/o 2road cate"ories% &'( Manual met od! &*( Mec anical met od! T e manual met od is more attractive for to/ns /it a rural 2ias! Manual met ods are /idely practiced in India and many ot er developin" countries! In India# t/o manual met ods ave 2een developed for compostin" t e refuseHni" t0soil mi$ture! T ese are% &'( T e Indore process! &*( T e <an"alore process! In t e Indore process# layers of ve"eta2le /aste and ni" t0soil are alternated# eac a2out Fcm t ic1# to dept of a2out '!8m in a trenc # or form a mound a2ove t e "round! T e mi$ture is 1ept aero2ic 2y turnin" it at re"ular intervals for t/o or t ree mont s! T e resultin" compost is t en left for anot er mont or so /it out turnin"! T e / ole process ta1es a2out +0, mont s! T e <an"alore process of compostin" is a modified form of t e id ore process! T e <an"alore process as 2een /idely adopted no/ 2y various municipalities all

over India! In t is process# t e refuseH ni" t0soil mi$ture is placed in layers &as in t e Indore process( in a trenc of a2out one metre deep! In contrast to t e Indore process# o/ever# t e material is not imed in t e <an"alore process# 2ut is di"ested under essentially anaero2ic conditions# / ere2y t e decomposition is complete in a2out ,08 mont s! T ou" t e <an"alore process avoids turnin" t e material alto"et er# it lays "reat emp asis on t e car2on to nitro"en &CHN( ratio of t e compost eap and its initial moisture content! T e resultin" compost is free from pat o"enic &i!e!# disease0causin"( or"anisms! On dry 2asis# t e compost contains appro$imately '!8E nitro"en# '!'E p osp orous &as ) * B 8 ;( and '!8E potassium &as D * B( and proves to 2e a valua2le nutrient for t e soil! Cully mec ani.ed compostin" plants involve s red din"# "rindin" and mec anical separation of i" density solids! T ere are 2asically four processes of mec anical compostin" availa2le in India; &'( T e <u ler process! &*( T e Dano process! & + ( T e Tollemac e process! &,( T e Nusoil process! In t e <u ler process# t e /aste material is "round in t/o sta"es in ammer mills! T e non0compos ta2le inor"anic materials &metals and "lass( are separated from t e /aste 2y t e stron" siftin" action on circular s/in"in" sieves! T e remainin" corn posta2le materialis t en decomposed aero2icatly in open trenc es or mounds! Sta2ilisation 2y t is process may ta1e a2out *0+ mont s! T e Dane process uses a lon" rotatin" drum# called a 2io0sta2iliser unit# for decomposin" t e /aste! T e rotatin" drum is inclined so t at t e /aste flo/s from one end to t e ot er! T e refuse is partially decomposed in t e drum and t e outcomin" refuse is "enerally free from odour and pat o"enic micro0 or"anisms! T is partially decomposed refuse is t en completely decomposed in open trenc es or mounds! T e entire operation may ta1e a2out a mont ! T e pulverised and screened refuse is allo/ed to decompose in trenc es mounds for a2out t ree /ee1s# /it t ree or four turnin"s! T e resultin" compost is t en cured for ,08 /ee1s! T e complete sta2ili.ation# t erefore# ta1es a2out t/o mont s! In t e Nusoil process t e non0composta2le inor"anic material is separated from t e /aste# t e resultant /aste is pulverised and t e pulveri.ed /aste is led to a vertical di"ester / ere decomposition ta1es place! T e vertical di"ester is a cylindrical unit avin" seven sections! T e refuse moves do/n/ard t rou" eac section of t e di"ester! T e rates of air flo/ and /ater addition are re"ulated so t at t e decomposition of t e /aste ta1es place under optimum conditions! T e refuse is 1ept for a2out a day in eac section of t e di"ester and t us# t e di"estion process is completed in a2out seven

days! T e resultin" compost is -uite satisfactory6 for direct field application /it out addition of supplementary nutrients! 2rite a critical note on Eio'as. Ans% It as 2een estimated t at appro$imately '#'BB million tonnes of /et animal dun" per annum are availa2le in our country from *!8B million catties! Even at 99 E collection rate# t is cattle dun" can produce **#8BB million cu2ic litres of 2io"as t rou" 2io"as plants and save ',#BBB million liters of 1erosene per year# / ic is mainly used in t e villa"es for li" tin" and partly for coo1in"! In addition# t e slurry from 2io"as plants can produce *'B million tonnes of or"anic manure# / ic can replace '!, million tonnes of nitro"en &N * (# '!+ million tonnes of p osp ate &) * B + ( and B!A million tonnes of potas &D * O( per year! ?nfortunately# t is tremendous source of 2ioener"y as not yet 2een fully tapped! T e varia2le factors ran"e from cattle dun" availa2ility and its calorific value to 2io"as yield and appliance efficiency! T/o ma=or researc needs in t e area of 2io"as tec nolo"y are restricted use of /ater in 2io"as plants and 2etter strains of met ane "eneratin" 2acteria! In addition# temperature is a critical factor for t e amount of met ane "eneration in a 2io"as plant! T e ideal temperature for ma$imum met ane production is appro$imately +8T C since t e 2acteria are sensitive to lo/er temperatures# particularly in t e nort ern re"ions of India! T ere is a fall in 2io"as production 2elo/ *BT C and it stops alto"et er at 'BTC! T ere is an ur"ent need# t erefore# to develop ne/ strains of met ane "eneratin" 2acteria / ic can produce met ane at temperatures less t an *BT C! ? Describe a method to man#fact#re particle boards from -astes. Ans% Scientists at t e Indian )l(5/ood Researc Institute# <an"alore ave developed a tec nolo"y for manufacturin" particle 2oard from rice us1! T e particle 2oard o2tained 2y usin" t is tec nolo"y is a versatile su2stitute in a /ide ran"e of applications! T e particle 2oards# moreover# can also 2e made decorative 2y incorporatin" suita2le colours# so t ey can 2e made more ele"ant loo1in" and attractive t an any ot er /ood or ply/ood su2stitute! T e particle 2oard as 2een found to 2e superior to /ood or ply/ood 2oards 2ecause of t e follo/in" advanta"es it offers% &'( )article 2oard is resistant to termites &/ ite ants( &*( It as a i" resistance a"ainst decay! &+( T e particle 2oard as e$cellent mec anical properties suc as elasticity# dimensional sta2ility# scre/ and nail oldin" capacity# a2rasion resistance and surface ardness! &,( It as an improved /ater resistance! &8U It as a i" dura2ility! Dependin" on t e mar1et demand# a varied of product0mi$ can 2e produced 2y varyin" t e density and resin content of t e 2oards! T e met od of particle 2oard manufacture involves t e follo/in" 2asic steps% &'( Cleanin" of t e ra/ material &t e rice us1(!

&*( Application of ad esive! &+( Matformm"! &,( Ed"e trimmin"! &8( Sandin"! ? Stac%in'. T e process as 2een licenced to several firms in India and Malaysia! T e particle 2oards produced 2y t ese firms ave s o/n e$cellent mar1et acceptance and "ained popularity 2ecause of t eir ele"ant loo1# 2etter mec anical properties and lo/er prices! Short Ans-er )#estions: M 3 at are social /astesL Ans% Solid /aste# t e t ird pollution after air and /ater pollution# is t at solid material / ic arises from various uman activities and / ic is normally descri2ed as useless or un/anted! M 3 at do you mean 2y 5s reddin" t e solid /astes5L Ans% S reddin" t e solid /astes &also 1no/n as pulveri.in"( and t en spreadin" t e s redded material on fields as 2een found to 2e successful in a num2er of places! Since spreadin" it out dries t e pulveri.ed refuse# it avoids t e pro2lems of offensive rats and file! M 3 at is a "reen fuelL Ans% T e fuel o2tained from /aste plastic contains no lead and octain ratin"# it is 1no/n as @REEN C?E7! ad a i"

M Define 2iomet anationL Ans% Instead of t rou" in" t e "ar2a"e # t is "ar2a"e is mi$ed /it /ater and 2acterial species# specifically cultured for production of met ane! T ese 2acteria decomposes t e /aste 2y eatin" and as a result produces met ane! T is process is 1no/n as <IOMET4ANATION! M 3 at is fly0as L Ans% Cly0as from coal0fired po/er plants is a ma=or industrial /aste product in India! M 3 at is incinerationL Ans% It is t e final solution for t e solid /aste pro2lem &includin" volume reduction(! p'9 A!'' T e i" est calorific value can 2e o2tained from% &a( @ar2a"e &2( Ru22is &c( Cat olo"ical /astes &d( All ave e-ual value! A!'* T e important vectors of uman diseases in re"ard to solid /astes are%

&a( Rats &2( flies &c( <ot &d( non A!'+ A-uatic /eeds cause% &a( 3ater02orn diseases &2( Evapotranspiration &c( <loc1a"e of /ater/ays &d( none A!', )yrolysis of plastics may yield% &a( 3a$ &2( @rease &c( Ad esive &d( All A!'8 Matc t e follo/in"% &A( Ant racene &C( Coal tar &<( 4ydrometailur"y &D( Electroplatin" &C( )olymeri.ed /astes &<( Metal E$traction &D( Silver &A( Non2iode"rada2le A!'9 Matc t e follo/in"; &A( Cement &C( <iomass &<( Compost &A( Clyas &C( @asifier &<( Dano process &D( Ma"nesium &D( Refractory A!': 3rite True or Calse% Open Dumpin" of solid /aste is e$clusively practiced in India !&T( A!'F 3rite True or Calse% Sanitary land fill is an aero2ic process! &C( A!'A 3rite True or Calse% Compostin" is an anaero2ic process! &T( A!*B 3rite True or Calse% @enerally t e a"ricultural /aste are non0 a.ardous! &T( A!*' Cill in t e 2lan1s% T e compound furfural # o2tained from corn co2s# is t e 2asic c emical used for t e synt esis of nitrofurans! A!** Cill in t e 2lan1s% 7and0fill operations are -uite difficult to carry out durin" t e rainin" season! A!*+ Cill in t e 2lan1s% One can recover 00000000 and 00000000 from t e pic1le li-uor! A!*, fill in t e 2lan1s%

)at olo"ical /astes ave a moisture content of a2out F8E! A!*8 3rite t e odd one% &a( Nitro"en &2( O$y"en &c( ) osp ate &d( )otas A!*9 3rite t e odd one% &a( Slurries &2( Stron" Acids &c( Solids &d( Slud"es

<=AP3E& C1; SDS3A"8AE$E DE>E$.P7E83

Long type Answers: 1;.1 Define and explain s#stainable development. Ans % In reality# all environmental pro2lems are development pro2lems! Many alternate development strate"ies ave 2een propounded and t ey are 2ein" implemented /it out ade-uate environmental safe"uards! In "eneral# sustaina2ility implies continuity of all t in"s t at are 2asically positive and mi" t 2e t ou" t of as 2roadly desira2le or admira2le! Some ot er definitions or interpretations of sustaina2ility or sustaina2le development are as follo/s% &'( Sustaina2ility is t e a2ility of an activity or development to continue in t e lon" term /it out underminin" t at part of t e environment / ic sustains it! &*( Sustaina2le development is t e development t at see1s to improve t e -uality of uman life /it out underminin" t e -uality of our natural environment! &+( Sustaina2ility implies t at uman use or en=oyment of t e /orld6s natural and cultural resources s ould not# in overall terms# diminis or destroy t em! 1;.2 2hat r the salient feat#res of the Er#ndtland &eportBF.#r <ommon 6eat#reF4 Ans% T e term Sustaina2le Development /as coined 2y t e 3orld Commission on Environment and Development &3CED(# eaded 2y Dr! &Mrs!( @ro 4arlem <rundtland &t e t en )rime Minister of Nor/ay(! In its report 5Our Common Cuture5# presented in 'AF: &1no/n as t e <rundtland Report(# sustaina2le development /as defined as t e 5development t at meets t e needs of t e present /it out compromisin" t e a2ility of t e future "eneration to meet t eir o/n needs5! Sustaina2le development# t erefore# implies protectin" t e environmental /ealt # uman capital stoc1# land# /ater and air# ecolo"ical livin" and non0livin" resources# and socioeconomic resource 2ase!

