Bahan Praktikum M7 PDF

PRACTICES MANUAL
Unit Ref.: UCP Date: October 2010 Pg: 1 / 115
PRACTICES MANUAL...........................................................................................................................................................2 7.1 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE SYSTEM ........................................................................................................... 2 7.1.1 General description of the system............................................................................................................................2 7.1.2 Operation of the subsystems .....................................................................................................................................5 7.2 THEORETICAL BASIS..................................................................................................................................................... 7 7.2.1 Modeling, simulation and control process.............................................................................................................7 7.2.2 Dynamics and control................................................................................................................................................8 7.2.3 Dynamic simulation of the control systems..........................................................................................................12 7.2.4 Operation and calibration of the process equipment and control elements...................................................15 7.3 LABORATORY PRACTICES........................................................................................................................................ 18 7.3.1 Practice 1: Flow control loops (manual).............................................................................................................18 7.3.2 Practice 2: Flow control loops (on/off) ................................................................................................................20 7.3.3 Practice 3: Flow control loops (proportional)....................................................................................................22 7.3.4 Practice 4: Flow control loops (Proportional + Integral)................................................................................24 7.3.5 Practice 5: Flow control loops (Proportional + Derivative) ...........................................................................26 7.3.6 Practice 6: Flow control loops (Proportional + Derivative + Integral)........................................................28 7.3.7 Practice 7: Adjustment of the flow controller constants (Ziegler-Nichols)....................................................30 7.3.8 Practice 8: Adjustment of the flow controller constants (Reaction Curves) ..................................................32 7.3.9 Practice 9: Level control loops (manual).............................................................................................................35 7.3.10 Practice 10: Level control loops (on/off)..............................................................................................................37 7.3.11 Practice 11: Level control loops (proportional) .................................................................................................38 7.3.12 Practice 12: Level control loops (Proportional + Integral) .............................................................................41 7.3.13 Practice 13: Level control loops (proportional + derivative) ..........................................................................42 7.3.14 Practice 14: Level control loops (Proportional + Derivative + Integral) .....................................................43 7.3.15 Practice 15: Adjustment of the constants of a flow controller (Ziegler-Nichols) ..........................................45 7.3.16 Practice 16: Adjustment of the constant of a flow controller (Reaction Curves)..........................................47 7.3.17 Practice 17: Temperature control loops (manual).............................................................................................50 7.3.18 Practice 18: Temperature control loops (on/off) ................................................................................................52 7.3.19 Practice 19: Temperature control loops (proportional)....................................................................................53 7.3.20 Practice 20: Temperature control loops (Proportional + Integral)................................................................55 7.3.21 Practice 21: Temperature control loops (Proportional + Derivative)...........................................................56 7.3.22 Practice 22: Temperature control loops (Proportional + Derivative + Integral)........................................58 7.3.23 Practice 23: Adjustment of the constant of a controller of temperature (Ziegler-Nichols) .........................59 7.3.24 Practice 24: Adjustment of the constants of a temperature controller (Reaction Curves) ..........................61 7.3.25 Practice 25: pH control loops (manual)...............................................................................................................64 7.3.26 Practice 26: pH control loops (on/off)..................................................................................................................66 7.3.27 Practice 27: pH control loops (proportional) .....................................................................................................67 7.3.28 Practice 28: pH control loops (Proportional + Integral).................................................................................69 7.3.29 Practice 29: pH control loops (Proportional + Derivative).............................................................................70 7.3.30 Practice 30: pH control loops (Proportional + Derivative + Integral).........................................................72 7.3.31 Practice 31: Adjustment of the constant of a pH controller (Ziegler-Nichols) .............................................73 7.3.32 Practice 32: Adjustment of the constant of a pH controller (Reaction Curves) ............................................75 7.3.33 Practice 33: Conductivity control loops (manual) .............................................................................................79 7.3.34 Practice 34: Conductivity control loops (on/off).................................................................................................81 7.3.35 Practice 35: Conductivity control loops (proportional) ....................................................................................82 7.3.36 Practice 36: Conductivity control loops (Proportional + Integral) ................................................................84 7.3.37 Practice 37: Conductivity control loops (Proportional + Derivative) ...........................................................86 7.3.38 Practice 38: Conductivity control loops (Proportional + Derivative + Integral) ........................................88 7.3.39 Practice 39: TDS control loops (manual)............................................................................................................90 7.3.40 Practice 40: TDS control loops (on/off) ...............................................................................................................92 7.3.41 Practice 41: TDS control loops (proportional)...................................................................................................93 7.3.42 Practice 42: TDS control loops (Proportional + Integral)...............................................................................95 7.3.43 Practice 43: TDS control loops (Proportional + Derivative) ..........................................................................96 7.3.44 Practice 44: TDS control loops (Proportional + Derivative + Integral).......................................................98 7.4 ANNEX ................................................................................................................................................................................100 7.4.1 Annex 1: Flow sensor calibration....................................................................................................................... 100
PRACTICES MANUAL
7.4.2 7.4.3 7.4.4
Annex 2: Temperature sensor calibration......................................................................................................... 104 Annex 3: Level sensor calibration...................................................................................................................... 108 Annex 4: pH sensor calibration .......................................................................................................................... 112
7 PRACTICES MANUAL
7.1 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE SYSTEM In this section, the process unit and the control loops used in measuring experiments for level, flow, temperature and pH regulation are described, together with the different equipment and necessary instruments for the physical simulation of the corresponding dynamic systems. 7.1.1 General description of the system This unit consists on a hydraulic circuit, with an bottom tank (1) and a superior process tank (2), both dual ones, two pumps of centrifugal circulation (3), two flowmeters with a manual control valve (4), three on/off solenoid valves (5) and a motorized proportional valve (infinitely variable) (6). Of course, together with the tubes, the union elbows, connections, feedthroungh, main valve and the appropriate drainage for the circuit operation. All the above-mentioned is set on a designed support structure so, that it is placed on a work table (7). As additional fixed elements, there is also a turbine flow sensor that is installed in one of the upward lines of flow (8), and a temperature sensor located in a lateral bottom of the process tank (9) together with a serpentine with electric heating (11). The interchangeable additional elements are an agitator (10), the immersion level sensor should be located in the process tank (12) and the pH sensor (solenoid), can be in the process tank or also in the second tank (13), to study the
PRACTICES MANUAL
effect of the time out.
Figure 1.1.1 Main diagram of the equipment
The UCP elements indicated in the diagram are: 1. A main tank and collector with an orifice in the central dividing wall (2 x 25 dm), and drainage in both compartments (made in methacrylate). 2. A dual process tank (2 x 10 dm), interconnected through an orifice and a ball valve and an overflow in the dividing wall (methacrylate); a graduate scale and a threaded drain of adjustable level with bypass (metallic). 3. Two centrifugal pumps .
PRACTICES MANUAL
4. Two variable area flowmeters (0.2-2 l/min, and 0.2-10 l/min), and with a manual valve. 5. Line of on/off regulation valves (solenoid). Usually one is opened (AVS-1), and the other two are usually closed with different Cv (AVS-2 and AVS-3); and manual drainage valves of the superior tank. 6. A motorized control valve (AVP-1; piston type) with rotation indicator. 7. Structures, panels, pipes and connections made in stainless steel and methacrylate. 8. A flow sensor, fixed, turbine type. 9. A temperature sensor. 10. A helix agitator. 11. An electric resistor (0.5 KW), fixed. 12. Level sensor 0-300 mm (of capacitive immersion, 4-20 MA), can be dismantled. 13. PH sensor (glass electrode, ddp(V)), collapsible (tank). 14. On/off level sensor. This sensor determines the performance of the immersion resistor. 15. Control loops : interface, controller, monitor and keyboard (PC and cards), electric connections.
PRACTICES MANUAL
7.1.2 Operation of the subsystems For the level, flow and temperature control test, the liquid (water) is impelled from the tank by the pump, located to the left of the front of the equipment, going through the flowmeter, the solenoid valve (usually open), the motorized valve, the turbine (flow sensor) and the process tank. It is possible to use the second pump in the level tests, as it will be indicated. The pH control test of requires a second parallel line of flow (right), provided only with pump and a flowmeter. The compartments of the inferior tank should be loaded with diluted solutions of an acid and a base, respectively. The process tank is divided in two halves, with an orifice between them that allows their communication or isolation. The right compartment has an overflow of variable level (that it prevents the complete overflow of the tank, and it allows to modify its effective liquid volume), two drains with solenoid valves with different Cv (normally closed), and a third one with a normal drainage valve. The left compartment is only connected to a drainage valve. The level control tests require all the elements of the circuit and of the tank, besides the sensor located in it. In some experiments, it is required the second pump placed to the right-hand side of the equipment. The TEMPERATURE CONTROL tests, in these cases, as we will see later on, can be carried out with experiments in closed circuit or in open circuit. In the close circuit case, fill the superior tank with the right pump 1 (AB-1) and carry out the experiment. In open circuit, keep a constant water flow using the pump 1, this
PRACTICES MANUAL
way, a small water flow is adjusted and the superior overflow is used as a drainage system. In this case, it is necessary to use the agitator to guarantee a good temperature uniformity.
PRACTICES MANUAL
7.2 THEORETICAL BASIS Modeling, simulation, design and optimization require a series of processes that will be explained in the following paragraphs. The understanding of these theoretical concepts will help the student to follow the suitable instructions for the practices procedure. 7.2.1 Modeling, simulation and control process The development, and good operation of the industrial plants, requires the right selection of the equipment and process parameters. This election is supplemented with the instrumentation and the control, as well as with the dexterity to adjust and to manipulate them correctly. For it, the industrial engineering processes use different tools and technical aspects based on: 1.- The modeling of the systems. 2.- The simulation of the stationary and dynamics response. The control process is the objective of this modeling and simulation that guarantees that the dynamic behavior is efficient and precise. The design and the process optimization is based on calculations in stationary state to specify, in a first approach, the operation conditions of the equipment in the process plants. These design calculations in the stationary state don't say anything about the dynamic response of the system, they only tell us where we begin and where we end up, but anything about the process behavior. This type of
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information is the one that informs about the study of the dynamics procedure. The dynamics and the control study the non-stationary behavior of the processes and the design of the control systems in function of the interferences. With this, the design of the process systems is finished, that include the own process and its control loops. In a first approach, the process control unit has been designed for the study of the dynamic behavior of the different control loops. The modeling and stationary simulation of the processes is not deal with in this equipment. 7.2.2 Dynamics and control Once the freedom degrees of the process are selected and the design variables good values are calculated, these values should remain unaffected with the deviations that take place during the real operation of the systems during the stationary state. The factors that cause such deviations are denominated interferences. These can be internal or external to the process, random or programmed. The random interference type are those that produce deviations from the programmed regime due to some process input variables fluctuations. In the programmed interferences, it is necessary to consider the transitory periods of starting-up, stop or changes in the stationary state of the process. The number of variables that you can fix coincides with the freedom degrees (although they don't have to coincide with the free variables that were chosen during the design phase). The variables that are more easily controlled are: level, flow, pressure, temperature and composition. We will denominate them controlled variables and their values we will be called s et point. In a controller, the input
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magnitude of the set point is fixed in a constant value. In a programmer controller the inlet magnitude is a value that varies in function of the time, according to the programmed law. The variable used to regulate the set values is denominated manipulated variable. The function of the regulating device of the system is to activate automatically the control elements that allow to modify the value of the manipulated variables, so that the controlled variables are the next to the set point. 7.2.2.1 Dynamics in open loop The systems dynamics studies the non-stationary situations of the process. This study is always previous to the design of the control that avoids the nonreversibility of some deviations of the stationary state. In the process, the manipulated variable acts changing the value of the controlled variables so, in the simplest cases, it can be predicted using of a mathematical model. So, it is fundamental to have an exhaustive knowledge of the process to will be studied. The dynamic simulation of a process consists on: 1. Developing the material and energy balance equations, the balances, the physical laws or other independent sources of information. 2. Selecting the values of the necessary physical-chemical
magnitudes and the values of the preset points. 3. Obtaining the differential expressions of the variables determining their temporary evolution for an interference in the stationary regime starting from a defined initial state.
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As a particular case, the design equations in the stationary state can be obtained (null accumulation) and, starting from them, calculate the values of the design and state variables in this regime. The system dynamic in open loop represents the process behavior in the absence of controllers. The velocity and the tolerance of the response of the process in function of the interferences can be studied, this is the necessity of the control system. 7.2.2.2 Feedback Control The feedback control system consists, essentially, on measuring the controlled variable, to compare its value with the one wanted (set point) and, according to the error, to act on the control element of the manipulated variable. This is a feedback system, in which the corrector action persists while the error is not null. The corresponding signals spread in the circuit, making comparison cycles, of calculation and of correction (in closed loop) with a certain time of response. If a closed control is turned into manual operation, the operator can govern directly the control valve and the value of the regulated variable obtained from the transmitter can be observed in the controller. In this case, we are operating in open loop, since the output signal of the controller is off. The main elements of a control system in closed loop are: Sensor: Device that is able to measure the value of the controlled variable (it is also denominated primary measure element). Transducer: Device that transforms the measures in normalized equivalent signals, pneumatic or electric, according to the distance between the process and control rooms, which are sent to the
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comparator (also denominated signal conditioner element). Controller: Device that receives the error from the comparator, interprets it, and it acts on the final element of control. There are three types of corrective actions: - Proportional: the signal sent to the final element is proportional to the error. If the proportional constant is very big the control behaves as an on/off control. - Integral: the corrective signal sent is proportional to the error accumulated with the time (integral error). - Derivative: the signal is proportional to the velocity of variation of the error. These last two actions are usually combined with the primary signal (proportional) to improve the control quality and even, they usually combine the three in complex processes. These combined processes are known as P.I.D. control (proportional-integral-derivative). Final element of control (actuator): Device that, according to the signal of the controller, acts on the manipulated variable regulating the inlet material or energy flow to the process (valve, volumetric pump, compressor, rheostat, etc.). The control systems are effective with small interferences. In the case of big interferences, the final element can end up being totally open or totally closed, and, above a certain value, the control would not act appropriately (saturated). In these cases, to correct it, you should act manually on the parameters of the system.
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The sensors, the transmitters and the final control elements are inserted in the process in a logical way. The control devices are usually located in a control room, and they are in normalized panels with graphic instruments for the variables and a diagram of flow (in a simple pilot plant it can be a simple PC computer with a monitor and a printer). In the control diagrams, the variables are designated with the letters F (flow), L (level), P (pressure), T (temperature), followed by the indicative letters of the service and of the functions of the instruments: T (transmitter), C (controller), I (indicator), R (register), A (alarms). 7.2.2.3 Forward control The forward control makes the corrective action in the moment in which the interference is detected, instead of waiting to its spread through the process, as it happened in the feedback process. The action is independent of the value of the controlled variable, making it depend on another, according to a calibrated preset. This system is used with simple processes that don't require a great accuracy, or in those processes in which the closed loop doesn't give good results, for example, in processes in which that the measure and the corrective action take place in a great period of time. 7.2.3 Dynamic simulation of the control systems The dynamic simulation of the control systems allows studying the response of the system facing up diverse interferences, such as changes in the input variables, in the set point, or in the controller adjustments. The system consists of a block that represents the process, and of another that corresponds the controller connected to the first one forming a feedback loop.
PRACTICES MANUAL
Figure 2.3.1
The process consists basically of an input (q), a manipulated variable, also called feedback (m) and an output (c) (controlled variable). The controlled variable is subtracted to the set point (r) to obtain the error (e) (input to the controller). The controller calculates an output signal by means of an appropriate control algorithm. The characteristic response of a controller on/off comes determined by its hysteresis, also called dead band. In a PID controller (proportional-integral-derivative) the signal comes determined by the gain (Kc) or its percentage inverse (BP=100/Kc, proportional band) and the integral (I) and derivative (D) times.
c = Kp[q, m] e = r c m = Kc( e + et + D e t )
[1]
In open loop, the state variables (outputs) are calculated starting from the initial values and from the process pattern. It is defined in function of differential equations for the transitory regime, or by state equations for the stationary regime (invariable with the time). These last ones are the techniques employed during the design phase of the experiment and they allow calculating the values of the necessary input variables to reach the stationary regime. The first ones allow studying the transitory periods during the setting phases in setting-in, stops or changes in the stationary regime of
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the process. During the real operation of the process, the variables are modified with the time as a consequence of diverse interferences in the input variables or in the set point (programmed). In these cases, the process can only work correctly using a closed loop control. The dynamic behavior of the system is calculated by an iterative algorithm at discreet intervals of time (Eulers method). The first phase of the program is the data input: fixed variables, initial values of the manipulated variables, set point of the controlled variables, adjustment of the controller ( hysteresis, parameters PID) and interference variables. Qt RT H,KC, I,D
PROCESO
Ct
COMPARACIN
eI
CONTROL
mt
Figure 2.3.2
The mathematical pattern of the process calculates the outlet (Ct ) in function of the inlets (q t, mt ). This value is compared with the set point (rt ) and the resulting error (et ) is calculated (the accumulated error (integral) or its derivative with the time, the trapezoidal rules and finite increments are used in this case). Finally, with these values, the controller output ( s t ) and the manipulated variable (mt ) are calculated making use of the adjustments of the control actions (H, Kc, I, D) and of the calibration of the actuator, respectively.
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The relationship between these last two variables can be settled down on the base of a function (lineal) between the width of the actuator (m) and the signal of the controller (s). Also, automatic graph representation commands of response can be included (controlled and manipulated variables), time outs in the process (always superior or similar to the time of sampling, tt) and sampling time of the controller similar to those of the process (analogical control) or superiors (digital control). In case a graphic register is used, this should be connected to the electric signs of the sensor/conditioner (controller input) and to its output (actuator input) to obtain a register of the response of the process.
7.2.4 Operation and calibration of the process equipment and control elements The verification and calibration of all the sensors you can find in the equipment can be carried out in two different ways. The Saced System that is supplied with the equipment, has a calibration window specially designed for such a purpose (see Calibration Manual). However, and due to the importance that the calibration the sensors has in the control process, the system offers two text windows in which the gain and the zero can be introduced of each one of the transducers that the equipment has: flow, level, temperature and pH.
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Name of the sensor for calibration.
Figure 2.4.1
In the same way, the verification of the operation of the pumps, solenoid valves, agitator, etc. it can be carried out from the calibration window in the Saced System. This process of operation test should be carried out with extreme care and under the introduction of the professor's PASSWORD. This Password has been indicated in the software manual. Once the professor's password is introduced, the program allows you to select the channels included in the equipment for the digital outputs as well as for the analogical ones. Verify each one of the elements assembled in the equipment and carry out a good calibration of the sensors. We should point out that, when storing the calibration values in the file UCP.EDB, these will be recovered every time that you enter in the program, independently from the values i ntroduced by the students in the different practice sessions. When selecting the different outputs that has the acquisition card (analogical and digital outputs, and analogical and digital inputs), you can verify the operation of all devices of the equipment. As an example we have the following table:
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Analogical port (Inputs) Channel Action/Sensor Channel 0 pH sensor Channel 1 Level sensor Channel 2 Flow sensor Channel 3 Temperature sensor Channel 4 Alarm of Level Channel 5 Proportional Valve
Table 2.4.1
Digital Port (Outputs) Channel Action/Sensor Channel 0 AVS-1 Channel 1 AVS-2 Channel 2 AVS-3 Channel 3 Resistor On/Off Channel 4 Agitator On/Off Channel 5 Pump 1 On /Off Channel 6 Pump 2 On/Off
To outputs and inputs it is necessary to add the analogical output that corresponds to the motorized valve.
