Chidrawi M1 Ch02 PDF

CHAPTER 2
Transportdissolved nutrients and gases

Plants and animals transport dissolved nutrients and gases in a uid medium
Both plants and animals require a transport system to distribute food and oxygen to active cells and to remove carbon dioxide and any other waste products that may accumulate. Unicellular organisms and small multicellular organisms rely on the processes of diffusion, osmosis and active transport of substances directly between the surface of the organism and the environment. However, in most multicellular organisms, transport of substances in this way is not adequate, due to their large surface area:volume ratio. The distance that substances must move between the centre of the body of a large organism and its outer surface is too large to rely simply on diffusion, osmosis and active transport. Therefore specialised transport systems have developed in complex plants and animals to carry substances. The common features of a transport system are: 1. a suitable transport medium (uid) 2. the presence of vessels in which substances can be carried 3. a driving mechanism to ensure that substances move in the correct direction. Plants produce their own food in leaves and this food must be carried, in a dissolved form, to all parts of the plant. Chemical substances that are needed for photosynthesis (such as water and dissolved salts) must be carried from the roots, where they enter the plant, to the leaves where they will be used (see Fig. 2.23 on page 65). The transport tissue in plants is known as the vascular tissue and consists of xylem and phloem. (The term vascular means composed of vessels.) In animals, transport of chemicals occurs in a uid medium (such as blood) and the same uid circulates around the body. The role of the transport system is to pick up nutrients (such as digested foods and oxygen) and distribute them to parts of the body where they are needed, as well as to remove wastes (such as carbon dioxide and/or nitrogenous waste products) from the cells and carry the wastes to excretory organs where they can be
Table 2.1 Transport systems in plants and animals Transport medium (uid) Dissolved sugars (organic nutrients) Water and dissolved inorganic salts Blood
Vessels Plants Phloem Xylem Animals (mammals) Arteries, capillaries and veins
Driving mechanism Pressure ow Transpiration stream Pumping heart (and muscle contraction)
34
TRANSPORTDISSOLVED NUTRIENTS AND GASES
removed from the body. In mammals, the transport system is known as the cardiovascular system, made up of
a pump (the heart) to move the blood in the correct direction and a series of vessels (see Fig. 2.20 on page 57).
Blood as a medium of transport

Blood is a uid transport medium that ows through the heart and blood vessels of the transport (cardiovascular) system in all vertebrates and some invertebrates. It is a complex uid which consists of blood plasma and blood cells (see Fig. 2.1). If whole blood is spun in a centrifuge, it separates into its component parts: 45% cells and 55% watery plasma. At the bottom of the tube, the heavier cells settle out and appear dark red in colour, due to the presence of red blood cells. The uid part or plasma is lighter in colour (a pale yellow) and contains many substances dissolved or suspended in it.
The transport function of blood

Blood is the main transport medium of the body. In the previous chapter we learnt that blood distributes heat around the bodyhuman blood usually has a temperature of 38C (it carries heat and so is 1C higher than body temperature) and a pH of 7.35 (slightly alkaline). The volume of blood in the human body varies slightly from one person to the next, but an adult human has approximately 5 litres of blood. For the normal functioning of the body and its enzymes, these levels of temperature, pH and blood volume must be carefully maintained.
2.1
plasma (percentage by weight) proteins 7% percentage body weight percentage by volume water 91% other fluids and tissues 92% centrifuge blood 8% formed elements 45% plasma 55%
albumins 58% globulins 38% fibrinogen 4% ions nutrients waste products gases regulatory substances platelets
Figure 2.1 Composition of blood
other solutes 2% formed elements (number per cubic mm) platelets 250400 thousand white blood cells 59 thousand red blood cells 4.26.2 million
leukocytes (white blood cells)
erythrocytes (red blood cells)
35
MAINTAINING A BALANCE
Blood also carries nutrients required by the body, wastes to be excreted from the body, gases, and other chemicals such as control substances (hormones), infection-ghting chemicals (antibodies), clotting factors and many more.
The composition of blood