1;. 2hat r the fo#rteen indicators for GA Eetter 2#alit( of $ifeF as contained in 1AAA 2hite Paper of the 'ovt. of DH4 Ans% &'( T e total output &@ross Domestic )roduct(! &*( T e per capita investment in private# pu2lic and 2usiness assets! &+( T e percenta"e of people of /or1in" a"e in employment! &,( Pualifications at a"e 'A! &8( T e percenta"e of people /it lon"er e$pected years of ealt y life! &9( T e percenta"e of omes =ud"ed unfit to live in! &:( T e level of crime! &F( T e per capita emissions of "reen0 ouse "ases! &A( T e num2er of days in a year /it air pollution moderate or i" ! &'B( T e condition of road traffic! &''( T e -uality and -uantity of readily availa2le /ater! &'*( T e population of /ild 2irds! &'+( T e percenta"e of ne/ omes 2uilt on previously developed land! &',( T e per capita /aste "eneration and mana"ement of /aste! 1;.! 2rite briefl( on the 3echnolo'( for S#stainable Ener'(. Ans% Ener"y pro2lems of ur2anised population % T e details of ener"y demand clearly reflect t at t ere is im2alance 2et/een demand and supply of ener"y! T e demand of ener"y is more / ereas supply is less! Demand is more 2ecause num2er of ouses and ve icles are increasin" day 2y day! <esides t is# consumers of ener"y are a2undant in num2er! 3e /ere +,!: crores in 'A8' 2ut no/ /e are more t an 'OO crores in India! Every one nearly is avin" electrical appliance! T e ener"y consumption is t erefore s ootin" up! 1;.* 2rite a critical note on the 3echnolo'( for S#stainable materials . Ans% T ere is a "lo2al reali.ation of t e fact t at sin"le use of some of T e important materials li1e metals# "lass and paper /ould lead to scarcity of suc materials since t eir feed0stoc1s /ould "et e$ austed! In developed countries# resource recovery is a i" tec nolo"y area! In many developin" countries li1e India# o/ever city "ar2a"e is sorted out manually for t e recovery of metals# "lass# plastics# paper# etc!# / ic "enerate employment and materials for reuse! T e reasons for /aste utili.ation are% &'( economic &*( environmental &+( resource conservation &,( employment "eneration and &8( provision of 2asic necessities of life!

Short Answer Type Questions: 1;., 2hat is <80 and -hat r its main #ses4

Ans% CN@ means Compressed Natural @as# it is mainly used as a fuel! T e en"ines of t e ot er automo2iles can 2e easily modified to run on CN@! In case of CN@ t e cost is lo/# /ear and tear of en"ine is lo/ and t e environmental pollution is also lo/! 1;./ 2rite all the steps of chemical reaction for the conversion of co%e or coal to methanol. Ans% T e c emical process for t e conversion of co1e to met anol is as follo/s% C K *4 * O 00000000 Q CO * K *4 * C K 4 * O 00000000 Q CO K 4 * CO K *4 * 00000000 Q C4 + O4 1;.1 2hat is Photovoltaic <ell4 Ans% ) otovoltaic ener"y conversion is a direct ener"y conversion in t e sense t at t e li" t ener"y is directly converted into electrical ener"y /it out intermediate involvement of mec anical or t ermal ener"y! ) otovoltaic ener"y converters are "enerally 1no/n as Solar Cells! 1;.A 0ive examples of fo#r non9metallic materials -hich can be rec(cled and can be re#sed. Ans% '( )aper# *( Co/ Dun"# +( )lastics# and ,( @lass! 1;.1; 2hat r #ses of <hina <la(4 Ans% C ina clay is produced from @ranite Roc1 for use in ceramic industries! A2out FB I0ABE of t e e$tracted roc1 is spoil# / ic includes over 2urden# /aste roc1 and coarse sand! T e 2ul1 of t ese materials is dumped! Coarse sand is used in road construction and in manufacture of 2uildin" materials! 'B!'' At t e time of desi"nin" of a development pro=ect# care s ould 2e ta1en to preserve% &a( 4ills &2( Valleys &c( Sprin"s &d( All of t ese! 'B!'* <arry commoner# in is famous 2oo1 J T e closin" circleG# formulated% &a( T/o la/s of ecolo"y &2( Cour la/s of ecolo"y &c( T ree la/s of ecolo"y &d( No la/ of ecolo"y

'B!'+ Sectors / ic r most vital for sustaina2le development of India are% &a( A"riculture &2( Infrastructure

&c( 3ater &d( All 'B!', Matc t e follo/in"% &a( Ener"y &D( O.one depletion &2( @eo0t ermal Ener"y &C( Our common future &c( <rundtland &A( Transport sector &d( Montreal protocol &<( Cam2ay 2asin 'B!'8 3rite true or false% Not in"# in fact# is really a /aste! &T( 'B!'9 /rite true or false% )rimary metal industries recover metals from municipal /astes! &T( 'B!': Name t e odd one% &a( @lass &2( )lastic &c( Aluminium &d( Ru22er 'B!'F Name t e odd one% &a( 4ydro"en &2( Met anol &c( Coal &d( Iron 'B!'A Cill in t e 2lan1s% All natural features maintain ecolo"ical 2alance!

7.E"$"3I
+!'!' Types of Mo2ility T e term 5mo2ility5 or 5social mo2ility5 in its /idest sense refers to any movement of individuals# families or social "roups amon" different sectors of society! T e movement in t e same country from one occupation to anot er or from one reli"ion to anot er is a 1ind of mo2ility at t e national level! On t e international scale# mi"ration of people from one country to anot er is a very important type of mo2ility! In anv discussion of mo2ility# a distinction is usually made 2et/een t e so called 5 ori.ontal5 and 5vertical5 mo2ility! T e ori.ontal mo2ility involves no c an"e in t e position of t e individual or t e "roup in t e social ierarc y&system of "rades of status( 0 3 en a /or1er moves from one factory to anot er# or / en an en"ineer ta1es a position in anot er company# t ere is no si"nificant c an"e in is social status! T is is an e$ample of ori.ontal mo2ility! T e vertical mo2ility# on t e ot er and# involves a c an"e of social level in t e process of movement! If a /or1er 2ecomes a /ealt y 2usinessman# is position in t e class system c an"es -uite radically! T is is

an e$ample of vertical mo2ility# &up/ard(! It may 2e noted ere t at vertical mo2ility may involve eit er up/ard or do/n/ard movement! An e$ample of do/n/ard mo2ility is a mem2er of an upper class / o is dispossessed of is /ealt in a revolution and is forced to enter into a manual occupation! Modern sociolo"ists ave concentrated t eir attention mainly on t e up/ard mo2ility! T is is due to t e fact t at t ey ave 2een preoccupied /it t e -uestion of e-uality of opportunity! In recent years# it as 2een su""ested 2y many social t eorists t at t e de"ree of do/n/ard mo2ility mi" t 2e a far 2etter indicator of t e 5openness5 of a particular society! T e reason is t at do/n/ard mo2ility can clearly s o/ t e e$tent to / ic it is possi2le for t e privile"ed&special 2enefit or onour( classes and "roups to maintain t eir status and pass on to t eir descendants t e advanta"es t at t ey en=oyed! T ou" sociolo"ists ave 2een mostly preoccupied /it t e mo2ility of individuals# it is easy to see t at / ole families# "roups# and even classes may# at certain times# c an"e t eir position in t e social structure! One of t e earliest /riters to 2rin" out t e diverse aspects of vertical social mo2ility /as t e economist >osep Sc umpeter# / o in 'A*: analysed and illustrated / at e termed t e 5rise and fall5 of individuals# families# and / ole classes /it in t e class structure! In studyin" t e movement of individuals# sociolo"ists distin"uis 2et/een t e follo/in"% &'( Intra "enerational Mo2ility! &*( Inter "enerational Mo2ility! T e Mo2ility is said to 2e intra "enerational / en an individual moves vertically up/ard or do/n/ard /it in is o/n adult lifetime! On t e ot er and# if vertical movement represented 2y a c an"e in t e social level occurs from t e parental to t e filial&of or due from a son or dau" ter ( "eneration &mostly from fat er to son(# it is 1no/n as t e inter"enerational mo2ility! In recent years# compre ensive national studies of mo2ility ave 2een conducted in many countries# 2ut suc studies ave dealt almost entirely /it inter"enerational mo2ility# investi"atin" c an"es in occupation 2et/een fat er and son! Anot er limitation of t ese studies is t at t ey ave concentrated eavily on t e educational opportunity as a ma=or factor influencin" up/ard mo2ility! In contrast to t e mo2ility of individuals# t e rise and fall of families# "roups or classes is relatively more difficult to study# 2ut suc movements can 2e documented in ot er /ays! An important e$ample of t e up/ard mo2ility of families is t e emer"ence of ne/ rulin" dynasties& raa=vans (! Ot er e$amples can 2e found in t e rise and fall of family 2usiness or politically influence! Suc mo2ility of particular social "roups usually occurs as a result of economic# political and cultural influences! .1.2 =istorical St#dies of 7obilit(: T e pro2lem /it istorical studies of mo2ility is t at t ey lar"ely provide illustrations of various types of mo2ilities 2ut do not s o/ t e e$tent of it due to lac1 of data! Suc istorical studies do not "ive t e actual num2er of individuals or families / o c an"e t eir position 2y up/ard or do/n/ard movement in t e social ierarc y over a "iven period of time! As a result#

