RF MICROELECTRONICS

Second Edition
Behzad Razavi

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CONTENTS
PREFACE TO THE SECONO EOITION
PREfACE TO THE FIRST EDI TI ON
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
CIIAPTER I INTRODUCTION TO RF AND WIRELESS
TECHNOLOGY
1.1 A Wireless World
1.2 RF Design Is Challengi ng
1.3 The Big Picture
References
CIIAI'TER 2 BASIC CONCEPTS IN RF DESIGN
2.1 General Considerations
2.1.1 Units in RF Oesign
2.1.2 Time Variance
2. 1.3 Nonlinearity
2.2 Effects of Nonlinearity
2.2. 1 Harmoni c DislOni on
2.2.2
2.2.3
2.2.4
2.2.5
2.2.6
2.3 Noise
Gain Compression
Cross Modulation
Intennodulation
Cascaded Nonlinear Stages
AM/PM Conversion
2.3.1 Noise itS a Random Process
2.3.2 Noise SIX"Ctrum
'"
XIX
'"
XXIII
1
3
4
5
7
7
7
9
12
14
14
16
20
21
29
33
35
36
J7
'"
VIII Contems COil/ems
"
2.3.3 Effect of Transfer Function on Noise 39 3.8 Appendix I: DifTercmial Phase ShiH Keying 151
2.3.4 Device Noise 40 Rererences 152
2.3.5 Representat ion of Noise in Circuits 46 Problems 152
2.4 Sensitivity and Dynamic Range 58
2.4.1 Sensitivity 59
Ci-IAPTER 4 TRANSC EIVER AROUTECTURES 155
2.4.2 Dynamic Range 60 4.1 Gcner-"l Consider"dlions 155
2.5 Passivc Impedancc Tr-"ns fonnation 62 4.2 Reeeiwr Architectures 161)
2.5.1 Quality Factor 63 4.2.1 Hasic Heterodyne Receivers 160
2.5.2 Series-to-Parallel Conversion 63 4.2.2 Modern Heterodyne Receivers 171
2.5.3 Basic Matching Networks 65 4.2.3 Direct -Conversion Receivers 179
2.5.4 Loss in Matching Networks 69 4.2.4 Image-Reject Re(;eivers 200
2.6 ScaUeri ng Par-"mCtcrs 71 4.2.5 Low-IF ReceiveN 214
2.7 Analysis of Nonli near Dynamic Systems 75 4.3 Transrniner Architectures 226
2.7.1 Basic Considerations 75 4.3. 1 General Considerations 226
2.8 Volterra Series 77 4.3.2 Direct -Conversion Transmillers 227
2.8.1 Method of Nonlinear Currents 81 4.3.3 Modem Dired-Conversion TransmiUers 238
References 86
4.3.4 Heterodyne TransmiueN 244
Prohlems 86 4.3.5 Other TX Architeclllres 248
4.4 OOK Transceivers 248
CHAPTER 3 COMl\I UN1CAT10N CONCEPTS 91 Referen(;es 249
31 General Considerations 91 Problems 250
3.2 Analog Modulation 93
3.2.1 Amplitude Modulat ion 93 C HAI'TER 5 lOWNOISE AMI'UFI ERS 255
3.2.2 Phase and Frequency Modulation 95 5.1 General Considerations 255
3.3 Digital Modulation 99 5.2 Problem of Input Matching 263
3.3.1 lmersyrnbollmerfercnce 101
53 LNA Topologies 266
3.3.2 Signal Constellations 105
5.3.1 Common-Source Stage with Inductive Load 266
3.3.3 Quadrature Modulation 107
5.3.2 Common-Source Stage with Resistive Feedback 269
3.3.4 GMSK and GFSK Modulat ion 11 2
5.3.3 Common-Gate Stage 272
3.3.5 Quadrature Ampl itude Modulation 11 4
5.3.4 Cascode CS Stage wilh Inductive Degeneration 284
3.3.6 OTlllogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing 11 5
5.3.5 Variants of Common-Gate LNA 2%
3.4 Spectral Regrowth 11 8
5.3.6 Noise-Cancelling LNAs 300
35 Mobile RF Communications 11 9
5.3.7 Reactance-Cancelling LNAs 303
36 Multiple Access Techniques 123
5.4 Gain Switching 305
3.6.1 Ti me and Frequency Division Duplexing 123
55 Band Swil(;hing 312
56 High-lP, LNAs 313
3.6.2 Frequency- I>ivision Mult iple Access 125
5.6.1 Differential LNAs 314
3.6.3 Ti me-Division Multiple Access 125
5.6.2 Olher Methods of IP2 Improvement 323
3.6.4 Code- Division Multiple Access 126
5.7 Nonl inearity Cakulations 325
3.7 Wireless Standards 130
5.7.1 Ikgeneratcd CS Stage 325
3.7.1 GSM 132
5.7.2 Undegeneratcd CS Stage 329
3.7.2 1$-95 CDMA 137
5.7.3 l>ifTeremial and Quasi- I>ifferemial Pairs 331
3.7.3 Wideband CDMA 139
5.7.4 l>egenerated I>ifferential Pair 332
3.7.4 Bl uetoolh 143 Referen(;es 3J3
3.7.5 lEEES02.11 aIb/); 147 Problems 333
,
Con/elliS COn/elll.,
"
CHAPTER 6 l\UXERS 337 References 495
6.1 General Considerations 137 Problems 496
6. i.I Performance Parameters 338
6. 1.2 Mi"er Noise Figures 343
CII APTER 8 OSClLLATORS 497
6. 1.3 Single-Balanced and Ix mblc-Balanced Mi xers J4!!
