Antennas

Reference material Reference material

1. Lesson slides (available at the website http://nora.ing.unibs.it) 1. Lesson slides (available at the website http://nora.ing.unibs.it)
2. Antennas for all applications, third edition,
J. D. Kraus, R. J. Marhefka, McGraw Hill 2002 , ,
3. Antenna Theory, third edition, C. A. Balanis,
John Wiley & Sons 2005
4. Electromagnetic Waves, C.G. Someda,
Chapman & Hall, 1998
Examination:
i ( d i l l )
1
Written exam (and optional oral exam)
Antennas: course outline
1. Introduction
2. Antenna basics 2. Antenna basics
3. Antenna types (with emphasis on linear antennas)
4. Magnetic vector potential and Greens functions
5. Electric dipole and thin linear antennas
6. Antenna arrays
7 Mutual coupling between antennas (Yagi Uda antenna) 7. Mutual coupling between antennas (Yagi-Uda antenna)
8. Aperture antennas (slots, horns, parabolic reflectors)
9. Patch antenna 9. c e
10. Radar and remote sensing
2
Fundamental of Electromagnetics
Maxwells equations
B j E e = V
Electric charges and currents
are the sources of the electromagnetic field
D j J H e + = V
are the sources of the electromagnetic field
The generated electromagnetic (EM) field can
propagate through different media
e j J = V
p p g g
(electromagnetic wave)
The main function of an antenna is to emit
= V D
or receive electromagnetic waves
0 = V B
3
Fundamental of Electromagnetics
B j E e = V
Electromagnetic wave
It i th l ti f M ll ti
D j J H e + = V
It is the solution of Maxwells equations
when there are no currents or electric
charges (without sources)
e j J = V
charges (without sources)
0 V B
= V D
from Maxwells equations to wave equation
0 = V B
4
Wave Equation
Fundamentals of
Electromagnetics
In a time-invariant, linear, isotropic medium:
Electromagnetics
~ ~
~
t
H
t
B
E
c
c
=
c
c
= V
~ ~
E
E
J E
D
H
t t
c +
c
= + +
c
= V
c c
V
~ ~ ~ ~
E
t
J E
t
H
i
c +
c
+ +
c
V V
pay attention !
( )
~
~
~ ~
2
~
E
t
E
H H H V +
c
cV
= V V + V = V V c
t c
2
c c H H
Wave equation for
th ti fi ld
Introduzione
5
0
~
2
~
~
2
=
c

c
V
t t
H c
the magnetic field
Fundamentals of
Electromagnetics
Wave Equation
Electromagnetics
In a time-invariant, linear, isotropic medium:
V
~ ~
H B
E
c
=
c
= V
In a time invariant, linear, isotropic medium:
V
~
E D
t t
E
c c
c c
V
~
~
~ ~
~
~
E
t
J E
t
H
i
c +
c
= + +
c
= V
( )
t
H
E E E
c
cV
= V V + V = V V
~
~ ~
2
~

t c
0
~ ~
2
2
=
c

c
V
E E
E c
Wave equation for
th ti fi ld
6
0
2
~
=
c

c
V
t t
E c
the magnetic field
Fundamentals of
Electromagnetics
Wave Equation
Vector wave equation for the
Electromagnetics
0
~
2
2
=
c
V
a
a c
Vector wave equation for the
electric field or for the magnetic
field (in the absence of loss
0
2
~
=
c
V
t
a c
terms)
) , , , (
2
c t z y x a
0
) , , , (
) , , , (
2
2
~
~
2
=
c
V
t
y
t z y x a
x
x
c
|
.
|

\
|
=
z y x
a a a a
~ ~ ~ ~
, ,
0
) , , , (
) , , , (
2
~
2
2
=
c
c
V
t
t z y x a
t z y x a
y
y
c
. \
0
) , , , (
) (
~
2
2
~
c
V
c
t z y x a
t
t
z
y
c
Three scalar equations
7
0 ) , , , (
2
~
=
c
V
t
t z y x a
z
z
c
Fundamentals of
Electromagnetics
Wave Equation
( ) 0 0 ) ( ) ( assume s Let' t z a t z y x a =
Electromagnetics
( ) 0 , 0 ), , ( ) , , , ( assume s Let
~ ~
t z a t z y x a
x
=
m/s 10 3 v is vacuum in speed light The .
1
v
8
= =
a a
di t ti l
1
2 2