istorical comparisons of mo2ility are -uite difficult and lar"ely speculative &t eori.e# con=ecture(! In fact# t ere are many difficulties even in e$aminin" t e trends of mo2ility in more recent industrial societies! Nevert eless# most sociolo"ists a"ree t at t e vertical social mo2ility &especially t at of individuals( is "reater in modern industrial societies t an it /as in earlier societies! On t e ot er and# modern social researc s o/s t at! Even in industrial societies! Mo2ility is limited and t at t ere are no su2stantial differences 2et/een different industrial societies in t e e$tent of mo2ility in spite of t e "eneral 2elief t at social mo2ility is "reater in t e ?nited States t an in t e European countries! T e movement of individuals from t e /or1in" class into t e upper class is "enerally rare in all societies! Comparisons amon" industrial societies s o/ t at t e "reater part of t e vertical social mo2ility is a s ort0ran"e mo2ility! Modern investi"ations su""est t at one s ould 2e cautious in t e interpretation of istorical accounts of social mo2ility and undue prominence &clearly visi2le(! S ould not 2e "iven to e$ceptional cases of up/ard or do/n/ard movement! It is -uite li1ely t at# in all societies and at most times# t ere is considera2le amount of sta2ility! 3 en t is sta2ility is not maintained 2y any formal or le"al sanctions# it is ensured 2y t e in eritance of property# educational advanta"es or political influences! .1. 3he Process of 7obilit( T e nature and de"ree of vertical mo2ility in a society are "overned 2y a num2er of factors! One universal factor is t e occurrence of individuals /it e$ceptional endo/ments & somet in" t at is settled on any person or institution( suc as intelli"ence# p ysical stren"t # 2eauty# 2usiness acumen# etc! In t e past# 2eautiful /omen rose to social eminence& risin" a2ove ot ers; conspicuous( as t e mistresses of 1in"s and no2les# and in more recent times# as film stars! Similarly# men &and to some e$tent# /omen too( ave risen in t e social ierarc y & 2ody or or"ani.ation classified in successively su2ordinate "rades( 2y accumulation of /ealt # attainment of political or military po/er# and intellectual or artistic ac ievements! Manifestations & clearly s o/n( of suc personal -ualities in e$ceptional amounts are -uite limited and# so are t e social advanta"es t at t ey 2rin"! Vertical social mo2ility resultin" from e$ceptional personal -ualities is "overned 2y many social factors! In t e first place# t e open or closed nature of t e class system in a particular society as a po/erful influence on t e vertical movement of individuals! An individual in a close system encounters many o2stacles if e see1s to escape from is social position as a slave# serf& one 2ound to /or1 on t e land(# or a mem2er of a lo/er caste! T e ideolo"y t at up olds suc a system usually tends to in i2it t e development of talent and am2ition at t e lo/er levels of t e society! In t e more open class systems of modem societies# t ere are no formal restrictions on up/ard vertical mo2ility! 4o/ever# talented individuals from a lo/er social class ave to overcome many difficulties# arisin" mainly from poverty and lac1 of education# in order to succeed and move to a i" er social class! In contrast# less talented individuals from t e upper classes are a2le to maintain t eir positions due to

t eir in erited social advanta"es! T e e$tent to / ic an individual talent /ill lead to up/ard mo2ility is also limited 2y t e "eneral orientation of t e activities of a particular society6! A primitive tri2al society t at lives 2y untin" or is en"a"ed in an on0"oin" /arfare /it ot er nei" 2ourin" tri2es /ill naturally place a i" value on p ysical stren"t ! Similarly# a nation en"a"ed in imperial & pertainin" to ( e$pansion and colonisation & t e act or practice of coloni.in"( /ill i" ly rate military -ualities; and t e nation t at is mainly concerned /it industrial and economic developments /ill attac t e "reatest importance to 2usiness s1ills! T e "eneral c an"es in social structure as a profound influence on social mo2ility0 Cor e$ample# a revolution t at dispossesses & to de"rade( an e$istin" upper class or a national li2eration movement t at overt ro/s forei"n rule creates ne/ opportunities for individuals# "roups and even / ole classes to move up/ard and occupy dominant positions! T e mo2ility is also affected 2y more "radual c an"es in a society# especially if t e c an"es occur in its occupational structure! T us# t e e$pansion of tec nical and professional employment involves a continuin" movement out of manual /or1# and t is accounts for a ma=or cause for t e up/ard mo2ility in modem industrial societies! Mo2ility is i" durin" a revolution and after a revolution# a system of social stratification may emer"e and t e rate of social mo2ility may decline & to deviate( ! Similarly# durin" recession or depression# / en t e rate of "ro/t slo/s do/n# opportunities for mo2ility are "reatly reduced! In suc circumstances# t e possi2ility of up/ard mo2ility /ill lar"ely depend upon t e e$tent of do/n/ard mo2ility! Anot er factor avin" an influence on t e mo2ility# / en t ere is little economic development# is t at of differential fertility! If t e upper and middle classes limit t eir families# t e vacant places may2e filled 2y individuals / o rise from t e lo/er classes! Suc differential fertility as rarely 2een a ma=or influence on social mo2ility! ?p/ard social mo2ility as often 2een promoted 2y international movement of population ! A very important e$ample of t is p enomenon is t e colonial e$pansion of many European countries from t e si$teent century on/ards# / ic provided opportunities for individuals to move up/ard in society 2y enric in" t emselves as traders or settlers and# at t e same time as t ey su2=u"ated & to 2rin" under po/er( ot er people in Asia# Africa and America! At a later sta"e# /it t e creation of ne/ societies 2y European settlers in t eir adopted countries &especially in Nort America and Australia(# fres opportunities for mo2ility /ere provided 2y lar"e scale immi"ration! MO<I7ITY +!'!' Types of Mo2ility T e term 5mo2ility5 or 5social mo2ility5 in its /idest sense refers to any movement of individuals# families or social "roups amon" different sectors of society! T e movement in t e same country from one occupation to anot er or from one reli"ion to anot er is a 1ind of mo2ility at t e national level! On t e international scale# mi"ration of people from one country to anot er is a ve

+!'!, Conse-uences of Mo2ility T e vertical movement of a lar"e num2er of people up and do/n t e social ierarc y tends to 2rea1 do/n t e e$clusiveness of t e social class and creates a more uniform national culture! 4opefully# t is may also lead to reduction of class conflict# or at least class pre=udices! Many sociolo"ists ave claimed t at t e lesser de"ree of mass consciousness in t e ?S society# as compared to t e societies of European countries# is due to t e i" est rate of social mo2ility in t e ?S! It may 2e noted t at t e /idespread 2elief t at opportunities for up/ard mo2ility are "reater in t e ?S t an in ot er societies may itself ave ad an important influence on t e lesser de"ree of class0consciousness in t e ?S! T e ot er side of t e coin of social mo2ility is t e ar"ument t at preoccupation /it vertical movement reinforces t e class system! T us# t e individuals / o are concerned to rise or at least to avoid fallin" in t e social ierarc y accept and even emp asi.e & to lay stress on( t e importance of class and status distinctions & separation or division( ! Anot er conse-uence of mo2ility is t e more effective use of individual talent and a2ility# and t is is "enerally considered 2eneficial from t e point of vie/ of t e society as a / ole! T e reason is t at if t e individuals are confined to t e social se"ment in / ic t ey are 2orn# many useful talents /ill remain undiscovered and unused! In modern industrial societies# t e e$pansion of education as 2een stimulated & to produce increased action in( 2y t e desire of t e "overnments to provide opportunities for t e development of all t e a2ilities in t e population# alt ou" most of t e countries are far from ac ievin" t is "oal! Vertical mo2ility may also ave some undesira2le conse-uences! Vertical social mo2ility# 2ot up/ard and do/n/ard# produces strain in t e individuals strivin" for success and adaptin" to ne/ social milieus! Suc mo2ility may also 2e disruptive & avin" an upsettin" or unsettlin" effect( of families and local communities# &e!"!# in Derala# / ere t ousands of talented individuals ave "one to /or1 in t e Middle East countries# disruptin" t eir family life(! A i" rate of vertical mo2ility may produce in a society t e condition t at t e Crenc Sociolo"ist Dur1 eim called 5anomie5 &meanin" normlessness( and t e resultant disorientation and an$iety & a state of 2ein" an$ious( ! ?nder t is condition# t ere is insufficient re"ulation of t e individual 2e aviour# and t e individual suffers from t e 5malady of infinite aspiration & lofty opes or aims (5! T e presence of suc stress and strain may also "ive rise to a i" er incidence of mental illness amon" t e i" ly am2itious and i" ly mo2ile individuals! .1.* <hannels of 7obilit( Many social institutions li1e army# c urc # sc ool# political party and occupational or"anisation serve as t e c annels of vertical mo2ility t rou" / ic individuals ascend or descend t e social ladder! In any society# at a "iven period of time# one of t ese institutions may play a dominant role# &t e army in time of /ar(! 3it t e e$ception of t e period of anarc y# vertical mo2ility is stron"ly controlled 2y t e ela2orate social mac inery of testin"# selection and placement of individuals /it re"ard to various social positions! T e family# t e c urc and t e sc ool test t e "eneral intelli"ence and

c aracter of t e individual accordin" to t eir standards! 3 en t e individual enters an occupational institution# e is tested for t e specific a2ility and s1ills necessary for t e successful performance of definite functions! T ese institutions# t erefore# serve as social sieves! T ey perform not only t e educational and trainin" functions# 2ut t e selective functions as /ell! T e process of vertical mo2ility e$erts a num2er of important influences upon social life! Intensive vertical mo2ility increases plasticity arid versatility of 2e aviour and stimulates pro"ress in t ou" t# discovery and invention! On t e ot er and# too i" a rate of social mo2ility seems to increase mental diseases / en t e individuals face difficulties in adaptation to t e ne/ situation! Vertical mo2ility ma1es t e social structure elastic# 2rea1s t e isolation created 2y class and caste and stimulates rationalism! It6s direct and indirect influences on all aspects of social or"anisations are very potent# 2ut i" ly comple$! .1., <#rrent 3rends in 7obilit( T e economic development of t e 3estern industrial nations after t e 3orld 3ar II and t e provision of more ela2orate /elfare services ave "enerated si"nificant c an"es in t e class system! T ese c an"es ave 2een interpreted in many different /ays 2y various sociolo"ists! Accordin" to some aut ors# t ere as 2een a "eneral diminution & decrease( in class differences! T is as resulted in a i" er level of livin"# "reater social mo2ility and a limited redistri2ution of /ealt and income! T ese social c an"es are reflected in a decline in class conflict! T is interpretation leads to t e conclusion t at t e 3estern societies are movin" in t e direction of relative classlessness or t at t ey are 2ecomin" predominantly middle class societies! In s arp contrast to t is interpretation# ot er social scientists ave ar"ued t at t e social c an"es since 3orld 3ar II are leadin" to t e formation of ne/ social classes li1e a ne/ upper class consistin" of mana"ers and or"ani.ers of production in 2ot pu2lic and private sectors!