8.1 Perfonnancc Parameters 497
6.2 Passive Downconversion Mixers 350
82 Basic Pri nciples 501
6.2.1 Gain 350
8.2.1 Feedback View of Oscillators 502
6.2.2 LO Self-Mixing 357
8.2.2 One-Pon View of OscillalOrs 508
6.2.3 Noise 357
8.3 Cross-Coupled Oscillator 511
6.2.4 Input Impedance 364
84 Tllree-Point Osci Ilators 517
6.2.5 Current-Driven Passive Mi xers 366
85 Voltage-Controlled Oscillators 518
6.3 Active Downconversion Mixers 368
8.5. 1 Tuning Range Li mitations 521
6.3.1 Conversion Gain 370
8.5.2 EtTect of Varactor Q 522
6.3.2 Noise in Active Mixers 377
8.6 LC yeas wilh Wide Tuning Range 524
6.3.3 Lineari ty .>87
8.6. 1 VCOs with Continuous Tuni ng 524
6.4 Improved i ~ e r Topologies 393
8.6.2 Ampl itude Variation with Frcquency Tuning 5J2
6.4.1 Active Mixers wit h Current-Source Helpers 393
8.6.3 Discrete Tuning 532
6.4.2 Active Mixers with Enhanced Transconductance 394
8.7 Phase Noise 536
6.4.3 Activc Mi xcrs with Hi gh IP! 397 8.7. 1 Basic ConceptS 536
6.4.4 Active Mi xers with Low Flicker Noise 405
8.7.2 Effect of Phase Noise 5J9
6.5 Upconversion Mixers 408
8.7.3 Analysis of Phase Noise: Approach I 544
6.5.1 Performance Requirements 408
8.7.4 Analysis of Phase Noise: Approach II 557
6.5.2 Upconversion Mixer Topologies 409
8.7.5 Noise of Bias Current Source 565
References 424
8.7.6 Figures of Merit of VCOs 570
Problems 425
88 Design Procedure 571
8.8.1 Low-Noise VCOs 57J
CHAPTER 7 PASSIVE DEVICES 429 8.9 LO Interface 575
7.1 General Considerations 429 8.10 Mathematical Model of VCOs 577
7.2 Indudors 431 8.11 Quadrature Oscillators 5'1
7.2.1 Basic Structure 431 8.11.1 Basic Concepts 581
7.2.2 Inductor Geomet ries 435 8.11.2 Properties of Coupled Oscillators 584
7.2.3 Inductance Equat ions 436 8.11.3 Improved Quadrature Oscillators 589
7.2.4 Parasitic Capacitances 439 8.12 Appendix I: Simulation of Quadrature Oscillators 592
7.2.5 Loss Mechanisms 444 Refercnces 593
7.2.6 Inductor Model ing 455 Problems 594
7.2.7 Alternative Inductor Structures 4{jO
7 . .> Transformers 470 CIIAPTER 9 PHASE-LOCKE[) LOOPS 597
7.3.1 Tnmsformer Structures 470 9.1 Basic Con\:eplS 597
7.3.2 Effed of Coupling Capacitan\:c 475 9.1.1 Phase [)etector 597
7.3.3 Tnmsformer Modeling 475 9.2 Type-[ PLLs 600
7.4 Transmission Lines 476 9.2.1 Alignment of a VCO's Phase 600
7.4.1 T-Line Structures 478 9.2.2 Simple PLL 601
75 Varadors 483 9.2.3 Analysis of Simple PLL 603
76 Constant Cap!lcitors 490 9.2.4 Loop Dynamics 606
7.6.1 MOS Capacitors 491 9.2.5 Frequency Multiplication 609
7.6.2 Metal - Plate Capacitors 493 9.2.6 Urawbacks of Simple PLL 611
' "
COli/ems COil/elliS XIII
9.3 T ypc-Il PLLs 611 CIIAPTER II FRACTIONAJ.-N SYNTHESIZERS 715
9.3.1 PhaselFrcqucncy Detectors 612 II.! Basic Concepts 715
9. 3.2 Charge Pumps 61 4 11.2 Randomization and Noi se Shaping 718
9. 3.3 Charge-Pump PLLs 615 11.2. ' Modulus Randomi zation 718
9.3.4 Transiem Response 620 11.2.2 Basic Noise Shaping 722
9.3.5 Limilations of Conli nuous-Time 622 11.2.3 Higocr-Ordcr Noise Shaping 728
9.3.6 Frequency- Multiplying CPPLL 623 11.2.4 Probkm of Out-of-Band Noi se 7J2
9. 3.7 Higher-Order Loops 625 11.2.S Effect of Charge Pump Mi smatcll 73J
9.4 PFDfCP Nonidcalit ies 627 11.3 Quami zation Noise Reduction Technique;; 738
9.4.1 Up and l>own Skew and Widlh Mi smatch 627 11.3.1 I)AC Fecdforward 738
9.4.2 Vohage Compl iance 630 11.3.2 Fraclional Di vidcr 742
9.4.3 Charge Inject ion and Clod : Feedthmugh 630 !! .3.3 Reference DQuhli ng 743
9AA Random Mismatch between Up and DQwn Currems 632 I! .3.4 Muhiphase Frequency Divi sion 745
9A.5 Channel-Length Modulalion 633 11.4 Appendix I: Spcrlrum of Quanti zation Noi se 748
9A.6 Circuit Techniques 634 References 749
95 Phase Noi se in 638 Problems 749
9.5.1 VCO Phase Noise 638
9.5. 2 Reference Phase Noise 643
Ci-IAPTER 11 POWER A1\IPLIFIERS 751
9.6 Loop Bandwidth
"5
12.1 General Considerations 751
9.7 Design Procedure
"6
]2. 1. 1 Effect of Hi gh Currents 754
98 Appendix I: Phase Margin of Type- II 647
References 651
12.1.2 Efficiency 755
Problems 652
12.1.3 Linearity 756
12. 1.4 Single-Ended and Differemial PAs 758
12.2 Classification of Power Amplifiers 7613
c nAPTER 10 INTEGER-N FREQUENCY SYNTHESI ZERS 655 12.2.1 Class A Powef Amplifiers 760
10. I General Considerations 655 12.2.2 Class B Powef Amplifiers 764
