History 164H

1/29/13

Europe 1815-Present

Final Exam

French Revolution Began circa 1780-1789. Ends circa 1815. A political upheaval that completely overturned the monarchy. Why did it happen and what were the consequences? Initially a political movement of protest by the middle class and peasants against the aristocracy, the catholic church (RCC, Roman Catholic Church), and the king. Protest against 1institution of monarchy, king 2- church 3-aristocrats. Lead by middle class intellectuals. Assisted by the peasants, who at some point took over the revolution. The third group of participants (who did not start it, but joined along) were the urban poorunskilled urban workers. [Side point- 19thc Europe= three classes 1-Aristocrats 2-middle class 3- blue collar workers/ agricultural workers they wore sans-culottes aka without breech practically panty hose. They were unskilled. Until 1830 in Europe there was only manufacture (unmechanized production). Post 1830 there began to be factories(blue collar workers)] [ American War of Independence= 1776-1783 French Revolution= 1780/1789-1815 Industrial Revolution=1780-1820] These three events were contemporaneous/occurred simultaneously Industrial Revolution is an economic movement that brought about social change. It can best be defined in the 1780-1820 period. American War of Independence- started with 7 years war. Untoward consequences- an unexpected consequence. May 1789- the French king accepted to hear the complaints about life/economy of the peasants, middle class, aristocracy, and the church. A general meeting of the state in his palace. June 17-27th 1789- middle class withdrew from the meeting (merchants) asking for different procedures to be followed. They went to a court and they decided they constituted the assembly of the nation. They declared themselves to be the assembly of the nation with one man one vote. The king was forced to accept this. At this point the aristocracy, king, and church were on the defensive. July 14th 1789= Bastille day. Paris rose up and rebelled. The san cullotes and women of Paris marched from Paris to the palace grounds and demanded bread. At the same time the prisons, called bastille, inmates rebelled. The san-cullotes (men) freed the prisoners while the women marched to the palace grounds in Versailles. They brought back Marie Antoinette. So bastille day is the symbolic day of the revolution (their 4th of july) Symbolism= ordinary people came into history, partaking in events. Middle class took initiative in july.

August- peasants rebelled and kicked aristocrats out of the chteau and took over their land and the church land. After that The Rights of the Declaration of Man come about.

1/31/13
What brings about revolutions? Revolutions happen because an extraordinary set of events set it off, but are in the making for sometime. Revolutions are violent political events. Where the political and social status quo are disrupted. They usually disrupt the government and its political power over a society. They are triggered by extraordinary set of events or by a sudden event building up on a set of conditions that have emerged. A revolution never occurs out of the blue. The making of a revolution has been building up for a while. While the revolutions are political events they can have repercussions on political, social, cultural, intellectual, and economic conditions of a country. Often the message or consequences of the revolution (or the revolution itself) moves from one country to another. This is uncontrollable by human beings Revolutions are often triggered by one person or a number of people, but control of the revolution is almost never in the hands of the originators of the revolution. Revolutions effect its participants in unpredictable ways. Revolution implies a shift in political dynamics between social groups. Characteristics that caused the French Revolution: -By 1780 there were four big social groups in France Aristocracy: land owners and seigneurs (lords). Politically had a lot of power because the king himself was an aristocrat and wanted to keep them loyal to him. He also believed they were intellectually above the middle class (of course the king was above them). The aristocrats themselves emerged by 1700s. They were a group that tuned their landholdings into farms. The aristocracy believed in working their assets, they embraced their economy. Their land was run by other people, but was a source of profit for them. If they didnt make enough profit they would go to the king and somehow, manage to get a grant. The aristocracy had to be economically pampered by the king (he felt that he needed to, to gain their support). They somewhat overestimated the aristocracy power. Peasants who were not paid for their labor and thus theoretically serfs Middle class- owners of un-mechanized production, bankers, merchants, ship owners, brokers, merchants Unskilled workers in urban cities of France. Urban unskilled work force called sans -culottes they are the future proletariat (in 1830/1850s onward) (aka blue collared workers of mechanized work)

-France had big urban centers. A sea of agricultural land with cities in the middle of it. Big cities mean there are sans-cullotes. Middle class were in small and big cities. The sans-cullotes were a big enough group to influence events. Louis 14th 1660-1714. He created the supermodel of a centralized state where the king buys off the aristocracy in order for the king to be given the power to run the power. The aristocracy wanted to continue to have their own privileges and political power. Transformation 1600s-1700s: aristocracy starts to lose power because middle class emerges with the market. Growth of trade and manufacture all over Europe. This creates changes in the structure of society. This is why the middle class emerged; the economy changed. It changed slowly (took all 1600s 1700s for it to change). The industrial revolution was the apex of the change. The emergence of the market brought about the middle class and disrupted the earlier power of the aristocracy. (Emergence of middle classloss of power to middle classes) Also called the emergence of capitalism or first phase in emergence of capitalism (1580-1780). Mercantile capitalism. [Read the French revolution. Write down -The rights of man-a fundamental document of the French Revolution and in the history of human rights, defining the individual and collective rights of all the estates of the realm as universal. Influenced by the doctrine of "natural right", the rights of man are held to be universal: valid at all times and in every place, pertaining to human nature itself. 1789. Natural rights to property, liberty, and life. Rights only awarded to men. The Declaration also asserted the principles of popular sovereignty, in contrast to the divine right of kings that characterized the French monarchy, and social equality among citizens, "All the citizens, being equal in the eyes of the law, are equally admissible to all public dignities, places, and employments, according to their capacity and without distinction other than that of their virtues and of their talents," eliminating the special rights of the nobility and clergy. -wiki -The Estates general-was the first meeting since 1614 of the French Estates-General, a general assembly representing the French estates of the realm: the clergy (First Estate), the nobles (Second Estate), and the common people (Third Estate). Summoned by King Louis XVI to propose solutions to his government's financial problems, the Estates-General sat for several weeks in May and June 1789 but came to an impasse as the three estates clashed over their respective powers. It was brought to an end when many members of the Third Estate formed themselves into a National Assembly, signalling the outbreak of the French Revolution. wiki

-Who Robespierre was (the reign of terror)- one of the best-known and most influential figures of the French Revolution. As a member of the Estates-General, the Constituent Assembly and the Jacobin Club, he advocated against the death penalty and for the abolition of slavery, while supporting equality of rights, universal suffrage and the establishment of a republic. He opposed war with Austria and the possibility of a coup by La Fayette. As a member of the Committee of Public Safety, he was an important figure during the period of the Revolution commonly known as the Reign of Terror, which ended a few months after his arrest and execution in July 1794. -Who fought whom in the revolutionary war -How and in what way was Napoleon a genius]

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-The third estate was being overtaxed and the king was trying to tax the first estate, the clergy. The First estate=clergy Second Estate=noble men Third Estate= merchants, manufacturers, bankers, serfs/peasants. -Difference between oppression of peasants vs oppression of other middle class? Both had much to protest against the system and the king The peasants are more likely to starve. The lowest groups of the middle class could be facing economic problems- facing challenges in the standards of living. The middle class however, did have food. They werent struggling day to ay like the peasants. The only way the peasants could protest was by rioting. Shifts in classes and groups of people after national assembly. First group hit by the peasants was the church and aristocrats. The peasants through them out of the chteau and took their land. THE PEASANTS RIOTED. The end of futilisim/serfdom. Usually the rioting comes from the struggle about survival or political power/prestige. In the case of peasants it was because of survival. Their violence ended feudalism. The principal source of wealth of the Catholic church was through ownership of land. This is because the church, like the aristocracy, was a medieval institution- owned land because it emerged as a strong institution and collected land. The church was able to populate large areas of Europe by sending out monks (a military religious group) and cultivated lands. They had money to begin with to send out missionaries and monks. They emerged as bing land owners in Europe. The aristocracy was also big land owners in Europe by fighting for the land. Continuity in prestige was based on land All this changed because by the 1700s economy was changing, trading was becoming more important. You no longer needed to have a warrior class to make money. A banker made more money than an aristocrat. Also to fight for wars you needed to be a professional soldier. Both

king and aristocracy were losing power economically because now land was not the only way to make money. Whoever understood how to run their land as a farm, producing goods the market wanted, excelled in making money. Turning land from futile matters into agricultural purposes. In the process this entailed letting some peasants go. The change taking place in the rural economy from making money from land being futile farming. Which group of aristocrats understood the opportunities that existed if they run their estates for agricultural purposes? Aristocrats of England and Holland. British understood the new economy. Ultimately the poorer aristocrats (of france) understood this new economy. They became the gentlemen farmers who paid poorer people to work the land. Producing food to sell to the market is the important new economy. Commercialization of agriculture. Agriculture has always been a basis for any economy. The changes that take place are from: Producing enough food for a market Changing the crops you produce Standardizing the strips in your land Throwing off peasants because you only need a business (some peasants fled and went to towns because they were needed) There was a twin change. Change in both rural areas (rural economy), ending serfdom in villages (estates of lords become businesses), and urban areas, where peasants went to earn a living (second part of economic/social transformation is that their was an increase of need for labor in the towns in factories and coal mines). (change in the countryside and in the towns simultaneously). In order for a change you need producer, who can be few, and consumers, who have to be many. Poor peasants become landless, go to town, and buy everything for themselves and thus become consumers. In France the town economy was very advanced. There was however, a disconnect. Many areas remaining inefficient and feudal economy and some were business/farm like. Feudal Economy- the nobility gets the land and the eldest inherits the land. The lord/lady of the manner- the head of the property. Noblesse oblige- the lord/lady of the manner obliges. They need to look after the serfs, the serfs family who gets ill, resolve family issues, must be gracious, have a good table, give hospitality. The lords had the right to the work of the serfs, but he also had obligations to them. The lord had a number of obligations and did the church. This all being swept aside by 1789. Girandistes: 1789-1791

Montagnards: 1792-1794 Jacobins: 1789-1791 Robespierre- during the reign of terror (1793-1794). Louis XVI was executed in 1793. 17921801= French Revolutionary Wars: France vs Everyone else. Allowing for the execution of the king, the aristocrats fled because their land was being take over by the peasants. Levee en masse= conscription army. France was fighting for survival which led to this army. This was no longer professional soldiers. They were inspired by the revolutions ideas of equality and fraternity. They won victory after victory. Fought for 9 years and in 1801 they made a two yr truce with Britain. Then in 1803-1815 france started fighting again. These were called the Napoleonic wars. The only country that was not overcome by france was England. Every other country they took over or made an ally (forced ally). Domestic issues in France The rights of man: life, liberty, property. Aug 27 1789 Distinguished between active and passive citizens (the Electors of the Assembly were themselves elected by "active" citizens, male citizens whose annual taxes equaled the local wages paid for three days of labor.) 1-All men are equal before the law 2-Government represents the nation, not the king. End of divine monarchy 3-All innocent until proven guilty (no longer giving privilege to the aristocrats) 4-all are liable for taxation, according to capacity (income tax, land tax, license tax) 5- all property is sacred under the law (basis for middle class. Prison people when they steal) 6-Freedom of press 7-Freedom of association (belonging to political party) 8- Free speech 9-Habeus corpus- a citizen cannot be held in jail for more than 48 hours without being indicted. 10-Freedom of religion These are called the bourgeoisie freedom (middle class rights). Also became the basis of liberalism in the 19th c. You can have all these freedoms and have them enacted, but still have monarchy. The monarchy is invariably a constitutional monarchy- the monarch governs through a constitution. A constitution= legal document which sets the rights and responsibilities of the monarch and the people. Fundamental to the constitution is the recognition of the monarchy that they are governing through an election system. Electoral mechanism=basis for finding a way to decide what government represents the people best. Usually a government takes place after an election for a certain amount of time. Usually a government has 2 parts: executive (actually running the country) and the legislature (often in one or two legal bodies : senate/national assembly. Elected and often made up of lawyers). The nation represents

everyone because it is the final and ultimate source of authority. Authority is given to the government from the people to the government. Freedom from serfdomequality of everyone under the law (aristocrats, church, middle class, peasants)fraternity(we are a nation who, together, elects the government). These were fundamental for the French revolution. NOTES BEFORE CLASS Read Napoleon When was he most successful Continental system-1806 Napoleon aimed to cut Britain off from its continental markets. He prohibited trade with Britain in hopes of strangling the British economy. He did so by closing all continental ports to British ships. Confederation of the rhine Nelson-british navy leader led during battle of trfalgar. Defeats- 1807worst defeat was peninsular war. Lost because they didnt know how to fights the apanish guerilla war fair. French men were being captured by the thousands and they could no longer continue to go on. This was the first defeat. Napoleons Spanish ulcer bled france. The destruction of his grand army in the snow-drifts and howling winds of Russia was the beginning of the end. France earned money through this because Britain was forced to buy French products. It however was not such a success because the ritish cost-line is rather large and they have a strong navy. Merchants and smugglers were resourceful too. British continued to find American markets for their goods. Even france needed many of the goods offered by Britain markets. In response to this the british government order in council, in November and December 1807, demanded that trading ships under all flags purchase a license in a British port. (Milan decrees) Napoleon retaliated, threatening to sieze any ship that traded with Britain Wellington- leader of british troops. Came to assist their ally, Spain, during peninsular war against Napoleon Xyz affairs Romanticism Napoleon Victories Napoleon was a Jacobin He planned in 1793 the successful artillery siege on the port of Toulon (held by British Forces) In Paris of Thermidor he helped put down a royalist uprising on October 6 1795 In 1796 he became commander of the Army of Italy In November of 1796 he had spectacular successes against the Austrians and their allies in Italy including at the Battle of Arcole

 In May 1796 he had victory over Austria in the battle of Lodi this opened way to Milan In July 1798 he defeated Egyptian forces in the battle of Pyramids o he set off to Egypt- he wanted to occupy the middle east which was part of the Ottoman empire Napoleon achieved a final victory over the Turks with the annihilation of several more villages and their inhabitants In 1800 Napoleon took over Milan in Austria In October 1805 they defeated the Austrians at Ulm In 1813 he defeated the allies at Dresden Defeats of Napoleon In 1804 in Haiti the French surrendered to the Brits In October 1805 at Cape Trafalgar the British (led by Nelson) had a huge navel defeat over French From 1808- 1813 Napoleon took part in the Peninsular War in Spain In 1812 Napoleon entered Moscow and when he decided to retreat in October it was disastrous In October 1813 he suffered a major defeat at Leipzig Horatio Nelson (1758-1805) Tiny British Admiral Had only one eye, one arm and few teeth He destroyed the French Fleet in August of 1798 in the battle of Nile (Part of Napoleons Defeat) Abbe Emmanuel Sieyes In Paris was plotting to overthrow the Directory In November 1799 Sieyes and Napoleon staged a coup detat He intended to have authoritarian rule