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7.3 LABORATORY PRACTICES It is very important for the formation of the student, the calibration of the sensors, hence is recommendable that the students see the Annex 1 to Annex 4. 7.3.1 Practice 1: Flow control loops (manual) 7.3.1.1 Objectives The objective of this experiment is to control the flow that circulates through a conduction of water by a manual procedure. We assume that the manual control works as: Manual regulation of the adjustable valve placed under the area flowmeter. Manual control of the elements used in the equipment as the motorized valve, solenoid valves, etc. 7.3.1.2 Required material To make this practice, the following elements are necessary: UCP-F Water SACED Software. 7.3.1.3 Experimental procedure 1.- Connect the interface of the equipment and execute the program
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SACED UCP-F. 2.- Inside the program, select the option Configuration and connect pump 1 (AB-1) (see Software Manual for a more detailed operation). 3.- In the manual regulation (no controller) the flow can be regulated by the manual adjustable valve VR1, placed in the inferior part of the flowmeter. Vary its position and observe the adjustment of the flow in function of its position. 4.- Select the option Manual Control of the software supplied with the equipment. 5.- Connect pump 1 (AB-1) and vary the position of the motorized valve by the Slip bar or the command associated to this action. Check a fixed position, the flow is regulated. 6.- Vary the position of the valve and repeat the values to observe the reproduction of the flow control. 7.- Use the controls prepared in the software for controlling the solenoid valves AVS-1 and the on/off button of the pump. Observe how an on and off button also produces a flow control of the liquid.
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7.3.2 Practice 2: Flow control loops (on/off) 7.3.2.1 Objectives
Control On/off
Figure 3.6.1
The objective of this practice is to carry out a closed loop control by an on/off controller. For it, the student will select the value wanted for the flow and the controller will adjust this control by the closing and opening of the solenoid valve AVS-1.
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7.3.2.2 Experimental procedure 1.- Connect the interface of the equipment and the control software. 2.- Select the control option on/off. 3.- By a double click on the on/off control, select the flow wanted. By defect there is certain flow, a tolerance and a performance time. It allows the students to play with these parameters and they can see the influences of each one of them. 4.- It calculates the inertia of the system before an on/off response and determines the limit time for an exact control.
Results of the on/off action.
Figure 3.6.2
7.3.2.3 Conclusions From the results obtained by the on/off control on the flow variable we can affirm that this controller is not the most appropriate due to the quick variation of this magnitude before a small interference. Only with small values in the performance times and the tolerances we can obtain a flow control next to the set value, but in any case we will have a stable value of the flow.
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7.3.3 Practice 3: Flow control loops (proportional) 7.3.3.1 Objectives This configuration allows studying the system dynamics and the response to the control actions in closed loop. The object of the experiment is to regulate the set point (flow) by the employment of controllers that operate automatically on the final element of the loop (control valves). You can control the flow in the tank by a sensor and a controller configured for proportional outputs to the actuator without the typical oscillations of the on/off control. The response of the control loop can be studied compared to the interferences in the variables of the process (flow) or variations in the set point (the flow is changed fixing different set points). Modifying the set point in a remote way, the flow changes can be observed, oscillating around the new value. We can have the case that the set point is not reached if the range of the actuator (manipulated variable) is not enough as to control the interferences or the changes in the set point, so it will be stabilized only until the maximum that the available water allows. In our case, the manipulated variable is the water flow that circulates through a motorized valve, managed automatically from the controller (0-10V signal), by means of superimposed actions of proportional, integral and derivative type. 7.3.3.2 Required material To make the practice the following material is needed: UCP-F Control and Acquisition Software.
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Water. 7.3.3.3 Experimental procedure 1.- Connect the Interface and execute the control software (For more details about the control software, see the Software Manual M4) 2.- Select the Option Control PID on the capture screen.
Figure 3.7.1
3.- Select a set point, PID controller and a proportional constant (For more information about the meaning of each parameter, see the Software Manual M4).
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4.- Indicate a value of 0 for the integral and derivative performance. In this experiment we want to observe the effects of a proportional action.
Figure 3.7.2
6.- Activate the PID controller and start and go out and save the values. The student will observe that the motorized valve begins to act. 7.- Connect pump 1 (AB-1). 8.- The controller will modify the position of the AVP (Proportional Valve) to adjust the flow to the set value. 7.3.4 Practice 4: Flow control loops (Proportional + Integral) 7.3.4.1 Objectives This practice supplements the previous one. The objective is to observe the effect that an integral performance superimposed to a proportional action, in an actuator, has.
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7.3.4.2 Required material The following material is necessary for the practice development: UCP-F Control and Acquisition Software. Water. 7.3.4.3 Experimental procedure 1.- Connect the Interface and execute the control software (For more details about the control software, see the Software Manual, M4) 2.- Select the Option Control PID on the capture screen. (For more information about the meaning of each parameter, see the Software manual M4). 3.- Select a set point, PID controller and a proportional constant and an integral value. The value for the integral constant should be big so that the error accumulation is carried out smoothly and it doesnt generate an on/off performance in the actuator. 5.- Indicate a value of 0 for the derivative performance. In this experiment, we want to observe the effects of a proportional action plus an integral action. 6.- Activate the PID controller, go out, and save the values. The student will observe that the motorized valve begins to work. 7.- Connect pump 1 (AB-1). 8.- The controller will modify the position of the AVP-1 (Proportional Valve) to adjust the flow to the set value.
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7.3.5 Practice 5: Flow control loops (Proportional + Derivative) 7.3.5.1 Objectives This practice supplements the previous one. The objective is to observe the effect that a derivative performance superimposed to a proportional action, in an actuator, has. 7.3.5.2 Required material It is required for the realization of the practice: UCP-F Control and Acquisition Software. Water. 7.3.5.3 Experimental procedure 1.- Connect the Interface and execute the control software (For more details about the software control, see the Software Manual M4) 2.- Select the option Control PID on the capture screen. (For more information about the meaning of each parameter, see the Software Manual, M4). 3.- Select a set point, PID controller and a proportional and derivative constant. The value for the derivative constant should be small so that the performance is small and it does not generate an on/off performance in the actuator. 4.- Indicate a value of 0 for the integral performance. In this experiment, we want to observe the effects of a proportional action plus a derivative action.
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5.- Activate the PID controller, go out, and save the values. The student will observe that the motorized valve begins to act. 6.- Connect pump 1 (AB-1). 7.- The controller will modify the position of the AVP-1 (Proportional Valve) to adjust the flow to the set value.
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7.3.6 Practice 6: Flow control loops (Proportional + Derivative + Integral) 7.3.6.1 Objectives This practice supplements to the previous one. The objective is to observe the effect that has a derivative performance superimposed to an integral performance and a proportional action in an actuator. 7.3.6.2 Required material The following material is required for the realization of the practice: UCP-F Control and Acquisition Software. Water. 7.3.6.3 Experimental procedure 1.- Connect the Interface and execute the control software (For more details about the control software, see the Software Manual M4) 2.- Select the option Control PID on the capture screen. (For more information about the meaning of each parameter, see the Software Manual, M4). 3.- Select a set point, PID controller and a proportional constant, derivative and integral. The value for the derivative constant should be small and the integral constant should be big so that the performance is small and it does not generate an on/off performance in the actuator. 4.- Activate the PID controller, go about, and save the values. The student
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will observe that the motorized valve begins to work. 5.- Connect pump 1 (AB-1). 6.- The controller will modify the position of the AVP-1 (Proportional Valve) to adjust the flow to the set value.
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7.3.7 Practice 7: Adjustment of the flow controller constants (Ziegler-Nichols) 7.3.7.1 Objectives To follow the optimization process of a controller of three terms (PID), for a given process. When you optimize the PID control values you will have to take into account several initial considerations: 1.-The process has slow or quick response. 2.-The process reaction goes very retarded of the action. 3.-The sensors and controllers response is immediate or they need a time out to reach the balance. The objective of this practice is to get familiarized with the most usual methods of optimizing the variables of a PID controller starting from the characterization of the process. For such a purpose the following methods will be used: - Ziegler-Nichols (or closed loop). - Reaction curve (or open loop). 7.3.7.2 Experimental procedure The data to be analyzed will be obtained configuring the controller only with the Proportional Band or the proportional action. The Integral and Derivative Actions should be at zero.
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The objective of the experiment is to maintain the conduction of the system with a flow of 1 l/m using a P controller for the control of the motorized valve. With the motorized valve at the 50% of its complete way, regulate the needle valve manually VR-1, until the flow of the system is at 1 l/min. 7.3.7.2.1Method of the minimum period (Ziegler-Nichols) Pass now to an automatic control and observe how the flow stays constant at the 50% of the process variable. Change the process variables for a partial opening of the needle valve, VR-1. As the process will become stable, increase the value of the proportional constant and close the needle valve partially, VR-1, observing the behavior of the process. Continue increasing the value of the proportional constant and applying every time a step interference (closing or opening VR-1), until the variable of the process oscillates continually. Write down the value of the proportional constant (Limit Proportional Band, L.P.B.) when this happens, to measure the oscillation time of the process (O.T.). The optimum values, depending on the control type that we are going to make on our process are: Type of Control P P+I P+I+D B.P. 2 (L.P.B.) 2.2 (L.P.B.) 1.7 (L.P.B.)
Table 3.11.1
I.T. -O.T. / 1.2 O.T. / 2.0
D.T. --O.T. / 8.0
A variant of the gain limit method is the method of the minimum overflow of the set point. Once the self-maintained oscillation of Oscillation Time O.T. for a
PRACTICES MANUAL
Limit Proportional Band L.P.B. is obtained, the control action values are the following ones: B.P (%) = 1.25 L.P.B. I.T. (MIN/REP) = 0.6 O.T. D.T. (MIN) = 0.19 O.T.
7.3.8 Practice 8: Adjustment of the flow controller constants (Reaction Curves) In this method of open loop, the general procedure consists on opening the regulation closed loop before the valve, that is to say, the valve must be operated directly with the manual controller and to create a small and quick change in step in the input process. From the registration of the signal and from their graphic representation the control values of the PID will be obtained. The graphic representation of the controlled variable versus the time is a sigmoid. In the inflection point of the sigmoid a tangent straight line is traced and the values of R and L can be measured. R is the slope of the tangent in the inflection point of the curve and L is the retard time of the process. That is, the time (in minutes) between the instant of the change in the step and the point in which the tangent straight cuts the sigmoid in the inflexion point crosses with the initial value of the controlled variable. DP is the percentage (%) of position variation of the control valve that introduces the step in the process, see figure 3.12.1.
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Figure 3.12.1 representation of the reaction curve. From this representation we can obtain the slope of the sigmoid, R, and the time of retard, L.
The optimum values, depending on the control type that we will make on our process, are Type of Control P P+I P+I+D B.P. P 110RL/DP 83RL/DP
Table 3.12.1. Optimum values that are going to be used in function of the type of control used. L: Time of retard, R.: Slope of the sigmoid in the inflection point. D: Derivative, P : Proportional.
I.T. -L/0.3 L/0.5
D.T. --0.5L
Compare the values obtained by the two methods. 7.3.8.1 Other experiments to carry out 7.3.8.1.1Evaluation of the PID controller calibration Once the PID values are entered to the controller, adjust in manual way, with the motorized valve positioned at 50% of their way, the needle valve VR-1, until the flow of the system is at the 50% of the maximum flow provided by the pump. Go to automatic control of the process and apply an interference, as the solenoid valve AVS-1. Observe the temporary behavior of the process. Repeat the process for the
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PID control values obtained by the other method. 7.3.8.2 Conclusions - There are techniques to obtain the different values of the variables of a PID controller and they should be determined for any particular process. - The values obtained by any of the different methods differ and they should be treated as start values for the good regulation of the process; they should be slightly modified by the operator, carrying out, this way, their fine adjustment until you obtain the good values. - There are methods of automatic adjustment, in which the instrument has an algorithm of self adjustment of the control actions that allows it to tune in with a wide range of industrial processes. The application of a test signal to the process and the analysis of the obtained response and its mathematical modeling leads to the controller analytic design (Nishikawa, Sannomiya, Ohta and Tanaka, 1984). Or you can use an iterative process to the method of the gain limit (Chindambara, 1970, and Kraus and Myron, 1984): The error signal obtained is analyzed, in the case of changes in the set point or in the load of the process, and iterating the new PID values can be determined. Controller P: Controller PI: B.P.N+1 = B.P.N / (0.5 + 2.27 R) same B.P.n+1 and I.T. = P / (1.2 *sqr(1+R2)) min/rep
Controller PID: same B.P.and I.T. = P / (2 *sqr(1+R2)) D.T. = P / (8 *SQR(1+R2)). being R = 1/(2*3.14) * Ln(a/b) and P the period of the oscillation muffled, in
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minutes. Where a and b are the widths of the first two oscillations introduced the after the interference. If, when applying these methods, the process enters into oscillation, the interference can invalidate the application, in case the process does not allow it. 7.3.9 Practice 9: Level control loops (manual) 7.3.9.1 Objectives The objective of this experiment is to control the level in a tank of water by a manual procedure. We understand that the manual control works as: Manual regulation of the adjustable valve placed under the area flowmeter. Manual control of the elements prepared in the equipment; motorized valve, solenoid valves, etc. 7.3.9.2 Required material The following elements are required for the realization of this practice: UCP-L Water SACED Software. 7.3.9.3 Experimental procedure 1.- Connect the interface of the equipment and execute the program SACED UCP-L.
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2.- Inside the program, select the option Manual. 3.- In the manual regulation (no controller) the flow can be regulated by the manual adjustable valve VR1, placed in the inferior part of the flowmeter. This regulation, together with the opening of the tank manual valves, to notice a level of water. Change its position and observe the adjustment of the level in function of their position. 4.- Select the option Manual Control of the software supplied with the equipment. 5.- Connect pump 1 and vary the position of the motorized valve in the slip bar or the command associated to this action. Open AVS-1 or AVS-2 and check how, for a given position, the level of water in the tank fixes. 6.- Change the position of the valve and repeat the values to observe the reproducibility of the level control. 7.- Use the controls prepared in the software for the control of the solenoid valves AVS-1, AVS-2 and AVS-3 and the switch on/off button of the pump. Observe how an on/off of it also produces a level control of the liquid.
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7.3.10 Practice 10: Level control loops (on/off) 7.3.10.1 Objectives
On/Off controller
Figure 3.14.1
The objective of this practice is to carry out a closed loop control by an on/off controller. For it, the student will select a value wanted for the level and the controller will adjust this control by the closing and opening of the solenoid valve AVS-1, AVS-2, AVS-3 and the activation of pump 2. 7.3.10.2 Experimental procedure 1.- Connect the interface of the equipment and the control software. 2.- Select the control on/off option.
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3.- Make a double click on the on/off control, select the wanted flow. By defect, there is a certain flow, tolerance and performance time. It allows the students to play with these parameters and see the influences of each one. 4.- The level control can be carried out by the activation of a single actuator, or of several ones, to which different tolerances are allowed. These controllers work as security system measures when the controlled variable exceeds in a tolerance the set value. To activate or to disable each one of these controllers you have to make a double click on each one of them and press the button PAUSE. 5.-Calculate the inertia of the system before an on/off response and determine the limit time for an exact control. 7.3.10.3 Conclusions From the results obtained by the on/off control on the variable level, we can affirm that this controller has an acceptable behavior due to the fact that the variation of this magnitude under a small interference is slow. If we also take small values in the performance times and in the tolerances, we can obtain a level control next to the set value. 7.3.11 Practice 11: Level control loops (proportional) 7.3.11.1 Objectives This configuration allows studying the dynamics of the system and the response to the control actions in closed loop. The object of the experiments is to regulate the set point (LEVEL) by the use of the controllers that automatically operate on the final element of the loop (control valves). You can control the level in the tank by a sensor and a controller
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configured for proportional output to the actuator without the typical oscillations of the on/off control. The response of the control loop can be studied faced to interferences in the variables of the process (flow) or variations in the set point (the flow is changed fixing different set points). Modifying the set point in a remote way, the level changes can be observed oscillating around the new value. It can happened that the set point is not reached if the range of the actuator (manipulated variable) it is not enough to control the interferences or the changes in the set point, so it will be stabilized only until the maximum that allows the available water. In our case, the manipulated variable is the water level of the tank that, at the same time, comes determined by the flow that passes through a motorized valve, manipulated automatically from the controller (010V signal), by means of superimposed actions of proportional, integral and derivative type. 7.3.11.2 Required material The following material is required for the realization of the practice: UCP-L Control and Acquisition Software. Water. 7.3.11.3 Experimental procedure 1.- Connect the Interface and execute the control software (For more details about the control software, see the Software Manual M4) 2.- Select the Option Control PID on the capture screen. (For more
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information about the meaning of each parameter, see the Software Manual M4). 3.- Select a set point, PID controller and a proportional constant. 4.- Indicate a value of 0 for the integral and derivative performance. In this experiment, we want to observe the effects of a proportional action. 5.- Activate the PID controller, go out and save the values. The student will observe that the motorized valve begins to work. 6.- Connect pump 1 (AB-1). 7.- Activate the solenoid valve AVS-2. 8.- The controller will modify the position of the AVP-1 (Proportional Valve) to adjust the flow that controls the level from the water tank to the set value.
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7.3.12 Practice 12: Level control loops (Proportional + Integral) 7.3.12.1 Objectives This practice supplements the previous one. The objective is to observe the effect that an integral performance superimposed to a proportional action in an actuator has. 7.3.12.2 Required material The following material is required for the realization of the practice: UCP-L Control and Acquisition Software. Water. 7.3.12.3 Experimental procedure 1.- Connect the Interface and execute the control software (For more details about the control software, see the Software Manual, M4) 2.- Select the option Control PID on the capture screen. (For more information about the meaning of each parameters, see the Software Manual, M4). 3.- Select a set point, PID controller and a proportional constant and an integral value. The value for the integral constant should be big so that the error accumulation is carried out smoothly and it doesnt generate an on/off performance in the actuator. 4.- Indicate a value of 0 for the derivative performance. In this experiment
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we want to observe the effects of a proportional action plus an integral action. 5.- Activate the PID controller, go out, and save the values. The student will observe that the motorized valve begins to act. 6.- Connect pump 1. 7.- Open the solenoid valve AVS-1. 8.- The controller will modify the position of the AVP-1 (Proportional Valve) to adjust the flow that controls the set value. 7.3.13 Practice 13: Level control loops (proportional + derivative) 7.3.13.1 Objectives This practice supplements the previous one. The objective is to observe the effect that has a derivative performance superimposed to a proportional action in an actuator. 7.3.13.2 Required material The following material is required for the realization of the practice: UCP-L Control and Acquisition Software. Water. 7.3.13.3 Experimental procedure 1.- Connect the Interface and execute the control software (For more
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details about the control software, see the Software Manual, M4) 2.- Select the option Control PID on the capture screen. (For more information about the meaning of each parameter, see the Software Manual, M4). 3.- Select a set point, PID controller and a proportional constant and derivative. The value for the derivative constant should be small so that the performance is small and it doesnt generate an on/off performance in the actuator. 4.- Indicate a value of 0 for the integral performance. In this experiment we want to observe the effects of a proportional action plus a derivative action. 5.- The activated PID controller and start and save the values. The student will observe that the motorized valve begins to work. 6.- Connect pump 1. 7.- Open valve AVS-2. 8.- The controller will modify the position of the AVP-1 (Porportional Valve) to vary the flow to adjust the level to the set value. 7.3.14 Practice 14: Level control loops (Proportional + Derivative + Integral) 7.3.14.1 Objectives This practice supplements the previous one. The objective is to observe the effect that a derivative performance superimposed to an i ntegral performance and a proportional action in an actuator has. 7.3.14.2 Required material The following material is required for the realization of the practice:
PRACTICES MANUAL
UCP-L Control and Acquisition Software. Water. 7.3.14.3 Experimental procedure 1.- Connect the Interface and execute the control software (For more details about the control software, see the Software Manual, M4) 2.- Select the option Control PID on the capture screen. (For more information about the meaning of each parameter, see the Software Manual, M4). 3.- Select a set point, PID controller and a proportional constant, derivative and integral. The value for the derivative constant should be small and the integral constant should be big so that the performance is small and doesnt generate an on/off performance in the actuator. 4.- Activate the PID controller, go out and save the values. The student will observe that the motorized valve begins to act. 5.- Connect pump 1. 6.- Open the solenoid valve AVS-2. 7.- The controller will modify the position of the AVP-1 (Proportional Valve) to vary the flow to adjust the level to the set value.
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7.3.15 Practice 15: Adjustment of the constants of a flow controller (ZieglerNichols) 7.3.15.1 Objective of the experiment To follow the optimization process of a controller of three terms (PID), for a given process. When the PID control values of a process are optimized, you will have to take into account several initial considerations: 1.-The process is of slow or quick response. 2.-The reaction of the process goes very retarded of the action. 3.-The response of the sensors and controllers is immediate or they need a time out to reach the balance. The objective of this practice is to get familiarized with the most usual methods of optimizing the variables of a PID controller starting from the characterization of the process. For such a purpose the following methods will be used: - Ziegler-Nichols (or closed loop). - Reaction Curves (or open loop). 7.3.15.2 Experimental procedure The data to be analyzed will be obtained configuring only the controller with the Proportional Band or the proportional action. The integral and derivative
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actions should be at zero. The objective of the experience is to maintain the system with a constant level using a controller P for the control of the motorized valve. With the motorized valve at the 50% of its way, regulate the needle valve manually VR-1, until getting that the level of the tank is constant. 7.3.15.3 Method of the minimum period (Ziegler-Nichols) Pass now to an automatic control and observe how the level stays constant at the 50% of the process variable. Change the variables of the process for partial opening of the needle valve, VR-1. As the process will become stable, increase the value of the proportional constant and close the needle valve, VR-1, partially observing the behavior of the process. Continue increasing the value of the proportional constant, applying each time an interference in step (closing or opening VR-1 ), until the variable of the process oscillates continually. Note down the value of the proportional constant (Limit Proportional Band, L.P.B.) when this happens, measure the oscillation time of the process (O.T.). The optimum values, depending on the control type we will make on our process are:
Type of Control P P+I P+I+D
B.P. 2 (L.P.B.) 2.2 (L.P.B.) 1.7 (B.P.L)