Blood cells
Blood contains three main types of cells: red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets. All blood cells are produced in bone marrow.
Red blood cells (erythrocytes)
Haemoglobin is an iron-containing protein molecule that gives red blood cells their colour. It consists of two parts: a protein, globin, and a pigmental iron compound called the haem group. Iron is therefore essential for the formation and maturation of red blood cells. Haemoglobin has an afnity for oxygen and readily combines with it to from oxyhaemoglobin. Haemoglobin releases oxygen easily in areas of low oxygen concentration. Red blood cells are also able to transport a small amount of carbon dioxide in the blood and they help to maintain the pH balance of the blood.
White blood cells (leucocytes)
Figure 2.2 The shape and dimensions of a red blood cell
There are approximately 46 million red blood cells per millilitre (mL) of blood and their main function is to transport oxygen. Red blood cells form in bone marrow; at rst each cell has a nucleus, but as the cell matures, the nucleus disappears and a red pigment called haemoglobin develops inside the cell. As a result of the absence of a nucleus, the mature red blood cells are small, with a diameter of approximately 7 m (micrometres). (See Fig. 2.2.) Red blood cells are round, but they are biconcave rather than sphericalthat is, they are slightly attened towards the centre (similar to a Fruit Tingle lolly). The front cover of this textbook and Figure 2.3b show scanning electron micrographs of blood cells. Red blood cells have a lifespan of approximately 4 months and when they die they are broken down and replaced by newly formed blood cells from the bone marrow.
7.5 m
White blood cells, also produced in bone marrow, function as part of the immune system. Their main role is to protect the body against invading organisms. There are approximately 400011 000 white blood cells per mL of human blood (with higher levels often indicative of an infection. Leukaemia, a form of cancer of the white blood cells, also greatly elevates the white blood cell count). White blood cells are larger than red blood cells (about 50% bigger) and not as abundant. All white blood cells have a nucleus; in some white blood cells it may be an unusual shape (see Fig. 2.1 and 2.3b). In prepared microscope slides of blood, the staining technique imparts a purple colour to the nucleuslook out for this in the rsthand investigation that follows.
Platelets (thrombocytes)
2.0 m
top view
side view
Platelets are fragments of special cells, also produced in the bone marrow. They are disc-shaped, about half the size of red blood cells and there are about 400 000 per mL of blood. Platelets function in the clotting of bloodthey stick to each other and to blood bres at the site of a wound. This contact causes them to break open and they release an enzyme, thromboplastin,
36
which sets in progress a sequence of steps to seal the blood vessels and cause blood to clot, preventing excessive blood loss.
Plasma
Plasma, the yellow, watery uid part of blood, consists of about 90% water and the other 10% consists mainly of proteins. Plasma makes up most of the volume of blood and it carries many substances in either dissolved or suspended form. It carries: plasma proteins: clotting factors, immunoglobulins (antibodies to ght infections) and albumen, as well as enzymes nutrients: the end products of digestionamino acids (from digested proteins), glucose (from digested carbohydrates),
(a)
glycerol and fatty acids (from digested lipids) and cholesterol gases: oxygen and carbon dioxide excretory waste products: nitrogenous wastes such as urea, uric acid and ammonia ions (mainly sodium chloride and calcium and magnesium phosphates) regulatory substances such as hormoneschemical messenger molecules involved in the co-ordination of body systems other substances such as vitamins. Blood serum is plasma without the clotting proteins (it still contains antibodies).
SR
TR
Student worksheetthe composition of blood
Figure 2.3 (a) A standard blood smear showing blood cells under a light microscope; (b) a scanning electron micrograph of blood cells (red cells, white cells and platelets)
(b)
Estimating the size of red and white blood cells
perform a rst-hand investigation using the light microscope and prepared slides to gather information to estimate the size of red and white blood cells and draw scaled diagrams of each
the late 1600s, even approximating their size: 25 000 times smaller than a ne grain of sand. To do this, he would have had to understand the magnifying power of the microscope and lenses that he was using. Many advances in microscopy have been
FIRST-HAND INVESTIGATION BIOLOGY SKILLS

H12.1; H12.2; H12.4 H13.1
Background information: measurement in science

Anton van Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch lens maker and early microscopist, provided one of the rst precise descriptions of red blood cells in
H14.1; H14.2 (Extension activity: H14.3)
37
SR
Guided d investigation i ti ti estimating the size of red and white blood cells
TR
Teaching strategy estimating the size of objects
made since then and accurate measurements of the size of microscopic structures are now commonly made, but this involves the use of fairly sophisticated laboratory equipment to obtain precise measurements and to keep the margin of error to a minimum. All measurement is an approximation and involves using a measuring instrument, such as a ruler or scale, which is calibrated to compare the object to some standard (such as a millimetre). Measurement can therefore be thought of as a ratio. In this investigation, students are required to estimate the size of blood cells. It is possible to do this using simple equipment such as a light microscope and a plastic ruler, or by using a mini-grid slide (which has with smaller calibrations on it) in place of a ruler. The smaller or more precise calibrations give a more accurate estimate of the diameter eld of view.
the expected values in scientic literature (accuracy), since the latter has been measured with more advanced and precise equipment.
Aim
To estimate the size of red blood cells and white blood cells seen with a light microscope.
Materials
Light microscope. Prepared slides of human blood. Plastic ruler, or graph paper or a mini-grid slide. Pencil and drawing paper. Safety: Use commercially prepared microscope slides of blood and not fresh blood, to eliminate the risk of contracting blood-borne disease. Students should prepare a table to outline safety precautions when using a microscope.
Method
(see Guided Investigation on Student Resource CD) 1. Estimate the eld of view under low power. Place the mini-grid (or transparent ruler) on the microscope stage and view under the 10 objective. Use the grid/ruler to estimate the diameter of the eld of view in mm and m (1 mm = 1000 m) (see Fig. 2.4). 2. Calculate the eld of view under high power. Rotate the high power objective lens into place. Calculate the eld of view: low power = 100; high power = 400; high power eld of view = 100/400 3. Estimate the size (diameter) of a red blood cell. View a prepared slide of a blood smear under high power on the microscope. Distinguish between the numerous small red blood cells and the few, larger white blood cells. (See the Student Resource CD for further guidance.) 4. Estimate the size of a red blood cell by counting or estimating the approximate number of red blood cells that would t across the diameter of the eld of view (using 400 magnication). Using this
Precision, reliability and accuracy