Duke of Wellington (1765- 1852) His name was Arthur Wellesey and he led the British troops He came to help the Spanish and Portuguese fight the French By 1810 France lost this war majorly In 1813 he drove the French back to France and made them fight on French soil for the first time

In June 1815 he faced off against Wellington by Waterloo and lost the final battle

2/7/13
Napoleon The directory was the government before Napoleon changed it to the consulate . 93-94= reign of terror. Culmination of the enlightenment, age of reason (attacking church according to reason). Robespierre was influential in Italy. The republicans (those against monarchy) developed into a strong ideology. Robespierre was the firs to entirely come out against the monarchy. He was not a socialist (no blue collar workers). (He wanted to give a political voice to others. They gave them government works with a wage and stable food prices= economic social policy that were aware of the reality and the problems of every day living that the propertiless had.) 89-94 resonated in Europe through to the first WW. Ideas that started then influenced other countries. (Gerbaldi was the son of the ideas of Robespierre, took republican ideals) -directory was in 1794-1799, when Napoleon took over -First Consul- 1799-1802 (Napoleon) -Then he was established as Consul for life in 1802-1804 -in 1804 he Crowned himself for life- emperor of the French (until 1814) always an ambivalence if it was an empire or not - In 1807 he defeated Russia and proclaimed himself The Great Napoleons highest points Political legacy Napoleonic code Became king of Italy- made himself king over Italy to make the point to the pope (symbolic). Made a point to the Austrians (enemies of the Italians) and to the pope. Signed concord with church in 1801 (Pius VII)- the state is above the church. Military Legacy Confederation of the RhineWar of Austerlitz Halvetic Confederation (Switzerland) 1807 defeat of Russia and all his enemies (never defeated Britain) Battles 1803 After Amiens (1801-1803) 1805-Battle of Trafalgar: Naval defeat (after treaty if Amiens, they took time off for 2 years) at the hands of Nelson (British admiral). Nelson is one of th most inspirational leaders in history Victories

1806- Austerlitz : Defeated Austrians and Russians 1806-07 defeated the Prussian (in Jena) in 1807 he dissolves the holy Roman empire (which was central Germany) In place of that he puts in place the confederation of the Rhine (16 German states) 1807 took the dalmation coast and made it the Illerian Republic (Austrian Croation) French power over Poland 1807 French power over Russia (Russia was a secret ally, Poland was an open ally) Russia, Poland sattelites. Belgium, Italy, Holand, Spain, and Portugal were captured and napoleon put members of his family as kings over those countries -England was helping Spain and Portugal. Austrian German defeat in 1809. Napoleon married arch duchess of Austrian empire -How did he fight so successfully? Napoleon changed the way of warfare. He lived off the land. Him and the army moved very fast, they had the advantage of surprise. No more mercenaries, just citizens with a stronger desire and passion for fighting. Became stylized 2 lines of opposing sides used to fire against each other, but Napoleon would just have surprise attacks. Revolutionized. This all worked until he got to Russia because 1)different weather 2) Russians would scorch earth: they would burn their own lands, thus as the army was coming the French had nothing to eat and then had to retreat. The French horses also had nothing for their horses so harder to retreat and then Russia would attack. For Napoleon to remain a popular empire he had to keep fighting because so much of his grandiose came from his extraordinary fighting. France was bigger in Europe than during the Charlemagne empire. To get at Britain he tried the continental system tried to strangle Britains economy by closing off their ports from continental markets. He declared it twice first in Berlin the in Milan- to proclaim no country can trade with Britain. Cut off British good from all European markets except two neutral powers America and Ottoman empire. They traded through Molta. In 1807 it had become a british base. In 1813 the Germans started winning the Battle of the german nations against the French. 1815 100 days of Napoleon LOOK UP Read for next time Romanticism-emphasizing imagination and emotion in personal development began to emerge as a literary, artistic, and musical movement in the late 18th century. Uprooting the classical style based on Greek and Roman models that characterized aristocratic life and instead express their emotional response to nature. Many romantic writers were individuals of religious faith who rejected Enlightenment rationalism. This also brought about a German nationalism. The

idea of being part of a nation, a community, a culture. (shortly after nationalities would argue for independent states). Romantics defined freedom as the unleashing of the senses and passion of the soul. In the beginning of the movement romantic writers and artists were literary and academic outsiders. Liberalism-During the subsequent period after Napoleon, liberal movements were wellspread. Each nationality, particularly among the middles classes wanted liberty. It was more than an economic and political theory, it was a way of viewing the world. liberals shared a confidence that human progress as inevitable, though gradual. Liberalism reflected middle class confidence and economic aspirations. Liberals wanted laisez faire (the government is bes which governs the least). They emphasized The Rights of Man. They wanted a democracy. concert of Europe (conciliar system)- in 1815, following Napoleons defeat at Waterloo, the congress of Vienna created the concert of Europe. The concert is the international basis of the Restoration of Europe in hopes of preventing further liberal and nationalist insurrection in Europe. To preserve the settlements enacted at Vienna, the five major European powers (Great Britain, Prussia, Austria, Russai, and France) formed a concert of Europe. It was an extension of the congress of Vienna, meant to keep the status quo. concord of Vienna-was almost entirely the work of diplomats representing Austria, Prussia, Britain, andRussia. The goals were threefold 1)redistribute territory 2)to achieve a balance of power that would prevent anyone state from becoming too powerful and potentially aggressive 3)make future revolutionary movements impossible. Romanticism emphasizing imagination and emotion in personal development, began to emerge as a literary, artistic, and musical movement in the late eighteenth century Coleridge and Wordsworth wanted them to express their emotional response to nature instead of court and aristocratic life swooning and fainting came into vogue because they seemed to be honest expressions of emotion Coleridge liked the French Revolution until it got too violent- more conquerors than liberators Many of the early romantic writers were individuals of religious faith who rejected enlightenment rationalism In nationalistic countries, romanticism celebrated the historical authenticity of the cultural traditions and languages of ethnic peoples Romantic writers defined freedom as the unleashing of the senses and passion of the soul o Searched for the one who fulfills himself despite challenges imposed by state/religion/societal convention

o Romantics bared the suffering of their souls Romantics believed music was poetry capable of releasing torrents of emotion in listeners o Beethoven Congress of Vienna, Concerts of Europe Represents old political order which now against the new liberalism Following Napoleons defeat in 1815 at the Battle of Wat erloo, the Congress of Vienna created the Concert of Europe- the international basis of Restoration Europe to prevent further liberal and nationalist insurrections in Europe Concert of Europe was formed by Great Britain, Prussia, Austria, Russia and France o Reps met annually and put down movements that threatened the status quo Liberalism In German and Italian states and Belgium, liberalism was associated with nationalists o Called for independent states based upon ethnicity o Threatened existence of these empires

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Conciliar Movement- 1815-1821: meant to keep the status quo after Napoleon. Ends in 1821 when Greeks revolted. Members= Britain, Prussia, Russia, Austria, and eventually France joined in. France joined in 1818 when they paid off all their debts. They wanted to suppress revolutions, maintain monarchies. Maintain government in office, but a king on the throne= political stability. They were the Major Powers. The few most powerful states. They were politically ridden. Russia was the most conservative power. Both Austria and Russia still had the institution of feudalism. Prussia abolished feudalism in the middle of the Napoleonic wars- to have an inspired, uniform army. Dynasty ruling Prussia was the Hohenzollern (Prussian family) and the Austrian Dynast was the Habsburgs. In 1792 France was on the defensive against Austria, but by the end since France won they had to pay indemnities, or reparations. It was resuscitated in early 1850s because of the Cramean war [side point- Queen Victoria of England, 1837-1901, would have the most relatives throughout Europe. She is originally German. She had a lot of children who then married other countries royalty.] Prussian Kings made promotion in the army relatively meritocratic. The other forces were mostly aristocratic. Most important idea of the Conciliar movement: stop revolutions and release tensions within each other. To ensure that the major powers found a legally acceptable way to stop a revolution from taking place and if one started to suppress it. They wanted to find a way to intervene and restore order, reverse a revolution, place the monarch back on the throne in a

country that a revolution would take place, and have that intervention be internationally legal. Even if it meant (which it would) that a revolution would happen outside one of those 5 countries. They can still send troops to invade the country. A revolution is an internal affair, but they still gave themselves the legal rights. All five considered it (practically god given) their duty to stop the revolutions. Aim: Countries like Italy (South Italy)- was rural and for early 19th century, that meant more poor. (North was already urban and manufacturing and way ahead economically) and one in spain- what country intervened where? LOOK UP (between 1818-1821) Also look up Greek Revolution. Congress of Vienna- 1) Redistribute territory 2) make future revolts impossible 3) restore balance of power. Redrew a map to set boundaries. Austria got a lot of land. Holy alliance- Prussia, Russia, and Austria (three emperors league)-considered themselves holier. Divided up Poland. 1834- Zollverein Union: Customs union between Austrian chancellor, Metternich and France. He did not like revolutions or constitutions. Land is most important source of wealth. He could not get back the Holy Roman Empire. So confederation of the Rhine and was made into 35 states. (The middle class in the confederation wanted constitutional monarchs- confed was starting to be industrial) So Metternich said okay, no trade unions, no political powers. In return you can have customs union. He allowed Prussia to join the Confed, but will not have Austria in it. He thought, politically, the empire could not really control their own lands. Big mistake because by allowing Prussia and the confed to join the were closer together economically. German empire of 1871 is a political expression of an economic union that was already taking place (good for Germany, bad for Austria). Metternichs intention was to bu y off the German middle class. LOOK UP!!!?? Romanticism- encouraged imagination. Conservative movement away from enlightenment rationalism. Very much a reaction to the rationality of the enlightenment. Emphasized imagination and emotion. Very strong in the Germanic world. Glorified simple peasant, no need for education. Germans were trying to find a way to validate their own cultural and linguistic entity without taking a political radical root. They took over the notion of the nation because France says the people have the right to choose who leads. The people have ultimate political power. The German Nation was for cultural reasons (not political). They wanted a unifying link to the Germanic nation. In the enlightenment the individual is very importan t. By the late 18th c we begin to see, why should some members be in one group and others in another. A common element to determine what group you were in was language. 1) language 2) customs 3) emotions 4)common historical past- this is all part of nationalism this is all part of what a person grows up with. The germans were aware they were under different rulers and the idea

of finding a common link was to understand themselves. Romanticism also went well with reaction to Indsutrial revolution. Pretty fields factories. British against industrial revolution, Germans want to evoke nationalism. Conservative in nature. Romantics (like shelly and keats, were not so pro-education because with education you require notions about your rights). For next time Political History Peter Loo Massacre- Late 18th c beginning of 19th c was a very radical time. In Britain demands for political reform were taking place. The people wanted more middle class voters, universal suffrage, lower prices on food, etc. Due to the radicalism going on in that time period the government became much more rigid, actually. It suspended the rights of habeas corpus, made strikes illegal, and enforced laws against trade unions. (Part of the Combination Acts from 17991800). On august 16th 1819 a crowd of men and women gathered near Manchester to demonstrate for the right to form political organizations and to assemble freely. Guards went to arrest the main speaker and in the process killed 11 and wounded 100s. This was a shameful victory over Britains defenseless laboring poor. Industrial revolution: 1800s. Transformation of European economy. It was largely an intensification of forms of production that already existed. An increase in population generated greater consumer demand for manufactured goods, now transported in many places by trains and steamships. German industrialization lagged behind that of Britain and France because 1) municipality of independent states 2) the labyrinth of tolls and customs barriers (pay toll) 3) virtual monopolies held by guilds ober the production and distribution of certain products. Child labor begins because of the factories. Watts dimensions Cotton Gin- A cotton gin is a machine that quickly and easily separates cotton fibers from their seeds, allowing for much greater productivity than manual cotton separation. [2] The fibers are processed into clothing or other cotton goods, and any undamaged seeds may be used to grow more cotton or to produce cottonseed oil and meal. Although simple handheld roller gins have been used since at least 500 AD, [3] the first modern mechanical cotton gin was created by American inventor Eli Whitney in 1793, and patented in 1794. The first Industrial Revolution was largely the intensification of forms of production that already existed. Not until the mid-nineteenth century, when steam power came to be used in many different industries in Western Europe, did industrial manufacturing leave behind traditional forms of production.

Demographic Explosion: Population Growth of 187 mil to 266 mil from 1800 to 1850 (43 % INCREASE) However, disease and Hunger continued to interrupt cycles of population growth: -Cholera (early 1830s - 1890s) -Potato Famine in Ireland (1840s) -Tuberculosis Technological Advancements: -Trains and Steamboats (Northern England in 1820). The railroads development prompted investments particularly from the middle class. British railways were completely financed by Private Investments at this point. -Because of this technological advancement, the production of metal also increased since the transport of said materials was a cheaper using rail transportation. The cost for such railroads are the displacement of people and the destruction of their homes (they were forced to relocate). -Also because of railroads, the sense of being on time was also introduced. 1850s Greewich Time or railway time became the standard in Britain. -SteamShip (1816, 1820s-1830s). Revolutioned travel and transport. -A cotton gin is a machine that quickly and easily separates cotton fibers from their seeds, allowing for much greater productivity than manual cotton separation. Why did the Industrial Revolution Start in England? Because of its Location Separate Spheres and Cult of Domesticity - Where the Man and the woman lived in Separate Spheres. The man was out of the house, working, providing for the family while the Woman was inside the house, taking care of the children and tending to the servants Liberal Revolts in Spain, Portugal, and Italy SPAIN The first trial of the Congress System was in Spain (1814) King Ferdinand VII (ruled 1808-1833) declared that he did not recognize the liberal constitution that had been drawn up by the Cortes (assembly) in 1812. -Simon Bolivar (1783-1830) A Creole Aristocrat raised with European Enlightenment ideals, led an army that liberated Venezuela in 1821.