10.2 Basic l nteger-N Syntllcsizer 659 12.2.3 Class C Powef Amplifiers 768
10.3 Settling Behavior 661 12.3 Hi gh Efficiency Power Amplifiers 770
lOA Spur Reduction Techniques 664 12.3.1 Class A Stage with Harmonic Enhancement 771
10.5 PLL-Bascd Modulati on 667 12.3.2 Class E Stage 772
10.5.1 In-Loop Modulati on 667 12.3.3 Class F Power Ampli fiers 775
10.5.2 Modulation by Offset PLL..s 670 12A Cascode Output Siages 776
10.6 I>ivider L>csign 673 12.5 Large-Signal Impedance Matching
"0
10.6.1 Pulse Swallow Divider 674 12.6 Bas ic Lineari zat ion Techniques m
10.6.2 Dual -Modulus Di viders 677 ]2.6. 1 Feedforward 783
10.6.3 Choice of Prescalcr Modulus 682 12.6.2 Canesian Feedback 7'6
10.6A Divider Logic Styles 683 12.6.3 Predistonion 787
10.6.5 Mi ner I>i vider 699 12.6.4 Envelope Feedback 788
10.6.6 Injedion-Locked Dividers 707 12.7 Polar Modulaliun 790
10.6.7 Di vider Delay and Phase Noi se 709 ]2.7. 1 Basic Idea 790
References 712 12.7.2 Polar Modulation Issues 793
Problems 713 12.7.3 Improved Polar Modulation 796
'"
12.8 Oulphasing
12.8.1 Basic Idea
Il.ll. l Outphasing Issues
12.9 Doherty Power Amplifier
12.10 Design Examples
12.10.1 Cascodc PA Examples
12.10.2 PAs
Il. IO.) PAs with Power Combining
Il. IO.4 Polar Modulation PAs
12. 10.5 Outphasing PA Example
Rererences
Problems
CHAI'TER 13 TRANSCEIVER DESIGN EXAMPLE
13.1 System-Level Considerations
13.1.1 Receiver
13. 1. 2 Transm;([cr
13. 1. 3 Frequency Synthesizer
13. 1.4 Frequency Planning
13.2 Receiver Design
13.2.1 LNA Uesign
13.2.2
13.2.3
Mixer Design
AGe
13.3 TX Design
13.3.1 PA \)esign
13.3.2 Upconvcrter
13.4 Synthesizcr Design
13.4.1 veo Design
13.4.2 Uividcr Design
13.4.3 Loop Design
References
Problems
lNIJ EX
Contems
802
802
005
'" 814
815
819
821
824
826
830
831
833
833
834
83,1!
840
&44
848
849
851
856
861
861
867
869
869
878
882
886
886
889
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION
In til e 14 years si nce the first edition of this book. RF Ie design has experienced a drammic
metamorphosis. Innovations in transceiver architectures, ci rcui t topologies, and device
structures have led to hi ghly-integrated "radios" Ihal span a broad spectrum of appl ica-
tions. Moreover. new analytical and model ing techniques Ilave considerably improved
our understanding of RF circuits and their underlying principles. A new edit ion was
tllcrcforc due.
TI>e second edition difTers from lhe f, rSI in several respects:
I. [ realized at tile outset - threc and-a-half years ago-that simply adding "patches"
to tile first edilion would nut renee! today's RF microelectronics. I thus closed lhe
first edit ion and beg:m with a clelln sl a1e. The two editions Ilave about 10% overlap.
2. I wanted the second editi on (0 oontain greater pedagogy, helping the reader under-
stand both the fundamentals and the subtleties. I have thus incorporated hundreds
of examples and problems.
3. I also wanted (0 teach design in addition to analysis. I have thus included step-by-
step design procedures and examples. Fur\hennore. I have dedicated Chapter 13 to
the step-by-step transistor-level design of a dual-band WiFi transceiver.
4. With the tremendous advances in RF design. $(lme of tile chapters have inevitably
become longer and some have been split into two or more chapters. As a result. the
secondedition is nearly three times as long as the first.
Suggestions for Instructors and Students
The material in this book is much more than can be covered in one quarter or semester.
The following is a possible sequence of the chapters that can be taught in one term wit h
reasonable depth. Depending on the students' background and the instructor's preference.
other combinations of (Opics can also be covered in one quarter or semester.
xvi Pre/uo: 10 Ihe Second Edilion
Chapter I : Introduction to RF and Technology
This chapter provides tile big picillre and should be covered in about half an hour.
Chapter 2: Basic Concepts in RF Design
The followi ng Sedions should be covered: Genentl Considerations, ElTect.> of
Nonl inearity (the section on AM/PM Conversion \:an be skipped). Noise. and Sen-
sitivity and Dynamic Range. (The sections on Passive Impedance Transfonnation,
Scattering Parameters. and Analysis of Nonlinear Dynamic Systems can be skipped.)