To carry out this procedure successfully, students must understand the difference between the focusing power of each lens of the microscope. The accuracy of the results relies in part on how precisely you can estimate the size of the diameter of the eld of view, as well as on your ability to observe and count how many red blood cells t across the diameter. Since measurement is a ratio, in our investigation we will estimate the ratio of the size of a red blood cell:the size of the diameter of the microscopic eld of view and the size of a white blood cell:the size of a red blood cell. Students need to take into account limitations in the accuracy of the measurements that they make. To do this, consider three aspects of measurement: the precision of the measurement, the margin of error and the condence levelthat is, the probability that what has been estimated actually falls within an acceptable margin of error. For example, you may measure the length of an object as 1.5 cm, plus or minus 0.5 mm, with a 95% level of condence. To comment on the reliability and accuracy of your results, it is wise to compare them with: estimates made by other students in the class who are using similar equipment (reliability), and
TR
General resources drawings in biology and answers to investigation
38
Focus on large grid under 100. field of view diameter of field of view Place blood smear under low power then high power. Estimate number of blood cells across diameter. EXAMPLE ONLY (Do not use these figures in your practical)
grid line at edge of field
1 mm
0.6 mm
Count: 55 red blood cells 400 m (diameter of field of view) 55 (number of red blood cells) = 7.3 m = estimated size of one red blood cell
grid lines on ruler or minigrid slide Mag. 100 (low power) Field = 160 m 2 Focus under 400cannot see grid, therefore need to calculate. Figure 2.5 Estimating the size of a red blood cell
Mag. 400 (high power) 160 m Field = = 400 m diameter 4 Figure 2.4 The sequence of steps to estimate the size of the eld of view
number and the known diameter for the eld of view, calculate the size of each blood cell. (See Fig. 2.5.) 5. Assess accuracy and reliability. Repeat this process three times, using different areas of the blood smear for each estimate (reliability) and nd an average size for red blood cells. Compare your estimate with the actual size (see above) to assess reliability.
6. Estimate the size of white blood cells. Since there are so few white blood cells, it is not possible to count the number of white cells across the diameter and much more difcult to estimate how many would t across the diameter. Another method of estimating their size is to compare their proportions with that of red blood cells. Use this estimate to then calculate their size. Repeat the process with three different white blood cells and obtain an average. 7. Draw a scale diagram of each type of blood cell as follows: (a) Draw a line of a particular length (e.g. 1 cm or 2 cm). This will be your scale bar that represents 10 m. (b) Using this scale, draw a red blood cell and white blood cell, representing the average size of each cell to scale. (c) Label all parts of each cell. 8. Record the results. Record all estimates and working for any calculations and scientic diagrams.
Results
Record all results appropriately (see the Student Resource CD for a worksheet).
Discussion and conclusion

Answer all discussion questions on the Student Resource CD. Re-read the aim and use your results to arrive at a valid conclusion.
39
2.2
Chemic substances and how they are transported Chemical in blood

Chemicals in the blood
identify the form(s) in which each of the following is carried in mammalian blood: carbon dioxide oxygen water salts lipids nitrogenous waste other products of digestion
Oxygen transport
Blood plays an important role in homeostasis in the body, distributing heat and acting as a buffer to maintain pH levels. It is an extremely complex tissue of the body and also functions in the transport of a wide variety of chemical substances. To maintain homeostasis, chemicals being transported in the blood must be maintained at a particular concentration and carried in a specic form that will not affect the balance in the internal environment of the body. If the normal balance of substances in the blood is altered, conditions such as low blood sugar levels or high blood pressure will arise, bringing with them unpleasant and sometimes dangerous side effects, which are an indication that metabolic functioning has been compromisedhomeostasis therefore also relies on maintaining a balance of chemicals within the blood.
Blood gases
All living cells in the body require oxygen and produce carbon dioxide oxygen is required for the process of cellular respiration and carbon dioxide is produced as a waste product. These gases are carried in particular forms within the plasma or red blood cells of blood, so that the pH and uid concentrations remain stable.
When oxygen diffuses across the respiratory surface of the lung into the blood, most of it (98.5%) combines reversibly with haemoglobin inside the red blood cells. A very small proportion (no more than 1.5%) may travel dissolved in the plasma. Red blood cells are ideally adapted to carrying oxygenthey contain no nucleus, providing ample place for the carrying of many large respiratory pigment molecules called haemoglobin. Haemoglobin has an afnity for (is chemically attracted to) oxygen. The slightly attened, biconcave shape of red blood cells gives them a larger surface area:volume ratio for easy diffusion of oxygen across the surface. Each red blood cell contains approximately 250 million molecules of haemoglobin, resulting in a very high oxygen carrying capacity. When blood in the lungs comes into contact with oxygen that has entered the body by diffusion, haemoglobin in the red blood cells binds with this oxygen, forming a compound called oxyhaemoglobin. This compound gives a bright red colour to blood, as opposed to the dark red appearance of blood when oxygen is lacking deoxygenated haemoglobin is not as bright in colour. Most (but not all) arteries carry bright red oxygenated
40
blood, whereas most venous blood is a dark red colour. On colour diagrams in biology, oxygenated blood is usually represented in red, whereas deoxygenated blood is represented using the colour blue. This blood is not really blue, but a dark red. Veins beneath the skin may appear blue, but this is a combination of the dark red blood within the white-yellow vessel wall. (Details of the structure of haemoglobin and its interaction with oxygen are dealt with in more detail on page 43 in the section The adaptive advantage of haemoglobin.)
Carbon dioxide transport
carbon dioxide + water carbonic acid hydrogen carbonate + buffered hydrogen ions CO2 + H2O H2CO3 HCO3 + H+ 2. Some carbon dioxide binds to haemoglobin, forming carbaminohaemoglobin. Haemoglobin does not bind to carbon dioxide in the same way that it binds oxygen. Oxygen binds to the iron atom of haemoglobin, whereas carbon dioxide binds to the amino group of the protein partthe globin molecule, forming carbaminohaemoglobin. As with oxygen, this is a reversible reaction and many carbon dioxide molecules can combine with a single
CO2 transport from tissues tissue cell CO2 produced
When carbon dioxide enters the blood, most (70%) of it is transported in the form of hydrogen carbonate ionsformed in the red blood cells, but carried in the plasma. The remaining carbon dioxide is carried either dissolved in the plasma (7%) or it is carried combined with haemoglobin (23%). Carbon dioxide, produced as a waste product of respiration, diffuses from the cells of the body into the bloodstream. When carbon dioxide enters the bloodstream, some of it dissolves in the plasma. Since carbon dioxide mixed with water forms carbonic acid, it is not ideal for all of the carbon dioxide to dissolve in the plasma, since this would affect the pH of blood. Instead, a large proportion of the carbon dioxide enters the red blood cells. Once there, one of two things happens: 1. Most of the carbon dioxide mixes with water in the cytoplasm within the blood cells and forms carbonic acid. This is rapidly converted to hydrogen carbonate ions (bicarbonate ions). These hydrogen carbonate ions then move out of the red blood cells into the blood plasma and 70% of carbon dioxide is transported in this form. This can be summarised as:
Figure 2.6 The transport of carbon dioxide within the blood
interstistial CO 2 fluid blood plasma within capillary
CO2
capillary wall
H2O red blood cell
CO2 haemoglobin picks up CO2 and H+
H2CO3 carbonic acid
Hb
HCO3 + bicarbonate
H+
HCO3 CO2 transport HCO3 to lungs
to lungs
HCO3 + H+ haemoglobin releases CO2 and H+
H2CO3 H2O CO2
Hb
CO2 CO2 CO2 CO2 alveolar space in lung
41
haemoglobin molecule. Only 23% of carbon dioxide is carried in this form.