.2 "8<.7E D"S3&"ED3".8
+!*!' Concept of Income Income results from t e services rendered to t e society 2y an individual or an or"anisation! Service may 2e defined as t e creation of desira2le events# results or t e avoidance of undesira2le eventsHresults! T e value of an income is t e value of t e services! Cor all practical purposes# t e value of an income is measured in terms of money! ?nder services# one may include t e follo/in"% &'( T e 2enefits from a property ri" t suc as t e interest yield from a 2ond or a fi$ed deposit in a 2an1! M T e 2enefits derived from o2=ective instruments suc as t e s elter offered 2y a d/ellin"! M Crom t e co0operation of individuals /it suc o2=ective instruments &t e transport sender of a rail/ay(!

&,( T e services rendered 2y individuals / et er t ey are manual# la2ourers or i" ly -ualified professionals! T e total income of an individual or personal income is t e total money value of t e services received 2y im from all sources durin" a "iven period of time# usually in one year! Similarly# a person6s net money income is t e sum of all is money receipts less t e money invested 2y im! T e income of society as a / ole is t e total money value of all t e services received 2y t e mem2ers of t e society from all sources! In case of an individual# is 5real income5 is t e money value of is e$penditures on food# clot in"# s elter# amusements and ot er miscellaneous services! One important result of t ese principles of income calculation is t e e$clusion of capital "ains from t e income! T e capitalisation# at any point of time of t e income e$pected in t e future# is not itself an income! <y t e same to1en# an increase in t e capitalisation from one point of time to anot er is not income e$cept potentially! T us# if a fi$ed deposit of Rs!lOOO!OO in a savin"s 2an1 is earnin" Rs!lOO!OO a year as interest and if t e depositor /it dra/s is interest earnin"s every year# t e actual income from is fi$ed deposit is Rs!lOO!OO a year and t e principal sum of Rs!l BBB!BB is t e capitalisation of t is income! On t e ot er and# if e does not /it dra/ t e interest# t is amount is merely accrued and 2ecomes capital "ain rat er t an an income! Certain peculiarities attac to income from la2our as contrasted /it income from property! T us in computin" t e income of a domestic elp# it /ould 2e necessary to include not only is /a"es 2ut also is per-uisites & of one6s o/n( li1e 2oardin" and lod"in" since t ese are a part of is compensations# in addition to money /a"es! Moreover# accountants do not usually deprecate t e income of a /or1in" man as t ey depredate in case of a mac ine# for t ey cannot easily appraise t e value of a uman 2ein"! More complications arise due to t e fact t at income must 2e defined for t e purpose of ta$ation! T e1ind of income t at is ta$ed is lar"ely determined 2y t e economicor"anisation of a country and t e fiscal needs of its "ovemmenV! .2.2 8ational "ncome National income may 2e defined provisionally as% &'( T e net total of commodities and services produced 2y t e people comprisin" a nation! &*( T e total of suc commodities and services received 2y t e nation6s individual mem2ers in return for t eir assistance in producin" commodities and services! &+( T e total of "oods and services consumed 2y t ese individuals out of t e receipts t us earned or &,( T e net total of desira2le events en=oyed 2y t ese individuals in t eirWWWWWWWWWWWWW!

6Defined in any of t e a2ove mentioned manners# national income is t e end product of a country6s economic activity! As a result# national income reflects t e com2ined play of economic forces and serves to appraise t e prevailin" economic or"anisation of a country! Ci"ures for per capita income# especially / en ad=usted for differences in purc asin" po/er of money# measure t e economic /elfare of a country! A continuous series of annual estimates of eit er t e total or per capita national income su""est / et er t e nation tends in t e course of time to "ro/ ric er or poorer arid o/ rapidly t is c an"e ta1es place! .2. Distrib#tion +!*!+!' )ro2lem of Income Distri2ution It is not enou" for a country to attempt to increase its national income 2y development pro"rammes! T e national income must 2e increased; 2ut it is also necessary to ensure t at it is e-uita2ly distri2uted amon" various sections of t e society! Ine-uality of income is an important feature of capitalist economies! Even socialist and communist countries# / o ave esta2lis ed systems for t e purpose of reducin" ine-ualities of personal income# ave failed to attain t is e-uality# in pro0 istoric times# t ere /as no need for a policy on income distri2ution since man led a nomadic & a mem2er of a /anderin" pastoral community life(# al/ays in searc of food! Income distri2ution came into force durin" t e feudal & a ri" t to t e use of land# ouses# etc in perpetuity( system and attamed "reat importance /it t e advent of t e Industrial Revolution! @overnment policies to ensure a fair distri2ution of personal income are amon" t e most controversial and difficult issues of pu2lic policy! .2. .2 <a#ses of "ne:#alit( T e ma=or components of personal income are la2our earnin"s &salary or /a"es(# property earnin"s &rents# interests and dividends( and "overnment transfer payments! Disposa2le personal income consists of t e personal income minus any ta$es paid on it! 3ealt &or 5net /ort 5( consists of t e total value of financial and tan"i2le & capa2le of 2ein" possessed( assets minus t e amount of money o/ed to 2an1ers or ot er creditors! T e ma=or causes of ine-uality of incomes in an economy are% (1) "nheritance : Some persons are 2orn /it a silver spoon! Ric in eritance "ives t em a "ood start in life# Some persons are 2orn landless; ot ers in erit t ousands of acres! Some parents die under de2t leavin" t e 2urden of de2t on t eir c ildren / ile ot ers leave u"e cas and properties to t eir eirs! So lon" as t e system of in eritance continues# ine-ualities are 2ound to continue! (2) S(stem of Private Propert( : ?nder t e system of private property# a person is free to earn# free to save and free to o/n property! Once a person earns and ac-uires property# is property starts earnin" for im 2y /ay of rent# interest# etc!(! T at6s / y some earn more and ot ers earn less and differences in property lead to difference in income! )roperty is one of t e ma=or causes of t e ine-uality of income!

( ) Differences in 8at#ral )#alities : No t/o persons ave t e same natural -ualities! Some are more "ifted t an ot ers! )ersons / o are endo/ed 2y nature /it superior intelli"ence# 2etter p ysi-ue and "reater capacity for ard /or1 can easily surpass ot ers in t e race of life! Some in erit a fee2le mind in a fee2le 2ody and t ey are left 2e ind! (!) Difference in Ac:#ired 3alents : To some e$tent# environment ma1es t e man since natural &or in2orn( -ualities are considera2ly modified 2y environment! A c ild may 2e i" ly intelli"ent# 2ut if e or s e is not luc1y enou" to receive proper education or trainin"# t e latent a2ilities remain mostly undeveloped! On t e ot er and# a c ild of even mediocre & avera"e in -uality# performance( nature a2ilities can do 2etter if e or s e is properly 2rou" t up and educated! )rofessional education# for e$ample# improves a person6s earnin" capacity! (*) $ac% of .pport#nities : Some persons are luc1y enou" to "et a "ood c ance# and t ey may ma1e t e most of it! It is /ell 1no/n t at underdeveloped re"ions &li1e ?ttaranc al# > ar1 and# C attis"ar and Na"aland( do not offer "ood opportunities for employment# / ere as developed re"ions &li1e )un=a2# Ma aras tra and @u=arat( ave ample opportunities! .2. . <onse:#ences of "ne:#alit( Ine-uality of income leads to serious economic and social conse-uences! Some of t e ma=or conse-uences of uneven income distri2ution are as follo/s% (1) <lass <onflict : Ine-uita2le distri2ution of income and /ealt as divided t e society into t/o classes# t e 5 ave6s5 and t e 5 ave0nots5# / ic are forever on t e /ar pat ! T is class conflict leads to social and political discontent (2) Political Domination : T e ric dominates t e political mac inery and uses it to promote is o/n interests! T is results in corruption and social in=ustice! ( ) Exploitation of the Poor : T e ric e$ploits t e poor economically# socially and politically! T e a/areness of t is e$ploitation may lead to political a/a1enin"# a"itation and even political revolution! Ine-uality of income is an important cause for social and political insta2ility! (!) <reation of 7onopolies : ?ne-ual distri2ution of income promotes monopolies! T e monopolies can crus small enterprises and c an"e unfair prices! (* ) S#ppression of 3alent : It is not easy for a poor person to ma1e is /ay in life# no matter o/ talented e or s e may 2e! It is a "reat social loss t at i" ly 2rilliant 2ut poor people are not a2le to ma1e t eir full contri2ution to t e society and t e nation!

(,) 8o &eal Democrac( : Democracy is a farce / en t ere is a /ide "ulf 2et/een t e ric and t e poor! T ere can 2e no real democracy and political e-uality /it out economic e-uality! (/) 7oral De'radation : ?ne-ual distri2ution of income leads to moral de"radation of t e society as t e ric are corrupted 2y vice and t e poor are demorali.ed 2y lac1 of economic resources! T e economic ine-uality corrupts t e ric and de"rades t e poor! It 2ecomes almost impossi2le for t e poor to retain t eir onesty and inte"rity / en t ey see t e corrupt and ric people risin" in life! J2. .! 7eas#res to &ed#ce ine:#alities In t e present era of social and political a/a1enin"# it as 2ecome a ma=or plan1 of political policy to reduce t e ine-uality of income distri2ution# if not eliminate it! After t e independence# India decided to set up a socialistic pattern of society! 3it t is end in vie/# t e @overnment of India strives to prevent t e concentration of /ealt and income in a fe/ ands! Some of t e measures to reduce ine-uality in t e distri2ution of income and /ealt are% (1) 6ixin' 7inim#m 2a'e : T e first step in t e direction of a more e"alitarian & 2elievin" in and up oldin" t e principle of e-uality amon" people!( society is to "uarantee eac citi.en a minimum /a"e# consistent /it a minimum standard of livin"! T e Minimum 3a"e Act /as passed in India in 'A,F! In pursuance of t is Act# minimum /a"es are fi$ed from time to time for a"ricultural la2our and ot er /or1ers! (2) Social Sec#rit( : An important measure for a more e-uita2le distri2ution of income is t e introduction of a compre ensive social security sc eme assurin" eac citi.en a minimum standard of economic /elfare! Suc a social security sc eme must include provision for free education up to certain level# free medical and maternity aid# old0a"e pension# unemployment 2enefits# compensation for sic1ness and accidents# provident fund and "roup insurance sc emes! In t is /ay# su2stantial 2enefits can 2e assured even to persons / ose incomes are lo/! Social services li1e pu2lic par1s# li2raries# museums# community alls and community TV sets may 2e provided on a li2eral scale so t at poor are a2le to en=oy many of t e amenities availa2le to t e ric ! ( ) E:#alit( of .pport#nit( : T e "overnment may devise suita2le means to provide e-ual opportunities to 2ot t e ric and t e poor in "ettin" employment or "ettin" a start in trade or industry! Cor e$ample# t e "overnment may institute a system of li2eral sc olars ip# stipends and lo/ interest loan so t at t e poor can ac-uire i" er education and tec nical s1ills! In India# many concessions are offered to t e sc eduled castes# sc eduled tri2es# ot er 2ac1/ard classes and persons livin" in 2ac1/ard areas to reduce ine-uality in t e society!