This chapter takes about Sill hours of lecture ,
Chapter J : Communi cati on Concepts
This chapter can be covcrcd minimally in a quarter system- for Cllample. Analog
Modulation. Quadrature Modulation. GMSK Modulation. Multiple Access Tech-
niques. and the IEEE802.11 a/bIg Standard. In a semester system. the concept of signal
constellations can be introduced and a few more modulation scilemes and wireless
standardS can be taught. This chapter takes about two hours in a quarter system and
three hours in a semester system.
Chapter 4: Architectures
This chapter is relatively long and sllould be tauglll seleClively. Tile following
sections should be covered: Gener-"l Considerdlions. Basic and Modern Hetero-
dyne Receivers. Direct -ConveNion Receivers. Image-Reject Receivers. and Di rect-
Conversion Transminers. In a semester system. Low- IF Receivers and Heterodyne
Transmitters can be covered as well. This chapler lakes about eight lIours in a quarter
system and ten hours in a semester system.
Chapter 5: Low.Noise Amplifiers
The following sect ions should be covered: General Considerations. Problem of
InpUi Matching. and LNA Topologies. A semester system can also include Gain
Switching and Band Switching or Hi gh IP2 LNAs. This cllapter takes about hours
in a quarter system and eight hours in a semester system.
Chapter 6:
The following sections sllould be covered: General Considerations, Passive
I)ownconversion Mi xers (the computation of noise and input impedance of voltage-
driven sampli ng mixers can be skipped), Adive I)ownconversion Mi xers, and
Active Mixers with High IP2. In a semester system. Active MillCrs with Enhanced
Transconductance. Active Millers with Low Flicker Noise. and Upconversion
Millers can also be covered. This chapler takes aboul eight hours in a quarter system
and ten bours in a semester system.
Chapter 7: De\' ices
This chapter may not fit in a quarter system. In a semester system. about Ihree
lIours can be spcm on basic induCIOr structures and loss mechanisms and MOS
varactors.
Chapter 8: Oscillators
Thi s is a long chapter and sbould he taught selectively. The following sections
should be covered: Basic Principles. Cross-Coupled Oscillator. VoltageControlied
Prefuce 10 Ihe Second Edition xvii
Oscillalnrs. Low-Noise VCOs. In a quarter system. there is linle time tn cover phase
noise. In a semester system. both approaches to phase noise analysis can be taught.
This chapter takes about Sill hours in a quarter system and eight hours in a semester
system.
Chapter 9: PhaseLocked Loops
This chapter forms tile foundation for synthesizeN. In fact. if taught carefully. this
chapter naturally teaclles integer-N syntllesizers. allowing a quarter system to skip the
nellt dmpter. The following sect ions should be covered: Basic Concepts. Type- I PLLs.
TYrlC-J[ PLLs, and PFDfCP Nonidealities. A semester system can also include Phase
Nnise in PLLs and Design Procedure. This chaptcr takes about four hours in a quarter
system and Sill hours in a semester system.
Chapter 10: Integer-N Synthesizers
This cllapter is likely sacrificed in a quarter system. A semester system can spend
about four hours on Spur Reduction Techniques and Divider Design.
Chapter II : Fracli onal -N Synthesizers
This cllapter is likely sacrificed in a quaner system. A semester system can spend
aboul four hours on Randomilalion and Noise Shaping. The remaining sections may
be skipped.
Chapter 12: Power Amplifiers
This is a long cllapter and. unfortunately. is often sacrificed for mller chapters.
If coverage is desired. the following sections may be laught: General Considera-
tions. Classification of Power Amplifiers. High Efficien\:y Power Ampl ifiers. Cascode
OUlput Stages. illld Basic Linearization Techniques. These topics take about four
hours of lecture. Another four hours can be spent on Doherty Power Amplifier. Polar
Modulation. and OUi phasing.
Chapter 13: Transcein r Design Example
This cllapter provides a step-by-step design of a dual -band transceiver. It is possi
ble to skip the state-of-the-art examples in Chapters 5. 6. illld 8 to allow some time for
this chapter. The system-level derivations may still need to be skipped. The RX. TX.
and symhesizer transislor-Ievel designs can be covered in about four hours.
A solulions manual is available for inslructors via lhe Pearson Higher Education Inslruc-
tor Resource Center web site: pearsonhighered.\:omfirc: and a set of Powerpoint slides is
available for instructors at inCormit.cnmfraza\' i. Additional problems will be posted on the
book's website (inCormit.com/ ral.3\i ).
- lJehzad Raza\'j
July lOll
This pug.: inf<:nliUlwlly leji blallk
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
The annual worldwide sales of cellular phones has exceeded $2.56. With 4.5 million cus-
lomers, home satellite networks comprise a $2.58 industry. The global positioning system
is e ~ p l e d to become a $jB market by lhe year 2000. In Europe. the sales of equi p-
ment and services for mobile communicat ions will reach $)08 by 1998. The statist ics are
overwhelming.
Tile radio frequency ( RF) and wireless market has suddenly expanded to unimaginable
dimensions. Dev;"es such as pagers. cellular and cordless phones. cable modems, and
RF identification lags are rapidly penctrating all aspects of our lives. evolving from luxury
items to indispensable tools. Semiconductor and system comp!mics. small and large. analog
and digital. have seen tile statistics and arc strivi ng to capture tllei r own market share by
introducing various RF products.
RF design is unique in that it draws upon many discipl ines unrelated to integrated
ci n;uits (Ies). Thc RF knowledge Oase has grown for almost acentury. creating a seemi ngly
endless body of literature for the novice.
This book deals with the analysis and design of RF integrated ci reuits and systems.