Water and salts
Lipids and other products of digestion
Figure 2.7 Transport of lipids: (a) micelle; (b) absorption of the end products of digestion
Water is the medium of transport of all substances in the body. It forms the basis of the cytoplasm in all cells, the interstitial uids (tissue uids) surrounding cells and blood and lymph (the transport uids in animals). About 90% of blood plasma is water. The other 10% is made up mostly of various kinds of protein molecules, as well as other substances, including hormones, vitamins, end products of digestion and salts. Salts are carried in blood as ions (charged particles) dissolved in the plasma. For example, the salt sodium chloride (NaCl) is carried as positively charged sodium ions (Na+) and negatively charged chloride ions (Cl) in solution in the watery medium of the plasma. Substances (such as salts) that become ions in solution are often referred to as electrolytes, because of their capacity to conduct electricity. The balance of the electrolytes in our bodies is essential for normal function of our cells and our organs. Common electrolytes found in blood include sodium, potassium, chloride and bicarbonate.
amino acids glucose epithelial cells
The aim of digestion is to break large molecules down to a size small enough for absorption through the intestine wall and into the bloodstream, so that they can be transported to cells in the body where they are required. The digestion of large organic molecules to their smaller end products is summarised below: large organic compound carbohydrates proteins lipids (fats and oils) nucleic acids end product of digestion glucose (simple sugars) amino acids fatty acids and glycerol nucleotides
Glucose and amino acid transport
Glucose and amino acids are watersoluble and so they are transported in the bloodstream dissolved in the plasma, along with other soluble substances, such as nitrogenous bases, vitamins and glycerol, absorbed from the digestive tract.
Lipid transport
lumen of the intestine fat droplets fat micelle (a) lipid transport
phospholipid protein lacteal ch-esters surface
lipid micelles blood capillaries chylomicron
chylomicron remnants
triglycerides chylomicron 100-1000nm (b) absorption of end products of digestion
Lipids pose a problem in terms of transport, since most of the end products of digestion are insoluble in water and therefore cannot be carried dissolved in plasma. A small proportion of fatty acids and glycerol are soluble and enter the bloodstream directly, but most need to be packaged into small droplets, which pass into the lymphatic system and then into the bloodstream. End products of lipid digestion that are insoluble in water are transported as small spherical particles called micelles. These are transported in colloidal solutiona mixture somewhere between a true solution and a suspensionin the body uid (see Fig. 2.7).
42
The absorption of the end products of lipid digestion differs from that of amino acids and glucose, because they pass into lacteals inside the villi of the small intestine instead of being absorbed directly into blood capillaries. During their absorption, they are processed to form micelles called chylomicrons and it is in this form that they are transported. The lacteals, carrying chylomicrons, are part of the lymphatic circulation and these eventually join the main blood supply by emptying into veins in the region of the shoulders.
Nitrogenous wastes
Nitrogenous wastes are harmful substances produced in the body as a result of the breakdown of proteins. These substances need to be transported in a diluted form, from cells where they are produced to the excretory organs where they can be eliminated from the body. Nitrogenous wastes in the form of ammonia, urea, uric acid and creatinine are all carried dissolved in blood plasma.
The adapative advantage of haemoglobin
explain the adaptive advantage of haemoglobin

oxygen can be carried in blood cells by haemoglobin (1000 million molecules of oxygen) than could be carried dissolved in plasma. Haemoglobin has a further adaptive advantage because its ability to bind oxygen increases once the rst oxygen molecule binds to it. The bonding of each oxygen molecule causes the haemoglobin to change slightly in shape, making it easier for every subsequent oxygen molecule to bind to it. This increases the rate and efciency of oxygen uptake. As a result, a very small increase in the oxygen concentration in the lungs can result in a large increase in the oxygen saturation of blood. For example during exercise, we breathe more deeply and rapidly, increasing the oxygen intake into the lungs and this causes an increased uptake of oxygen by haemoglobin. Another adaptive advantage of haemoglobin is that its capacity to release oxygen increases when carbon dioxide is present. It is important for haemoglobin to combine with oxygen at respiratory surfaces, but equally important for it to release the oxygen freely from the
2.3
The structure of haemoglobin