Table 3.19.1
I.T. -T.O/1.2 O.T. / 2.0
D.T. --T.O/8.0
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A variant of the gain limit method is the method of the minimum overflow of the set point. Once the self-maintained oscillation of the Time of Oscillation O.T. is obtained for a Limit Proportional Band L.P.B., the values of the control actions are the following ones: B.P (%) = 1.25 L.P.B. I.T. (MIN/REP) = 0.6 O.T. D.T. (MIN) = 0.19 O.T. 7.3.16 Practice 16: Adjustment of the constant of a flow controller (Reaction Curves) In this open loop method, the general procedure consists on opening the closed loop of regulation before the valve, that is to say, the valve must be directly operating with the controller manually and to create a small one and quick change in the step in the input process. From the signal registration and from their graphic representation the PID control values can be obtained. The graphic representation of the controlled variable versus the time is a sigmoid. In the inflection point of the sigmoid a tangent straight line is traced and the values R and L are measured. R is the slope of the tangent in the inflection point of the curve and L is the retard time of the process. That is, time (in minutes) that takes place between the instant of the change in step and the point in which the straight line, tangent to the sigmoid, cuts the initial value of the controlled variable. DP is the percentage (%) of the position variation of the control valve that introduces the step in the process, see figure 3.20.1
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Figure 3.20.1: Representation of the reaction curve. From this representation we can obtain the slope of the sigmoid R and the time of retard L.
The optimum values, depending on the control type that we will be made on our process are: Type of Control P P+I P+I+D B.P. P 110RL/DP 83RL/DP
Table 3.20.1: Optimum values necessary to use in function of the type of control used. L: Time of retard, R.: Slope of the sigmoid in the inflection point. D. Derivative, P.: Proportional.
I.T. -L/0.3 L/0.5
D.T. --0.5L
Compare the values obtained by the two methods. 7.3.16.1 Other experiments to carry out
7.3.16.1.1 - Evaluation of the calibration of the PID controller Once the PID values are introduced in the controller in a manual way, with the motorized valve positioned at the 50% of their way, regulate the needle valve manually VR-1, until obtaining that the flow of the system is at the 50% of the maximum flow provided by the pump. Go to the automatic control of the process and apply an interference, as the solenoid valve AVS-1. Observe the temporary behavior
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of the process. Repeat the process for the PID control values obtained by the other method. 7.3.16.2 Conclusions - There are techniques to obtain the different values of the variables of a PID controller and they should be determined for any particular process. - The values obtained by any of the different methods differ, and they should be treated as starting values for the good regulation of the process, which should be slightly modified by the operator, carrying out this way their fine adjustment until obtaining the optimum values. - There are methods of automatic adjustment, in which the instrument has an algorithm of self-adjustment of the control actions that allows him to tune in with a wide range of industrial processes. The application of a test signal to the process and the analysis of the obtained response and its mathematical modeling leads to the controller analytic design (Nishikawa, Sannomiya, Ohta and Tanaka, 1984). Or you can use an iterative process to the method of the gain limit (Chindambara, 1970 and Kraus and Myron, 1984): The obtained error signal is analyzed in the case of changes in the set point or in the load of the process, and by iteration the new values PID can be determined. Controller P: Controller PI: Controller PID: B.P.N+1 = B.P.N / (0.5 + 2.27 R) same B.P.n+1 and I.T. = P / (1.2 *sqr(1+R2)) min/rep same B.P.and I.T. = P / (2 *sqr(1+R2)) D.T. = P / (8 *SQR(1+R2)).
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Being R = 1/(2*3.14) * Ln(a/b) and P the period of the oscillation muffled in minutes. Where a and b are the widths of the first two oscillations introduced after the interference. If, when applying these methods, the process enters into oscillation, the interference can invalidate the application, in case the process does not allow it.
7.3.17 Practice 17: Temperature control loops (manual) 7.3.17.1 Objectives The objective of this experiment is the temperature control in a tank of water by a manual procedure. We understand that the manual control works as: Manual regulation of the adjustable valve placed under the area flowmeter. Manual control of the equipment elements: motorized valve, solenoid valves, relay of activation / deactivation of the resistor, etc. 7.3.17.2 Required material The following material is required for the realization of this practice: UCP-T Water. SACED Software.
PRACTICES MANUAL
7.3.17.3
Experimental procedure 1.- Connect the interface of the equipment and execute the program
SACED UCP-T. 2.- Inside the program, select the option Configuration and connect pump 1 (see Software Manual for more operation details). 3.- The temperature regulation of a tank of water can be carried out by two different procedures that we will identify as: a. - Static ; it consists on filling the left superior tank above the level alarm. b. - Continuous or Dynamic ; it consists on fixing a water level in the left superior tank but with an inlet and outlet of constant water. In this second procedure, it is required that the incoming and outcoming water flows are small in order to establish a thermal balance in the tank. Under these conditions, it is also necessary to maintain the water level above the level alarm. 3.- In the manual regulation (no controller) the temperature can be regulated by the on and off immersion resistor placed in the tank. 4.- Select the option Manual Control of the software supplied with the equipment. 5.- Connect pump 1 a) Fill the tank above the level alarm. Disconnect pump 1 and close the valve VR1 manually.
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b) Connect pump 1 and fill the tank until getting the level alarm. Once surpassed this, AVS-1 opens, and using VR1 fix a constant inlet and outlet water flow in the tank. 6.- Connect, anyway, the agitator given with the equipment. 7.- By the connection and disconnection of the resistor, fix a temperature for the water. In the case b, if it is necessary, fix the temperature varying the inlet and outlet of flow. So, open or close valve VR1 or the AVS-1. 7.3.18 Practice 18: Temperature control loops (on/off)
Off/On Control
7.3.18.1
Objectives The objective of this practice is to carry out a closed loop control by an
on/off controller. For it, the student will select a value wanted for the temperature and
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the controller will adjust this control by the on/off switch of the resistor.
7.3.18.2
Experimental procedure 1.- Connect the interface of the equipment and the control software. 2.- Select the control option on/off. 3.- Select the wanted temperature (Set point). By defect, There is a set
point, tolerance and performance time determined. It allows the students to play with these parameters and to see the influences of each of them. 4.- It calculates the inertia of the system before an on/off response and determines the limit time for an exact control. 7.3.18.3 Conclusions From the results obtained by the on/off control on the variable of temperature, we can affirm that this controller has an acceptable behavior due to the fact that the variation of this magnitude before a small interference is slow. If we also take small values in the performance times and in the tolerance we can obtain a TEMPERATURE CONTROL next to the set value. 7.3.19 Practice 19: Temperature control loops (proportional) 7.3.19.1 Objectives This configuration allows studying the dynamics of the system and the response to the control actions in closed loop. The object of the experiments is to regulate the set point (TEMPERATURE) by using the controllers that operate
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automatically on the final element of the loop (control ACTIONS). You can control the temperature in the tank by a thermal probe and a controller configured for proportional outputs to the actuator without the typical oscillations of the on/off control. You can study the response of the control loop in front of interferences in the process variables (flow) or variations in the set point (the temperature is changed fixing different set points). Modifying the set point in a remote way the temperature changes can be observed oscillating around the new value. It can happen that the set point is not reached if the range of the actuator (manipulated variable) it is not enough to control the interferences or the changes in the set point, so it will be stabilized only up to the maximum that allows the water available. In our case, the manipulated variable is the water temperature of the tank that, at the same time, is determined through a PWM actuator, which acts as a temporizer, whose performance time is proportional to the value of 0-10 volt. A bigger performance time of the resistor means a bigger energy given by the resistor to the liquid. 7.3.19.2 Required material The following material is required for the realization of the practice: UCP-T Control and Acquisition Software. Water. 7.3.19.3 Experimental procedure 1.- Connect the Interface and execute the control software (For more
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details about the control software, see the Software Manual, M4) 2.- Select the option Control PID on the capture screen. 3.- Indicate a value of 0 for the integral and derivative performance. In this experiment we want to observe the effects of a proportional action. (For more information about the meaning of each parameter, see the Software Manual, M4). 6.- Activate the PID controller, go out and save the values. The student will observe that the motorized valve begins to work. 7.3.20 Practice 20: Temperature control loops (Proportional + Integral) 7.3.20.1 Objectives This practice supplements the previous one. The objective is to observe the effect that an integral performance superimposed to a proportional action in an actuator has. 7.3.20.2 Required material The following material is required for the realization of the practice: UCP-T Control and Acquisition Software. Water. 7.3.20.3 Experimental procedure 1.- Connect the Interface and execute the control software (For more details about the control software, see the Software Manual, M4)
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2.- Select the option Control PID on the capture screen. (For more information about the meaning of each parameter, see the Software Manual, M4). 3.- Select a set point, PID controller and a proportional constant and an integral value. The value for the integral constant should be big so that the error accumulation is carried out smoothly and doesnt generate an on/off performance in the actuator. 4.- Indicate a value of 0 for the derivative performance. In this experiment we want to observe the effects of a proportional action plus an integral action. 5.- Activate the PID controller, go out, and save the values. You will observe that the resistor begins to work.
7.3.21 Practice 21: Temperature control loops (Proportional + Derivative) 7.3.21.1 Objectives This practice supplements the previous one. The objective is to observe the effect that a derivative performance superimposed to a proportional action in an actuator has. 7.3.21.2 Required material The following material is required for the realization of the practice: UCP-T Control and Acquisition Software. Water.
PRACTICES MANUAL
7.3.21.3
Experimental procedure 1.- Connect the Interface and execute the control software (For more
details about the control software, see the Software Manual, M4) 2.- Select the option Control PID on the capture screen. (For more information about the meaning of each parameter see the Software Manual, M4). 3.- Select a set point, PID controller and a proportional and derivative constant. The value for the derivative constant should be small so that the performance is small and it doesnt generate in a on/off performance in the actuator. 4.- Indicate a value of 0 for the integral performance. In this experiment we want to observe the effects of a proportional action plus a derivative action. 5.- Activate the PID controller, go out and save the values. The student will observe that the motorized valve begins to work.
PRACTICES MANUAL
7.3.22 Practice 22: Temperature control loops (Proportional + Derivative + Integral). 7.3.22.1 Objectives This practice supplements the previous one. The objective is to observe the effect that a derivative performance superimposed to an i ntegral performance and a proportional action in an actuator has. 7.3.22.2 Required material The following material is required for the realization of the practice: UCP-T Control and Acquisition Software. Water. 7.3.22.3 Experimental procedure 1.- Connect the Interface and execute the control software (For more details about the control software, see the Software Manual, M4) 2.- Select the Option Control PID on the capture screen. (For more information about the meaning of each parameters, see the Software Manual, M4). 3.- Select a set point, PID controller and a proportional, derivative and integral constant. The value for the derivative constant should be small and the integral constant should be big so that the performance is small and it doesnt generate an on/off performance in the actuator.
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4.- Activate the PID controller, go out and save the values. The student will observe that the motorized valve begins to work.
7.3.23 Practice 23: Adjustment of the constant of a controller of temperature (Ziegler-Nichols) 7.3.23.1 Objective To follow the process of optimization of a controller of three terms (PID), for a given process. When the values of a PID process are optimized you have to take into account several initial considerations: 1.-The process is of slow or quick response. 2.-The reaction of the process goes very retarded of the action. 3.-The response of the sensors and controllers are immediate or they need a time out to reach the balance. The objective of this practice is to familiarize with the most usual methods of optimizing the variables of a PID controller starting from the characterization of the process. For such a purpose the following methods will be used: - Ziegler-Nichols (or closed loop). - Reaction Curves (or open loop).
PRACTICES MANUAL
7.3.23.2
Experimental procedure The data to be analyzed will be obtained configuring the controller only
with the Proportional Band or the proportional action. The Integral and Derivative Actions should be at zero. The objective of the experience is to maintain the system with a constant temperature using a controller P for the control of the resistor. With the motorized valve at the 50% of its way, regulate the needle valve manually VR-1, until getting that the level of the tank is constant. 7.3.23.2.1 Method of the minimum period (Ziegler-Nichols) Pass now to an automatic control and observe how the temperature stays constant at the 50% of the process variable. Change the process variables for partial opening of the needle valve VR-1. As the process will become stable, increase the value of the proportional constant and close the needle valve, VR-1, partially, observing the behavior of the process. Continue increasing the value of the proportional constant and applying each time an interference in step (close or opening of VR-1), until the process variable oscillates continually. Write down the value of the proportional constant (Limit Proportional Band, L.P.B.). When this happens, measure the oscillation time of the process (O.T.). The optimum values, depending on the control type that we will make in on our process are:
PRACTICES MANUAL
B.P. 2 (L.P.B.) 2.2 (L.P.B.) 1.7 (L.P.B.)