-In 1821, they were also forced to recognize the independence of Mexico. At this time, Spain only retained their colonies of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines. -With this, the Spanish Kin in Spain itself posed a revolution. Army officers along with merchants and lawyers forced the King to restore the assembly and also recognize Spain as having a liberal constitution. PORTUGAL -Liberal army officers took advantage of the fact that King John VI was still in hiding so they formed their own liberal constitution similar to that of Spains. That year a coup de tat brought back John VI in power as a constitutional monarch. -Civil War happened from 1832 to 1834, between royalists and an alliance of liberals and radicals, and the in 1851, after some forty different governments and another coup de tat, to the establishment of a parliamentary system of government. ITALY -A revolt also broke out in Italy. Army officers and merchants revolted against the rule of King Ferdinand I. Carbonari secret society. This resulted in a signed agreement between Russia, Prussia, and Austria saying that as under the principles of the Holy Alliance, they had the right to intervene militarily in any country in which political changes were brought about by the revolution. The Greek Revolution in 1821 against the Ottoman Turks shattered the Congress System. They were torn between supporting the Greek Rebels or supporting the Turks. Prince Alexander Ypsilantis founded a secret organization in 1814 The Society of Friends. 1832- Greek Independence The combination Acts (1799-1800) made strikes illegal August 16,1819 A group of some 60,000 people gathered near Manchester to demonstrate for the right for political organizations and to assemble freely. Soldiers gunned down the protesters, killing eleven and wounding hundreds. This incident was called the Peterloo Massacre, a play on the victory over Napoleon in Waterloo.

2/19/13

RevoltsItalys revolt was beyond liberal. Spains was liberal. In 19th century (after French revolution) you have the center, the right, and the left. These three groups emerge as political parties The center is liberal. The middle class forms the center. The liberals, or center, want laissez faire. They wanted government by elections. They wanted a parliamentary political system (representative government through an electoral system based on property or universal male suffrage and in the 20th century, only, based on universal suffrage). They want equality before the law. They wanted freedoms- civil liberties. Big on education. The French middle class wanted the church under the gvt. The Germans wanted to put the church on the side (Kulture Kampf) because they needed to accept begin german before being religious or they would have 30years war all over again.. Protestant countries allowed church to be strong, but too many churches were strong. The right (aristocrats) is conservative, want feudal system (land wealth. Land is source of wealth. Continuation of serfdom. Blue blooded aristocracy continuing). The right is for the continuity of the past. They wanted a continuation of the monarchy. They also wanted the Church. The left is the complete opposite of the right. They want a REPUBLIC. The left is the radicals. Reflected the enlightenment-wanted legal equality. No feudal system, no serfdom, no aristocrats. No laissez fair. No church. Civil liberties. Education-somewhat. Also called socialism. Revolts- Nationalism (self determination-being ruled by your own ethnic group) runs through all three (Spain, Italy, and Portugal) Italian were not liberal, they were left. They wanted a republic. The king of Naples was very corrupt, they wanted him out. Southern Italy had a very big socioeconomic divide and there was a strong republic movement. The Italians also viewed the pope as an oppressive figure. The Spanish also had a nationalist element because the monarch was French. The Spanish wanted to be ruled by a constitutional government as well as a Spanish royal family. Therefore, they were distinguishing between French rule or Spanish rule. Nationalism=self determination. When it refers to a group of people it is a desire to be ruled by your own ethnic group Greek Revolt- Against Ottoman Turks. They wanted to be ruled by Greeks. As merchants they left the ottoman empire. (merchant community is always mobile- usually have other languages and family contacts in other regions. Particularly ottomans, Armenians, Jews). The Greek merchants saw the many ideas of how things should be run and they were well read so they wanted to be led by a constitutional government and by someone of their own linguistic group.

The other two revolts were put down, but Greeces was more complex. Austria and Russia were in favor of the revolt. They were opposed to Islam. Russia and Austria were also in favor because they wanted to eventually gain land. The Eastern Question: The desire of some major powers to take land from the Ottoman Empire, hence there foreign policy objective was to weaken the Sultan at all possible opportunities. These opportunities would be presented by the subject ethnic groups within the empire who would rise for nationalist purposes for self determination-they want their own ethnic ruler. Therefore, Austria and Russia because they were geographically near the empire and already gained some land prior(18 th c)- they would back every single nationalist revolt by the subject people of the empire in the 19th c. Britain and France backed the Ottomans because- they did not want Austria and Russia to get stronger- so back the enemy of my enemy. Secondly, the British and French upper class, aristocracy, had grown up in their schools reading ancient Greek and Latin texts. The Greek culture became part of their culture. Therefore, although Britain and France did not want to get involve they relented to the aristocrats in helping the Greeks. They believed the Greek deserved their own state. Both France and Britain were maritime powers too (marine)- they were strong in trade and had commerce with Ottoman Empire. So they were in favor of maintaining the Empire because it was a good market for them. But culture in the end overruled. Normally commercial interest meant they would not back the Greeks. (France is landed and maritime, Britain is basically maritime)(At first they remained kind of neutral). When you start helping a revolt in the 19thc ottoman empire that meant sending supplies, and if needed invading the ottoman empire. Essentially, by the end, all four helped the Greeks. On the basis of religion they gain the right to invade the empire since they are right next door to it. Austria and Russia are landed powers-they want more land. Prussia wanted to stay out of it- it is too far and is not yet interested in it (until 1892-1893). They want to unify all the German people, outside Austria, under them. (They had it economically, but that is not enough). The Germans wanted to become a German nation instead of million independent states. The Eastern Question continues until the first WW. Prussia and the Confederation of the Rhine were neutral. The Greek revolt ended the Conciliar system and began the Eastern Question . It also brought Britain and france closer- two constitutional monarchies with developed economies and active interest in markets abroad (First time then allied). Russia and Austria-very arbitrary extreme monarchies, tempered by inefficiency in Russia and incompetence in Austria. Also both Austria and Russia will have less developed economies and less active markets abroad. Foreign policy of Britain and France= economic imperialism- seeking markets abroad and investing in those markets. Invest to build a harbors and trading is simply trading. In both aspects you gain money. France was doing this and Britain in Ottoman empire. Britain and America in Latin America.

Liberalism Utopian socialism Inventions of Industrial revolution 1832 reform act the totality of the changes ineconomic and social organization that began about 1760 in Englan d and later in other countries, characterized chiefly by the replacementof hand tools with powerdriven machines, as the power loom andthe steam engine, and by the concentration of industry in largeestablishments.

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Industrial Revolution brings about mechanized working. Form of production was changed. Improvement of steamboats and trains helped and was part of the revolution. Threshing machine-put in farms. Form of mechanization replacing tools. Replaced workers, man power (flailers), in a specific task in farms. This made threshing more standardized, of higher quality, more efficient, and more cost effective. Therefore, it allowed higher productivity and hence more profit from the farm. It intensified production and makes it cheaper and more likely to make profit. They sustained a larger population. You cant have an industrial revolution, mechanized production which Is still rudimentary, without increased productivity in the villages. Demographic growth more consumersmore producers (products). More food produces a healthier population an causes demographic growth. The way production is organized means or includes the taking over of the farm by the landowner and making the ex-serfs into day laborers or seasonal laborers. The new workers need to buy everything to survive, they no longer have everything given to them by their lord. People in the countryside become workers and now come to the market to get a wage and buy what they need daily. Organization of is no longer on custom protection security or privilege, but selling your labor for a wage and entering the market with this wage in order to survive. Now the landowner is an employer not a lord. (The enclosure system) began in England. Also increase food production, not just for your town, but surrounding towns- chance to sell extra food produced. Self subsistence farming-produce on farms used only for the family vs farms produce food to sell= commercialization-producing crops for the markets. Money slowly becomes more necessary to carry out any activity. The importance of money and the market (Economic activity) begins. Powerboats or power weaving One invention led to others. Interchangeable parts began.

Steam engine- no longer need to burn huge amounts of wood to run a machine, nor the power of water. So the source of steam engine was paramount, fundamental. Steam engines also allowed the industrial revolution to be moved to the towns because not workshops could be established in growing towns because steam engines allowed the looms (machinery) to work. Industrial revolution was not only an acceleration in economic growth, but an acceleration of economic growth through technological inventions and resulting in an economic and social transformation. Industrial revolution resulted in self sustained economic growth (economy has within it what it takes to continue) by means of continuous technological inventions and demographic growth making possible higher levels of production (greater amounts of goods produced). Following the industrial revolution we try to diminish the natural, the inherent, fluctuations of any economy. The fluctuations occur because you have imbalance between level of production and consumption. The most dips occur because of the imbalance and it takes a while to fix. Blue color workers arise. Also urbanization (growth of towns) because of increase social mobility and transportation. Britain: 1780-1820 France1790-1830 (later because of its wars) Belgium and Netherland 1840s(concluded) Prussia 1850s (concluded) After the 30s it was hard for other countries to catch up. Three sectors influenced: 1) agriculture- mechanization of production and crop rotation (they discovered greater efficiency in the use of land by one year using the land for wheat and the next for animal food) it gave nutrients to the land and was better use of the land so it increased productivity. Enclosures (making serfs to agricultural laborers or tenants) 2) textiles- going from buying cotton to producing their own cotton, cloth, fabric. 3)production of iron Guildscotton industryworkshopsfactories

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Why did the industrial revolution begin in Britain first? What were some social effects of the revolution? And How did the political system react to the social effects? Importance in understanding the industrial revolution is 1)having in mind the technological inventions that took place (mechanization of production) 2)to understand the economic activities of cultivating the land and making cloth already existed- because of political and economic changes taking place production changed. Textile:

Commercialization of agriculture shows a whole new form of agriculture-not for self sufficiency so its not a microcosm, but its connected to economy and a market. No more self sufficiency. Economic system is growing, drawing participants. Revolution is to bring about and is a result of the growth of the market in economic activity. It is both a symptom and a cause. Another fundamental idea is that the economic activities are no longer territorially isolated, but interconnected through the market. No longer isolated territorially. This is the march of the market, connecting territories through exchange of economic activity through money. The ultimate unification of territories (and the whole world) through the market, is globalization, which still has not happened fully until about 1914. Underlying change in manufacture that made the inventions so desirable was demand due to demographic growth for more cheap cotton or woolen fabric, cloth. Go to the market for food and cloth. They could not get the cloth cheaply enough from the guilds because they primarily aimed to sell for higher markets (linen, silk) for merchants wives, captains of ships- for well heeled middle class. Production was regulated- couldnt find goods and it was to expensive. So the economy wanted a putting-out system, a cotton industry. This industry was homes in the rural areas of agricultural workers were given raw wool or raw cotton to spin into thread and they put out a lot of rolls of thread. Then other households were given the thread and wove it into pieces of thread to be given out. So putting-out is making a product, giving it to the person who gave it to you and youd be paid for your work. So raw wool or cotton spun to thread put out thread and get paid for labor thread put into fabric, get paid give it out. This happened in small towns near villages and in homes of peasants. So specialization of labor-some households spin and others weave. So manufacture of cloth is taken out of guilds by individuals for specialization of labor. At the same time the person bringing the raw material then buys the product (fabric)and sells it in a market. The organizer was the typical entrepreneur or the typical man of the revolution (aka harbinger of industrial revolution). The entrepreneur has two elements: trading (merchant) and a manufacturer (because he buys wool and organizes its production into cloth) . He has to decide what price is profitable and where to go and sell it. His workers have specialization of labor, but he is the opposite. The individual does not belong to any economic association he is completely independent, takes a risk and a profit. He has to make all the decisions in the process. There is always a market for it because he adjusts prices according to consumers. Guilds become smaller and smaller because the up-market is limited. Production is outside a regulated situation. The only regulation is market demand. The price reflects quality which is set in the market (in comparison to the other fabrics)

There is risk for the entrepreneur because of unknown things and because of competition. However there are also profits to be made. This begins in Britain. 1733 Kays flying shuttle dealt with the weavers homes near streams- made the way for automatic machine looms- allowed a single weaver to weave much wider fabrics 1765 Hargreaves spinning jenny (spinners)-spinners in homes a multi spool spinning frame. Allowed for faster production. since the weaving came first there was a hiatus that was problematic because spinning happens first in the process then weaving so they werent spinning fast enough for the weavers. The putting -out system was looking for ways to speed up production because there was demand for the finished product-cloth. 1787 Cartwrights power loom (weavers)-workshops and towns. As machines grew they still stayed in rural area because they needed to be near streams to work the machines. They needed an invention that was more efficient for the production of cloth. Watts steam engine 1769, but not used until a little later -made a cylinder under the coal (heat) and the hot water became steam and another cylinder would channel the steam away from the heated part of the steam and would become water again. Then it went back to the first cylinder and it was recycled. Saving a lot of water. Allowed production to leave rural areas and enter workshops in towns. It would not have been possible without the invention of creating heat from coal. Coal alone is toxic. There is thus the invention of charcoal. The fire produced from wood doesnt create strong enough heat and is not cost effective because you need a lot of trees constantly. Therefore, you needed a new way of producing energy through heat. They found how to purify coal by making if from a dark lump into a grayish beige powder called coke- taking out all the toxin. This was fundamental for the steam engine to be created and start workshops. Allowed places with coal mines to be ahead of the game in the revolution, like Britain. Iron industry: The making of iron. Steel with intense heat, produced by coal/coke. Coal/coke makes iron warm and malleable and allows you to use it well. It also makes the iron stronger when it cools off, making iron into steel. Invention of coke allowd everything to evolve. Railroads show the most complex phase of the revolution. It needs 1) banks to finance itconcentration of capitol 2)advanced technology and 3)good reserves of iron/coal nearby 4)needed investors therefore, leading to the establishment of joint-stock companies (public sharing- through their banks they float shares and there is no fraud)(stock exchange). Private bankersbanks. What made England the first place?