Haemoglobin is a protein made up of four polypeptide chains (called globins) and each is bonded to a haem (iron-containing) group. Each haem is a red pigment molecule and the iron necessary for haemoglobin formation is obtained from the diet. Since small amounts of iron are lost from the body regularly in waste products like urine and faeces (and people lose more iron when they lose blood), a regular supply of dietary iron is necessary to maintain haemoglobin in red blood cells. A lack of iron in the diet may lead to a condition known as anaemia, where there are too few red blood cells or the blood cells that are present are unable to carry sufcient oxygen.
The adaptive advantage of haemoglobin
Haemoglobin has the adaptive advantage of being able to increase the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood. Haemoglobin molecules each contain four haem units, giving one haemoglobin molecule the ability to bond with four oxygen molecules and so far more
43
% saturation of blood with oxygen
Figure 2.8 (a) Structure of haemoglobin molecule, made up of four protein chains, each with an iron-containing haem group; (b) the binding of oxygen to a haem group (a)
blood in tissues where the oxygen concentration is low, so that oxygen is delivered to the cells that need it. Metabolising cells release carbon dioxide, which combines with water to from carbonic acid and this lowers the pH. Haemoglobin has the adaptive advantage of a reduced afnity for oxygen at a lower pH and so it releases the oxygen in these tissues where it is needed. (This is known as the Bohr effect). (See Fig. 2.9.) In the tissues of the body, once haemoglobin has released oxygen, it has an increased ability to pick up carbon dioxide. In the lungs, as haemoglobin binds to oxygen, the haemoglobin releases carbon dioxide more easily. The fact that haemoglobin is enclosed in a red blood cell is also of advantage because if it were simply dissolved in the plasma, oxygen would upset the osmotic balance of the plasma.
haem group oxygen
100 % saturation of blood with oxygen 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 8 10 12 2 4 6 partial pressure of oxygen/kPa
(a)
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 (b) 1 2.7 kPa CO2 2 6.7 kPa CO2 3 10.6 kPa CO2 10 12 2 4 6 8 partial pressure of oxygen/kPa 1 2 3
(b)
Figure 2.9 (a) Oxygen saturation of blood as the concentration of oxygen increases; (b) the change in the oxygen carrying capacity of haemoglobin as the carbon dioxide concentration changes
2.4
44
Oxygen, carbon dioxide and cell functioning Oxygen
outline the need for oxygen in living cells and explain why removal of carbon dioxide from cells is essential
The need for oxygen by cells and why carbon dioxide must be removed
Oxygen is necessary for cellular respiration, a process by which cells obtain energy from glucose. Energy is needed for life-sustaining processes
such as growth, repair of tissues, movement, excretion and reproduction. Although glucose and other food molecules are energy rich, the energy stored in them must be converted into a form that living cells can use for metabolism. Oxygen combines with glucose in a sequence of enzymecontrolled steps during cellular respiration to release chemical energy as ATP, the form of chemical energy needed by cells for their metabolism. This is called the oxidation of glucose and it takes place in all living cells. Carbon dioxide is produced in cells as a waste product of chemical respiration. It must be removed from cells to prevent a change in pH in the cells, bloodstream and body. When
carbon dioxide reacts with water (in the cytoplasm of cells or in the plasma of blood), it forms carbonic acid. A buildup of carbonic acid is toxic, as it lowers the pH of the cells and bloodstream, affecting the homeostatic balance within an organism. A low (acidic) pH would prevent enzymes from functioning optimally and this affects cell functioning by reducing metabolic efciency in the body. Therefore the removal of carbon dioxide is essential for the optimal functioning of enzymes. The rst-hand investigation that follows (The effect of carbon dioxide on the pH of water) provides evidence of the effect of carbon dioxide in solution in the body.
The effect of carbon dioxide on the pH of water
perform a rst-hand investigation to demonstrate the effect of dissolved carbon dioxide on the pH of water
add hydrochloric acid to calcium carbonate marble chips in a delivery tube and capture the resulting gas in a test tube containing limewater to show that the gas is carbon dioxide. 2. To determine the pH of water: the pH of water before and after the addition of carbon dioxide should be determined in one of two ways: using universal indicator solution using a pH sensor and data logger. It is recommended that both methods of measuring pH be carried out, to provide an opportunity for students to compare the accuracy and precision of each. As part of the HSC course skills, students are expected to know how to improve an investigation plan and this provides an ideal opportunity.