Table 3.27.1
I.T. -O.T. / 1.2 O.T. / 2.0
D.T. --T.O/8.0
A variant of the limit gain method is the method of minimum overflow of the set point. Once the self-maintained oscillation of Time of Oscillation O.T. for a Limit Proportional Band L.P.B., the values of the control actions are the following ones: B.P (%) = 1.25 L.P.B. I.T. (MIN/REP) = 0.6 O.T. D.T. (MIN) = 0.19 O.T. 7.3.24 Practice 24: Adjustment of the constants of a temperature controller (Reaction Curves) In this open loop method, the general procedure consists on opening the regulation closed loop before the valve, that is to say, the valve must operated directly with the controller in manual and create a small and quick change in step in the input process. From the registration of the signal and from its graphic representation the control values of the PID will be obtained. The graphic representation of the controlled variable versus the time is a sigmoid. In the inflection point of the sigmoid a tangent straight line is traced and the values R and L are measured. R is the slope of the tangent in the inflection point of the curve and L is the retard time of the process. That is, time (in minutes) that takes place between the instant of the change in step and the point in which the tangent straight line crosses the initial value of the controlled variable. DP is the percentage (%) of position
PRACTICES MANUAL
variation of the control valve that introduces the step in the process. See figure 3.28.1.
Fig. 3.28.1
Representation of the reaction curve. From this representation we can obtain the slope of the sigmoid R and the time of retard L.
The optimum values, depending on the control type that we will make on our process are
B.P. P 110RL/DP 83RL/DP