Providing a systematic treatment of RF electronics in a tutorial language. the book begi ns
wit h the necessary background knowledge from microwave and communication theory
and leads the reader to the design of RF trans<:civers and circuits. Tl>e text emphasil.es bot h
architeclure and circuit level issues wit h rcspect to monol ithi c implementation in VLSI
technologies. The pri mary focus is on bipolar and CMOS design. hut most of the con-
cepts can be applied to other technologies as welL The reader is assumed to have a basic
understanding of analog IC de;;ign and the tlleory of signals and systems.
Tl>e book consists orninechapters. Chapter I gives a general inlrodUclion. posing ques-
tions and providing motivation ror subsequent chapters. Chapter 2 des<:ribes basic concepts
in RF >Il1d microwave design. emphasizing the effects of nonl ineari ty and noise.
Chapters 3 and 4 take the reader to the communicati on system level. giving an overview
of modulation. detection. multi ple access techniques. and wi reless standards. Whi le ini-
tially appearing to be unnecessary. Ihi s material is in fact e;;sent ial to the COnCUITent design
or RF circuits and systems.
'"
Preface W Ihe FirSI Edilioll
Chapter 5 deals with transceiver architectures. presenting various receiver and trans-
miner topologies along with thei r merits and drawbacks. Thi s chapter also includes a
number of case studies that exemplify the approaches taken in actual RF products.
Chapters 6 through 9 address the design of RF buildi ng blocks: low-noise amplifiers
and mixers. oscillators. frequency synthesizers, and powcr ampl ifiers. with particular atten-
tion to minimi zi ng the number of off-chip components. An imporlllnt goal of these chapters
is to demonstrate how the system requirements define the parameters of the ci rcui ts and how
the performance of each ci rcuit impacts that of the overall transceiver.
I have taught 80% of the material in this book in a 4-unit graduate course
at UCLA. Chapters}, 4. R. and 9 had to be sllortened in a ten-weck quarter. but in a semester
system they can be covered more thoroughly.
Much of my RF design knowledge comes from interactions with colleagues. Helen
Kim. ling-Ping Li u. and Dan Avidor of Bell Labor-"tories. and David Su and Andrew
Gzegorck of Hewlett-Packard Laboratories have contributed to tile material in this book in
many ways. The text was also reviewed by a number of experts: Stefan Heinen (Siemens).
Bart Jansen ( Hewlett-Packard). Ting-Ping Liu (Bell Labs). John Long ( University of
Toronto), Tadao Nakagawa (NTI). Giny Nasseroakht (Texas Instruments), Ted Rappaport
(Virginia Tech). lirdad Sowlati (Gennum). Trudy Stet",ler (Bell Labs). David Su ( Hewlell-
Packard), and Rick Wesel (UCLA). In addition. a number of UCLA including
Farbod Behbahani. Hooman Darabi. John Leete. and Jacob Rael. '"test drove"' various
chapters and provided useful feedback. I am indebted to all of the above for their kind
assislan\:e.
I would also like to thank the staff al Prentice Hall . particularly Russ Hall. Maureen
Diana. and Kerry Riordan for Iheir support.
- Behzad Razal'j
Jilly 1997
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I have been fortunate to benefit from the support of numerous people during the writi ng.
review. and production phases of this book. I would li ke to express my thanks here.
Even after sever-"l rounds of self-editi ng. il is possible that typos or suhtle mistakes
have el uded the author. Sometimes. an that is dear to the author may not be
so to Ihc reader. And. occasionally, Ihe aUlhor may have missed a point or a recent devel-
opment. A deilliled review of the book by others thus becomes necessary. The following
individuals meticulously revi ewed various chapters, discovered my mistakes, and made
valuable suggestions:
Ali Afsahi (Broadcom)
Pietro Andreani (Lund University)
Ashkan Boma (UC Berkeley)
Jonathan Borremans ( IMEC)
Debopriyo Chowdhury (UC Berkeley)
Matteo Conta (Consultant)
Ali Homayoun (UCLA)
Velntina del Lauorre (Consultant)
Jane Gu (University of Rorida)
Peng Han (Bcken)
Pavao Hanumolu (Oregon State University)
Daquan Huang (Texas Instruments)
Sy-Chyuan Hwu (UCLA)
Amin Jahanian (UCI)
Ji thin Janardllan (UCLA)
Shinwon Kang (UC Berkeley)
Iman Khajenasiri
(Sharif University of Technology)
Yanghyo Ki m (UCLA)
Abbas Komijani (Atheros)
Tai-Cheng Lee (National Taiwan University)
Antonio Liscidini (University of Pavia)
Shen- Iuan Li u (National Taiwan University)
Xiaodong Liu ( Lund Univcrsity)
Jian Hua Lu (UCLA)
Howard Luong (Hong Kong University of
Science and Technology)
Elvis Mak (University of Ma\:au)
Rabih Makarcm (Alheros)
Rui Martins (Universit y of Macau)
Andrea Mazzanti (University of Pavia)
Karthik Natarajan
(University of Washington)
Niti n Nidhi (UCLA)
Joung Park (UCLA)
Paul Park (Atheros)
Stefano Pellerano (Intel)
Jafar Savoj (Xilinx)
xxii
Pannoon Seddighrad
(University of Washington)
Alireza Shirvani (Ral ink)
Tirdad Sowlati (Qualcomm)
Franccs<:o Sveho ( Universily of Pavia)
Enrico Temporiti (ST Mi croelectronics)
Federico Veechi (University of Pavia)
Vijay Viswam (Lund University)
A ckl",I!' I I'd g me n I s
Vi dojkovic Vojkan ( IMEC)
Ning Wang (UCLA)
Weifeng Wang (Beken)
Zhi Gong Wang (Sout heast University)
Man:o Zanuso (UCLA)
Yunfcng Zhao (Beken)
Alireza Zolfaghari (Broadeom)
I am thankful for their enthusiastic. organized. and to-the-point reviews.