H12.1; H12.2; H12.4 H13.1 H14.1; H14.2; H14.3
Carbon dioxide is produced in living organisms as a result of cellular respiration. When carbon dioxide dissolves in water it forms carbonic acid, which is toxic to cells. All organisms get rid of carbon dioxide as quickly as possible, before it can interfere with the chemical activities of their cells.
Background information
This investigation involves two stepsrst, it must be demonstrated that the gas being used for the investigation is carbon dioxide and, second, the carbon dioxide must be bubbled through water of known pH, to investigate whether the carbon dioxide has any effect on the pH of the water. 1. To demonstrate the presence of carbon dioxide, one of two standard tests using the chemical limewater may be carried out. Clear limewater turns milky white in the presence of carbon dioxide. Students may: exhale through a drinking straw into a test tube of limewater, to demonstrate that carbon dioxide is present in exhaled air.
Task 1: Investigating the effect of carbon dioxide on the pH of water using universal indicator solution
To investigate the effect of dissolved carbon dioxide on the pH of water using universal indicator solution.
45
TR
Aim
1. To demonstrate that carbon dioxide is present in exhaled air. 2. To determine the effect of carbon dioxide on the pH on water.
Results
(a) Record the initial pH of the distilled water. (b) Record the pH of the water after it contained dissolved carbon dioxide. (c) State whether each is indicative of a strong or weak acidic or basic solution.
General resources risk assessment: safety
Safety
Discuss risks associated with: Use of limewater. Handling glassware. Blowing into a test tube through a straw.
Discussion
Answer the discussion questions on the Student Resource CD worksheet.
MethodPart 1
Pour 10 mL of limewater into a test tube and gently blow out through two straws. Observe the colour change to determine whether carbon dioxide is present in exhaled air. Discard the solution and straws appropriately.
Conclusion
Write a valid conclusion for this investigation.
Task 2: Investigating the effect of carbon dioxide on the pH of water using a data logger and a pH probe
Aim
To use computer-based technology such as a data logger to nd the effect of dissolved carbon dioxide on the pH of water.
MethodPart 2 SR
Use a measuring cylinder to measure 20 mL of distilled water and pour it into a clean 250 mL conical ask. Place 3 drops of universal indicator solution into the water and estimate the pH of the water by comparing the colour against the standard colours shown on the universal indicator pH colour chart. Place 4 plastic drinking straws into the ask and blow bubbles of exhaled air containing carbon dioxide into the ask for 2 minutes. Now estimate the pH of the water again, noting the change in the colour of the solution. Record the results (a worksheet is provided on the Student Resource CD).
Method
Connect the pH probe of a data logger to a computer and instruct the computer to read the pH of the solution to be tested. Calibrate the pH probe of the data logger (connected to the computer) using distilled water and buffer solutions. Using a measuring cylinder, measure 20 mL of distilled water and pour it into a clean 250 mL conical ask. Place the pH probe into the distilled water and instruct the computer to record and
Investigation ti ti worksheet: carbon dioxide and the pH of water

Figure 2.10 Using data logger technology to measure the effect of dissolved carbon dioxide on the pH of water
student exhales air, containing carbon dioxide, into a straw data logger records pH change and transmits information to a computer straw graph appears on computer screen pH 8 beaker 7 6 exhaled air water pH probe measures effect of carbon dioxide on pH of water data logger 5 Time (seconds) exhalation begins
46
graph any changes in the pH of the water against time. Place 4 plastic drinking straws into the ask and blow bubbles of exhaled air (containing carbon dioxide) into the ask for 2 minutes or until the graph no longer shows a change in pH. The computer should graph changes in the pH of the water against time. Print out a hard copy of the graphed results for analysis. Compare your results with those of other students.
after dissolved carbon dioxide was introduced. Calculate the change in the pH of the water. Describe the change in the water in terms of acidity or alkalinity.
Discussion and conclusion

Comment on the accuracy of using a data logger for nding the changing pH of water as the amount of carbon dioxide increases. Discuss any other benets of using the computer-based technology rather than relying on observations of change with universal indicator solution. Write a valid conclusion for this investigation.
Results
Insert the computer-graphed result into your practical report. Record the initial pH of the distilled water and the lowest pH of the water
Technologymeasuring blood gases
analyse information from secondary sources to identify current technologies that allow measurement of oxygen saturation and carbon dioxide concentrations in blood and describe and explain the conditions under which these technologies are used
are maintained by homeostasis, so changes in these levels reect ineffective metabolic functioning. Unless this can be corrected, the imbalance in metabolism will result in poor health, which may deteriorate to a degree that is life-threatening. The concentrations of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood are important indicators of how well the lungs are functioning and the effectiveness of the circulation of blood within the body. The pH of the blood is an indicator of kidney and lung functioning. Both lungs and kidneys are excretory organslungs excrete carbon dioxide, preventing a build-up of carbonic acid and kidneys excrete excess hydrogen ions (H+). A build-up of either of these chemicals would affect blood pH, making it more acidic. The level of electrolytes in the blood may also be an indication of poor kidney functioning.
SECONDARY SOURCE INVESTIGATION PFA

H3 H4 H5
Aims
To analyse information from secondary sources to: (Part 1) identify current technologies that allow measurement of oxygen saturation and carbon dioxide concentrations in blood. (Part 2) describe and explain the conditions under which these technologies are used. (Part 3) assess the impact of particular advances in biology on the development of technologies (refers to PFA H3).
BIOLOGY SKILLS
H12.3; H12.4 H13.1 H14.1; H14.3
KNOWLEDGE
H6
Extension
To assess the impacts of applications of biology on society and the environment (refers to PFA H4). To identify possible future directions of biological research (refers to PFA H5).
Part 1: Identify current technologies to measure blood gases