Table 3.28.1.
I.T. -L/0.3 L/0.5
D.T. --0.5L
Optimum values good necessary to use in function of the type of control used. L: Time of retard, R: Slope of the sigmoid in the inflection point. D: Derivative, P : Proportional.
Compare the values obtained with the two methods. 7.3.24.1 Other experiments to carry out
7.3.24.1.1 Evaluation of the calibration of the PID controller Once the PID values have been entered to the controller, adjust, in a manual way, with the motorized valve positioned at the 50% of their way, regulate
PRACTICES MANUAL
the needle valve manually, VR-1, until getting that the flow of the system is at the 50% of the maximum flow provided by the pump. Go to the automatic control of the process and apply an interference, as the solenoid valve AVS-1. Observe the temporary behavior of the process. Repeat the process for the PID control values obtained by the other method. 7.3.24.2 Conclusions - There are techniques to obtain the different values of the variables of a PID controller and they should be determined for any particular process. - The values obtained by any of the different methods differ, and they should be treated as starting values for the good regulation of the process that should be slightly modified by the operator, carrying out, this way, their fine adjustment until obtaining the good values. - There are methods of automatic adjustment, in which the instrument has an algorithm of self-adjustment of the control actions that allows him to tune in with a wide range of industrial processes. The application of a test signal to the process, the analysis of the response obtained and its mathematical modeling leads to the controller analytic design (Nishikawa, Sannomiya, Ohta and Tanaka, 1984). Or you can use an iterative process to the method of the limit gain (Chindambara, 1970 and Kraus and Myron, 1984): The error signal obtained is analyzed in the case of changes in the set point or in the load of the process and by iteration the new PID values can be determined. Controller P: Controller PI: B.P.N+1 = B.P.N / (0.5 + 2.27 R) same B.P.n+1
PRACTICES MANUAL
I.T. = P / (1.2 *sqr(1+R2)) min/rep Controller PID: the same B.P. I.T. = P / (2 *sqr(1+R2)) D.T. = P / (8 *SQR(1+R 2)). being R = 1/(2*3.14) * Ln(a/b) and P the period of the oscillation muffled in minutes. Where a and b are once the widths of the first two oscillations introduced after the interference. If when applying these methods, the process enters into oscillation, the rising interference can invalidate the application, in case the process doesnt allow it. 7.3.25 Practice 25: pH control loops (manual) 7.3.25.1 Objectives The objective of this experiment is the control of the pH in a tank by a manual procedure. We understand that the manual control works as: Manual regulation of the adjustable valve placed under the area flowmeter. Manual control of the equipment elements: motorized valve, solenoid valves, relays of activation / resistor deactivation, pumps, etc. 7.3.25.2 Required material The following material is required for the realization of this practice: UCP-pH
PRACTICES MANUAL
Water. SACED Software. Acid and basic solution. 7.3.25.3 Experimental procedure 1.- Connect the interface of the equipment and execute the program SACED UCP-pH. 2.- Prepare a basic solution in the left inferior tank of pH 9. 3.- Prepare an acid solution in the right inferior tank of pH 6. 4.- Inside the program, select the option Configuration and connect pump 2 for the filling of the superior tank (See Software Manual for a more detailed operation). 5.- Connect pump 2, and regulate a low flow by VR2, placed under the area flowmeter. 6.- Introduce the pH and the agitator. Connect this last one from the software. 7.- The pH regulation of the resulting solution in the left superior tank will come given by the combination of the quantities and concentration of the basic and acid solutions. 8.- Fix a certain pH and play with the flows, modifying and adjusting the flows manually by the valves VR1 and VR2. It is also possible to control the quantity of the acid solution by the AVP-1.
PRACTICES MANUAL
7.3.26 Practice 26: pH control loops (on/off) 7.3.26.1 Objectives The objective of this practice is to carry out a control of closed loop by means of a On/off controller. For it, the student will select a value wanted for the pH and the controller will adjust this control by means of the valve AVS-1. 7.3.26.2 Experimental procedure 1.- Connect the equipment interface and the control software. 2.- Select the control option on/off. 3.- Select the wanted pH (Set point). By defect, it has certain values for pH, tolerance and a performance time. It allows the students to play with these parameters and see the influences of each one of them. 4.- It calculates the inertia of the system before an on/off response and determine the limit time for an exact control.
7.3.26.3
Conclusions From the results obtained by the on/off control on the variable pH we can
affirm that this controller has an acceptable behavior due to the fact that the variation of this magnitude under a small interference is slow. Moreover, if we take small values in the performance times and in the tolerance we can obtain a pH control next to the set value.
PRACTICES MANUAL
7.3.27 Practice 27: pH control loops (proportional) 7.3.27.1 Objectives This configuration allows studying the system dynamics and the response to the control actions in closed loop. The object of the experiments is to regulate the set point (pH) employing controllers that operate automatically on the final element of the loop (control ACTIONS). You can control the pH in the tank by a pH electrode and a controller configured for proportional outputs to the actuator without the typical oscillations of the on/off control. The response of the control loop in front of interferences in the variables of the process (flow) or variations in the set point (the temperature changes fixing different set points) can be studied. Modifying the set point in a remote way, the pH changes can be observed oscillating around the new value. It can happened that the set point is not reached if the range of the actuator (manipulated variable) it is not enough to control the interferences or the changes in the set point, so it will be stabilized only up to the maximum that allows the water available. In our case, the manipulated variable is the pH of a solution. The resulting pH is the result of a combination of an acid solution and another basic one. The combination of these, in given proportions, allows fixing its pH. For it, the actuator, in this case, comes given by the AVP-1 placed in the line of pump 1.
7.3.27.2
Required material The materials required for the realization of the practice are:
PRACTICES MANUAL
UCP-pH Control and Acquisition Software. Water. Acid solution and basic solution. 7.3.27.3 Experimental procedure 1.- Connect the Interface and execute the control software (For more details about the control software, see the Software Manual, M4) 2.- Select the Option Control PID on the capture screen. (For more information about the meaning of each parameter, see the Software Manual, M4). 3.- Select a set point, PID controller and a proportional constant. 4.- Indicate a value of 0 for the integral and derivative performance. In this experiment we want to observe the effects of a proportional action. 5.- Activate the PID controller, go out and save the values. The student will observe that the motorized valve begins to work. Note: do not forget to connect pump 2 and fix a small flow for this drive line.
PRACTICES MANUAL
7.3.28 Practice 28: pH control loops (Proportional + Integral) 7.3.28.1 Objectives This practice supplements the previous one. The objective is to observe the effect that an integral performance superimposed to a proportional action in an actuator has. 7.3.28.2 Required material The following material is required for the realization of the practice: UCP-pH Control and Acquisition Software. Water. Acid solution and basic solution. 7.3.28.3 Experimental procedure 1.- Connect the Interface and execute the control software (For more details about the software control, see the Software Manual, M4) 2.- Select Set Point and the option Control PID on the capture screen. (For more information about the meaning of each parameter, see the Software Manual, M4). 3.- Select a set point, PID controller type (Position and Velocity) and a proportional and an integral constant. The value for the integral constant should be big so that the error accumulation is carried out smoothly and it doesnt generate an
PRACTICES MANUAL
on/off performance in the actuator. 4.- Indicate a value of 0 for the derivative performance. In this experiment we want to observe the effects of a proportional action plus an Integral action. 5.- Activate the PID controller, go out and save the values. You will observe that the motorized valve begins to adjust the flow of the basic solution to adjust the pH to the set value. 7.3.29 Practice 29: pH control loops (Proportional + Derivative) 7.3.29.1 Objectives This practice supplements the previous one. The objective is to observe the effect that a derivative performance superimposed to a proportional action in an actuator has. 7.3.29.2 Required material The following material is required for the realization of the practice: UCP-pH Control and Acquisition Software. Water. Acid solution and basic solution. 7.3.29.3 Experimental procedure 1.- Connect the Interface and execute the control software (For more details about the control software, see the Software Manual, M4)
PRACTICES MANUAL
2.- Select the Option Control PID on the capture screen. (For more information about the meaning of each parameter see the Software Manual, M4). 3.- Select a set point, a PID controller and a proportional and derivative constant. The value for the derivative constant should be small so that the performance is small and it doesnt generate an on/off performance in the actuator. 4.- Indicate a value of 0 for the integral performance. In this experiment we want to observe the effects of a proportional action plus a derivative action. 5.- Activate the PID controller, go out and save the values. The student will observe that the motorized valve begins to work.
PRACTICES MANUAL
7.3.30 Practice 30: pH control loops (Proportional + Derivative + Integral) 7.3.30.1 Objectives This practice supplements the previous one. The objective is to observe the effect that a derivative performance superimposed to an i ntegral performance and a proportional action in an actuator has. 7.3.30.2 Required material The following material is required for the realization of the practice: UCP-pH Control and Acquisition Software. Acid solution and basic solution. 7.3.30.3 Experimental procedure 1.- Connect the Interface and execute the control software (For more details about the control software, see the Software Manual, M4) 2.- Select the option Control PID on the capture screen. (For more information about the meaning of each parameter see the Software Manual, M4). 3.- Select a set point, a PID controller and a proportional, derivative and integral constant. The value for the derivative constant should be small and the integral constant should be big so that the performance is small and it doesnt generate an on/off performance in the actuator. 6.- Activate the PID controller, go out and save the values. The student will
PRACTICES MANUAL
observe that the motorized valve begins to work. 7.3.31 Practice 31: Adjustment of the constant of a pH controller (ZieglerNichols) 7.3.31.1 Objective To follow the optimization process of a controller of three terms (PID), for a given process. When the PID control values are optimized it is necessary to take into account several initial considerations: 1.-The process is of slow or quick response. 2.-The reaction of the process goes very retarded of the action. 3.-The response of the sensors and controllers are immediate or they need a time out to reach the balance. The objective of this practice is to get familiarized with the most usual methods of optimizing the variables of a PID controller starting from the characterization of the process. For such a purpose the following methods will be used: - Ziegler-Nichols (or closed loop). - Reaction Curves (or open loop). 7.3.31.2 Experimental procedure The data to be analyzed will be obtained configuring only the controller
PRACTICES MANUAL
with the Proportional Band or the proportional action. The Integral and Derivative Actions should be at zero. The objective of the experience is to maintain the system with a value of constant pH using a P controller for the pH control. With the motorized valve at the 50% of its way, regulate the needle valve, VR-1, manually, until getting that the pH is constant. 7.3.31.2.1 Method of the minimum period (Ziegler-Nichols) Pass now to automatic control and observe how the pH stays constant at the 50% of the process variable. Change the variables of the process for partial opening of the needle valve VR-1. As the process will become stable, increase the value of the proportional constant and close partially the needle valve, VR-1, observing the behavior of the process. Continue increasing the value of the proportional constant and applying each time an interference in step (closing or opening of VR-1), until the variable of the process oscillates continually. Write down the value of the proportional constant (Limit Proportional Band, L.P.B.) when this happens, measure the oscillation time of the process (O.T.). The optimum values, depending on the control type that we will make on our process are:
Type of Control P P+I
B.P. 2 (L.P.B.) 2.2 (L.P.B.)
I.T. -T.O/1.2
D.T. ---
PRACTICES MANUAL
P+I+D
1.7 (B.P.L)
O.T. / 2.0
T.O/8.0
Table 3.35.1
A variant of the limit gain method is the method of minimum overflow of the set point. Once the self-maintained oscillation of Time of Oscillation O.T. for a Limit Proportional Band L.P.B. is obtained, the values of the control actions are the following ones: B.P (%) = 1.25 L.P.B. I.T. (MIN/REP) = 0.6 O.T. D.T. (MIN) = 0.19 O.T. 7.3.32 Practice 32: Adjustment of the constant of a pH controller (Reaction Curves) In this open loop method, the general procedure consists on opening the closed loop of regulation before the valve, that is to say, the valve must be operate directly with the controller in a manual way and create a small and quick change in step in the input process. From the registration of the signal and of from its graphic representation the values of the PID control will be obtained. The graphic representation of the controlled variable versus the time is a sigmoid. In the inflection point of the sigmoid a tangent straight line is traced and the values R and L are measured. R is the slope of the tangent in the inflection point of the curve and L is the retard time of the process. That is, time (in minutes) that takes place between the instant of the change in step and the point in which the straight line tangent to the sigmoid crosses with the initial value of the controlled variable. DP is the percentage (%) of position variation of the control valve that introduces the step in the process. See figure 3.36.1.
PRACTICES MANUAL
Figure 3.36.1 Representation of the reaction curve. From this representation we can obtain the slope of the sigmoid R and the time of retard L.
The optimum values, depending on the control type that we are going to make on our process, are:
B.P. P 110RL/DP 83RL/DP