1)Britain had continuous population growth. Population growth leads to sustained economic growth 2)It was the biggest free trade area in Europe, it did not have internal tolls from area to area. Goods moved within the country freely and easily. 3)Britain had large deposits of coal and iron ore 4)It had a stable political system (no revolutions like France) 5)had no especially heavy taxation and the aristocracy also paid taxes. (because Britains foreign policy was almost always based on economic interest acquiring more markets by sea. They wage war for markets abroad) 6)had an advanced market to sell their goods in their colonies in N. America 7)they had regulated the governments public debt and borrowed at low interest. Most countries had big public debts. They paid their debts as a government religiously, thus allowing them to borrow at low interest rates in the continental markets. This allowed low taxation on the people. 8)they had low interest rates within the economy for investors. Established a 7% interest rate while other countries had rates like 12 or 25% 9) it had substantial amounts of capital accumulation from ongoing profits. 10) it had a sophisticated banking system of small bankers. 11)they established the bank of England(a central bank) 12)most advanced relations of production in agriculture (most productive with its agriculture). Most agricultural workers in its rural sector-working for a wage. Agriculture was commercialized. READ FOR NEXT CLASS PROBLEMS OF URBANIZATION ORGINZATION EDWIN CHADWICK FACTORY ACT COAL MINES ACT 2/28/13-GET NOTES!!!!!! Unhealthy public life due to industrial revolution: Public Health act- 1848, Edwin Chadwick. Chadwick wanted to make the new urban system more livable. He was part of a movement. Average life span dropped to 32 because of the poor living conditions. The poor laws: inspection of workhouses/public houses/poor houses- separate for genders, for the poor. There was a lot of dampness in the houses. Inspectors inspected these houses and factories and became aware of the negative effects of dampness on health. Enforced laws of no more begging in the streets because the weather conditions there are not good to encourage

people to go to the houses. The poor houses were going to be awful so people would be motivated to go work. Secondly, there was discipline in order to motivate them since they were lazy. Thirdly, men and women were divided. Aided by Anglican aristocratic males. Anglicans are protestants and non-conformists are protestants too. Within Protestantism you have a lot of churches so different denominations. Anglicans Lutherans Non-conformists didnt conform to the Anglican version of the bible. King Arthur translated the bible into English once more. (all pointless) Nonconformists are manufacturers. The working class rejects Marxism because Marx rejects religion. The British working class will never be Marxist, or revolutionary, because protestant church is most important. They will, however, be radical and press for improved standards of living. Poor laws took place: the movement of the countryside to the towns was possible because exserfs were forced off the lands and the towns had more work opportunities. There was enough work in the towns to absorb the excess workers. They would go to the village because the lord could no longer give them what they needed. (Those places that couldnt absorb all the ex serfs had bandits- ex serfs who moved to the mountain side and were robbers). Even in England there was not continuous work in the towns early on. There was a new phenomenon of impoverished males and females wondering about the villages looking for work. The economy was growing fast but not fast enough to absorb everyone. Being employed was unpredictable for unskilled workers and wage was minimal. Prostitution emerged to a larger extent in this time. People would work all week 10-12 hours a day so no energy to go to church. They also drink a lot- drink of choice: gin. Some factories were humane and realized the advantages to giving privileges to their workers, but very few were like this. People believed that the poor were poor and unhealthy because of their laziness. Malthus said we are reproducing too fast. He said if you give better conditions to the workers theyll have better lives and reproduce betterPoor laws took place because by the 1830s, people were effecting politicians saying we need to do something about the poor. It was a social problem of law and order. They wanted the gvt to take them off the street and give them somewhere to live until they found work. They could give money to women and children. If a family had no means of subsistence , they would give money to women and children. They need to take money out of investments to do this which is unhealthy. If you help unemployed they remain unemployed so dont really give out money. Increased taxes to create reliefs for the poor. Government post Revolution

Parliament passed these laws. In the house of commons discussions take place. All its members are aristocrats. Every aristocratic family had one head that would take the land of the family and the title the other children would go to the church, the army, marry well, or go to India as an administrator. The laws ensured the numbers didnt increase or decrease. The same numbers were always there. More aristocrats at ease and willing to make changes in the political and social life of the country (with a new post industrial revolution society that had emerged. The urban life. Having poor, and prostitution)- called Whigs. They were the heads of the glorious revolution who took over after Cromwell died. They made peace and ended divine monarchy, but kept a lot of power for themselves. (similar to the directory that took over after Robespierre) in England, those aristocrats who accepted that divine monarchy would no longer be around and they could influence the political world allied with Whigs and pushed out Cromwells son. Monarchy that rules with house of lords and commons. Toris- the other political group. Usually professors or writers. House of commons functioned through clubs. When house of commons or lords was in session they had to travel to a certain part of London(they were not paid, you served the country) Heads of factories could not be part of the houses because they had to manage their factories The Good and the Great- the toris still thought the industrial revolution bad, the others were at ease with change. The house established a commission of inquiry- discussed things behind closed doors. The G and the G would be drawn from retired intellectuals who came from both political groups and they would be above politics and therefore they would be more objective. They also paid younger people to collect the information who themselves had secretaries. Men like chadwick would man the committee in terms of the people who would collect the information, so some was collected from the p.o.v of whigs and some from radicals. This changed the way the house of commons understanding what was happening. They understood from statistics collected what was going on with the poor. Every time they passed a law they established an inspector. Limited child labor for men and women. Mines act, factory reforms. Each party accepted the laws passed by the other part- two party consensus system LOOK UP 1832 Great reform act/2nd reform act of 1867 CHARTISM UTILITARIANS 3/5/13 Reform Act of 1832- 1 out of 5 people can now vote. Increases the size of the electorate or increasing the number of people who can vote. Based on their wealth they were able to vote for people to go into parliament. The north had been underrepresented because the

parliaments electoral districts had not changed since the middle ages. The British south was overrepresented. Throughout the 1700s population was growing quickly in the North and shifting the dynamics of the country. Borough, cities or towns. Rural area-county. Boroughs are small market towns next to rural areas. A market town at the time was a small market with a grocery store and postal station. Noble, aristocratic families were sharing representation of the house of commons amongst themselves. Not enough seat for every aristocratic family so some negotiations occurred. Some families represented counties (where aristocracy lived). Rotten boroughs=had no people. Even some rotten boroughs had seats in the parliament. After 1832 the aristocratic families who had dominance still remained in power. System that represented power of aristocracy. This was in the process of changing and began with allowing more males to vote. Whigs put pressure on the monarch to pass it. Unlike the rest of Europe the British aristocracy could be divided within itself (amiably so), since 1685, that wants or is willing to change. British model was that part of the aristocracy was taking initiative to share power. As opposed to France who was not willing to share power. Result in France working class would take to the barricades ( sandbag roads and put men with guns in urban areas to stop police and people to walk through.) Austria and Russia- middle class to be small, working class to be smaller, so state wouldnt have to hear from them and that caused a revolution(individual, radical young men who would assassin the political establishment to bring about change). Within ten years more people, about 1 in 5, got naturally into the voting system. What helped them was that the economy grew so more people got into the electoral registers. People gained wealth so they were able to vote. Permanent residence and money meant more voters. Chartism- 1838-1848 Radical urban working class movement in Britain for political reform. They wanted 6 basic reforms to make the system more democratic 1)every man over 21 could vote- universal male sufferage-1918 2)secret ballot-1872 achieved 3)no property qualification for members of parliament 4)constituencies or electoral districts of equal size 5)annual elections for parliament 6)payment for parliament (house of commons really) so the poor can also participate when did each of these demands get met? Which was never met? Annual elections of parliament. Enforces less parties in government allows for stability- but both get lost. Frequent demonstrations

Most radical movement of british working class. Over period of ten years. Peaceful protestors Active Protestantism- Gd will help them. He will help them through protests. Also radical protests were tainted by atheism. Devou protestants could not follow the French road. Prudant Blank Marx 3/8/13 Socialism opposed liberalism from the left of the political spectrum and completely rejected conservatism(and the monarchy). It accepted the Industrial revolution, but saw the new economic system as chaotic, exploitative, and increasingly inequitable.( In England conservatives were constitutional monarchists, willing to work with changes. Elsewhere, monarchy was unwilling to change and wanted an absolute monarchy with the smallest constitution possible.) They believed in the enlightenment. They believed in reason, science, inventions, and progress. Both socialists and liberals accepted the previously stated ideas. If you make a rational argument it will be understood and everything except religion can be explained. Reasoning is a necessary tool. As a society and as individuals we are bound to improve with time. -Fourier: French Socialists created idea of community that he thought would help-phalanx communities. Came up with 810 personalities that existed in the world and he thought you should put men and women of all personalities in these communities. Wanted this to be a utopian society- failed and nobody joined him. Utopians want harmony in the community, improved living conditions. Utopians were the first critics of the new post industrial revolution society that emerged. They wanted social transformations like villages in enclosed land, urban cities to have more sans-coulloutes. The visual aspects of post industrial revolution in Western Europe were striking because the cities were already growing. They were slumps Utopians are the British continental equivalent as the French romantic poets. British poets were mostly aristocratic. French utopians were mostly intellectuals. Neither group was industrialists. Their primary concern was pain for the others. Genuine concern about the plight of the new urban population. French utopians were more inclined to rationality because they were closer to the enlightenment. Utopians criticized the liberals who eulogized (celebrate) science and the productivity and laissez faire. Liberals believe that the market will sort everything out and unemployed starving people will be addressed by the market. Primary concern was that they felt pain for others. More inclined too rationality because closer to the enlightenment. Social upheaval necessary for new economy and social distress was necessary.

Thought reason can help organize a society more rationally. Reason and science should not only be implemented in textile industry , but in society as well. Try to construct buildings to improve social problems of great inequality. Utopians were the first critics of liberals and tended to believe in persuasion . You can talk government into changing society by showing them society cannot, should not be allowed to grow by developing wealth for some and stock for others. One group believes in persuasion and the other in creating a community to show what would be possible (persuade by example rather than a reasonable argument). Socialists did not believe in violence or revolution so they were the earliest critics of liberalism and thought, if only they explain how bad the system is, others will agree. Harmony is an important concept because one of the things coming out of the industrial revolution was discord. So what also brought about the 1832 reform act was tremendous demonstrations. Lack of harmony, injustice, lack of equality, poverty for some vs wealth for others, this is everything that utopians wanted to change In Britain they tried to discuss this in the house of commons and then act on it. They divided social problems and tried to implement reason. They tried to be as cost effective as possible. The utopians wanted much more change. The land of milk and honey- a perfect society. Criticism of growing inequality of the new capitalists system, which was run by the liberals. Utopians were socialists, but not revolutionary. Next Phase of socialist work. How the middle class reacts, outside Britain. Louis Blanc 1811-1842 (after Fourrier) Contemporary of Benthem and Adam Smith. Wanted to improve the lot of the workers by giving them universal suffrage as to influence government.(reform act of 1832 didnt give to the workers). Also believed in scientists. Said state should garuntee the right to work- decent wage and the responsibility of the state to provide work when necessary! (Public works Programgovernment to employ). State should give money/loan/credit to individuals to share in the owning of the business and then it would eliminate the middleman in business (to establish produced associations). Workshops would serve as a reorganization of society along cooperative lines. He believed if the state helps workers create their own factories they would create competition for labor force. The fewer the workers, the more the employers need to pay better wages. Establishing cooperatives allows workers to share in the profits, and diminish availability of workers so the ones who werent in co-ops would have a better opportunity for them to get hired with better wages. Industrialists will be forced to become less exploited. The state should employ people in public works to eliminate temporary unemployment.

Trade unions and improvement of economywas a result even though a lot of what he did failed. Blanc was more successful in putting them into work. Augustus Blanqui- 1805-1881 French socialists advocated blancism. He was notable for the revolutionary theory of blanquism. (socialist and first revolutionary) Wanted socialism to be organized by secret conspirators who would instigate a violent revolution Essence of blanquism- conspiracy, small group, secrecy- he was a professional assassinator. Believed in selective assassination. Was the best successor of Robespierre. The system wont respond neither to the selective economic reforms or plans similar to what blanc tried to say nor persuasion- neither would work. Other tried that and it didnt work! He was active primarily past 1848 when he saw the failures of others. 48-49 everywhere else there is revolution after revolution with workers taking the street with liberals who take over temporarily and then liberals make alliances with monarchists and let down workers who were invariably shot at. Leads the way for Marx. 3/12/13 Karl Marx 1818-1883: Philosopher, economist, and sociologist. Wrote communist manifesto Developed Marxism with Frederick Engels (he also financed marx) (Frederick lived from 18201895) Combo for Britain France and German Marxism: Emphasized materialism and class struggle. He defined class as a definite inevitable, inescapable, ongoing struggle, between the proletariat and the employer/industrialist/capitalist. Capitalists owned mean of productions proletariats own their labor. Conflict of interest and lifestyle and inevitable and increasing struggle between the two groups. If theres no private ownership of the means of production you then have common ownership, hence there is harmony between people. With lack of ownership, there is only one group of people, not two conflicting classes. Profit will not be the motivational force for production. Profit will go to some people who own the means of production and nothing to the proletariat, usually. Profit mobilizes production on an antagonistic manor or basis. The capitalists mobilize themselves for profit and the proletariat

works for survival. Society represents the class of owners- capitalists. Hence, ensures the continuity of the antagonistic system, which wipes out all the lofty ideals of the freedom to decide what work a person should do. A parliamentary system that gives more power to more people gives noting to the proletariat. Very harsh uncompromising critic of liberalism and conservatism. He considered capitalism the dictatorship of the bourgeoisie. --He wanted a large scale change, he wanted people to believe in him Dictatorship of capitalists should be replaced by dictatorship of proletariat- proletariat should control the means of production, not own it! The most oppressed are more likely to be just. Marx said history is divided into two periods: Ancient period= Asiatic despotism (ex: mesoptamia) where there are two classes- slave owners vs slaves. Slaves owned nothing, not even their lives. Class division based on material ism= ones class affiliation is based one ones economic interest, ones socioeconomic status. Agriculture based and slaves own nothing. Then society moved to the medieval period= feudal economy and society. Two classes: lords vs serfs (who own their lives) Serfs need to stay where they are born and do what the lord wants. These types of peopled , example the ruled over ones, wanted to unite ad set themselves free but didnt have the help of Marx. In Marxists, there was a distinct element and belief in efficiency and organization which leads to more complex organization which forms a new society with new economic basis. People are driven to improve production and productivity and availability of resources. Therefore, he saw the medieval period as more advanced, socioeconomically, than the ancient period- but still antagonistic. Positive linear development of production becoming more efficient and organization of society around production becoming more efficient. Capitalism is the most efficient, but most conflicting. The capitalist period has begun- capitalists (middle class) vs laborers/proletariats. Through the communist party you will have dictatorship of proletariat and violent conflict to take over governents and create socialismcommunism. In 1848 they thought capitalism was coming to an end because there were uprisings everywhere except Russia and Britain. Marx was the child of the enlightenment- he completely and fully believed in the notion of progress. That means change, we embrace change. We believe in our ability to change and societys ability to organize itself better. Communist manifesto claimed: All history has been that of class conflict

History is a dialectical process, a process that has change within it- thi change is brought about through a desire of production The current struggle (1843) is driven by the bourgeoisie being overdriven by profit and being unable to keep control of the situation This revolution, if lead by the communist party, will give the conflict a lack meaning (no more classes). Communist party leads to dictatorship of proletariat Demanded abolition of private property He called on the workers of the world to unite and throw off their capitalist oppressors. Religion is the downfall of the poor. He was completely atheist. Hagel said everything in life is a mixture of it and its opposite bad vs good love vs hate. Every idea has two sides to it Liberalism: Sharing political power and have state responsible for economic needs. Nationalism: Byproduct of the French revolution because seen at the time as a natural intellectual result of who should have the vote. Intellectual results of the need to explain who would have the right to vote led to the idea of a nation. Theyll become candidates to representing an electoral body Nationally inspired army Capitalism was a symptom and cause of the industrial revolution. Has both social and economic behavior. Encourages individualism and relies on exchange of good through trades. Encourages change and allows for change. Value theory- labor creates ongoing value for you which is never reflected in the wages. Critique of the capitalist system- was the value theory- the value of the labor is not reflected in the money you make.