The level of certain chemicals in the blood gives an indication of the state of health of a person. Correct levels of chemicals in blood
Current technologies
There are two main technologies used to determine the levels of gases in blood. Pulse oximeters are used extensively in hospitals. Most people who have, in recent years, been in hospital for surgery or any breathing-related disorder (such as asthma)
47
TR
Teaching strategy blood technologies

Figure 2.11 Pulse oximeter
will probably have had rst-hand experience of the use of this technology. A clip with a sensor is placed on the nger (or earlobe) and the sensor is connected to a monitor that shows the pulse rate and oxygen saturation level. (See Fig. 2.11.) This technology is used
PFA
H5
Figure 2.12 Arterial blood gas analysis
extensively because it is non-invasive and gives a good idea of the oxygen saturation levels of haemoglobin in the patients bloodan indication that breathing and circulation are normal. Arterial blood gas (ABG) analysis is a more invasive technique of analysis and is only carried out if abnormalities show up in the pulse oximeter readings, or in severe cases of breathing disturbance. ABG analysis involves removing blood from an artery (usually in the arm) and performing a blood test using computer-based technology to analyse the chemical components in the sample of blood (see Fig. 2.12). This technology reveals far more detail about the levels of chemicals in the blood, measuring the partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide, the pH and the level of bicarbonate ions. The main use of ABG analysis is in the study of lung disease and conditions of poor gaseous exchange, but the pH and electrolyte (ion) levels measured also give important information about how well the kidneys are functioning. Current and future technology for analysing oxygen saturation in blood includes the use of a mobile phone linked by Bluetooth to a battery-powered oximeter (see Fig. 2.13). This equipment can monitor blood oxygen levels on an ongoing basis in a patient who is mobile and not hospitalised.
right radial artery
Part 2: Conditions under which technologies are used

signal sent via bluetooth to phone mobile phone pulse oximeter
www.youtube.com/ watch?v=stxntv0KkBE Video showing the procedure of arterial blood gas analysis.
www.youtube.com/watch?v=k858vGsEVz4 Video showing the use of a pulse oximeter. Read the information in your textbook, watch the video clips on YouTube and analyse information provided in Table 2.2 to become familiar with the two current technologies used to determine blood oxygen and carbon dioxide levels and then answer the questions that follow. All sources should be acknowledged appropriately. A worksheet and recommended websites have been provided on the Student Resource CD with tables in the form of editable word documents to assist you to answer the following questions.
pulse oximeter measures oxygen saturation
Questions
Figure 2.13 Oximeter with Bluetooth connection to mobile phone
1. Explain why: (a) living cells need oxygen
48
(b) carbon dioxide must be removed from cells (in your answer, describe the relationship between pH and carbon dioxide levels in cells/blood). (Table CD2.2 is provided on the Student Resource CD.) 2. (Tables CD2.3, CD2.4 and CD2.5 are provided on the Student Resource CD.) (a) Describe and explain two conditions under which each of the following technologies would be used: blood gas analyser pulse oximeter. (b) Assess the relevance, reliability and accuracy of two of the secondary sources of information that you have
used to answer Questions 1 and 2 in this investigation. 3. (Use Tables CD2.6 and CD2.7 on the Student Resource CD). Using the websites provided on the Student Resource CD: (a) research and outline current directions of biological research using smart phones to detect blood oxygen levels and describe the conditions under which these may prove useful (b) assess the validity each of the three websites recommended for researching the section on smart phone technology and Bluetooth reading of oximeters.
PFA
H3
TR
General resources evaluating websites
Table 2.2 Measuring g blood g gases ( (oxygen yg and carbon dioxide) ) Blood gas analyser Type of technology and what it measures Invasive: small sample of arterial blood must be withdrawn from the patient or an arterial probe may be inserted into an artery to take measurements. Oxygen and carbon dioxide levels are measured directly through a blood sample. The levels at a particular point in time are determined. How it works Electrochemical: uses a sensor that translates chemical properties into an electrical signal that can be measured. print out
light LED detector LED detector
Pulse oximeter Non-invasive: consists of a probe attached to the patients nger or earlobe. Oxygen saturation of a patients blood is measured indirectly by determining the light absorption caused by arterial blood. It may proceed on a continuous basis, without the need for a blood sample to be taken. Optical: uses a sensor that translates a physical property (light emitted) into an electrical signal that can be measured.
pulse oximetry light
blood sample
TPO (transmission) vs RPO (reflectance) pulse oximeters measure oxygen saturation of blood by detecting transmitted light or reflected light
Figure 2.14 Arterial blood gas analyser What it measures Oxygen level in blood: Partial pressure of oxygen (PO2): measures how well oxygen can move from air space of lungs into blood Oxygen saturation: measures how much of the haemoglobin is carrying oxygen Carbon dioxide level in blood: Partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PCO2): Measures how much carbon dioxide is dissolved in the blood and therefore how well carbon dioxide can move out of the body pH of blood: measures hydrogen ions (H+) in blood (linked to dissolved carbon dioxide in blood) Bicarbonate ions in blood: these are buffers that prevent the blood from becoming too acidic. They are reabsorbed in the kidney and are a good indication of kidney functioning.
Figure 2.15 Oximeter diodes Oxygen level in blood: two light-emitting diodes, one producing red and one producing infrared light, are shone through the nger. The amount of light absorbed is determined by the level of oxygenation of haemoglobin in the blood. Oxygen saturation is calculated and displayed on a screen. Pulse rate is also measured. Most oximeters do not measure carbon dioxide levels (it is only as recently as 2005 that some oximeters with a carbon dioxide sensor were developed).
49
SR
TR
Part 3: Impact of advances in biology on technology