Table 3.36.1
I.T. -L/0.3 L/0.5
D.T. --0.5L
Optimum values necessary to use in function of the type of control used. L: Time of retard, R: Slope of the sigmoid in the inflection point. D: Derivative, P : Proportional.
Compare the values obtained with the two methods. 7.3.32.1 Other experiments to carry out
7.3.32.1.1 Evaluation of the calibration of the PID controller Once the PID values have been entered to the controller, adjust, in a manual way, with the motorized valve positioned at the 50% of its way, regulate the needle valve, VR-1, manually until getting that the system flow is at the 50% of the maximum flow provided by the pump. Pass to automatic control of the process and
PRACTICES MANUAL
apply an interference, as the solenoid valve AVS-1. Observe the temporary behavior of the process. Repeat the process for the PID control values obtained by the other method. 7.3.32.2 Conclusions - There are techniques to obtain the different values of the variables of a PID controller and they should be determined for any particular process. - The values obtained by any of the different methods differ and they should be treated as starting values for the good regulation of the process that should be slightly modified by the operator, carrying out this way their fine adjustment until the optimum values are obtained. - There are methods of automatic adjustment, in which the instrument has an algorithm of self-adjustment of the control actions that allows it to tune in with a wide range of industrial processes. The application of a test signal to the process and the analysis of the obtained response and its mathematical modeling leads to the controller analytic design (Nishikawa, Sannomiya, Ohta and Tanaka, 1984). Or you can use an iterative process to the method of the limit gain (Chindambara, 1970 and Kraus and Myron, 1984): The obtained error signal is analyzed in the case of changes in the set point or in the load of the process and by iteration the new PID values can be determined. Controller P: Controller PI: B.P.N+1 = B.P.N / (0.5 + 2.27 R) same B.P.n+1 I.T. = P / (1.2 *sqr(1+R2)) min/rep Controller PID: same B.P.
PRACTICES MANUAL
I.T. = P / (2 *sqr(1+R2)) D.T. = P / (8 *SQR(1+R2)). being R = 1/(2*3.14) * Ln(a/b) and P the period of the oscillation muffled in minutes. Where a and b are the widths of the first two oscillations introduced after the interference. If, when applying these methods, the process enters into oscillation, the following interference can invalidate the application, in case the process doesnt allow it.
PRACTICES MANUAL
7.3.33 Practice 33: Conductivity control loops (manual) 7.3.33.1 Objectives The objective of this experiment is the control of the conductivity in a tank by a manual procedure. We understand that the manual control works as: Manual regulation of the adjustable valve placed under the area flowmeter. Manual control of the equipment elements: motorized valve, solenoid valves, relays of activation / resistor deactivation, pumps, etc. 7.3.33.2 Required material The following material is required for the realization of this practice: UCP-Conductivity SACED Software Water. Potassium closure, KCI. Around 30g or less. 7.3.33.3 Experimental procedure 1.- Connect the interface of the equipment and execute the program SACED UCP-Conductivity. 2.- Prepare a conductivity dissolution in the left inferior tank of 1,5 mS/cm, you can get this dissolution with 11 liters of water with 12g KCI approximately.
PRACTICES MANUAL
3.- Water to fill the right inferior tank up to 250 mm of level. 4.- Inside the program, select Control 1 and connect pump 2 (AB-2) to fill with water the left superior tank (See Software Manual for a more detailed operation) up to 100mm of level. 5.- Introduce the conductivity probe and stirrer in the left superior tank. 6.- Connect pump 2, and regulate a very low flow by VR2, placed under the flowmeter area. 7.- The conductivity regulation of the resulting solution in the left superior tank will come given by the combination of the quantities and concentration of the dissolution of left inferior tank and the water of right inferior tank. 8.- Fix a certain conductivity and play with the flows, modifying and adjusting the flows manually by the valves VR1 and VR2. It is also possible to control the quantity of the conductivity dissolution by the AVP-1.
PRACTICES MANUAL
7.3.34 Practice 34: Conductivity control loops (on/off) 7.3.34.1 Objectives The objective of this practice is to carry out a control of closed loop by means of a On/off controller. For it, the student will select a value wanted for the conductivity and the controller will adjust this control by means of the valve AVS-1. 7.3.34.2 Experimental procedure 1.- Connect the equipment interface and the control software. 2.- Select the control 2 option, on/off. 3.- Select the wanted conductivity (Set point). By defect, it has certain values for conductivity, tolerance and a performance time. It allows the students to play with these parameters and see the influences of each one of them. 4.- It calculates the inertia of the system before an on/off response and determine the limit time for an exact control. 7.3.34.3 Conclusions From the results obtained by the on/off control on the variable conductivity we can affirm that this controller has an acceptable behavior due to the fact that the variation of this magnitude under a small interference is slow. Moreover, if we take small values in the performance times and in the tolerance we can obtain a conductivity control next to the set value.
PRACTICES MANUAL
7.3.35 Practice 35: Conductivity control loops (proportional) 7.3.35.1 Objectives This configuration allows studying the system dynamics and the response to the control actions in closed loop. The object of the experiments is to regulate the set point (conductivity) employing controllers that operate automatically on the final element of the loop (control ACTIONS). You can control the conductivity in the tank by a conductivity probe and a controller configured for proportional outputs to the actuator without the typical oscillations of the on/off control. The response of the control loop in front of interferences in the variables of the process (flow) or variations in the set point (the temperature changes fixing different set points) can be studied. Modifying the set point in a remote way, the conductivity changes can be observed oscillating around the new value. It can happened that the set point is not reached if the range of the actuator (manipulated variable) it is not enough to control the interferences or the changes in the set point, so it will be stabilized only up to the maximum that allows the water available. In our case, the manipulated variable is the conductivity of a dissolution. The resulting conductivity dissolution is the result of a combination of an conductivity dissolution and water. The combination of these, in given proportions, a llows fixing its conductivity. For it, the actuator, in this case, comes given by the AVP-1 placed in the line of pump 1, AB-1.
7.3.35.2
PRACTICES MANUAL
UCP-conductivity. Control and Acquisition Software. Water. Conductivity dissolution (200 mm of water level with 12g KCI to get 1,5 mS/cm approximately) and water. 7.3.35.3 Experimental procedure 1.- Connect the Interface and execute the control software (For more details about the control software, see the Software Manual, M4) 2.- Select the Option Control 3 on the capture screen. (For more information about the meaning of each parameter, see the Software Manual, M4). 3.- Activate Siemens sensor, select conductivity sensor Scon, a set point, and a proportional constant in the control 3 frame. 4.- Indicate a value of 0 for the integral and derivative performance. In this experiment we want to observe the effects of a proportional action. And activate AB1. 5.- Activate the PID controller. The student will observe that the motorized valve begins to work. Note: do not forget to connect pump 2 and fix a very small flow for this drive line.
PRACTICES MANUAL
7.3.36 Practice 36: Conductivity control loops (Proportional + Integral) 7.3.36.1 Objectives This practice supplements the previous one. The objective is to observe the effect that an integral performance superimposed to a proportional action in an actuator has. 7.3.36.2 Required material The following material is required for the realization of the practice: UCP-conductivity Control and Acquisition Software. Water. Conductivity dissolution (200 mm of water level with 12g KCI to get 1,5 mS/cm approximately) and water. 7.3.36.3 Experimental procedure 1.- Connect the Interface and execute the control software (For more details about the software control, see the Software Manual, M4) 2.- Activate Siemens sensor, select conductivity sensor Scon, a set point, and a proportional constant and a integral constant, in the control 3 frame. 3.- Indicate a value of 0 for the derivative performance. In this experiment we want to observe the effects of a proportional action plus an Integral action.
PRACTICES MANUAL
Suggestion: Setpoint = 0,25mS/cm; Kc= 300; Ti= 0.4; Td = 0; 4.- Activate the PID controller. You will observe that the motorized valve begins to adjust the flow of the dissolution to adjust the conductivity to the set value. In the next picture can see un PID control on conductivity.
Note : If the AB-1s flow is higher than 1,8l/m when AVP-1 is totally open, adjust manual valve until 1,8 l/m. On the other hand, The AB-2s flow must be very low, around 0,8 l/m.
PRACTICES MANUAL
7.3.37Practice 37: Conductivity control loops (Proportional + Derivative) 7.3.37.1 Objectives This practice supplements the previous one. The objective is to observe the effect that a derivative performance superimposed to a proportional action in an actuator has. 7.3.37.2 Required material The following material is required for the realization of the practice: UCP-Conductivity Control and Acquisition Software. Water. Conductivity dissolution (200 mm of water level with 12g KCI to get 1,5 mS/cm approximately) and water. 7.3.37.3 Experimental procedure 1.- Connect the Interface and execute the control software (For more details about the control software, see the Software Manual, M4) 2.- Select the Option Control 3 on the capture screen. (For more information about the meaning of each parameter see the Software Manual, M4). 3.- Activate Siemens sensor, select conductivity sensor Scon, a set point, and a proportional constant and a derivative constant, in the control 3 frame.
PRACTICES MANUAL
4.- Indicate a value of 0 for the integral performance. In this experiment we want to observe the effects of a proportional action plus a derivative action. 5.- Activate AB-1, AB-2 and then activate the PID controller. The student will observe that the motorized valve begins to work. Note : If the AB-1s flow is higher than 1,8l/m when AVP-1 is totally open, adjust manual valve until 1,8 l/m. On the other hand, The AB-2s flow must be very low, around 0,8 l/m
PRACTICES MANUAL
7.3.38 Practice 38: Conductivity control loops (Proportional + Derivative + Integral) 7.3.38.1 Objectives This practice supplements the previous one. The objective is to observe the effect that a derivative performance superimposed to an i ntegral performance and a proportional action in an actuator has. 7.3.38.2 Required material The following material is required for the realization of the practice: UCP-Conductivity SACED UCP. Conductivity dissolution (200 mm of water level with 12g KCI to get 1,5 mS/cm approximately) and water. 7.3.38.3 Experimental procedure 1.- Connect the Interface and execute the control software (For more details about the control software, see the Software Manual, M4) 2.- Select the option Control 3 on the capture screen. (For more information about the meaning of each parameter see the Software Manual, M4). 3.- Activate Siemens sensor, select conductivity sensor Scon, a set point, and a proportional constant and a integral constant, in the control 3 frame. The value for the derivative constant should be small and the integral constant should be
PRACTICES MANUAL
big so that the performance is small and it doesnt generate an on/off performance in the actuator. 6.- Activate AB-1, AB-2 and then the PID controller. The student will observe that the motorized valve begins to work.
PRACTICES MANUAL
7.3.39 Practice 39: TDS control loops (manual) 7.3.39.1 Objectives The objective of this experiment is the control of the TDS in a tank by a manual procedure. We understand that the manual control works as: Manual regulation of the adjustable valve placed under the area flowmeter. Manual control of the equipment elements: motorized valve, solenoid valves, relays of activation / resistor deactivation, pumps, etc. 7.3.39.2 Required material The following material is required for the realization of this practice: UCP-TDS SACED Software Water. TDS dissolution (200 mm of water level with 12g Potassium closure KCI to get 1,5 mS/cm approximately) 7.3.39.3 Experimental procedure 1.- Connect the interface of the equipment and execute the program SACED UCP-TDS. 2.- Prepare a TDS dissolution in the left inferior tank of 1,5 mS/cm, you
PRACTICES MANUAL
can get this dissolution with 11 liters of water with 12g KCI approximately. 3.- Water to fill the right inferior tank up to 250 mm of level. 4.- Inside the program, select Control 1 and connect pump 2 (AB-2) to fill with water the left superior tank (See Software Manual for a more detailed operation) up to 100mm of level. 5.- Introduce the TDS probe and stirrer in the left superior tank. 6.- Connect pump 2, and regulate a very low flow by VR2, placed under the flowmeter area. 7.- The TDS regulation of the resulting solution in the left superior tank will come given by the combination of the quantities and concentration of the dissolution of left inferior tank and the water of right inferior tank. 8.- Fix a certain TDS and play with the flows, modifying and adjusting the flows manually by the valves VR1 and VR2. It is also possible to control the quantity of the conductivity dissolution by the AVP-1.
PRACTICES MANUAL
7.3.40 Practice 40: TDS control loops (on/off) 7.3.40.1 Objectives The objective of this practice is to carry out a control of closed loop by means of a On/off controller. For it, the student will select a value wanted for the conductivity and the controller will adjust this control by means of the valve AVS-1. 7.3.40.2 Experimental procedure 1.- Connect the equipment interface and the control software. 2.- Select the control 2 option, on/off. 3.- Select the wanted TDS (Set point). By defect, it has certain values for TDS, tolerance and a performance time. It allows the students to play with these parameters and see the influences of each one of them. 4.- It calculates the inertia of the system before an on/off response and determine the limit time for an exact control. 7.3.40.3 Conclusions From the results obtained by the on/off control on the variable TDS we can affirm that this controller has an acceptable behavior due to the fact that the variation of this magnitude under a small interference is slow. Moreover, if we take small values in the performance times and in the tolerance we can obtain a TDS control next to the set value.
PRACTICES MANUAL
7.3.41 Practice 41: TDS control loops (proportional) 7.3.41.1 Objectives This configuration allows studying the system dynamics and the response to the control actions in closed loop. The object of the experiments is to regulate the set point (TDS) employing controllers that operate automatically on the final element of the loop (control ACTIONS). You can control the TDS in the tank by a TDS probe and a controller configured for proportional outputs to the actuator without the typical oscillations of the on/off control. The response of the control loop in front of interferences in the variables of the process (flow) or variations in the set point (the temperature changes fixing different set points) can be studied. Modifying the set point in a remote way, the TDS changes can be observed oscillating around the new value. It can happened that the set point is not reached if the range of the actuator (manipulated variable) it is not enough to control the interferences or the changes in the set point, so it will be stabilized only up to the maximum that allows the water available. In our case, the manipulated variable is the TDS of a dissolution. The resulting TDS dissolution is the result of a combination of an TDS dissolution and water. The combination of these, in given proportions, allows fixing its TDS. For it, the actuator, in this case, comes given by the AVP-1 placed in the line of pump 1, AB-1.
7.3.41.2
PRACTICES MANUAL
UCP-TDS. Control and Acquisition Software. Water. TDS dissolution (200 mm of water level with 12g KCI to get 1,5 mS/cm approximately) and water. 7.3.41.3 Experimental procedure 1.- Connect the Interface and execute the control software (For more details about the control software, see the Software Manual, M4) 2.- Select the Option Control 3 on the capture screen. (For more information about the meaning of each parameter, see the Software Manual, M4). 3.- Activate TDS probe, select TDS sensor STDS, a set point, and a proportional constant in the control 3 frame. 4.- Indicate a value of 0 for the integral and derivative performance. In this experiment we want to observe the effects of a proportional action. And activate AB1. 5.- Activate the PID controller. The student will observe that the motorized valve begins to work. Note: do not forget to connect pump 2 and fix a very small flow for this drive line.