The book's production was proficiently managed by the staff at Prent ice Hall. including
Bernard GOO<lwin and Julie Nahil. I would like 10 lhank bolh.
As with my other books. my wife. Angel ina. typed the cnt ire second edit ion in Latex
and selHessly Ilcl ped me in this three-alld-a-half-year endeavor. I am gmteful to her.
- fJehzod Rozo,';
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
lIehzad Ra7.a\-j received the BSEE degree from Sharif University of Technology in 19l!5
and MSEE and PhlJEE degrees from Stanford University in 1988 and 1992. respectively.
He was wit h AT&T Bell Labomtories and Hewlett-Packard Laboratories until 1996. Since
1996. he has hccn associate professor and. subsequently, professor of electrical engi-
neering at Universily of California. Los Angeles. Hi s \:urrent resear\:h indudes wireless
tmnsceivers. frequency synthesizers. phase-Iocl.: ing and clock recovery for high-speed data
communications. and data converters.
Professor Razavi was an adjunct professor at Princeton University from 1992 to 1 9 9 ~
and at Stanford University in 1995. He served on the Technical Program Committees of the
Inlernational Solid-Slale Cir\:ui ts Conferen\:e (ISSCC) from 1993 to 2002 and VLSI Cir-
\:uits Symposium from 1998102002. He has also served as guest editor and associate editor
of the IEEE ]011"'01 of Solid-Slate CircIlits. IEEE Trwwlclions on Cirellil.r ond System,'.
and ill/emOlhmol ]vumol '-'f lligh Speed Eleclronics.
Professor Raz3vi received the Beat rice Winner Award for Editorial Excellence at the
1 9 9 ~ ISSCC; the hcSl paper award al the 1 9 9 ~ European Sol id-Slale Circuits Conferen"c;
ll>c hcSl panel award allhe 1995 and 1997 ISSCC; the TRW Innovalive Teachi ng Award in
1997; tl>c OCst paper award at the IEEE Custom Integmted Circuits Conference (CICC) in
]998; and McGraw- Hili First Edition of the Year Award in 2001. He was tile co-reci pient
of both the Jacl.: Ki lby Outstandi ng Student Papcr Award and the Beatrice Winner Award
for Editorial Excellence at the 2001 ISSCC. He received the Lockheed Manin Excellence
in Teaching Award in 2006: the UCLA Fa\:uhy Senale Teaching Award in 2007: and lhe
CICC Best Invited Paper Award in 2009. He was also recognized as one of the top ten
authors in the fifty-year history of ISSCC. He received the IEEE Donald Pederson Award
in SolidState Circuits in 2012.
Professor Razavi is an IEEE Distingui shed Lecturer, a Fellow of IEEE. and the
aulhor of Principles of Data Com'ersiOI! Syslem DI!5;gl! , RF Microeiectronia, First Edi-
lit", (translated to Chinese. Japanese_ and Korean)_ Design of Alw/og CMOS IlIIegroled
Circuit.1 (translated to Chinese. Japanese_ and Korean). Design vf IllIeg raled Cirellils for
XXIII
XXIV About the Author
Optical ConmmnkaliOIlS. and Flmdametllals of Microelearonics (translated to Korean and
Pnrtuguese). and the cditor of Munulilhic Pha.le-Lucked Luo/,.llmd Cluck Reclwery
and Phase- wcking ill High-Performam'e Systems.
INTRODUCTION TO RF AND
WIRELESS TECHNOLOGY
Compare two RF Iransceiwrs designed for cell phones:
"A 1.7V GSM RF TrallSce;'-er IC" /1/ {puhlished in 1997}
CHAPTER
1
"A Single-Chip IO Bant! WCDMAiIl SDPA 4-Band GSMIEDGE SAW-
Less CMOS Reed!'''' Irilh DigRF JG Interface and +90dHm IlP2" /2/
(publishe(1 in 2()()9)
Why is the laner much more complex lhan the former? lJoes the laner have a higher perfor
or only greater fundionality? Which one costs more? Which one consumes a higher
powd! What do all the acronyms GSM. WCDMA, HSDPA. EDGE. SAW. and IlPz mean?
Why do we care?
The field of RF communication has grown rapidly over tile past two decades. reaching
far into our lives and livelihood. Our cell phone;; serve as an encyclopedia. a shopping
terminus, a GPS guide, a weat her monitor. and a thanks 10 thei r wireless
communication devices. We can now measure a patient's brain or heart activity and transmil
the results wi relessly. allowing lhe pati emlo move around umethered. We use RF devices
to lrack merchandise. pets. canle. children. and COnViCIS.
1.1 A WIRELESS WORLD
Wireless communication has become almost as ubiquitous as electricity: our refrigera
tors and ovens may not have a wireless device at this lime. but il is cnvisioned that our
homes will eventually incorporate a wireless network that controls every device and appl i
ance. High-speed wirdess links will allow seamless conneCl ions among our laplOpS. digilal
cameras. camcorders. cell phones. primers. TVs. microwave ovens. etc. Today's WiFi and
Bluetooth conneclions are simple examples of such links.