Midterm Review

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How do the Industrial Revolution and French Revolution compare? Economic change usually predates a political change. French revolution- so poor they couldnt survive so started o revolt. Industrial-Frenchs lack of money caused industrial to begin. French ended serfdom, changed the economic system. economy became more efficient through it. In France and Britain, there was population growth in middle class (this leads to economic development) so more people wanted more goods and the merchants werent sufficient enough to provide. Transforms society because brought forth the middle class, and changed economy- Industrial revolution. Industrial happened over a period of time, not over night- so it wasnt extremely obvious for the people taking part Technology/inventions/agriculture were changing the way economy was being organized Socially, more merchants and manufacturers were coming about, thus changing social terms- a bigger middle class. Which led to nationalism. Adam Smith understood these changes on the social level. On the political level Robespierre understood what was going on. Inventors and bankers who backed them, and others who organized production, understood the change that was taking place economically. On the political level however, the middle class was at a stand still in both class because they didnt have enough representation according to their economic growth.-economic change predates political change- at an economic standstill and then needs political rights! In France the middle class realized their lack of representation in may 1789, and then in June the Tennis court occurred. In British case- 1828-1832 The Parliamentary Reform Movement, passed by Prime Minister Earl Grey. Passed the great reform bill. They both wanted to be able to vote people into parliament. French got it through a complete revolution (in Jacobin period the middle class ruled, after 1791-1794 it was in the hands of lower middle class and radical individuals who wanted propertiless to have a share in voting as well) by 1789-1815 the French middle class got rights- and the state had to accept their economic interests. Cromwell also represented lower middle class (Leaveners) and radicals. The restoration of the king brought back the monarchy and in 1832 a good section of middle class had political rights/rights to vote. 1640-1660 a small part of the middle class got rights, but by 1689 the middle class got the right to b represented in house of commons. 1832-the right to vote. So 1689 brings about the industrial revolution more quickly.

Economic nature of 1689, end of glorious revolution, and then in 1832- these two brought about the industrial revolution in Britain quicker. Took place where the ruling class was not situated. S.E was interested in going to the army, ruling, going to war for profit. Middle class was in the North of England busy economically increasing and the state kept low taxes, political stability, stable currency- this allowed continuous growth for middle class and allowed the middle class to do their thing. Nationalism goes back to the need to have a nation to decide who gives the power to the government- so French revolution validates the nation. Nationalism therefore starts nationalism and liberalism. Desire for voting, free press, free religion, sanctity of property. The legacy: the ideas crystalized with the French revolution such as the freedoms (liberalism). Liberalism was demanded by French revolution- middle class demanded rights in the government through a vote to take part in government. They wanted political power in order to have rights. Liberalism=desire for political power. Nationalism=byproduct of revolution. A natural intellectual result of who should have the vote. A result of the need to explain who would have the right to voteconcept of a nation. A nation being a group of people who had similar language, customs, cultural ID, and historical past. These people were the candidates for representing an electoral body. A nation was the best way to define the parameters the formed an electoral body. They didnt care how the vote happened, but they wanted a vote, and they had to decide who would be the ones to vote. French was not real nationalism, just the beginning spark. Real nationalism is wanting to be ruled by your own people not foreigners, but France is already ruled by their own French elite. They are establishing a national inspired army- an army of young males ready to give their lives without money, stam, for their nation. This was also a spark of nationalism. This army began 1792 when faced with an Austrian, Prussian, German potential military invasion. Fight for the people you have a common link with. The notion and idea of something being both a symptom and a cause. Capitalism was both a symptom of the industrial revolution and a cause. Capitalism is both social and economic. It is both a symptom and cause of the industrial revolution. There was capitalism in existence in Britain and the revolution furthered it. It is socioeconomic. Social- no serf is being reliant on their master for their needs. It reinforces individualism and exchange. Encourages individualism- an individual can survive economically. Also relies on exchange through trade. Also allows social mobility, no static you are born in one place and cannot move. Creates conflicting relationship between employer employee relationship.

Economically- gives people incentive to invent to increase productivity since you gain profit from what you make. Increased productivity leads to economic boom. Encourages economic change, invention in order to increase productivity because it allows for profits. Adam Smith- price of commodity=cost of $+cost of infrastructure + cost of labor+ cost of labor is the price that allows for some profit. Marx said - Value Theory of Labor: No labor cannot be measured easily because it adds immeasurably more to what you produce and does not reflect the wages. Bronterre Obrien- Chartism, said this before Marx. It is a fundamental point of critique of the capitalist system. 3/19/13 What had been a class alliance between the middle class and the workers, by 1848, (no longer san-coullete, but blue color working class) uunravels. The middle class became scared of finding the country under a new French revolution and had thrown in their lot with the army and a Bonaparte solution- which relies on the support of the army. The army represented upper class interests. It was to a large extent, a fear of the revolution on 48 becoming too radical in economic terms. The other important alliance was that of lower middle class and skilled workers. Everyone with some property was behind the security granted by Napoleon Bonapartes nephew. Alliance of all the socioeconomic class- all property holders, section of the aristocracy, and a section of the better off workers who had small bank accounts Napoleon III took over in the summer of 48 with the help of the army and proceeded to strengthen his position as well as that of the middle class and neutralize the radical elements, both workers and middle class who built barricades to fight France. It took three, almost four years, for the security of Napoleon to take back the country- without resulting in a civil war. Workers from February to June ran the country By December of 51, he had a referendum, just like his uncle, and the referendum proclaimed himself the president and France a republic and eventually it would become an empire. For three years he took back power from workers who were armed- in that period he proclaimed France a republic and himself president. By December 51 he carried out a coupe de enta carried out a plebiscite, and declared France an empire and himself emperor 51-71. Two plebiscites (plebiscites are usually yes or no and considered a populist, or demagogic way of ruling-leading people by political tricks or rhetoric tricks)- one making France a republic and two months later making France an empire. He had the foreign policy that France always had of building up a glamorous France. Napoleon went to Rome to visit the Pope to gain glory. -The Hapsburg empire was bound to have their share of problems with the revolutions because they had near absolute rule and had a lot of nationalities who were not recognized. The

emperor of the Hapsburg family, the chancellor, and the foreign minister did not acknowledge the nationalities. Two big problems 1)near absolute political, and did not want to recognize thae fact that the French revolution had happened half a century earlier and the political systems in Europe were changing! They were completely rejecting any constitution, rejecting any limitations to their rule. 2)refused to recognize national and cultural differences. The ruling elite (Austrian, German) was the elite to whose culture would be validated most. The middle class was in bohemia and Austria. Slavics also had elite. Hungary had aristocrats primarily and were the third group. Hungary was allowed to dominate the Romanians and the Serbs. The Slovenes were the third group. They led Croatian areas though. Tw revolutions were bound to happen in the Hapsburg empire 1)for political rights by the middle class with some help from the workers, led by students in Vienna. The emperor lost his nerve and temporarily gave some political rights to the leaders of the rebellion. One political rights they wanted and gained was end of serfdom. In 1848 serfdom was abolished- this happened all over the empire. by May of 48, three months after the rebellion they achieved emancipation of serfs, some political rights (which then get taken back). Political events are soon overshadowed by the nationalists. 2)nationalists revolt for cultural recognition or even autonomy. Hungarian aristocracy is the first to rebel against the emperor, wanting more cultural rights and perhaps autonomy. Nationalism=self determination, to be ruled by your own people. They wanted Hungarian education rather than Austrian, but for the areas they dominated (Serbia and Romania) they did not want them to have their own autonomy or education. Nationalism was represented by 1)validating language 2)validating culture 3)mutual history In 1848 the Serbs and Croatians make a common language to establish a basis for a future nationalist movement. This was done by the middle class. They were also members of both empires, Hapsburg and ottoman- common history. Hungary was not willing to give rights to anyone they governed. That did not get them very far. In fact, by Spring of 48 there was also a revolt in Budapest hungary, and Prague. Budapest rebelled for nationalist rights. Prague and Vienaa rebelled for political rights. By the end of 48 the Slavs, of Austria Hungary had a meeting to counter the threat of Hungarian domination (magyariazation). The emperor liked this because Austria gaining power pauses a threat to the Hapsburg empire.

The one result of these revolts were the emancipation of the serfs. Allows more chances for the market to grow. In the future there would be the economically more and economically les prosperous. The more rural side was impoverished and the other half of the empire was more industrialized with a growing middle class and strong economy. GermanyGermany was the confederation of the Rhine. Napoleon in 1805 had claimed it the confederation of the Rhine. It was 39 states and in 1834, in order not to b given political rights and allow their kings to be fairly absolute, only constitutional in name but not practice, Metternich gave them a union of tolls amongst themselves- not from city to city and allowed Prussia to join the Zoll Verein. This contributed to the growth of a middle class in the confederation. Frankfurt is in the middle of the Confederation. In may 1848- September a group of intellectuals met in Frankfurt, took over the local parliament, and wrote a constitution- list of rights to ask the emperor to approve. Initially, they had been approached by the workers (because Germany, the Confederation of the Rhine. In the end, the delegation sent the workers away- sitting by themselves they were arrested by the police and the constitution was never implemented. Political movement- one of intellectuals without class alliance- they isolate themselves and lost momentum. It left a legacy of a movement to unify the Germanic world. This legacy would be picked up by Prussia because they had also asked the Prussian king to be there leader, and they ask him again in 1850. Prussia knew that it would not be able to get Austria to agree. They also discussed the need to unify the German world. Two options were seen as available to them 1)Klein Deutschland- small Germany- the confederation and pRussia 2)Gross Deutschland big Germany- everyone who had german language as a mother tongue, common german customs, and german history. Includes the Confederation, Prussia, North Italy, Switzerland, Austria, Parts of Poland, and parts of Czseck, parts of Alsace Loraine. In the beginning they wanted to exclude Austria. In 1850 the group that wanted a small Germany, dominated the movement enough to send an invite to the Prussian King to sponsor it, but he said no because he his economy was not strong enough to have a military to fight Austria. Self determination aimed to take everyone in the fold of the big family, the nation. The unredeemed are those who were not liberated. Idea=redeem your bretheren. 3/21/13 Italian Unification: aka Risorgemento Aimed to unify Italy and to overthrow Austrian Rule and NapoleonIII

Cavour- 1810-1861. Prime Minister of Piedmont Sardinia 1852-1859. Established and led the Italian Liberal Party. In 1859 Sardinia fought a war (First phase of Italian unification against Austria)with France against Austria under his leadership. When the war ended Sardinia annexed Lombardi. With his support most of central Italy united with Sardinia. Central Italy united in 1860. He experimented with different agricultural techniques in his estate. He fulfilled a portrait of an entrepreneur- in terms of his economy and his own estate, and in politics by establishing the liberal party, and then becoming Prime Minister- he was the man of his times. He was from upper middle class NOT aristocracy! Supported and promoted the steam engine. Sponsored creation of railroads and canals in North Italy. Lombardi was given to Austria at the congress of Vienna, in 1859 Sardinia annexed Lombardithere was also local support from the Lobardians for this unification. Central States that united in 1860- Kingdom of Parma, Modena, Lucca, and Tuscany, Siena(city), Florence(city). [side point: Hapsburg empire falls 1918, end of WWI] He helped attract foregin capital by lowering tariffs in terms of exports and exporting machinery to North Italy- more expensive, but they have more of a share in the market. He strengthened the army. He taxed churched property and made the catholic Church come under the civil code. Made the church part of the state rather than above or next to the state. He was helped by the economic growth that north Italy was undergoing. The expansion of the market, the expansion of domestic market, and he allowed inflow of capital when that helped further the development of the economy. Garibaldi -1807-1882: Italian general and politician. Considered Padre del Italia- father of Italy. Was devoted to take over the Kingdom of two Sicilies. Italian Unification: Two men, two ideas, two countries. The North which was rapidly industrializing and the south which was still rural. Then there was the middle Italy which was all city states. They had local governments. The papal states dominated middle Italy- Rich. Lucca, Moderna, and Parma were part of North Italy. The rest of north Italy was the kingdom of Sardinia and Lombardia. The king of the two sicilies was from the Bourbon family. French king in the south(Kingdom of the two sicilies), French troops1849-1871 in the middle papal states guarding the pope, and half the North was under Austria until they became independent (Lombardi 1815-1859 and Venetia1815-1866 were given to Austria in 1815)- the other half of Italy was under their own rule (Moerdna, lucca, Parma). Cavour wanted only a North Italian state to be created. He did not want an Italy that would entail the entire Italy- he did not want papal states or the south. He did not want the Resergimento. He did not want a fully unified Italy. He wanted to unify the North. He was not

against acquiring or receiving the middle states a because they were equally rich. He wanted to unify venetia, Lombardy, Piedmont, and Sardinia . He thought it would be difficult to unify the entire Italy economically and industrialize the south. He also thought the other European powers wouldnt accept a fully unified Italy. He felt that the unification was a future project that should not be undertaken too soon- it was more of a romantic project than a realistic one. There is a strong tradition of different life styles between Northern Italy and Souther Italy since prior to the middle ages. Cavour represented the extreme idea that the north was its own country and its own life style. More secular, more organized, richer, and likely to respect a parliamentary system with a monarchy. He was therefore, afraid that the south would not combine well with the north economically and he felt the south was too radical politically. The south was under Garibaldis influence and it was the home of Carbonari-those who were for a Republic, not a monarchy (they represented the more radical phase of the French revolution in 1792). Garibaldi was an inspirational leader. He was a demagogue, a populist. He also did not have the political astuteness of Cavour. He did not understand politics, but understood how to lead the people on the battlefield. Carbonari werent getting anywhere, so Matzzini was a cross between Cavour and Garibaldi. He created cultural societies in the south. He was a broader base and less radical form. First time Garibaldi he emerges in a big way was after Matzzini when he forces the pope to abdicate. Garibaldi fled Rome and came to Staten Island 1849-1859. In 1859 Cavour, after he had established a relationship with France and new France wouldnt go against him- he invaded Lombardi (held by Austria). He built up his army, took money from the church, and got active support of france which led to his success. He gave part of his kingdom (Nice) to France in order to free and create a North Italian state. Know for midterm: Know Cavour and Garibaldi as men. Read some of Italy The IDs might include names Know the revolutions of 1830 1848 Nationalism, conservatism, liberalism, socialism, utopian, blancee, Marxism, bethem, chartists, commission of inquiry, restoration of romanticism, conciliar movement, major powers, 18281832 parliamentary fought, French revolution, napoleon exploits. 1 essay 2 out of 7 plus extra credit two revolutions