PRACTICES MANUAL
7.3.42 Practice 42: TDS control loops (Proportional + Integral) 7.3.42.1 Objectives This practice supplements the previous one. The objective is to observe the effect that an integral performance superimposed to a proportional action in an actuator has. 7.3.42.2 Required material The following material is required for the realization of the practice: UCP-TDS Control and Acquisition Software. Water. TDS dissolution (200 mm of water level with 12g KCI to get 1,5 mS/cm approximately) and water. 7.3.42.3 Experimental procedure 1.- Connect the Interface and execute the control software (For more details about the software control, see the Software Manual, M4) 2.- Activate TDS probe, select TDS sensor STDS, a set point, and a proportional constant and a integral constant, in the control 3 frame. 3.- Indicate a value of 0 for the derivative performance. In this experiment we want to observe the effects of a proportional action plus an Integral action.
PRACTICES MANUAL
Suggestion: Setpoint = 350ppm; Kc= 5; Ti= 0.4; Td = 0; 4.- Activate the PID controller. You will observe that the motorized valve begins to adjust the flow of the dissolution to adjust the TDS to the set value.
7.3.43Practice 43: TDS control loops (Proportional + Derivative) 7.3.43.1 Objectives This practice supplements the previous one. The objective is to observe the effect that a derivative performance superimposed to a proportional action in an actuator has. 7.3.43.2 Required material The following material is required for the realization of the practice: UCP-TDS Control and Acquisition Software. Water. TDS dissolution (200 mm of water level with 12g KCI to get 1,5 mS/cm approximately) and water.
PRACTICES MANUAL
7.3.43.3
Experimental procedure 1.- Connect the Interface and execute the control software (For more
details about the control software, see the Software Manual, M4) 2.- Select the Option Control 3 on the capture screen. (For more information about the meaning of each parameter see the Software Manual, M4). 3.- Activate TDS probe, select TDS sensor STDS, a set point, and a proportional constant and a derivative constant, in the control 3 frame. 4.- Indicate a value of 0 for the integral performance. In this experiment we want to observe the effects of a proportional action plus a derivative action. 5.- Activate AB-1, AB-2 and then activate the PID controller. The student will observe that the motorized valve begins to work. Note : If the AB-1s flow is higher than 1,8l/m when AVP-1 is totally open, adjust manual valve until 1,8 l/m. On the other hand, The AB-2s flow must be very low, around 0,8 l/m
PRACTICES MANUAL
7.3.44 Practice 44: TDS control loops (Proportional + Derivative + Integral) 7.3.44.1 Objectives This practice supplements the previous one. The objective is to observe the effect that a derivative performance superimposed to an i ntegral performance and a proportional action in an actuator has. 7.3.44.2 Required material The following material is required for the realization of the practice: UCP-TDS SACED UCP. TDS dissolution (200 mm of water level with 12g KCI to get 1,5 mS/cm approximately) and water. 7.3.44.3 Experimental procedure 1.- Connect the Interface and execute the control software (For more details about the control software, see the Software Manual, M4) 2.- Select the option Control 3 on the capture screen. (For more information about the meaning of each parameter see the Software Manual, M4). 3.- Activate TDS sensor, select TDS sensor STDS, a set point, and a proportional constant and a integral constant, in the control 3 frame. The value for the derivative constant should be small and the integral constant should be big so that the performance is small and it doesnt generate an on/off performance in the
PRACTICES MANUAL
actuator. 6.- Activate AB-1, AB-2 and then the PID controller. The student will observe that the motorized valve begins to work.
PRACTICES MANUAL
7.4 ANNEX 7.4.1 Annex 1: Flow sensor calibration 7.4.1.1 Objectives A good industrial controller necessarily requires perfectly calibrated transducers. The main objective of this first practice corresponds to the learning of the sensor calibration concept and to the study of its hysteresis curve. 7.4.1.2 Required material For the practice realization you will need: UCP-F. Saced System. 7.4.1.3 Experimental procedure As it has been previously indicated, there are two calibration procedures, one associated to the own equipment and a second one associated with the practices carried out by the students. This second procedure differs from the first one in that the data are not stored in the system. Calibration associated to the equipment: 1.- Connect the interface of the equipment and switch on the computer, executing the software supplied with the equipment (SACED-System).
PRACTICES MANUAL
2.- Activate Calibration window (press CALIBRATE button). Introduce the Instructors Password. For it, select on the expanded menu placed in the superior part of the software the option PassWord and introduce the password. (Note: see the Instructors password in the Software Manual). 3.- Select the analogical inputs again and select the channel associated with the flowmeter. As you can observe, the indicator placed in the inferior part of the window indicates the reading in Volts coming from the sensor. 4.- Modify the flow by the manual valve placed under the flowmeter of variable area. As the flow increases, the voltage coming from the sensor will increase. The flow calibration is better to do with the AVS-2 and AVS-3 valves opened, because if there are too much pressure in the Flow Meter (SC-1), it is not sensitive for a little flow (less than 0.4 l/min). 5.- Make a table in which the relationship between the flow and the voltage coming from the electronic flowmeter can be seen. 6.- Carry out the measures in the increasing as well as in the decreasing flow and verify the hysteresis curve of the sensor and if it is assumed.
PRACTICES MANUAL
Increasing flow Signal (Volt) Measure (lpm)
Decreasing flow Signal (Volt) Measure (lpm)
Table 3.1.1
Measure (lpm)
Measure
Signal (Volts)
Figure 3.1.1: Calibration made by the student
7.4.1.4 Objectives As well as in the previous case, the main objective of the realization of this practice is the calibration of the flow sensor. With this simple practice, the student can check the importance of a good calibration as well as the effects that a sensor with a great hysteresis can cause. The main difference in the calibration process
PRACTICES MANUAL
carried out by the student and the one carried out in the previous procedure is that, in this case, it is not stored in the configuration file of the equipment so the calibration carried out for the equipment is not altered. 7.4.1.5 Experimental procedure 1.- Connect the Interface and execute the program SACED associated with the unit of Flow control UCP-F. 2.- Activate the Calibration window (press CALIBRATE button). 3.- In the inferior part of this window there are two text windows, associated with the gain and the zero of the sensor, another two text windows; one it is the value in volts and another the showed values correspond with those introduced as calibration of the equipment. 4.- Carry out a table with the values measured in the area flowmeter and the signal in volts provided by the sensor. 5.- Carry out the table with increment and decrement values of the flow.
PRACTICES MANUAL
7.4.2 Annex 2: Temperature sensor calibration 7.4.2.1 Objectives A good industrial controller necessarily requires perfectly calibrated transducers. The main objective of this practice corresponds to the learning of the sensors calibration concept and the study of its hysteresis curve. 7.4.2.2 Required material For the practice realization you will need: UCP-T. Saced System. Calibrated mercury or alcohol thermometer. 7.4.2.3 Experimental procedure As it has been previously indicated, there are two calibration procedures, one associated to the own equipment and a second one that we will be associated with the practices carried out by the students. This second procedure differs from the first one that the data are not stored in the system. Calibration associated to the equipment 1.- Connect the interface of the equipment and switch on the computer, executing the software that is supplied with the equipment (SACED-System). 2.- Activate the Calibration window (press CALIBRATE button).
PRACTICES MANUAL
3.- In the inferior part of this window there are two text windows, associated with the gain and the zero of the sensor, another two text windows; one it is the value in volts and another the showed values correspond with those introduced as calibration of the equipment. 4.- Carry out a table with the values measured in the area Temperature and the signal in volts provided by the sensor. 5.- Carry out the table with increment and decrement values of the flow. 6.- Select the digital channel associated with the resistor and put the channel at 1. The resistor begins to heat the water of the left superior tank. 7.- Introduce the alcohol or mercury thermometer in the superior tank. 8.- Select the analogical inputs and select the channel associated with the temperature sensor. As you can observe, the indicator placed in the inferior part of the window indicates us the reading in Volts coming from the sensor. 9.- Make a table in which the relationship between the temperature and the voltage coming from the temperature sensor is shown. 10.- Carry out the measurements with the increasing as decreasing temperature and verify the hysteresis curve of the sensor.
T. Increasing Signal (Volt) Measure (C)
T. Decreasing Signal (Volt) Measure (C)
Table3.2.1
PRACTICES MANUAL
Unit Ref.: UCP
Measure (C)
Date: October 2010
Pg: 106 / 115
Measure
Signal (Volts) Figure 3.2.1: Calibration made by the student.
7.4.2.4 Objectives As well as in the previous case, the main objective of the realization of this practice is to calibrate the temperature sensor. With this simple practice, the student can check the importance that a good calibration has as well as the effects that it can cause a sensor with a great hysteresis. The main difference in the calibration process carried out by the student and the one carried out in the previous procedure, is that it is not stored in the file of configuration of the equipment, so the calibration carried out for the equipment has been not altered. 7.4.2.5 Experimental procedure 1.- Connect the Interface and execute the program SACED associated with the unit of temperature control UCP-T.
PRACTICES MANUAL
2.- Activate the Configuration window. 3.- In the inferior part of this window there are two text windows, associated with the gain and the zero of the sensor, another two text windows; one it is the value in volts and another the showed values correspond with those introduced as calibration of the equipment. 4.- To obtain the input in volts, you should erase the values introduced in the zero windows and indicate 1 in the gain window. 5.- Make a table with the values measured in the temperature sensor and the signal in volts provided by the sensor. 6.- Make the table with increasing and decreasing temperature values.
PRACTICES MANUAL
7.4.3 Annex 3: Level sensor calibration 7.4.3.1 Objectives A good industrial controller necessarily requires some perfectly calibrated transducers. The main objective of this practice corresponds to the learning of the sensor calibration concept and the study of its hysteresis curve. 7.4.3.2 Required material To make the practice, it is necessary UCP-L. Saced System. 7.4.3.3 Experimental procedure As it has been previously indicated, there are two calibration procedures, one associated to the own equipment and a second one that we will be associated with the practices carried out by the students. This second procedure differs from the first one in that the data are not stored in the system. 7.4.3.3.1 Calibration associated to the equipment 1.- Connect the interface of the equipment and switch on the computer, executing the software that is supplied with the equipment (SACED-System). 2.- Activate Calibration window (press CALIBRATE button). Introduce the Instructors Password Password. For it, select on the expanded menu placed in the superior part of the software the option PassWord and introduce the password.
PRACTICES MANUAL
(Note: see the professors password in the Software Manual). 4.- Select the channel associated to the LEVEL. 6.- Select the option of digital outputs, select the channel of pump 1 (channel 5). Activate the pump pressing the START button and displacing the bar, the pump 1 will begin to work, impelling water from the inferior to the superior tank. 7.- Select the analogical inputs and select the channel associated with the level sensor. As you can observe, the indicator placed in the inferior part of the window indicates us the reading, in Volts, coming from the sensor. 8.- Make a table that shows relationship between the temperature and the voltage coming from the level sensor. 9.- Carry out the measures with the level increasing as well as decreasing and verify the hysteresis curve of the sensor and if it is assumed.
N. Increasing Signal (Volt) Measure (mm)
N. Decreasing Signal (Volt) Measure (mm)
Table 3.3.1
PRACTICES MANUAL
Unit Ref.: UCP
Measure (mm)
Date: October 2010
Pg: 110 / 115
Figure 3.3.1: Calibration carried out by the Student
Signal (Volts)
7.4.3.4 Objectives As well as in the previous case, the main objective of the realization of this practice is the calibration of the level sensor. With this simple practice, the student can check the importance that has a good calibration as well as the effects that it can cause a sensor with a great hysteresis. The main difference in the calibration process carried out by the student and the one carried out in the previous procedure is that it not stored in the configuration file of the equipment, so the calibration carried out for the equipment is not altered. 7.4.3.5 Experimental procedure 1.- Connect the Interface and execute the program SACED associated with the unit of TEMPERATURE CONTROL UCP-L.
PRACTICES MANUAL
2.- Activate the Configuration window. 3.- In the inferior part of this window you have two text windows, associated with the gain and the zero of the sensor. At first, the values that appear correspond with those introduced as calibration of the equipment. 4.- Make a table with the values measured in the level sensor and the signal, in volts, provided by the sensor. 5.- Make the table with the values of increment and decrement of the level.
PRACTICES MANUAL
7.4.4 Annex 4: pH sensor calibration 7.4.4.1 Objectives A good industrial controller requires necessarily perfectly calibrated transducers. The main objective of this practice corresponds to the learning of the sensor calibration concept and to the study of its hysteresis curve. 7.4.4.2 Required material For the practice realization the following materials are required: UCP-pH. Saced System. Hydrochloric acid and Sodium Hydroxide. 7.4.4.3 Experimental procedure As it has been previously indicated, there are two calibration procedures, one associated to the own equipment and a second one that we will be associated with the practices carried out by the students. This second procedure differs from the first one that the data are not stored in the system. 7.4.4.3.1Calibration associated to the equipment 1.- Connect the interface of the equipment and switch on the computer, executing the software that is supplied with the equipment (SACED-System). 2.- Select the calibration window.
PRACTICES MANUAL
4.- Select the channel associated to the pH. 5.- In a precipitate glass, prepare a solution with pH = 4, for example. 6.- In a second glass have a basic solution with pH = 9. 7.- Introduce the pH electrode inside the first solution. 8.- Make a table that shows the relationship between the pH and the voltage coming from the pH sensor. To vary the pH, you must add an exact and wellknown quantity of basic solution. 9.- Carry out the measures with the level increasing and decreasing and verify the hysteresis curve of the sensor.
N. Upward Signal (Volt) Measure (pH)
N. Descending Signal (Volt) Measure (pH)
Table 3.4.1
PRACTICES MANUAL
(pH) measure
Signal (Volts)
Figure 3.4.1: Calibration made by the student.
7.4.4.4 Objectives As well as in the previous case, the main objective of the realization of this practice is the calibration of the pH sensor. With this simple practice, the student can check the importance that has a good calibration as well as the effects that it can cause a sensor with a great hysteresis. The main difference in the calibration process carried out by the student and the one carried out in the previous procedure is that, in the last one, it is not stored in the configuration file of the equipment so the calibration carried out for the equipment is not altered. 7.4.4.5 Experimental procedure 1.- Connect the Interface and execute the program SACED associated with the unit of TEMPERATURE CONTROL UCP-pH.
PRACTICES MANUAL
2.- Activate the Configuration window. 3.- In the inferior part of this window you have two text windows, associated with the gain and the zero of the sensor. At first, the values that appear correspond with those introduced as calibration of the equipment. 4.- Make a table with the values measured in the pH sensor and the signal, in volts, provided by the sensor. 6.- Make the table with increasing and decreasing values of pH.