(!) Steepl(90raded "ncome 3axes: As possi2le fiscal devices may 2e adopted to 2rid"e t e "ap 2et/een t e ric and t e poor! One suc device is t e steeply0"raded &i!e!# pro"ressively i" er( income ta$es! T is can prevent to some e$tent t e ric "ettin" ric er! Ot er direct ta$es li1e t e super ta$# t e e$cess profits ta$# t e capital "ains ta$ and limits on dividends may also 2e used for t is purpose! (*) Steep Estate D#t( : In order to prevent t e perpetuation & continuation or preservation for ever( of ine-uality from "eneration to "eneration# steeply0 "raded estate duty# deat duty and succession ta$es may 2e imposed! In 'A9,098# and a"ain in 'A99R:# t e rates of estate duty /ere made steeper in India# risin" up to ,BE! (,) <eilin' on Propert( : 3it a vie/ to reducin" ine-ualities 2et/een t e 2i" and small farmers# ceilin"s on a"ricultural oldin"s may 2e imposed# as as already 2een done in India! T e main purpose of land ceilin"s is to 2rin" a2out a /ider o/ners ip and use of land! Similarly# a ceilin" & an upper limit( on ur2an property may 2e imposed so t at t e ine-ualities in ur2an areas can 2e reduced! .2.! Statistical Anal(sis of "ncome Distrib#tion In t e first place# t ere as 2een an attempt to esta2lis a functional relations ip 2et/een t e si.e of income and t e num2er of recipients! Secondly# an attempt as 2een made to summarise t e income distri2ution 2y a sin"le measure of t e ine-ualities of income! T e most famous attempt in t e first direction is t e )areto6s la/! T e la/# in its most do"matic form# states t at t e distri2ution of income in t e upper ran"es of income ta$ payers s o/s a linear relations ip! Mat ematically# t e )areto6s la/ may 2e stated as% lo"N lo"A0cWWWWWWWWWWWWW! / ere H is t e income si.e# N is t e num2er of individuals avin" an income e-ual to or lar"er t an X and A and a are constants &found from empirical statistics 2y fittin" t e data to t e strai" t line "iven 2y t e a2ove e-uation(! It as 2een found t at t e constant &$ &t e slope of t e strai" t line( is appro$imately e-ual to '!8 in all countries at present! In addition# all ran"es of income distri2ution follo/ t e same linear relations ip for all countries at present! It follo/s# t erefore# t at 2ecause of t e unc an"in" and unc an"ea2le nature of t e / ole ran"e of income fre-uency distri2ution# economic /elfare can 2e increased only t rou" an increase in t e total amount of income! It is o2vious t at t e )areto6s la/ is of "reat importance for ma=or -uestions of economic t eory as /ell as economic policy! Many economists and statisticians ave directed t eir attention to/ards testin" of its validity! Results of suc cumulative analysis ave s o/n t at t e )areto6s la/ is -uite inade-uate as a mat ematical "eneralisation! <ecause of t e etero"eneity of t e fre-uency distri2ution curve &due to "roupin" to"et er of income from various economic cate"ories(# it is unli1ely t at any mat ematical la/ descri2in" ade-uately t e entire distri2ution of income can ever 2e

formulated! Ot er attempts to su2stitute for t e linear distri2ution /it anot er mat ematical e$pression ave also 2een found unsatisfactory for descri2in" t e distri2ution of income! 4o/ever# a Crenc economist# R! @i2rat# as o2tained successful descriptions of a lar"e num2er of fre-uency distri2utions of income 2y usin" a modification of t e normal distri2ution curve of errors! T e curve employed 2y @i2rat is% Y0r55 Vii YSaloste0$Z(K2WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW! / ere y is t e num2er of income recipients# X is t e varia2le si.e of income# &X 0 $+ is a selected income constant# / ile a and 2 are constants to 2e found from empirical statistics! T e assumption in / ic e-! +!*!,!* differs from t e normal distri2ution curve is t at t e effect of eac of t e numerous contri2utory factors is not independent 2ut proportional to t e effect of ot er factors! .2.* 7eas#res of "ne:#alit( of "ncome T e more fruitful developments in t e direction of summarisin" ine-uality of income 2y a sin"le measure as yielded numerous measures! Suc sin"le measures of ine-uality of income 2roadly fall into four "roups% &'( T e measures derived from a specific type of mat ematical e-uation and ence# contin"ent upon t e "oodness of fit of t e curve implied 2y t at e-uation! M T e measures of t e mean deviation type# availa2le in t e statistical t eory of fre-uency distri2ution and applica2le to diverse types of 00000000000000000 ! M T e measures of mean difference types! M T e measures constructed 2y usin" definite t eoretical criteria in re"ard to /elfare e-uivalents of individual income! In t e first "roup# t ere are t ree important measures of ine-uality! T e coefficient a of )areto6s e-uation as 2een employed as a measure of ine-uality! T e steeper t e slope &t e lar"er t e numerical value of a(# t e smaller t e ine-uality of income! A second measure of ine-uality is @ini6s inde$ of concentration 8# / ic is derived from anot er e-uation of income distri2ution% lo" NSF lo"S0lo" D / ere N is t e num2er of individuals / ose income is a2ove a certain si.e# S is t e sum of incomes &eac "reater t an t e certain si.e(# and 8 and D are constants to 2e determined from empirical data! It may 2e noted t at N is a function of t e sum of incomes "reater t an a certain si.e rat er t an a function of t at income si.e itself# as in t e case of t e )areto6s la/! T e relations ip 2et/een )areto6s measure a and @ini6s measure S can 2e eunrRcprl 2y t e pniiatinn IX t ird measure of ine-uality of income may 2e derived from t e curve employed 2y @i2rat! T is measure is ta1en to 2e e-ual to 'BBHa! Of t e dispersion measures developed in t e statistical t eory offre-uency distri2ution# t e

avera"e and t e standard deviation naturally su""est t emselves as indices of t e ine-uality of income! T e resultin" relative measures of dispersion can 2e o2tained from a fre-uency distri2ution in / ic t e class intervals of income si.e are ta1en in a2solute fi"ures or in lo"arit ms! T e advanta"e of t e latter procedure arises from t e fact t at t e positive s1e/ness c aracteri.in" fre-uency distri2utions of income is reduced 2y ta1in" t e income varia2le in terms of lo"arit ms!T e mean difference of incomes is "iven 2y t e arit metic avera"e of differences&ta1en /it out re"ard to t eir positive or ne"ative si"ns( 2et/een all possi2le pairs of incomes! T is measure /as su""ested 2y @ini and it is 1no/n as t e 5ratio of concentration5! Anot er /idely 1no/n measure of ine-uality# / ic is related to @ini6s ratio of concentration# is 1no/n as 57oren. curve5! In t e 7oren. curve# t e cumulative percenta"es of total income &lc( are plotted alon" t eX0a$is# / ile t e cumulative percenta"es of population &)C(# from t e poorest to t e ric est# are plotted alon" t e Y0a$is! In t e 7oren. curve# an e-ual distri2ution of income &total a2sence of ine-uality( is represented 2y a strai" t line passin" t rou" t e ori"in and avin" a slope eaua[ tn unity as s o/n 2y t e strai" t Imp A in t e fi"! ! Ci"!+!*!8!' Typical 7oren. curves &IcScumulative percenta"es of income and )C Scumulative percenta"es of population( Empirical distri2utions of income# on t e ot er and# usually appear as concave yper2ola# as s o/n 2y t e curves < and C! T e e$istin" ine-uality!of income is measured 2y t e area 2et/een t ese strai" t yper2olas and t e line! T e curve < s o/s less ine-uality of income# / ile t e curve C indicates "reater ine-uality! T e variety of met ods devised to measure t e ine-uality of income illustrate t e profusion& spendin" a lot of money( of various aspects! It also su""ests a i" pro2a2ility of diver"ent results from t e analysis of one and t e same data! In addition# t is lac1 of a"reement as to t e precise aspect of ine-uality to 2e studied is usually accompanied 2y paucity & insufficiency ( of ade-uate empirical data on income distri2ution! Considerin" t ese t/o factors# t erefore# one /ould e$pect to find fe/ definite conclusions as to t e trends or differences in t e ine-uality of income! On t e contrary# one usually finds a profusion of contradictory "eneralisation# / ic are often o2vious results of pressure to respond some o/ to a pro2lem vital to social policy! 4o/ diver"ent and unrelia2le suc inferences are may 2e illustrated in t e case of former )russia# / ic is one of t e fe/ countries for / ic empirical data on personal distri2ution of income are availa2le for a lon" period! Crom t e income data for )russia for t e years 'F:8#'FA9#'A'+ and 'A'A# )ro1opovic concluded t at t e ine-uality of income /as increasin" durin" t e period 'F:8 0 'A'A! A contrary conclusion /as derived from t e same data 2y 4eifferic # / o claimed t at no tendency to/ards a "reater concentration of income /as o2serva2le! On t e ot er and# An"elopoulos studied t e data for t e years 'FA9#'A', and 'A*9 and inferred t at t e ine-uality of income ad diminis ed durin" t e period 'FA9 0'A*9!

+!+ SOCIA7 TENSIONS AND T4EIR CA?SES +!+ Social Tensions Social tensions usually result from t e conscious pursuit of e$clusive values 2y individuals andHor social "roups! T e individual mem2ers and "roups al/ays /iden or narro/ t eir claims on society for life# li2erty of movement# property and ot er desira2le t in"s 2y competin" a"ainst one anot er! Competitors 2ecome self0conscious rivals# opponents or even enemies! T e relative position of an individual in relation to t e current value in a society is controlled 2y influences of / ic e is mostly una/are! On t e ot er and# everyone 2elieves in some measures t at is personality and life can and s ould 2e protected from t e encroac ment 2y ot ers and t at it can 2e en anced at t e e$pense of ot ers! T in1in" alon" t ese lines 2y individuals and "roups leads to social conflict# / ic may involve t e defence of / at already as or t e ac-uisition of / at one does not ave! Ac-uisition may mean ta1in" a/ay of t at 2elon"s to anot er or t e appropriation of t at / ic anot er /ould li1e to ave! T e defensive# destructive and o2structive aspects of a social conflict 2ecome entan"led /it one anot er in every crisis and create social tensions! E$clusive values may 2e pursued 2y individuals and "roups 2y various means / ic may vary all t e /ay from p ysical violence to persuasion and t us include t e / ole ran"e of tec ni-ues used for social control! Conflict amon" uman 2ein"s differs from t e stru""le for survival amon" animals in t e diversity of t e means employed 2y t e former! Eac animal is 2ound 2y its very structure to a fe/ stereotyped means for copin" /it a conflictsituation! On t e ot er and# t e nature of man is so plastic t at ric variations can 2e found /it in t e uman species amon" t e means employed to deal /it conflicts! T us# t e place of p ysical com2at is usually ta1en 2y ar"ument# admonition& /arnin"( # ridicule& to lau" at( # liti"ation& en"a"ed in a la/suit!( # etc! and t ese are t e functions of cultural settin" in / ic conflicts occur! Social conflict is a mode of re"isterin" or consummatin" social c an"e! As a result# conflict is more acute in case of rapid social c an"es# / en t e vested interests of t e old social order stand out a"ainst t e pressures from t e ne/! A social crisis may 2rin" a2out a /illin"ness to come to terms /it t e re-uirements of ne/ realities! T us# stri1es# 2oycotts and /ars fre-uently lead to a more permanent or"anisation f interests and social tensions and su2side after prolon"ed a"itations and protracted liti"ations! Social crisis may also result in t e o2literation of one or 2ot of t e contendin" parties! It is not al/ays true# o/ever# t at a particular social conflict can produce a relatively a2idin" settlement! It as often 2een said t at vital issues are never decided% t ey are merely superseded! T ere are numerous causes of social tensions! T e most important ones are% &'( Class stru""le! &*( )olitical corruption!