Second Semester

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4/11/13 German Unification Movement -The unification took place over a number of decades starting 1848 ending in 1871. The main protagonists were the intellectuals of the confederation of the Rhine who attempted to establish a constitution in 1848 in Frankfurt and is completed in the Franko-Prussian war 1870/1871, by then the main protagonist was Otto Von Bismarck and William the first whose years are 1861-1888. -They called for the Prussian king, Frederick William 4th , in 1848, after the intellectuals had made a constitution, so the king would join them in unification. The Klein Deutchland solution was favored. This meant confed of the Rhine+ Prussia. The intellectuals, in 1850, submitted a second request to the King to become head of a unified state of Prussia and confed. He said no because their army wasnt strong enough to defeat Austrias opposition. The king said it is not for commoners and middle class intellectuals to offer a king, but he had to refuse it. Prussian really only wanted to unite with northern Germany, but regardless their army was not strong enough to defeat Austria. The Holy Roman Empire, was made up until 1805, was initially 240 German principalities (independent states with their own political leader) they were either under a local lord or the church. It included Austria, Switzerland, part of France, part of the Netherlands, and part of Sicily. Out of the numerous leaders, the house of the Hapsburgs will emerge as the strongest dynasty and will take over bohemia, czheck, Austria, parts of Switzerland, parts of Northern Italy, make alliances with Hungarians, Spanish and Dutch- They emerge as the most important German family within the Holy Roman Empire. In 1805, Napoleon dissolves the Holy Roman Empire and creates 39 states calling it the Confederation of the Rhine. It is in the North protestant, and South was Catholic. SO who should they align with? The confederation of the Rhine was strong enough not to be absorbed easily by Austria or Prussia after 1805 and strong enough to stand on their own. However, they also felt that culturally and politically they would be better off if they were partners with Austria over Prussia. The issue was that economically they felt they could win if the joined Prussia. They wanted, for economic reasons, union with Prussia rather than absorption by Prussia. They felt, politically, more comfortable with Austria because it did not completely dominate or absorb them- they felt they would have more independence with Austria, but wouldnt do well economically. So German aristocracy felt better with Austria, but middle class felt better with Prussia. The intellectuals (middle class) were split- half wanted Gross Deutchland, the other half wanted Klein Deutchland.

-Another issue: North was protestant, South was catholic (within the Confed) This created problems for the Southern middle class entrepreneurs to put their lives in the hands of the North and the catholic aristocrats did not want Austria politically. [CONFUSION]. Prussians=protestants. 1)problem of politics 2)problem of economics 3)problems of religion In the end economics win. There will be a German empire made of Prussia and Northern Confederation of the Rhine states, and eventually South Confed states (south joins later, they did not initially for religious reasons). In the end the German empire puts economy first by making the empire officially secular. German empire is successful because of a good union economically (with Prussia) and because it will be constituted as a secular state-putting first the notion of being German prior to being religious. Bismarck is behind the secular policy. He is influential in Prussia/German politics. The economy of Prussia had taken off so it was able to build up an army, thus allowing them to join with the confederation. They had an army they can manage economically. Three phases to Unification By 1861-62 Bismarck became Prime minister of Prussia and hence able to increase the budget of the army. With a strong army he decided to find excuses to fight against Denmark, Austria, and France. His plan was to start building the Prussian army further and with a strong army he took on Denmark, with a stronger army he took on Austria, and with an even stronger army he took on France. In each war the Prussians won. They won militarily and Bismarck knew how to diplomatically prepare the ground for each war.(he had acceptable excuses to go to war each time) He bought off the liberals by going for a military solution. He brought them glory and short wars. He had with him, the Prussian aristocracy and North German protestant aristocracy. He took the south German catholic aristocracy with him when he defeated Austria in the second war. Each time his policy was to fight short wars and make potential enemies fear other people more than they feared Prussia. 1)Danish War in 1864- war of the Germans, Austrians, Prussians VS Denmark. 2)Austrian-Prussian War in in 1866- Prussia and North Germany VS Austria 3)Franco-Prussian War in Sept-Jan of 1870-71 Prussia+ Confederation of the Rhine VS France German Empire established with North and South (Ex) Confederation of the Rhine states + Prussia 4/16/13 -First phase of German Unification 1864: Danish war- Bismarck worked on the assumption that Germany, to be unified, needed to be a Klein Deutchland and would have to be at the expense

of Austria and possibly France and Denmark, but not at the expense of any other country. Austria was bound to be alienated and hurt internationally. France could also be because there was a strong German entity right next to it. Alsace-Lorraine was right next to France and the new German state- so Germany might take it over from France. Bismarck realized he had to move cautiously and slowly. He needed a discrete national agreement- approach different countries, secretly, and find out how they would react to German unification. He wanted to isolate the country be attacked. Strategy- isolate country that would be effected by German Unification and ensure that everyone else in Europe was likely to be a friend of Bismarck or neutralized. Besides Austria he needed to take into account Italy, Russia, and Britain (take into account that they might not like what he is doing). With Russia his problem would be creating a strong Germany on the other side of Prussia- issue similar to what France had. Not only is there a strong Germany next to it, and possibility of losing land to it. Russia would have a strong unified Germany next to it, so he did not want to alienate Russia so he sent emissaries to Russia during each stage of unification saying/assuring he wanted a union of Prussia and confed, no further expansion east (into Russian territorybasically assuring them they would not harm Russia) Bismarck, unlike subsequent Kaisers and the following Kaiser, was aware of how destabilizing continuous expansion of Germany would be to Europe. expand successfully by taking over areas that are populated, economically prosperous, and where the people desire union, and speak your language. Ultimately, there is a cost to union. Each phase of the union is carried out by war. Nobody wanted changed of the current balance of power, status quo, no country wanted to see the growth of Prussia+ Confed. Britain was the one most likely to except it because 1)economically stronger 2)land isnt next to them so they wont be taken over 3) They feared France, but now France will be checked by a strong Germany. They also thought Germany would be good for business, but they eventually surpassed Britani in iron and steel production. Russia was assured there would be no expansion east, so they werent nervous. Russia was also upset with Austria because during the Crimean war of 1854 (Britain, France, and Ottomans went to Crimea to stop Russian expansion) the Austrians did not help them. (because in 1848 when Hungarians rose against Austria, Russia offered troops to Austria, but in 54 Austria didnt help Russia) Italy- Bismarck bought off Italy. He promised Italy to help take Venetia from Austria at the first possible opportunity.

French-initially assured in the 1st and 2nd phase that nothing would happen to them, but they were not too keen on this. Napoleon III was on the throne. France and Austria were not able to be bought off. Three places harmed: Denmark lost territory, Austria lost status, France lost status and territory Bismarck was similar to Cavour, who took baby steps in expansion, thus very successful. In 1864, Bismarck leaked to the press that German speakers in Southern Denmark, in Schleswig Holstein, were being mistreated. So Bismarck wanted to redeem them from the oppression and foreign rule. The British and Germans knew how to control the press. He suggested that Austria helps him attack Denmark and liberate the two provinces of German speakers (they would give Austria one province- since Austrians were German speakers. He offered Austria a say so he wouldnt seem to intense, even though it would have been so easy for him to take it over alone). Against Denmark to redeem Germans. In the end Prussians and Austrians administer them. -Second Phase of German Unification 1866: Austrian-Prussian war took place because Bismarck leaked to the press that Austria was oppressing its German speakers in the province it had received in 1864 from Southern Denmark. They were all protestant and the Austrians are catholic. He provoked Austria into war. He was able to take with him the Northern states of the Confed of the Rhine who willingly joined Prussia against Austria. He suggested to the Italians also that they go to war with Austrians in the South, and they did. Fought by Prussia against Austria with willing allies of North German states of the Confed and Italy. (Italy was fighting to take over Venetia). Austria lost to Prussia and N Germans, but beat the Italians. The Germans imposed on the Austrians as part of a treaty, to give Venetia to the Italians. So through Napoleon III, Venetia was given to Italy. (in order to make Napoleon feel like he played an important role- he was like the mediator) The Austrians lost prestige. Italians were still short of the Vatican because it was under French rule. At the end of the war N German states willingly joined Prussia as a confederation. -The Third Phase of Unification 1870-1871:Franco-Prussian war 1870-1871. (Background, side notes- The French have Alsace-Lorraine, a very fertile important part of the land. They wanted more land. Although Prussians claim the war of 1648 was devastating to them, they actually started to grow so it could not have been that devastating to them.) From 1866-1870 the North German states were fully Absorbed in the North German confederation- so Prussia was a leading power in a bigger North German state. Bismarck wanted unify the rest of the

confederation under his leadership. He did not want to fight and conquer them, but make them semi willing to be under his rule. Bismarck was aware that being too pro-protestant and too anti-Catholic could lead to an end of the opportunity of the unification. Kulturkampf-de-emphasizes the religious divide and saying Germans are German first and religious second. Bismarck made education secular and deemphasized religion. (N protestant, S catholic) The North were aware that if they brought up the religious issue they would have no unity. The south did not want the North dominating them.( Bolvaria was the most important principality in the south) the best way to get them to join the fellow N Germans and Prussians was to make the South think they would be attacked or swallowed by France. Austria could no longer help them because they just lost war against Prussia, so the south was made feel like no strong power could help them except Prussia so the south needed their allegiance. And if they needed to choose between being under France or Prussia they would choose Prussia. What would make Germans fear France? France was flexing its military muscles abroad 1867-Napoleon III encouraged the Austrians, with who he was related through marriage, to start the war in Mexico. France was helping them and they lost Three military exploits of Napoleon III: 1-He sent troops to reinstate the pope in Rome in the Vatican 1850-successful 2-In 1859/60 he helped Italians against Austrians in Lobardy and gained Nice as a reward.successful 3-He sent troops in 1861 to Mexico-unsuccessful! This proves that France was still an expansionist so South Germany could be scared into thinking Napoleon would take them over France was also nervous that despite the fact that they played a role by giving Venetia to Italy, they were uneasy with the growing strength of Prussia and growing weakness of Austria. Napoleon had his own problems to face such as his own domestic and foreign policy. This criticism existed because he allowed free press and association. He was criticized by socialists because he was too left, criticized by conservatives because they didnt like the Bonaparte family on the throne. Intellectuals and reporters were stating their opinion about the political situation. Towards the end of the 19th c was an active period for the print media. By 1870 there was a strong awareness of public opinion . France could not be retroactive and take back the freedom of free press. In 67-68 there was a downturn in the European economy, effecting France, leading to unemployment. On the heels of unemployment people couldnt afford high food prices nor high rents. This was a problem in

France. And people were becoming bankrupt. This increased domestic problems for Napoleon, so he wanted a military victory as a cop-out. He though it would solve his problems at home. (Discussed on 4/23---Maximillian the 1st was killed by a firing squad in 1867 and he is an Austrian member of the Hapsburgs. Basically the crown was being offered in Mexico. The Mexicans put social identity over national identity, invite the Austrian prince-Maximmilian to come to the throne 3 times. The Austrian was backed by monarchists in Mexico and Napoleon III, liberals disagreed-were more nationalist and thought it wouldnt be good economically and they didnt want a monarchist. Maximmilian makes some liberal reforms that liberals had wanted and this upsets the conservatives that had put him into power. Political and economic9development by the liberals) struggle- monarchist + conservatives vs liberals. Ex: He secured the currency. They want economic development, and a government to aid such. Pass laws that make capitalism less risky because in the 50s 60s 70s public companies were being formed- so the stock was growing. Laws were being passed to protect investors and launchers. Which group has more power and is therefore best represented by government policy=political struggles.*basic struggle in 60s and on was conservatives did not want the right of political associations. They didnt want, therefore, free press or free speech because then you would find out about political association+ by 1866 Maxamilians power is falling so Napoleon asks him to abdicate but he doesnt so he fights with his army of loyal followers, but loses and is executed by a firing squad.) (((((digression-Once you step foot in the urban area you are no longer a peasant. Peasants could not take over the revolution, they could only take over the land of their own lords that they were tilling. They did not create plantations. peasants are in villages. Urban poor are in urban areas and do revolutions.))))) Feeling economic problems, and desire to make himself more popular, Napoleon III was contemplating making a move to secure part of Alsace-Lorraine that was not yet in France so that Prussia would not take it over. By 1870 the heir to the Spanish throne died and emptied. It was offered to a member of the Hohenzollern family (Prussian dynasty). France objected the throne because they would have Prussians on one side and Germans on the other so they didnt want the throne. Public opinion started turning against Germans in French press. Napoleons wife, Eugenie, was a hawk, wanted to fight. Also, some wanted France to use this as an excuse to take on Prussia. The military did not want war and France was not prepared for war and napoleon was ill. France had stopped conscription (so not a well equipped army that was trained with high morale=no good!) the Prussians offered to withdraw their relative from Spanish throne as a candidate, to stop war from happening. German Hohenzollern Rothschild approached British Rothschild to approach Napoleon the III. (Queen Victoria and Gladstone approached Rothschild (British) to