How did wi reless communication take over the world? A conll uence of foclors has
contributed to this growt h. The principal reason fo r the popularity of wireless
2 Chap. I. IllIrodUC(iOI! 10 RF alld Wireless Technology
communication is lhe ever-decreasi ng cost of electroni cs. Today's cell phones cost about
lhe saine as lOOse a decade ago but tlley offer many more functions and featun:s: many
frequency bands and communication mO<les, WiFi, RluelOOlh. GPS. computi ng. storage,
a digital camer-". and a user-friendly interface. This affordabil ilY finds its roots in intc-
gra/iun. i.e .. how rnucll ftmct ionali ty can be placed on a single chip--or. rather. how few
components are left ofT-chip. The integration. in turn. owes its steady rise \0 ( I ) the scaling
ofVLSI processes, panicularly, CMOS technology. and (2) innovat ions in RF architectures.
(;ircuils, and dev;';es.
Along with Ilighcr integration levels. tile performance of RF eirellits has also improved.
For example. the power eonsll1nption necessary for a givcn fllnct ion has decreased and the
speed of RF circui ts has increased. Figure 1.1 illllstrates some of the trends in RF integrated
circuits (lCs) and technology for the past two decades. The minimum feature size of CMOS
, ..
.c



'00
J
10
=

j




,
J
Vl!ar
.' igu,"" 1.1 Tre"ds ill RF circuits m,d tech,w/og.v.

Sec. 1.2. RF Design Is Challenging J
technology has fallen from 0.5 "m to 40 nm. the transit frequency. ' fro of NMOS devices
has risen from about 12 GHz to several hundred gigahel1z. and tile speed of RF oscillators
has gone from 1. 2 GHl 10 300 GHl. Also shown is lhe number of RF and wireless design
papers presented at the International Solid-State Circuits Conference ( ISSCC) each year.
reveal ing the fast-growi ng activity in this field.
1.2 RF DESIGN IS CHALLENGING
Despile many decades of work on RF and microwave lheory and lwo de"ades of research
on RF ICs. the des ign and implementat ion of RF cirellits and transceivers remain chal-
lenging. This is for three reasons. Fi rst. as shown in Fig. 1.2. RF design draws upon a
multilllde of disci pl ines, requiring a good undemanding of fie Ids that arc seemi ngly irre 1-
evanllo inlegraled cir"u;ls. MOSI of lhese fields have been under sludy for more lhan half
a cenlllry. presenting a massive body of knowledge to a person entcri ng RF IC des ign.
One objcctive of this book is to provide the necessary background from tllese disciplines
without overwhelming the reader.
Second. RF circuils and Iransceivers must deal with numerous lrade-offs. summarized
in the RF design Ilexagon of Fig. 1.3. For 10 lower lhe noise of a fronl-end
amplifier. we mllst consume a greater power or sacrifice linearity. We will encounter these
trade-offs througllollt this book.
Thi rd. the demand for higher performance, lower COSI. and greater funCl ionality con-
tinues 10 present new challenges. The early RF IC design work in the 1990s strove to
inlegrale olle lransceiver- perhaps along wilh lhe digilal baseband processor--on a si ngle
chip. Todays c!fons. on the other hand. aim to accommodate multiple transceivers oper-
ating in different frequency bands for different wireless slandards (e.g., Bluetoot h. Wi Fi.
GPS. etc.). The two papers ment ioned at the beginning of this chapter exempl ify this lrend.
It is inlereSling 10 nOle lhallhe silicon "hip area of early single-Irans<:eiver sySlems was
CommunIcat Ion
MicroWllvl!
Th<o<y
Random
, ...

j
/
Signals
SIgnal
RF Design
Transcei ver
Propagati on

Architl!ctures
Multi ple

\"
IC Design
Access
Wireless
'"
Standards Tools
t. The ' r.nsi ' f"'Gueocy is defined" ,he frequency a' ,,hich ,he small signal curren' gain of a de,i..., fa lls '0
"oilY-
4 Chap. I. III/rodue/junto RF alld Wi reless Technology
Noise _ Power
/
Linearity Frequency
"
/
Supply ___ _
_ Gain
Vollage
Flgu", 1.3 RFtinigllhaago/!,
domi nated by the digital baseband processor, allowing RF and analog designers some lal-
iUl<le in the choice of their circuit and device topologies. In lO<!ay's designs. however. the
multiple transceivers tend to occupy a larger area than the baseband processor. requiring
that RF and analog sect ions be designed with much carc about tllei . area consumption.
For example, while on-d-lip spi,.."l inductors (which have a large roolprinl) were utilized in
abundance in older syStems. they are now used only sparingly.
1.3 THE BIG PICTURE
The objective of an RF transceiver is 10 transmit and receive information. We envision
Ihat ll>c transmiller (TX) somehow processes Ihe vok e or dala signal and applies ll>c result
to the antenna Wig. 1.4(a)1. Similarly. the receiver (RX) senses tl>c signal pi cked up by
the antenna and processes it so as to reconstruct the original voice or data information.
Each black box in Fig. 1.4{a) contains a great many functions. but we can readily make
two observat ions: ( 1) thc TX must drive the antcnna wit h a high power level so that the
Iransmitted signal is Strong enough 10 rcach far distances, and (2) the RX may sense a
small signal (e.g .. when a cell poone is used in the basement of a building) and must li,.,.t
amplify the signal with low noise. We now architect our transceiver as soown in Fig. lA(b).
where thc signal to be transmitted is first applicd to a "modulator" or "upconvertcr ' so that
its ccmer freq uency goes from lcro to. say. j , = 2.4 GHl. The rc.-;ult drivcs the antenna
Ihrough a ""power ampliflcr"" ( PA). On ll>c receiver sidc. ll>c signal is sensed by a ""low-
noise amplifier"" (LNA) and subsequently by a ""downconverter"" or "demodulator"" (also
known as a "detector ').