&+( Crime! &,( Competition! &8( ?nemployment! &9( 4etero"eneous & different in 1ind( population! &:( Racialism! &F( Reli"ious intolerance& ina2ility to tolerate( ! M 7in"uistic & relatin" to lan"ua"es or 1no/led"e or t e study of lan"ua"e( intolerance! M &'B( ?neven distri2ution of /ealt ! &''( Rapid social c an"e! &'*( 3ar! Amon" t e a2ove t/elve causes of social tensions# t e first five are very visi2le! +!+!* Class Stru""le Class stru""le is a form of social conflict# / ic creates tension in t e society! Credit for t e t eory of class stru""le "oes to Darl Mar$ and Criedric En"els! T ey formulated t e doctrine of class stru""le in t e Communist Manifesto in 'F,:! Mar$6s t eory of class stru""le asserts t at# in t e course of ma1in" a livin" and utilisin" tec nical 1no/led"e and industrial e-uipment# t e mem2ers of society 2ecome se"re"ated into classes / ic carry on different functions in industry and# as a result# occupy different positions in t e social or"anisation! Amon" t ese classes# t ere arises an Anta"onism & opposition ( of interests# / ic may lead to a stru""le! T e modem capitalistic re"ime & system of "overnment( does not a2olis t e class stru""le; it merely creates ne/ classes and intensifies t e stru""le amon" t e classes! 3it t e development of capitalism# society splits up more and more into t/o ostile camps I t e 2our"eoisie & t e middle class of citi.ens( and t e proletariat & t e poorest la2ourin" class( ! T e 2our"eoisie attempts to convert surplus value into profits# / ile t e proletariat tries to resist it! In t e ensuin" stru""le# t e /or1ers reali.e t at t e po/er of t e 2our"eoisie rests on t e o/ners ip of t e means of production and t at economic e$ploitation & t e act of usin" for selfis purposes( can 2e ended only t rou" esta2lis ment of a ocialist society 2ased on collective o/ners ip! On t e 2asis of is t eory of class stru""le# Mar$ predicted t e inevita2le victory of t e proletariat /it assumption of certain in erent tendencies in capitalism# vi.!# t e rapid concentration of industry# t e disappearance of t e middle class and t e "ro/t and increasin" misery of t e /or1in" class! In any society# t e process of production is simultaneously a process of economic e$ploitation & t e act of successfully applyin" industry to any o2=ect ( ! T ose / o do p ysical /or1 receive less t an t ey produce# not only 2ecause a portion of it is necessary for t e e$tension of production# 2ut also 2ecause t ey ave to support t e o/ners of t e means of production! T e resultin" anta"onism & opposition( finds its e$pression in a stru""le for distri2ution of t e total national product! As t is stru""le 2ecomes conscious# it "ives rise to class conflict and creates social tension! T e dominant minority tries to maintain and e$tend t e opportunities for e$ploitation# / ile t e e$ploited ma=ority continually strives to li2erate

itself! @radually# class interests intermin"le & mi$ to"et er ( /it political# reli"ious and even scientific and tec nolo"ical interests! Since t e po/er of t e rulin" class is al/ays concentrated in t e or"anisation of t e state# t e oppressed class aims directly a"ainst t e state! Every class tru""le is a political stru""le# / ic aims at t e a2olition & to put an end to ( of t e e$istin" social order and esta2lis ment of a ne/ social system! In order to prove capa2le of esta2lis in" a ne/ social or"anisation# t e class must possess certain essential c aracteristics% &'( It must 2e economically e$ploited and politically oppressed! &*( It must 2e a producin" class! M It must 2e /elded to"et er 2y t e conditions of its e$istence! M It must form a lar"e mass or a ma=ority of t e population! Accordin" to t e t eory of class stru""le# all t ese c aracteristics are found in t e industrial /or1in" population! It is for t is reason t at t e industrial proletariat represents t e only class# / ic can carry out a complete social revolution and can reor"anise society on t e 2asis of t e socialist ideal! T e peasantry & a lo/ly class of small olders( lac1s most of t e a2ove traits! On t e ot er and# t e peasantry forms a lar"e portion of t e population in most countries! So# it is essential t at t e industrial /or1ers s ould ally & a c oice ta/ or lar"e mar2le( t emselves /it t e poorer elements of t e peasantry to carry out t e social reor"anisation! T e classical t eory of class stru""le# as outlined a2ove# as encountered many difficulties! No definitive division of society can 2e made into classes on t e 2asis of t e so0called factors of production# t e la/ of t e division of la2our or t e sources of income! In modern society# t e stru""le 2y economic and social "roups is fra"mentary and intermittent! It is "enerally concentrated around ma=or issues of immediate importance! It is also inevita2le t at economic interests s ould 2e overs ado/ed from time to time 2v cultural# reli"ious or racial factors! Nationalism# 2ot as economic and cultural p enomena# tends to offset t e formation of classes! Economically# mac ination is li1ely to re"ard itself as one unit common interests as a"ainst ot er nations! Culturally# eac nation tries to consolidate its economic co erence 2y means of national ideals / ic permeate& to penetrate and fill t e pores of ( all social "roups! To t e e$tent to / ic it anifests& t at may 2e easily seen 2y t e eye or perceived 2y t e mind( itself# t e stru""le of economic "roups iOa potent factor of social c an"e! Manifestations of "roup conflicts li1e stri1es reveal sta"nant conditions and serve as a stimulus to t eir elimination or amelioration & to improve( ! On t e ot er and# / en suc conflicts in t e industrial /orld are concerned merely /it "roup s ares in t e distri2ution of /ealt # t ey may result in social detriment & dama"e( ! In lar"e social transformations# t e stru""le of classes may lead to social disinte"ration & to 2rea1 up( ! T is is true specially / en t e class stru""le is carried out amon" social "roups / ic are in early sta"es of

economic and intellectual development! Suc resulted in social crises!

class stru""les

ave often

.2.! Statistical Anal(sis of "ncome Distrib#tion In t e first place# t ere as 2een an attempt to esta2lis a functional relations ip 2et/een t e si.e of income and t e num2er of recipients! Secondly# an attempt as 2een made to summarise t e income distri2ution 2y a sin"le measure of t e ine-ualities of income! T e most famous attempt in t e first direction is t e )areto6s la/! T e la/# in its most do"matic form# states t at t e distri2ution of income in t e upper ran"es of income ta$ payers s o/s a linear relations ip! Mat ematically# t e )areto6s la/ may 2e stated as% lo"N lo"A0cWWWWWWWWWWWWW! / ere H is t e income si.e# N is t e num2er of individuals avin" an income e-ual to or lar"er t an X and A and a are constants &found from empirical statistics 2y fittin" t e data to t e strai" t line "iven 2y t e a2ove e-uation(! It as 2een found t at t e constant &$ &t e slope of t e strai" t line( is appro$imately e-ual to '!8 in all countries at present! In addition# all ran"es of income distri2ution follo/ t e same linear relations ip for all countries at present! It follo/s# t erefore# t at 2ecause of t e unc an"in" and unc an"ea2le nature of t e / ole ran"e of income fre-uency distri2ution# economic /elfare can 2e increased only t rou" an increase in t e total amount of income! It is o2vious t at t e )areto6s la/ is of "reat importance for ma=or -uestions of economic t eory as /ell as economic policy! Many economists and statisticians ave directed t eir attention to/ards testin" of its validity! Results of suc cumulative analysis ave s o/n t at t e )areto6s la/ is -uite inade-uate as a mat ematical "eneralisation! <ecause of t e etero"eneity of t e fre-uency distri2ution curve &due to "roupin" to"et er of income from various economic cate"ories(# it is unli1ely t at any mat ematical la/ descri2in" ade-uately t e entire distri2ution of income can ever 2e formulated! Ot er attempts to su2stitute for t e linear distri2ution /it anot er mat ematical e$pression ave also 2een found unsatisfactory for descri2in" t e distri2ution of income! 4o/ever# a Crenc economist# R! @i2rat# as o2tained successful descriptions of a lar"e num2er of fre-uency distri2utions of income 2y usin" a modification of t e normal distri2ution curve of errors! T e curve employed 2y @i2rat is% I9r@@ >ii KLaloste9xM)NbOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO. / ere y is t e num2er of income recipients# X is t e varia2le si.e of income# &X 0 $+ is a selected income constant# / ile a and 2 are constants to 2e found from empirical statistics! T e assumption in / ic e-! +!*!,!* differs from t e normal distri2ution curve is t at t e effect of eac of t e numerous contri2utory factors is not independent 2ut proportional to t e effect of ot er factors!