give a message from Victoria to Napoleon the Hohenzollerns were trying to appease the French throne (all through the Rothschilds branch) ) Bismarck intersected the message from reaching France. So Napoleon was upset with the situation. He sent a telegram to the Hohenzollerns showing his dissatisfaction as to what was happening. Prussia posted parts of this letter in the newspaper so France looked like an aggressor- so Bismarck escalated the situation. So France had no choice but to declare war. The French were defeated and the Germans reached Paris December-January and Napoleon abdicated to England. The south had joined in the fighting. When Prussia/Germans won they declared empire. 1871 German empire proclaims 4/23/13 Why was the Unified German economy so successful? In August 1870, Bismarck had established a political situation that cornered Napoleon III to declare war on Prussia- so it appeared France was the aggressor and Southern German In September/October 1870, after France declared war on Prussia they eventually reached Sedan. (took them two months) They attacked the Prussian army in Sedan. The battle in October in Sedan would be a total defeat for the French. The lines of communication from Paris to sedan were too long, Napoleon was too ill to be fully committed to the fight. Not only were they defeated but retreated in disarray, followed by German invasion of France. Napoleon III went to Paris, abdicated, and went on to London, England. The Prussian army reached Paris in January 1871 Prussians bombed Paris so Paris was smoldering. (British were organizing trips to check it out.) There was a political void so 3rd republic was temporarily reclaimed and sued for peaceplead for peace, since Napoleon had abdicated they were no longer politically responsible for the war. They were able to do so. Peace treaty: 1)Reparations to Prussia, so big that between 71-73 it created a banking spree. It slumped European economy. (swelled German economy) 2)taking French troops out of Rome-pleased Italians 3)Alsace Lorraine was given to Germans 4)had to proclaim the German Empire in Versailles 5)German Empire and the Reich was created Bismarck 1871-79: crucial period where Bismarck was able to politically install fundamentals in order for economic unification of the country. Without this, unification would not be so successful. (economic unification led to political stability). He bought off the liberals by implementing a liberal economic agenda and he used the conservatives and ultra-conservatives as his allies to rule with. He was very conservative. He

had two groups as allies in the Reichstag (national assembly)- he did have different partieswhich is part of political liberal agenda. The ultra conservatives were almost exclusively from the junker class: primarily Prussian. He neutralized political opposition coming from the liberals in the Reichstag because he took care of them in other ways. The socialists lost out completely, but he was able to isolate them. He bought off the liberals: 1)Established a common currency 2)established an imperial bank, the Reichs bank. This bank was the only one with the right to issue the paper currency 3)Deutsch mark- which was place on the gold standards. So 5-7% of the money is backed. 4)established civil, criminal legal system. Codified, standardized, unified the legal system in terms of criminal, commercial, civil, and company law. 5)undertook some structural projects, but not as much as France- he allowed the economy to grow itself 6)Undertook Kulturkampf, by declaring Germany secular, allowed for uniform educationcritical for unification 4/25/13 ENGLAND Robert Peel-1788-1850prime minister(1834-35 and 1841-46) leader in 40s He was P.M twice, conservative. Established Scotland Yard in 1828- a police force, the policemen are called bobbies. The bobbies were well liked. He wanted to secure the streets Made the Tamsworth Manifesto 1834- aim to appeal to new electorate in the parliament. Established principles of modern Conservative party. Established the name Conservative, instead of Tories. He had a short term the first time as P.M. Outlined the principles of a party. Aimed to make Great Reform Act of 1832 permanent Only had a short administration the first time (1834-35)- sought to change the church and make the 1832 Great Reform Act definitive Leader of conservative party, accepting the Whig legislative achievement, the 1832 Great Reform Act. This was something the Whigs were able to pass- it crystallized the image of the Whigs as the party of the future. There was party consensus- one party promises to accept legislation passed by their opposition when the opposition is in power. It shows acceptance of agenda. One party would govern, the other would be Opposition. Prime Minister=leading party minister. Shadow minister= from party in opposition. Ministers in the 19 th c would become

ministers, and become members of the government if they had more than their members in the house of Commons during in electoral campaign (for about a month). Tamworth Manifesto allowed conservatives(Tories) to recover, politically. Peel brought the conservative party back into being a possible, viable alternative to the Whigs. He did so by validating the 1832 reform act of the Whigs and not overturning the opposing party (Whigs) legislation. So, should his party come to power, Peel said he would not reject the Great Reform Act. (good for stability) When the government is short lived, it reflects a tiny majority over the 50%. They cannot pass legislation, since they barely have majority. The members of the House of Commons are made up of Ministers, Prim Minister and his opposition, and legislatures. Politics= party politics. If a party has strong party, it can pass legislation. (One line whip= important legislation, but if youre away from London you dont need to come Two Line whip= you dont have to come if you have a good excuse Three line whip= you have to be dying to not go.) Peel had a very small majority, so he had a short lived administration. Second Administration 1841-46 Established Modern Political party, through Conservatives. He was able to 1)establish party headquarters for the party 2)establish electoral machine throughout the country (see who would be the future candidates in different constituencies.) they were better prepared than the Whigs he organized the party, the partys agenda (principles around which the people who led the party would stand for), the party financed the electoral campaigns of the individuals. Repealed Corn Laws- took away the tariffs on imports. People werent happy about this. This allowed foreign goods to compete with your own market, and was a policy of the liberals. Free trade was a demand by economist in Britain, France, and it was imposed on the Ottoman Empire Corn laws- tax on import of foreign wheat, cotton, and sugar. He took out tariffs for goods coming into the country, particularly wheat. By doing so, he made the British importers and land owners need to be more competitive. He allowed the goods to come in at a lower price because no tariffs and in the end, land owning became more competitive, the sugar trade became more competitive, and the economy didnt His view was I dont rule for my party, but in favor of the country as a whole. He took on issues that were primarily issues of the liberals, the Whigs. He believed they were important issues for the country at large. He was a modernizer. He made the bank of England Act- gave the bank the sole right of issueprinting money.

The conservatives did not understand or care for his modern ideas. The Peelites (like minded to Peel) left the Tories/Conservatives and went to the Whig party in 1846, after Peel finished his term. Conservatives kicked Peel out after the Corn Laws in 1846. Ireland Great Famine/ Irish Potato Famine In 1845 the Potato disease, or blight, infected all the potato crops. The potato crop didnt have any varieties, which was an issue because they had no other food to eat- so many starved and died. This caused many people to leave elsewhere in the UK. Other diseases started forming from this disease, and everyone was spreading disease to each other. In 1854, the famine was finished. After the famine, the potato was still a main crop for Ireland. This famine really made Peel repeal the corn laws. For 1)humanitarian (because of Ireland)2)law and order 3) didnt want bread to be expensive. He felt the higher bread prices made standards of living lower for middle class (because couldnt afford other things). Liberals thought higher bread prices lead to the employers paying higher wages, which is bad because they didnt want to pay more- so middle class and workers were paying for the inefficiency of the land owners. Bread prices were cheaper because of corn laws and liberals thought high bread prices and increased wages were bad. He got this vote through by splitting his party. The liberal were voting with him and some of his Conservatives voted with him and then they (the Peelites) left with him. Palmerston- leader in the 50s Very patriotic. Led the Whigs 1859-65 Established liberal party. During Crimean War in 52-56 he was the Foreign minister and Then Prime Minister. Determined to uphold principles of Laissez-Faire (free trade). After glorifying Britain from the Crimean war, he led a war against China because the Chinese seized pirate ship under the British. He was rejected by a majority in the House of commons. First chauvinist in British history. Appealed to the press and to the people. Didnt govern simply with his politicians - instead he went to the press and appealed to the jingoistic feelings of ordinary people. He cultivated jingoism. He was rejected in parliament, the House of Commons hated him. He encouraged Ottoman empire and France to go to war in Crimea. He had a good relationship with NapoleonIII. He saw eye to eye with Napoleons flexing the muscle abroad policy. Sable rattling- helped him win popularity in the country (not afraid to threaten war). Passed factory act of 1853- outlawing labor for young kids 6pm-6am. August 1853- Smoke Abaidment act- tried to regulate chimneys Vaccinatioin act- vaccinate children and mostly prostitues. 4/30/13

William Gladstone- leader in 60s 1809-1898. became leader of liberal party in 1857. Deeply religious (Christian par-excellence) and moral and wanted his nation to be as well. He was a peelite (moved away from the conservative party because they were modernizers). [Peel, Palmerstone, Gladstone, and Disraeli are very important figures in British social and political life. Peel made a monarchical, pro monarchy, aristocratic political party relevant in parliamentary liberal politics where the middle class had political voice. This was translated across Europe because there were two models of conservative politics. (conservative politics represents, Europe of 19th c until the first world war, either ultra right wanting as much as possible to return to a pre French revolution society OR an acceptance of the new liberal world.)] In his early years he worked to assure laissez faire economic policy and modest income tax. He proposed a bill to reduce the tax for people for property qualification for those who have the right to pass, which did not pass. He did so because he thought political reform was expedient and moral. He had a sense of realism, you do the possible. Several things he was against: 1)opposed colonization because it was too expensive 2)opposed luxurious lifestyles 3)supported the repeal of the corn laws in 1836 4)wanted reduce the role of the monarchy 5)queen victoria blamed him for all international monarchy Benjamin Disraeli- 1804-1881 Became the leader of the conservative party in 1850, after Peel died. He was Gladstones opposition. He was a converted Jew baptized in a church. He was an orator. He realized that protectionism (which split the party in 1848). He got along with Queen victoria, unlike Gladstone. Short Administraion 1866-67 Reform Act of 1867- (first effort made towards reform act earlier in the 60s was made by Gladstone, but it failed) conservatives feared that the enfranchisement of more people would add to the ranks of more liberals that would eventually lead to subsequent legislation that would weaken the political influence of wealthy land owners. Disraeli believed reform was inevitable, and his party could gain from it. He showed astuteness to make a risky judgment that the increase of the electorate was inevitable and therefore, conservatives can benefit from passing it. He proposed that the vote be given to each head of household and that the minimum countryside tax requirement be further lowered. Disraeli conservatives failed to woo the new electorate and caused liberals to win a large majority in

parliament. Disraelis followers didnt fully agree with Disraelis vision so they couldnt instill the vision onto the electorate so liberals gained majority instead. Liberal landslide brought in Gladstones first administration. He was kicked out of his party. He created a modern national party. Legislation in favor of the middle and or working class. At the same time, he couldnt alienate or undo the established privileges of his own class, or the class you represent through the political party. Peel was actually legislating for the Irish peasants, plus he passed a factory reform so he was also for the working class. So was Disraeli because in his second administration he made strikes legal. He understood what the liberals as a party were doing. It took a few years to understand he had to change. It took him from 67-74 (7 years) to educate his own people and they, political activists, in the various constituencies to win the next election by an agenda that makes sense. Long Administration 1874-1880 He needed to give some concrete results to be willing to give rights to groups other than your own. You had to know how far to go in favor of other classes without damaging or alienating your own base. He was also expedient. He needed to decide what should happen and what would be the consequence. He made British nationalism and imperialism part of his conservative party platform which suggested that liberals would weaken Britain (this slaps the idea of being non patriotic to the liberals- the liberals arent patriotic). The party reflected a changed in modern British political life- he merged the different political ideas and characteristics and features of people in the countryside and people in the cities. Villa Toryism- he made conservative voters out of middle class inhabitants of the growing suburbs. Railways, or urban transportation, started to have white collar workers. Managers, doctors, accountants, middle class professionals living in the suburbs in 1870s. the increase in socioeconomic status of this- caused the middle class to be absorbed by the conservatives- no longer liberals. This is called villa toryism. So dirsaeli took a big chunk of the middle class with him. They found new support amongst wealthy middle class businessmen who abandoned liberal party. The new conservative political culture was supported by nationalist Tory workers supported social and economic changes in Britain. (The labor aristocracy were the ones who many stayed in the backbone of liberals, but some of them went to the Tories from jingoism. By 1870s 1880s Britain was increasingly chauvinistic about being able to do anything in the world and Disraelis notion of nationalism and imperialism personified that. We are better than anyone else). This feeling of superiority, also had a jingoistic manifestation amongst workers in

particular. Workers were told that they were first British and members of the British empire and secondly workers. ----HUH? When the liberal party was formed in 59 with the Whigs, liberals, and radicals, and by then the Peelites had come in as an integrated group in the political party- one of the big agendas was extending the electorate or not. We have had from 46-66 governemnts that were all liberal because also the Peelites were supporting them. 1)One of the main issues was to increase the electorate good for middle class 2)the other was to ensure end of economic protectionism (ensure laissez fair)- good for middle class 3)open up society to merit- meaning give more rights to middle class. Meaning curtail the privileged position of the Anglicans, that is the aristocrats.- good for middle class 4)take care of some of the economic demands of the working class 3 elements for middle class and one for working class. 66-67 reform act was fundamental. Disraeli told the conservatives, if we block it we will never go back to office. If we pass it we have a chance to get back into office. The only amendment he never agreed to was vote for women. 5/2/13 Administration of Gladstone Notable reformer, known for his populist(aims to touch emotions of people, so a little fake) speeches. He was the main rival of Disraeli for many years. Populist dictators are not all bad. Didnt want to give the vote to British workers, not as pure as he wanted to be. Years of administration:68-74 80-85 and some months in 1886 and 1892-94 he retired. During his first year as prime minister he was interested in the Irish question, and was obsessive about Ireland. In the 1880s he advocated for home-rule for Ireland, wanted to give them administrative powers to govern itself, but still be part of the UK. Many considered this a radical position, although it wasnt giving them complete independence. [By 1880s-90s there was a Great Depression 1873-1897 which was effecting Britain and all the advanced economies (ex: Britain, France, east coast of America, Germany)- as a result, unemployment went up from 1% 10/13% for the first time since 1820s. this led to social unrest because unemployed people. The employed formed unions to ensure certain demands be met. Ireland economic activities became less profitable. A depression leads to less demand for goodsunemploymentless even less demand for goods because fewer consumersless productionless profits for businesses, even bankruptcy. From this economic problem, came nationalism and Irelands and Scotts tried to gain independence. The espousing by Gladstone of

home rule was considered dangerous and radical. This would cause the UK to fall apart. This is similar to what two other politicians did Peel and Disraeli also both went completely against there parties. Peel repealed Corn Laws against his partys will and Disraeli made strikes legal against his partys will in his Reform Act. He was never able to pass home rule for Ireland. It became a very controversial issue. It took until 1920s for a solution to be found] Ireland was divided with the rest of the UK. They were catholic, not Anglican. England led expeditions and subjugated Ireland. The issue couldnt be resolved by Gladstone. The British didnt want the catholic majority to rule them, they are protestant and Anglican. The orange issue- in 1680s after Cromwell died and there was restoration of the Stu arts and the line ran out you had William and Marry. William was her husband of the house of Orange. (( Whats the orange issue!?!?)) [Another set of laws in his 68-74 administration: his policies were intended to improve individual liberty while loosening political and economic restraints. He minimized the public expenditure on the premise that the people and economy were able to spend as they saw best fit. He wanted to eliminate personal income tax, but was unable to. He promoted peace, reduced expenditures, and reduced taxation (because it was the final years of the Victorian boom). ] The administration of 68-74 is considered to have given the political and social validation that the middle class still lacked In 1870 the Order of Council abolished patronage/nepotism with competitive examination to enter civil service. To become a civil servant you had to pass a competitive exam opening a middle class to the opportunities to a political career. There was good promotions established on merits. This took away the privilege that the aristocracy had. It was very important. 1871 abolished the possibility of buying the officers position (a commission) by replacing them with exams. Allowing middle class to rise up in office. 1870 the government passed the education act: established, in theory, elementary schools run and paid for by the state and having a secular curriculum. It was amended to make the local authorities disperse money to parochial schools also. Some money went to state run schools, some to Anglican, some to non-conformist, and somem to catholic. The state run schools ended up getting the least amount 1871- abolished religious requirement to be a student or faculty in Oxford and Cambridge. Made all universities open to all religions 1871 legalized trade unions, but did not give them the right to strike. In 1872- the secret ballot act Did not return to office next election because 1) education act was not liked 2) he tried to limit the drinking hours.