Thc upconvcrsion and downconversion paths in Fig. IA(b) are drivcn by an oscillator,
which ilself is controlled by a ""frequcncy synlhcsizcr."" Figure I A(c) shows thc overall
Iranscciver.' The system looks deceptively simple, but we will need the next 900 pages to
cover its RF sections. And perhaps another 900 pages to cover the analog-to-digital and
digital -to-analog convcrtcrs.
2. In SOl"" ca", ... modul.!or and!he are one ond!he ""me. In some <a", ... !he modulo-
tiM is performed in the digital domain before upcolwersioo. M",! r=i,'ers demodul ate and de tect the ,ignal
digit,lIy. requiring only a do"'ncon"ener in the analog OOm,in.
References
,
Transmlll.,.. ITX) Re<:elver (RX)
) ) ) 'to--
Voiceo. M "
Do. icL..:
, ,
Low_Noise
(.)
Upconveo1er or ( __ j
Modulator r
17 Amplifier r-------,
t:\ " L. I'--V'::- -j or Voice or Data
-'-'+-'-,_, Demodulator - -
" L. _______ J ' ,
l")
'"
,
i'- Oownconverter or Analog-to-Olgltal
i
V
Demodulator Converler

!


Frequency
Synthesizer

. . _._ . . _. __ . _. -




" V Upconverler or

"-
Modulator ConWrler
(e)
5
Figure 1,4 (Ii Simple "jew of RF comm,,,,iC,,lion. (b) mO'l" ,jew. (f) RF
tmmce,,'e,
REFERENCES
III T. et al .. ""A 2.7_V GSM RF TrunSl,'ei"er Ie ," IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits. \"01. 32.
pp. 2089- 2096,Ik<:. 1997.
121 D. KaClman et aI., "A SingleChip IO-Band WCDMAlHSDI'A 4 Band GSM/EDGE SAW
less C1>10S R",ei"er with DigRF 3G Interface and +9()-dBm IIP2," IEEE J. S"lId-Slare
Cire"iIS. "01. 44, pr. 7 18- 739. March 2009.
[31 M. Sanu, ""MOS Oscillators with Mull i- Ikcadc Tuning Range and Giguhenz Maximum
S(Ifi'd," IEEE J. Solid SUIte Circuits. yol. 23, pp. 474----479, April 1988.
r 41 B. Ra"",' ; et al. . ""A 3-GHz 25-",W CMOS Loop: ' Dig. "f SY"'I,miu", ,," I'U;I
Cire"iIS. pr. I 3 I _ I 32. June 1994.
,
Chap. I. IlIIroduClioll1U RF allii Wireless Technology
151 M. Soyucr c( aI., "A 3 V 4-GH', nMOS Vohagc-Conl,ollc<.J Oscill"", with InlcgMc<.l
Resonator," fEEE J. So/idSuue Cin:uiIS, \'01. 3 L 1'1'. 2042-2045. Dec, 1996.
161 B. Klc\'e1and cl al.. "MolI()lilhic CMOS Distributed Amplifier and Oscillul()f." ISSCC Dig
Ted,_ P<l[las. pp. 70-71. Feb, 199').
171 H. Wang. "A 5O0Hz veo in 0.25' l'm CMOS," ISSCC Oig. Tech. Pa""", "". 372- 373,
Feb. 2001 .
181 L Fran,a-"'I(), R. Bi_'hop, and B. Bloe<:heL "64 GHz and IOJ GHz veo, in 90 nm C)'lOS
Using Oplimum Pumping Mclhod," ISSCC I)ig. Tech. Papers, PI'. 444-445, Feb. 2()()4,
191 E. Scok c( al.. "A 4 10GHz CMOS Push-Push Oscillator wilh an OnChip Patch Antenna"
ISSCC Dig. Tech. P"I,as. PI'. 472-473. Feb. 200s.
1101 R. Rw.avi, "A 300-GHz Fundamcnlal Oscillator in 65nm CMOS Technology," Sym/!()$ilm,
011 VLSI Ci"Cuils Dig. O/Ted,. Pu",m, "". 113- 114. June 2010.
CHAPTER
BASIC CONCEPTS IN
RF DESIGN
2
RF design draws upon many concepts from a varidy of fIelds, induding signals and
systems, electromagnetics and microwave thoory, and communications. Nonctheless. RF
design has developed its own analyt ical mctilods and its own language. For example. while
tm: nonlinear behavior of analog ci rcuits may be characteri zed hy "harmonic distonion:'
that of RF ci rcuits is quantified by very different measures.
Thi s chapter deals wilh gene..-"I concepts lhal pruve essenlial 10 Ihe analysis and
design of RF circuilS, closing Ihe gaps wilh respccllo other fields such as analog design,
microwave theory, and communication systems. The outline is shown below.
Nonli nearIty NoIse Impedance Translormallon
Hannonlc DI.l orIlon Noise Spe<:Irum Series-Paral lel Conversion
Compresalon Device Noise Mal e" ln!! Nel worka
. Inl ermodulation Noise In Circuils S-Parameiers
Dynami c Nonli near Syatems
2.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
2.1.1 Units in RF Design
RF design has iradilionally employed cenain unilS 10 express gai ns and signal levels. It
is hcl pful to review these units at the outset so that we can eomfonably use them in our
subsequent studies.
The voltage gain, V",,';Vj and power gain. po.,jPjn, are expressed in decibels (dB):
(2. 1 )
(2.2)
7