.2.* 7eas#res of "ne:#alit( of "ncome T e more fruitful developments in t e direction of summarisin" ine-uality of income 2y a sin"le measure as yielded numerous measures! Suc sin"le measures of ine-uality of income 2roadly fall into four "roups% &'( T e measures derived from a specific type of mat ematical e-uation and ence# contin"ent upon t e "oodness of fit of t e curve implied 2y t at e-uation! M T e measures of t e mean deviation type# availa2le in t e statistical t eory of fre-uency distri2ution and applica2le to diverse types of 00000000000000000 ! M T e measures of mean difference types! M T e measures constructed 2y usin" definite t eoretical criteria in re"ard to /elfare e-uivalents of individual income! In t e first "roup# t ere are t ree important measures of ine-uality! T e coefficient a of )areto6s e-uation as 2een employed as a measure of ine-uality! T e steeper t e slope &t e lar"er t e numerical value of a(# t e smaller t e ine-uality of income! A second measure of ine-uality is @ini6s inde$ of concentration 8# / ic is derived from anot er e-uation of income distri2ution% lo" NSF lo"S0lo" D / ere N is t e num2er of individuals / ose income is a2ove a certain si.e# S is t e sum of incomes &eac "reater t an t e certain si.e(# and 8 and D are constants to 2e determined from empirical data! It may 2e noted t at N is a function of t e sum of incomes "reater t an a certain si.e rat er t an a function of t at income si.e itself# as in t e case of t e )areto6s la/! T e relations ip 2et/een )areto6s measure a and @ini6s measure S can 2e eunrRcprl 2y t e pniiatinn IX t ird measure of ine-uality of income may 2e derived from t e curve employed 2y @i2rat! T is measure is ta1en to 2e e-ual to 'BBHa! Of t e dispersion measures developed in t e statistical t eory offre-uency distri2ution# t e avera"e and t e standard deviation naturally su""est t emselves as indices of t e ine-uality of income! T e resultin" relative measures of dispersion can 2e o2tained from a fre-uency distri2ution in / ic t e class intervals of income si.e are ta1en in a2solute fi"ures or in lo"arit ms! T e advanta"e of t e latter procedure arises from t e fact t at t e positive s1e/ness c aracteri.in" fre-uency distri2utions of income is reduced 2y ta1in" t e income varia2le in terms of lo"arit ms!T e mean difference of incomes is "iven 2y t e arit metic avera"e of differences&ta1en /it out re"ard to t eir positive or ne"ative si"ns( 2et/een all possi2le pairs of incomes! T is measure /as su""ested 2y @ini and it is 1no/n as t e 5ratio of concentration5! Anot er /idely 1no/n measure of ine-uality# / ic is related to @ini6s ratio of concentration# is 1no/n as 57oren. curve5! In t e 7oren. curve# t e cumulative percenta"es of total income &lc( are plotted alon" t eX0a$is# / ile t e cumulative percenta"es of population &)C(# from t e poorest to t e ric est# are plotted alon" t e Y0a$is! In t e 7oren. curve# an e-ual distri2ution of income &total a2sence of ine-uality( is represented 2y a strai" t line passin" t rou" t e ori"in and avin" a slope eaua[ tn unity as s o/n 2y t e strai" t Imp A in t e fi"!

. .

Political <orr#ption

)olitical corruption is "enerally t e misuse of pu2lic po/er for private profit! Alt ou" no political "roup as 2een entirely free from =o22ery & unfair means employed to secure some private end( # corruption as not prevailed to an e-ual de"ree at all times or under all conditions! It as responded to various opportunities for t e misuse of po/er reated 2y various "overnmental institutions! Any analysis of t e prevalence & common( of political corruption# t erefore# must re"ard it as a p enomenon of "roup psyc olo"y# conditioned 2y t e entire cultural settin" of t e "roup! T us# no remedial pro"ramme to eliminate political corruption can 2e fully successful if it limits itself to t e prosecution & persevere /it ( of individual offenders or even to administrative or"anisations! )olitical corruption re-uires t e e$istence of pu2lic officials /it po/er to c oose 2et/een t/o or more courses of action and t e possession 2y t e "overnment of some po/er or /ealt # / ic can 2e used for private "ains! T ese t/o prere-uisites are found even in relatively simple primitive societies! 4o/ever# corruption /as "enerally scarce & 2y no means plentiful ( in primitive societies# primarily 2ecause of t e dominance of tradition in determinin" conduct and t e promptness of punis ment! It /as t e <ritis istorian 7ec1y / o remar1ed in is 2oo1 4istory of European Morals t at 5It is possi2le t at t e moral standard of most men is muc lo/er in political =ud"ements t an in private matters in / ic t eir o/n interests are concerned5! It is dou2tful# o/ever# t at political morality is /orse t an avera"e 2usiness morality! In modern societies# 2usiness and "overnment are increasin"ly placed in direct relations ip /it eac ot er t rou" various "overnment contracts# / ic are 2ecomin" more and more important /it t e "ro/in" scale of "overnmental activity! Especially conducive to corruption are contracts for military supplies# particularly in times of /ar! In modern times# /ar involves u"e e$penditure under conditions of rela$ed pu2lic control since pu2lic attention is focused on supplyin" t e soldiers /it / at ever t ey need re"ardless of cost! After t e /ar# surplus /ar materials are disposed of at a fraction of t eir cost! T us# reco"nition 2y 2usinessmen of t e opportunities for tremendous profits durin" and after t e /ar increases t e strain on t e onesty of pu2lic officials! It "oes /it out sayin" t at corruption is not restricted to any particular country or society! Corruption is an international p enomenon! 4o/ever# developin" countries are "enerally found to 2e more corrupt t an developed ones! A recent survey of 8B important nations of t e /orld as s o/n t at India# )a1istan# Ni"eria# C ina and Russia are amon" t e most corrupt countries in t e /orld# / ile S/it.erland# Sin"apore# Ne/ Yealand and t e ?S are amon" t e least corrupt countries! T e e$posure of corruption may come t rou" individuals &investi"ative =ournalists( or or"anisations! ?nder t e party system of "overnments# e$posures of political corruption result from t e desire of opposition parties out of po/er to o2tain po/er! In many 7atin American countries# / ere elections may not 2e very fair# revolution is t e only /ay to accomplis t e c an"e of "overnment! 3 ile some improvements in conditions often result from suc revolutions# corruption "enerally continues for t e 2enefits of ne/ "overnments! No particular system of "overnment is a "uarantee a"ainst political corruption! Corruption can 2e eliminated only / ere

t e po/er to do so is lin1ed /it t e desire to crus corruption ! <ut po/er itself is an inducement to corruption! As t e sayin" "oes# 5po/er corrupts and a2solute po/er corrupts a2solutely5! 7ittle pro"ress in "ettin" rid of corruption can 2e e$pected / ere t ose in po/er eit er 2enefit from corruption or fail to reco"nise t e necessity for its elimination! I"norance of t e e$istence of corruption# /idespread 2enefits derived from t e lavis & to /aste ( distri2ution of "oods# political indifference &or lac1 of political /ill( and materialistic culture are t e ma=or factors / ic contri2ute to corruption in t e political life of a nation and create tension in society! . .! <rime Antisocial conduct &1no/n popularly as 5crime5( may 2e re"arded as a universal p enomenon or a function of "roup0life! Its e$tent# particular form it ta1es and t e reaction it provo1es & to call up or evo1e &feelin"s# desires# etc(( are intimately dependent on t e cultural status and social or"anisation of t e "roup! T e term 5crime5 is used indiscriminately 2y t e layman to denote antisocial# immoral or sinful 2e aviour! 3 at t e la/ calls crime is merely conduct# / ic is declared to 2e socially armful 2y t e "roups# / ic are po/erful enou" to influenceL le"islation in a state! T e e$istence of crime in a community is a c allen"e to its mem2ers since crime is armful for ordered social "ro/t ! Com2atin" & a stru""le( crime involves u"e economic 2urden and enormous /aste of misdirected ener"y! T e pro"ress of t e science of uman 2e aviour in t e last several decades as increasin"ly centred its attention on criminal 2e aviour! As a result# t e last alf century as seen t e development of t e science of criminolo"y0 Official and private a"encies for t e study of criminals and t eir treatment ave also multiplied rapidly durin" t is period! T e reason is t at t e tas1 of dealin" /it crime and criminals is suc t at it demands 1no/led"e of facts upon / ic an intelli"ent pro"ramme of study and treatment may 2e 2ased! @iven t e serious nature of crime and its adverse effects on society# muc t ou" t as 2een devoted to its control! T/o "eneral lines of t ou" t ave emer"ed for t e purpose of controllin" crime# t e ameliorative & to improve( and t e repressive & to 1eep under control;( p ilosop ies! T e ameliorative p ilosop y asserts t at as t e ran1s of t e middle class "ro/ in a society# fe/er and fe/er people commit crime! Moreover# as t e middle class "ro/s# more people may 2ecome intolerant & too 2ad ( of crime and t ey commit offences more fre-uently! As a result# criminal acts t at do occur can 2e treated more effectively! In order to control crime# it is necessary to 2rin" a2out t e middle class 2y up"radin" socio0economically t e lo/er class! In contrast to t is# t e repressive p ilosop y re"ards t e modern society &especially in developed nations( in erently prone to criminal 2e aviour due to t e decline of informal community control# "reater secularisation & pertainin" to t e present /orld ( and more e"oistic & t e 6I6 or self# t at / ic is conscious and t in1s( moral code! Conse-uently# modern society may at 2est 2e e$pected to produce an affluent population lac1in" in personal restraint & forci2le control ( and civic consciousness! In t e first place# punitive & punis ment( met ods must 2e employed to redress offences and

efficient or"anisation must 2e used to prevent crime! Re"ardin" enforcement of la/# administration of =ustice and re a2ilitation & restore to former privile"es# ri" ts#( o f criminals# t e a2ove t/o contrary lines of t ou" t ave "iven rise to t ree strate"ies &or policies( to com2at crime! T ese t ree strate"ies are referred to as punitive# t erapeutic & relatin" to t e curin" of disease ( and preventive respectively! T e punitive approac re"ards t e offender not! Only as =ustifyin" punis ment morally# 2ut as 2ein" also suscepti2le to deterrent measures! )unis ment is# t erefore# e$ercised to incapacitate t e criminal for t e present and to 1eep im a/ay from en"a"in" in any criminal act in t e future! In many developed countries# t e punitive met od as lost "round to t e ot er t/o ameliorative met ods! As a result# t e capital punis ment as already 2een a2olis ed in most countries! T e t erapeutic approac # on t e ot er and# deems t e offender to 2e malfunctionin" and is in need of psyc olo"ical or sociolo"ical treatment! In t e ?S# a2out *BE of t e staff employed for la/ enforcement and administration of =ustice deal /it corrections# /it re a2ilitation as t eir primary "oal! T e preventive approac centres on modifyin" t e interaction of social and individual conditions to forestall offensive 2e aviour! T is met od calls for improvement of sociolo"ical environment# stren"t enin" of social structure and development of conformin" personalities! Education and recreation can play a vital part in t is respect# and so can a /ide ran"e of ot er practices li1e vocational placement and community or"anisation! . .* <ompetition Competition is an important term in social t eory! It is 2y competition &of persons# firms# industries# nations# races or cultures( t at t e fittest survives! Competition arises out of rivals & a person pursuin" an o2=ect in competition /it anot er( # / ic is a universal fact in life and society! Rivalry & competition( is manifested in a stru""le amon" "erm cells amon" plants for sunli" t and "ro/t and amon" animals# for food and mates! Rivalry is evident in t e strivin" in our daily life and appears in every social order under / ic men live! It is due to rivalry t at conflicts occur amon" primitive tri2es for untin" "rounds and amon" capitalists to 2a" u"e profits! In t e marc of istory# a mac ine process /ins its /ay a"ainst ancient crafts# a novelty called 52usiness5 displaces custom and aut ority in t e control of industries and a modern creed & any system of 2elief or set of principles( replaces out/orn do"ma in domination over uman mind! T e su2=ect of competition as invited varied and often conflictin" statements from various aut ors since a sin"le e$planation of a comple$ social p enomenon li1e competition are inade-uate! Competition is ardly distin"uis ed from free enterprise and capitalism! On t e one and# competition is t e "i"anticH u"e motor / ic causes t e individuals to use t eir mental and p ysical po/ers to t e 2est advanta"e to "o a ead! Competition develops in t e individual t e a2it of self0reliance! Competition as lifted t e uman race to a standard / ere t e mode of livin" of common la2ourers in developed countries is more comforta2le t an t e daily e$istence of ancient 1in"s! On t e ot er and# competition is a nice ne/ name for t e 2rutalH senselessly cruel; fact of all a"ainst all# /it out pity or mercy! Carried