In 1880 Gladstone became PM second time against Queen Victorias will He combined the chancellor of the exchequer and the PM position, because he liked the economy. In 1880s there was a push for more colonies. In a way that was part of a way to escape economic problems. Britain in particular had very aggressive military men who were administrators in India and Egypt. 1882 britain took over Egypt, but in an odd situation it was still part of the Ottoman Empire- but really Britains because they annexed it. They started advocating a group of military men to have men from Africa join Egypt, Sudan, Khartoum, to the Dutch Africans. It would be a continuous point of british foreign policy and lead eventually to the Zooloo wars. (HUH) TELL HER WE DIDNT FINISH GLADSTONES SECOND ADMIN 5/7/13 Disraeli AdministrationAfter 1864 (until 1867) the conservatives won the election with a majority for the first time since Peel. Cross was the home secretary to be and he was responsible for organizing the constituencies to get more voters. Passed the Artisans dwelling improvement act of 1875- allowing local counsels to buy land/slums with local taxes and rebuild them for affordable housing Tories and liberals considered this an attack on landlords. They did not like this. They did compensate the landlords, because you cannot take land without compensating the person you take it from. Ventilation and level of mold, dampness, and heating was implemented in factories. They had inspectors to inspect factories Public health act of 1875- required new residential construction to have running water and draining system. In order for this to be carried out they established sanitary inspectors to ensure it was happening. Streets also had to be cleaned up so there was no litter. And people couldnt carry around offensive items, such as knives, so people wouldnt feel unsafe. Sale of food and Drugs act 1875- harmful ingredients were forbidden to be placed in food and many drugs were forbidden. There was an awaresness of personal helath emerging. Employers and Workmen Act 1875- suggested more equality in the work place so if either the employer or employee violated a contract it would be an offense and there would be a punishment. It also took away servant and master from contract replaving it with employer an employee. Through this act the conservatives maintained middle class vote.

All these Acts were interfering the lives of the middle class and their money, but often helping the middle class. Most laws helped the workers. Aristocrats were used to helping the workers. Aristocrats were not themselves, most of the times, owners of factories or slums. Middle class standard of living was growing. Conspiracy Protection of Property Act 1875- Unions can legally have strikes. Unions no longer vulnerable to prosecutions for conspiracy. Trade unions were legalized already, but now strikes are legal. It also reduced the extent of the Trespassing act to allow for workers to be on company premises without working. They had the right to strike and picket. Education act 1876- required minimal levels of education for children. Exempted poor family from school fees to ensure all children until 10-11 got some education. Every administration tried to improve elementary education but every time the Anglican churches and Protestants and Catholics came together to put pressure on the states to let them run education in local schools of their own with money from the government. Two blind spots: how to deal with Ireland and how to deal with education. An educated working class was politically radical. Middle class agreed equally that the wrong type of education for themselves would be wrong. They sent their sons to schools in their own cities, but not schools with excessive education. The private schools of aristocrats was not expected to middle class children and the middle class parents didnt want their kids to have that education because then they would not fit in or want to run businesses. He wanted to expand so he took a loan from Rothschild without permission of his cabinet. His foreign policies were seen as imperialist Egypt had the Suez canal built (by De Lesseps, a Frenchmen) from Port Said down to the Red Sea (which allowed you to go to India directly), and it helped in trade and Egypt was already more developed economically. Disraeli borrowed money without telling the cabinet and bought more shares in the Canal because the governor of Egypt was running out of money so they were persuaded to sell shares to Britain and that increased the amount of shares that Britain had in the canal which made it easier in 1882 for Britain to take Egypt over. So liberals complained but when Gladstone took over in 1882 when they annexed Egypt there werent all that upset. After passing 67 Reform act, Disraeli made.? (Ask Rachel) Russians were eyeing Bulgaria so they fought for them, since they were Slavs against the Ottomans and won. In 1876-78 This was the beginning of Pan Slavism. This ideology proclaimed all Slavs are in the same family so peasants began to rebel against ottoman tax collectors this start Russo-Turkish war of 76-78. Economic issue, turns nationalist when Russians come to the Bulgarian aid. The Austrians didnt

want Russians to take over Bulgaria so they send troops and so do Britain. Defeat of Ottoman empire led to a treaty saying berlin reduce the size of Bulgaria. The congress of San Stefano March 1878 between Ottomans and Russians- to agree for an end to their own war. Since Russia kept winning militarily they got a Great Bulgaria. (which would make it easier for Russia to eventually take over). That made every power in Europe afraid the Russia was expanding to fast and too dangerously. 1878 Congress of Berlin, June 1878- forced on Russians, the other Powers told Russia you need to negotiate with the Ottomans something that we can leave with. It gave the ottomans part of Bulgaria (no more great Bulgaria) back, so a small Bulgaria became autonomous, allowed Austrians to have a say over the future of the Bosnians. So Austria had the right to interfere in a part of the Ottoman empire incase the locals ask for their help on the basis of being fellow Christians. Bulgaria was split into three, and remained in the Ottoman empire. This is the first time Germany hosts a big event, showing the German empire had arrived- he held it there to attain prestige. Britain got Cyprus a jewel to the crown. Russia ended up getting a small are of the Ottoman empire. Made Queen Victoria an emperor of India in the Royal Titles Act putting her on equal rights with Russian Tsar. Britain got Cyprus in their support and the NW corridor. India has borders with Russia and Afghan he wanted to make sure that the Russians would not bother India. Despite Disraelis success, the Zulu wars in South Africa hurt him The Afrikaners (first communities there) (they are Dutch) . Britain wanted to increase colonies there (as did all the other Major Powers). Britain wanted to dominate from Egypt down to South Africa. Local British general created a situation to start a war with the Zulus and the British were unaware that the Zulus and Afrikaners, a small European community, were such good warriors. The British lost Afrikaners and Zulus, partially because economy was going worse and there was 10% unemployment. Great Depression of 73-97: became more obvious by late 70s. first way it was reflected was through unemployment because there was an overstock in factories being produced and not enough consumers in NW Europe. The more advanced the economy, the more overstock, the bigger the problem. Infrastructure could not be further built for more profit so economy was slowing down in W Europe and the E Coast of America. It was a systemic slow down. There was not enough business and profits were falling. Three options to escape this 1)Imperialism was more prevalent as an option to get out of economic problems by getting more resources. 2)They put up tariffs to stop agricultural products from coming in from America because wheat from Ohio, cotton from Mississippi, were more competitive in the European Markets. They wanted locally produced food would be bought and they can keep prices higher. Britain did not do that because free trade was part of its identity.3)Lend money to Russia at high interest rates

to buy goods- and it worked 4) Lend money to Russia for their own infrastructure with companies from the West. Targeted investments. Advanced economies of the W built infrastructure of other economies in the world to create business for themselves. This improved development and modernization of those countries. It also bankrupt the states though. (dont get number 4). The scramble for Africa later increased in 1900s. [[[Gladstone takes over 80-85 (Disraeli, his nemesis dies in 81)with a big majority, although he has a problem with strikes, calls for an end to free trade. This administration was not as positive as his first or Disraelis. the one issue to dominate Gladstone is Ireland where there is more agricultural distress. This makes a cry for Irish nationalism stronger and stronger. Gladstone advocates, espouses, Home Rule. Militant self governors for government. ]]] 5/9/13 FRANCE -the Paris commune came out of the chaos that enveloped Fracne from the Franco-Prussian war in 1871. As the Prussian troops followed the French troops back to Paris and lay a siege there, the country was bothe demoralized, suffering a defeat, had a gap in government (because napoleon had abdicated), out of this emerged a defacto Republican group led by Adolf Thiers- he was the leader of a group within the nation assembly who took over the provisional governing of France and he was the one who led the team that sued for peace-asked for peace from the Prussians. Prussians accepted and Thiers with his group sat down with Prussians in Versailles to arrange terms for peace. 1-they had to pay heavy reparations to the Prussians this eventually led to the beginning of the 19thc depression 2-declare the beginning of the German empire in Versailles (Also expensive for France because it was a large ceremony and they invited everyone-hosted by the French) this resonated poorly amongst the civilians amongst France who were already doing very poorly economically. Especially in Paris all the prices went up and Paris suffered the most. The people of Paris and the radical elements outside the circle of bourgeoisie reacted by the Paris commune -Paris Commune: Thiers is trying to control the country. The National Guards (socialists)had been protecting Paris, but then they refused to disperse after January. March 18 th 1871 Thiers sent troops to Montmartre in Paris (a village) to seize cannons that belonged to the National Guards (the peoples army to defend France). Women in the market place alerted the neighborhood and the guards put two generals up against the wall and shot them. They went against Thiers army. Then Thiers ordered a second siege around Paris(after the Prussians had laid a siege there) because national guard was not disarming itself. The national guard organized itself and established the Paris commune(council that ruled Paris. Socialists. Also

referring to the time period), a French state. Paris declared itself independent of France. Socialists placed bright red posters on the walls of the capital calling for the establishment of the Paris commune to protect Paris, during the Prussian siege(earlier on). They were the old Jacobins, and socialists, and radicals, and anti-clerical, and evidentially not respectful or confident in the French armys ability to defend Paris. A good amount of anarchists hoped independent Paris would prove an example to Europe of a system where the oppression of private property would end. Communards (members of the commune) organized Paris defense and enacted a number of socialist reforms 1- the creation of a labor exchange- a place for workers to gather and find out about jobs 2-abolition of night baking- grieving for bread bakers because they had long hours and little sleep 3-the establishment of nurseries for working moms 4- rights for working organizations to receive preference when the municipalities (local governments) contracted work. (when local authorities needed to higher workers, preference would be given to the Paris workers) 5-recognized womens unions, which exceeded any revolutions in France until this point. Other places replicated what was going on in Paris Much smaller uprisings occurred in Lyon and Marseilles representing dissatisfaction of working class. These two towns showed support and had similar movements by socialists or disappointed middle class. Other provinces however, didnt help the Paris commune, t hey gave their help to Thiers in Versailles because they didnt want France to fall apart. Downfall- May 21st 1871- Thiers troops fall into Paris through Western gates that were left open Thiers didnt hesitate to use upmost force to break the force the c ommunards had over Paris so he executed many many people. 15-25,000 people died in one week. By the 28th, Thiers took over Paris. Legacy1-made big parties go more into trade unionism 2- and in other places it made them go into even more radicalism. Drove some socialists into underground radicalists. **DONT ++ Thiers declared, insightfully, that we wil have a permanent provisional government. Since there was no obvious political system to take over the government of France, France declared (through Thiers and his party) that there would be a temporary republic, The Third Republic, AND IT REMAIND UNTIL 1939. This led to the French saying there is nothing more permanent than what is temporary. Third Republic

Problem- three factions didnt want a republic 1- those who were discredited but still in existence, the followers of Bonaparte, an emperor they couldnt get enough support 2-Monarchists who wanted a monarchists from the Louis Phillip branch and their agenda was to bring back a constitutional monarchy 3- descendants of Charles the 9th who wanted a pre French revolution rule of bourbon familyabsolute Monarchy. Each of tehse groups had a leader and they figured the republic is temporary so when there is a decision is taken as to which of these three groups would rule theyd have a leader. Thiers said the republic can be secure because there are three factions that want to sit on the same throne, and you cannot have three people one one throne. They each wanted their own way of rule and they couldnt agree with eachother. So as long as they are fighting Thiers will be in rule. Thiers declared a presidency president, he had limited powers and could not dissolve the National Assembly at will. The president would have a final say in foreign policy, but would not choose who is in the national assembly. The president needed the national assembly to pass a budget. 1- checked financially 2-checked because cant dissolve assembly 3- cant appoint national assembly members two Presidents had tried to outdo their powers and take over the Country. Boulanger 1880s and MacMahon1890s. it took a good twenty years for the following dynamics to be worked out: for the army and church not to want to undo the political system which was constitutional. As long as they were divided there was a danger for monarchists to take over and change the system. Monarchists of France wanted to overturn the Republic and re-establish aristocracy. Boulengar and Macmahon were generals financed by aristocratic families. They both tried to take over, dissolve parliament, and reconstitute it by staffing it with their own people. They were not successful. They were stopped early on because liberals and socialists realized what was going on. So they joined together to defend the republic. defend the republic became a rallying cry for those who were not monarchists. The monarchists took over the church and the army. Youre a Gallicon if youre French first and Catholic second. Dreyfus1859-1935 son of an old Jewish family from Alsace, but when Alsace was annexed by Germany in 1871, him and his family move to Paris. In 1894 there was evidence that someone from the army was passing information to the Germans about French military operations. They thought it was Dreyfus because the handwriting resembled his. He said he was innocent but they had a secret court martial, and he was sent to devils Island off the coast of South America. In 1896,

two years later, there was still information being transferred so it was evident to Lt Picard it was not Dreyfus, but another guy. Due to anti-Semitism, even after the evidence was brought, they decided to leave Dreyfus on the island as to not compromise their reputation of the army. Even though there was much evidence of another man being guilty, he was acquitted. After the affair, Emile Zola (big novelist), in 1898 writes I accuse- puts blame on French armed forces and all the forces that passed them. The church tried to say this was a Jewish conspiracy plot to undo France by discrediting the armed forces. Soemone else offered documents to prove Dreyfus was guilty all along, when found to be forged he killed himself. They retried Dreyfus in 1899 and found him guilty again, but in the same year got a presidential pardon, but was not let out until 1906. At that point his military rank was restored. The case completely grabbed France. In 1994, 100 years later, an article in France was claiming that Dreyfus was guilty.