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Unit Ref.: UCP Date: October 2010 Pg: 1 / 115

7.4.2 7.4.3 7.4.4

effect of the time out.

Figure 1.1.1 Main diagram of the equipment

Name of the sensor for calibration.

7.3.2 Practice 2: Flow control loops (on/off) 7.3.2.1 Objectives

I.T. -O.T. / 1.2 O.T. / 2.0

D.T. --O.T. / 8.0

I.T. -L/0.3 L/0.5

7.3.10 Practice 10: Level control loops (on/off) 7.3.10.1 Objectives

Type of Control P P+I P+I+D

B.P. 2 (L.P.B.) 2.2 (L.P.B.) 1.7 (B.P.L)

I.T. -T.O/1.2 O.T. / 2.0

I.T. -L/0.3 L/0.5

Type of Control P P+I P+I+D

B.P. 2 (L.P.B.) 2.2 (L.P.B.) 1.7 (L.P.B.)

I.T. -O.T. / 1.2 O.T. / 2.0

Type of Control P P+I P+I+D

B.P. P 110RL/DP 83RL/DP

I.T. -L/0.3 L/0.5

Type of Control P P+I

B.P. 2 (L.P.B.) 2.2 (L.P.B.)

Type of Control P P+I P+I+D

B.P. P 110RL/DP 83RL/DP

I.T. -L/0.3 L/0.5

Increasing flow Signal (Volt) Measure (lpm)

Decreasing flow Signal (Volt) Measure (lpm)

T. Increasing Signal (Volt) Measure (C)

T. Decreasing Signal (Volt) Measure (C)

Date: October 2010

Pg: 106 / 115

Signal (Volts) Figure 3.2.1: Calibration made by the student.

N. Increasing Signal (Volt) Measure (mm)

N. Decreasing Signal (Volt) Measure (mm)

Date: October 2010

Pg: 110 / 115

Figure 3.3.1: Calibration carried out by the Student

N. Upward Signal (Volt) Measure (pH)

N. Descending Signal (Volt) Measure (pH)

Figure 3.4.1: Calibration made by the student.

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