to its lo"ical conclusion# competition may turn into anarc y! in recent times# competition as invited attention of social t in1ers and activists! One "roup demands t at competition 2e preserved in all its native simplicity# / ile anot er "roup /ould li1e to eradicateH to destroy or "et rid of t e evil of competition and su2stitute it /it a moral economic order! <ut since t e s ortcomin"s of competition lie in its specific performance# t e "eneral demand as 2een to mend t e system and ma1e it /or1! As a result# t e arran"ements of competition ave 2een modified from /it in in many cases! <usinessmen# for e$ample# form trade# industrial or commercial associations &e!"!! Truc1 O/ners6 Association( /it an aim to ma1e Competition less rut less and more rational! Similarly# farmers or"anise co0operatives &e!"!# Anand Mil1 ?nion 7imited# 2etter 1no/n as 5AM?75( to escape t e tyranny of an uncontrolled mar1et! 7a2ourers form trade unions only to secure a 2ar"ainin" po/er e-ual to t at of t eir employers! Often# t e state interferes in private matters for several reasons# to conserve natural resources# to ensure t e -uality of "oods 2y standardisation# to fi$ ours of la2our# to provide compensation for accidents and so on! <ut even t e use of formal aut ority in suc cases leaves t e rival firms in an industry as free to compete as 2efore! In t e /a1e of collective action and state interventionH interference # competition is not eliminated; it merely 2ecomes more re"ulated! A constructive effort as 2een made to maintain competition! An in erent /ea1ness of competition lies in its dependence upon contract! So lon" as 2uyers /ant "oods and sellers are /illin" to accept money# t e li2erty of contract promotes order! T e "reed for more money ma1es it advanta"eous to t e producers of "oods to a"ree amon" t emselves to control production capacity# to re"ulate output and to sta2ilise prices! In suc cases# t e state is invo1ed to ma1e t e rivals compete rat er t an co0operate! Creedom of contract is encoura"ed alon" vertical lines &i!e!# 2et/een 2uyer and seller( and as to 2e pro i2ited alon" ori.ontal lines &i!e!# 2et/een 2uyer and 2uyer and 2et/een seller and seller very important type of mo2ility! ori.ontal of "rades of status( 0 3 en a /or1er moves from one factory to anot er# or / en an en"ineer ta1es a position in anot er company# t ere is no si"nificant c an"e in is social status! T is is an e$ample of ori.ontal mo2ility! T e vertical mo2ility# on t e ot er and# involves a c an"e of social level in t e process of movement! If a /or1er 2ecomes a /ealt y 2usinessman# is position in t e class system c an"es -uite radically! T is is an e$ample of vertical mo2ility# &up/ard(! It may 2e noted ere t at vertical mo2ility may involve eit er up/ard or do/n/ard movement! An e$ample of do/n/ard mo2ility is a mem2er of an upper class / o is dispossessed of is /ealt in a revolution and is forced to enter into a manual occupation! Modern sociolo"ists ave concentrated t eir attention mainly on t e up/ard mo2ility! T is is due to t e fact t at t ey ave 2een preoccupied /it t e -uestion of e-uality of opportunity! In recent years# it as 2een su""ested 2y many social t eorists t at t e de"ree of do/n/ard mo2ility mi" t 2e a far 2etter indicator of t e 5openness5 of a particular society! T e reason is t at do/n/ard mo2ility can clearly s o/ t e e$tent to / ic it is possi2le for 2enefit or and even classes may# at certain times#

c an"e t eir position in t e social structure! One of t e earliest /riters to 2rin" out t e diverse aspects of vertical social mo2ility /as t e economist >osep Sc umpeter# / o in! In studyin" t e movement of individuals# sociolo"ists distin"uis 2et/een t e follo/in"% &'( Intra "enerational Mo2ility! &*( Inter "enerational Mo2ility! T e Mo2ility is said to 2e intra "enerational / en an individual moves vertically up/ard or do/n/ard /it in is o/n adult lifetime! On t e ot er and# if vertical movement represented 2y a c an"e in t e social level occurs from t e parental to t e# compre ensive national studies of mo2ility ave 2een conducted in many countries# 2ut suc studies ave dealt almost entirely /it inter"enerational mo2ility# investi"atin" c an"es in occupation 2et/een fat er and son! Anot er limitation of t ese studies is t at t ey ave concentrated eavily on t e educational opportunity as a ma=or factor influencin" up/ard mo2ility! In contrast to t e mo2ility of individuals# t e rise and fall of families# "roups or classes is relatively more difficult to study# 2ut suc movements can 2e documented in ot er /ays! An important e$ample of t e up/ard mo2ility of families is t e emer"ence of ne/ rulin" social "roups usually occurs as a result of economic# political and cultural influences! .1.2 =istorical St#dies of 7obilit(: T e pro2lem /it istorical studies of mo2ility is t at t ey lar"ely provide illustrations of various types of or families / o c an"e t eir position 2y up/ard or do/n/ard movement in t e social ierarc y over a "iven period of time! As a result# istorical comparisons of mo2ility are -uite difficult and lar"ely speculative &t eori.e# con=ecture(! In fact# t ere are many difficulties even in e$aminin" t e trends of mo2ility in more recent industrial societies! Nevert eless# most sociolo"ists a"ree t at t e vertical social mo2ility &especially t at of individuals( is "reater in modern industrial societies t an it /as in earlier societies! On t e ot er and# modern social researc s o/s t at! Even in industrial societies! Mo2ility is limited and t at t ere are no su2stantial differences 2et/een different industrial societies in t e e$tent of mo2ility in spite of t e "eneral 2elief t at social mo2ility is "reater in t e ?nited States t an in t e European countries! T e movement of individuals from t e /or1in" class into t e upper class is "enerally rare in all societies! Comparisons amon" industrial societies s o/ t at t e "reater part of t e vertical social mo2ility is a s ort0ran"e mo2ility! Modern investi"ations su""est t at one s ould 2e cautious in t e interpretation of istorical accounts of social mo2ility and undue prominence &clearly visi2le(! S ould not 2e "iven to e$ceptional cases of up/ard or do/n/ard movement! It is -uite li1ely t at# in all societies and at most times# t ere is considera2le amount of sta2ility! 3 en t is sta2ility is not maintained 2y any formal or le"al sanctions# it is ensured 2y t e in eritance of property# educational advanta"es or political influences!

.1.

3he Process of 7obilit(

T e nature and de"ree of vertical mo2ility in a society are "overned 2y a num2er of factors! One universal factor is t e occurrence of individuals /it e$ceptional endo/ments & somet in" t at is settled on any person or institution( suc as intelli"ence# p ysical stren"t # 2eauty# 2usiness acumen# etc! In t e past# 2eautiful /omen rose to social eminence& risin" a2ove ot ers; conspicuous( as t e mistresses of 1in"s and no2les# and in more recent times# as film stars! Similarly# men &and to some e$tent# /omen too( ave risen in t e social ierarc y & 2ody or or"ani.ation classified in successively su2ordinate "rades( 2y accumulation of /ealt # attainment of political or military po/er# and intellectual or artistic ac ievements! Manifestations & clearly s o/n( of suc personal -ualities in e$ceptional amounts are -uite limited and# so are t e social advanta"es t at t ey 2rin"! Vertical social mo2ility resultin" from e$ceptional personal -ualities is "overned 2y many social factors! In t e first place# t e open or closed nature of t e class system in a particular society as a po/erful influence on t e vertical movement of individuals! An individual in a close system encounters many o2stacles if e see1s to escape from is social position as a slave# serf& one 2ound to /or1 on t e land(# or a mem2er of a lo/er caste! T e ideolo"y t at up olds suc a system usually tends to in i2it t e development of talent and am2ition at t e lo/er levels of t e society! In t e more open class systems of modem societies# t ere are no formal restrictions on up/ard vertical mo2ility! 4o/ever# talented individuals from a lo/er social class ave to overcome many difficulties# arisin" mainly from poverty and lac1 of education# in order to succeed and move to a i" er social class! In contrast# less talented individuals from t e upper classes are a2le to maintain t eir positions due to t eir in erited social advanta"es! T e e$tent to / ic an individual talent /ill lead to up/ard mo2ility is also limited 2y t e "eneral orientation of t e activities of a particular society6! A primitive tri2al society t at lives 2y untin" or is en"a"ed in an on0"oin" /arfare /it ot er nei" 2ourin" tri2es /ill naturally place a i" value on p ysical stren"t ! Similarly# a nation en"a"ed in imperial & pertainin" to ( e$pansion and colonisation & t e act or practice of coloni.in"( /ill i" ly rate military -ualities; and t e nation t at is mainly concerned /it industrial and economic developments /ill attac t e "reatest importance to 2usiness s1ills! T e "eneral c an"es in social structure as a profound influence on social mo2ility0 Cor e$ample# a revolution t at dispossesses & to de"rade( an e$istin" upper class or a national li2eration movement t at overt ro/s forei"n rule creates ne/ opportunities for individuals# "roups and even / ole classes to move up/ard and occupy dominant positions! T e mo2ility is also affected 2y more "radual c an"es in a society# especially if t e c an"es occur in its occupational structure! T us# t e e$pansion of tec nical and professional employment involves a continuin" movement out of manual /or1# and t is accounts for a ma=or cause for t e up/ard mo2ility in modem industrial societies! Mo2ility is i" durin" a revolution and after a revolution# a system of social stratification may emer"e and t e rate of social mo2ility may decline & to

deviate( ! Similarly# durin" recession or depression# / en t e rate of "ro/t slo/s do/n# opportunities for mo2ility are "reatly reduced! In suc circumstances# t e possi2ility of up/ard mo2ility /ill lar"ely depend upon t e e$tent of do/n/ard mo2ility! Anot er factor avin" an influence on t e mo2ility# / en t ere is little economic development# is t at of differential fertility! If t e upper and middle classes limit t eir families# t e vacant places may2e filled 2y individuals / o rise from t e lo/er classes! Suc differential fertility as rarely 2een a ma=or influence on social mo2ility! ?p/ard social mo2ility as often 2een promoted 2y international movement of population ! A very important e$ample of t is p enomenon is t e colonial e$pansion of many European countries from t e si$teent century on/ards# / ic provided opportunities for individuals to move up/ard in society 2y enric in" t emselves as traders or settlers and# at t e same time as t ey su2=u"ated & to 2rin" under po/er( ot er people in Asia# Africa and America! At a later sta"e# /it t e creation of ne/ societies 2y European settlers in t eir adopted countries &especially in Nort America and Australia(# fres opportunities for mo2ility /ere provided 2y lar"e scale immi"ration!