c c
p g
c
t
a
v z
a
x x
coordinate t temporal
coordinate spatial z
, 0
1

2
~
2 2
~

=
c
c

c
c
( ) vt z a a solution. a is it , = = ( )
( )
x x
,
~ ~

8
( ) v vt z a
x
velocity with z along g propagatin a wave is
~

Fundamentals of
Electromagnetics
Wave Equation
Electromagnetics

By considering a point and

by imposing that it does not
t=0
( )
~
z a
x

by imposing that it does not

change its value:

`
vdt dz d = = 0
z
( ) 5v z a

)
v
dz
vdt dz d
=
0
t=5
( ) 5
~
v z a
x

)
dt
The propagation speed is the constant v
z
z=5v
9
The propagation speed is the constant v
z 5v
Fundamentals of
Electromagnetics
Wave Equation
I bl h l i i h i d i i i l
Electromagnetics
In many problems, the analysis in the time domain is unpractical.
We start by studying monochromatic signals in the frequency
domain.
1
2 2
2 2
c
c c
a
a a
e
0 0
1
2 2 2
~
2 2
~
= +
c
c
=
c

c
x
x x x
a
v z
a
t v z
e
Helmholtzs equation:
0
2 2
a k a V
quantity complex a is
0
2 2
k
a k a
c e
c
=
= V
10
quantity complex a is
c
k c e
c
Fundamentals of
Electromagnetics
Wave Equation:
frequency domain
2
d
Electromagnetics
frequency domain
Going back to the scalar equation:
0
2
2
2
=
x
x
a k
dz
a d
c
The solution reads as the sum of two waves:
( )
k k
0 | k
( )
z k z k
x
e V e V z a
c c

+
+ =
0 , > + = o | o
c
j k
wave backward the is
wave forward the is


| o
| o
z j z
z j z
e e V
e e V

+
h h i
constant n attenuatio the is
wave backward the is
|
o
e e V

11
constant phase the is |
Fundamentals of
Electromagnetics
Wave Equation:
frequency domain
Electromagnetics
frequency domain

z j z
e e V
| o
+
|V
+
| e
-oz
The wave is attenuated along z
j|
z
|V
-
| e
oz

z j z
e e V
| o

z
The backward wave is attenuated, as well
In absence of obstacles the forward wave can propagate alone
Forward wave in the time domain o wa d wave e e do a
{ } ) ( R ) (
0 Re,
V V V
V
t j z j
|
o
e |
= e
+
+
12
{ } ) cos( Re ) , (
~
z t V e V t z V
t j z j
| e
e |
= =
+
+
+
Fundamentals of
Electromagnetics
Wave Equation:
frequency domain
Electromagnetics
frequency domain
is the position vector
r k j
e E E

=
0
r
is the position vector
is a constant amplitude vector
r
0
E
is the phase vector, and its modulus is:
k
e
| |
e
c e = =
c
n k
medium the of index refractive the is
0
c
c
= n
13
Uniform plane
waves in
Fundamentals of
Electromagnetics
waves in
lossless media
Electromagnetics
k
Plane A Plane B
Travelling from plane A to plane B, one can observe:
z
z=L
z=0
a variation in the phase
a variation in the amplitude a variation in the amplitude
Amplitude and phase are constant in each plane orthogonal to
th t k
14
the vector k
Uniform plane
waves in
Fundamentals of
Electromagnetics
waves in
lossless media
Electromagnetics
The phase changes along the direction of
k
It can be proved that and are orthogonal to
It can be proved that q is the wave impedance
E H
k
| | | | H E q =
It can be proved that , q is the wave impedance
If is linearly polarized, then and are mutually
orthogonal
| | | | H E q =
E H E
orthogonal
The plane wave is TEM:
Transverse ElectroMagnetic
15
Uniform plane
waves in
Fundamentals of
Electromagnetics
waves in
lossless media
Electromagnetics
In a cartesian orthogonal reference
frame we assueme that the wave
E
k
a
frame, we assueme that the wave
propagates along the z direction
H
a
x
a
y
a
z
H
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
n k a k k
z E
z H e E z E
a z E E
z
jkz
x
0
,

, ,

e
= = = =

`
=

( )
( ) ( )
c a z H H
z
y
0
, , ,

)
`
=
0
0
0
120 : is impedance wave the vacuum In t
c

q O = =
n
0
: as reads impedance wave the medium, generic a In
q
q =
Uniform plane
waves in
Fundamentals of
Electromagnetics
waves in
lossless media
Electromagnetics
By definition, the Poynting vector is:
( ) E z E H E

| |

| |
2
0
2 *
( )
z y x
a
E
a a
z E H E
P

2
| |

2
| |
2
0
q q
= = =
Electromagnetic energy is flowing along z (the real part of P is
the active intensity)
E
a
P
a
x
a
y
a
z
17
H
Plane waves:
reflections
Fundamentals of
Electromagnetics
reflections
Electromagnetics
We assume that there is a discontinuity in the wave
impedance along the propagation direction.
The material variation gives rise to a reflection: part of the
energy is reflected and the remaining part is transmitted.
q
1
q
2
1 2
q q

=
+
E E
incident wave
transmitted wave
E
+
E
t
1 2
1 2
q q
q q

+
=
reflected wave
transmitted wave
E
-
18
Plane waves:
reflections
Fundamentals of
Electromagnetics
reflections
Electromagnetics
The reflection coefficient depends on the angle of incidence.
E
+
The presence of obstacles gives rise to
E
t
E
-
p g
multiple paths between the transmitter and
the receiver: INTERFERENCE !
path 2 path 2
path 1
trx
observer
19
path 3
Spherical waves
Fundamentals of
Electromagnetics Electromagnetics
These waves have a spherical constant-phase surface.
S h i l l ti f M ll ti d Spherical waves are a solution of Maxwells equations under
the following hypotheses:
h di homogeneous medium
point source (located in the origin O)
o
r
The solution must exhibit a spherical symmetry: The solution must exhibit a spherical symmetry:
( ) ( ) G G u
20
( ) ( ) r G r G = u, ,
Spherical waves
Fundamentals of
Electromagnetics
B l i th ti i h i l di t t
Electromagnetics
By solving the wave equation in a spherical coordinate system
for a lossless medium (=0) and considering only the emitted
wave, we can write: wave, we can write:
( )
( )
jkr
G
r G k G

= V o
c
1
2 2
( )
jkr
e
r
r G =
t 4
We observe that the field intensity is inversely proportional to r
2
We observe that the field intensity is inversely proportional to r
( )
= =
r
GG P
t q
q
4 2
1
2
1
2
2
*
( )
}
= =
TOT
Pdxdy P
r t q
q
8
1
4 2
2
21
}
S
TOT
y
tq 8
First
Antenna
Antennas:
historical note
Antenna
historical note
First antenna for radio waves (=8m): First antenna for radio waves (=8m):
it was developed by Heinrich Hertz in1886.
The Hertzian dipole is a linear antenna whose The Hertzian dipole is a linear antenna whose
length is much shorter than the EM wavelength.
22
First
Antenna
Antennas:
historical note
First antenna for radio waves (=8m):
Antenna
historical note
First antenna for radio waves (=8m):
it was developed by Heinrich Hertz in1886.
The Hertzian dipole is a linear antenna whose The Hertzian dipole is a linear antenna whose
length is much shorter than the EM wavelength.
a
z
J
i
M
a
y
23
a
x
Hertzian dipole: its length is infinitesimal
It is a short electric-current element: L<<.
The current along this linear antenna can be considered as
constant.
The metallic spheres at the wire extremities
convert the electric current into displacement
current (by accumulating electric charges)
L
current (by accumulating electric charges)
Th t lli h k th l t f The metallic spheres work as the plates of a
capacitor.
24
Linear
Antenna Antenna
Radiation is caused
by the acceleration
of electric charges
25
Electric field lines generated by an
h lf i t
Linear
Antenna
half-wave wire antenna
Antenna
26
Antennas:
historical note
Guglielmo Marconi proved that it was possible to transmit EM
historical note
g p p
signals over transoceanic distances: in 1901 Marconi managed
to send the first message between US and England without
i th t l h bl ( i l i ti using the telegraph cable (wireless communications were
born)
27
28
29