4. Assess the impact of particular advances in biology on the development of technologies. This question may be tackled in several steps. (Use the PFA H3 scaffold on the Student Resource CD to assist with this task.) (a) Identify the key area(s) of biological knowledge on which each technology is based. (b) Outline the advances in understanding that were necessary before each technology could be developed. (c) Identify each technology that was
Worksheet and recommended websitestechnologies used to measure blood gases
developed as a result of this advance in biology and outline its use. (d) Write a valid conclusion in which you sum up your assessment of the impact of the advances in biology on the development of the technology. The verb assess asks for a judgement based on criteria. To make this judgement, consider all the criteria you have outlined in the table so far and then write a valid conclusion in which you sum up your assessment of the impact of the advances in biology on the development of the technology. A guide to the type of wording you may use is provided in the table below.
Area of study (research)
Advance in understanding
Development of technology that has resulted
This new technology may lead to or has led to new breakthroughs, as they are used in current research to explore __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ . Assess the impact of the particular advances in biology on the development of technologies. Therefore the advances in understanding have had a signicant/large/insignicant impact because they have led to technology that is better/more accurate/more advanced and can _______________________________________________________ .
Extension questions
See the Student Resource CD.
2.5
Structure and functioning of the circulatory system Structu

Transport vesselsblood and lymph vessels
The transport or vascular system in mammals consists of the heart, blood vessels and lymph vessels, as well as the uids transported in them blood and lymph. These systems are interrelated and it is important to understand their interactive functioning to deal with the next section on changes in chemical composition of the blood at the tissues, so both will be introduced briey below. Transport vessels all have some structural features in common: they are long, hollow structures that consist of a lumen (cavity), surrounded by a wall.
Blood and blood vessels
Blood is transported by arteries away from the heart, towards the tissues of the body. Blood is transported by veins from the tissues in the body and they return it back to the heart. Capillaries are tiny, thin-walled blood vessels in the tissues of the body that carry blood very close to the cells, linking the arteries
50
and veins. Arteries branch to form arterioles (tiny arteries) that lead directly into capillary networks in the tissues. Blood ows from the capillary networks of tissues into venules which join up to form veins so that blood can be returned to the heart. Fluids that seep out of capillaries into the surrounding tissues are returned to the bloodstream by the lymphatic system (see Fig. 2.16).
Lymph and lymphatic vessels
to the heart vein
from the heart artery
lymphatic vessel tissues oxygen and nutrients outer inner layer layer muscle arterioles interstitial fluid
waste products venules
In the tissues of the body, water and dissolved substances diffuse out of the capillaries and bathe the tissues, as tissue uid or interstitial uid. This occurs partly as a result of blood pressure and partly due to the osmotic pressure of the tissues. Some tissue uid returns to the capillaries, but a large amount does not. Excess accumulation of uid in the tissues is overcome by the presence of tiny lymphatic vessels which penetrate deep into the body. The uid is absorbed into the lymphatic vessels and, together with the other substances there, forms the uid called lymph. Lymph is a milky white uid which contains dissolved substances, a large number of white blood cells (called lymphocytes) and chylomicrons (the end products of lipid digestion which drain into the lymphatic vessels from the lacteals in the small intestine). The lymph ows in one direction from the tissues towards the heart. The ow is brought about partly by contractions of the muscles of the body through which lymph vessels pass and partly by the pressure of lymph accumulation in the tissues.
capillaries
Valves in the lymphatic vessels prevent backow. The lymphatic vessels from all regions of the body eventually join up to form two main lymphatic channels and, in the regions of the shoulders, these drain into the venous system where the lymph uid rejoins the blood. The lymphatic system therefore provides a link between the tissue uids in the deeper cells of the body and the blood plasma. It also plays a role in the defence of the body lymph nodes are small, oval bodies at intervals along the course of the lymphatic vessels. They are the sites of lymphocyte production and they also lter out and destroy bacteria. (Tonsils are examples of lymph nodes.) The interaction between the blood and lymphatic systems is important in the transport of nutrients to and wastes from the tissues of the body.
Figure 2.16 Transport vessels and uids in the tissues of the body
Structure and function of arteries, capillaries and veins
compare the structure of arteries, capillaries and veins in relation to their function
distances, from one organ to another, whereas capillaries form branching
The function of arteries and veins is to carry blood over relatively long
51
networks to carry blood over relatively short distances within organs. Arteries carry blood away from the heart, whereas veins carry blood from the tissues and return it to the heart. Arteries, veins and capillaries have a similar basic structure, but they differ in terms of the layers of tissue that make up the wall of each and the size of the lumen, so that each vessel is structurally modied to best carry out its specic transport function.
Basic structure of arteries, capillaries and veins (see Fig. 2.17)
the body and contains collagen bres which are resistant to overstretching.
Detailed structure and function of blood vessels
Movement of blood in arteries and veins differs in terms of the direction of ow, source of ow (whether blood seeps into vessels or is pumped) and the pressure exerted by blood ow. Their structure is therefore adapted in relation to their function.
Arteries
1. The walls of capillaries consist of an endothelium, which is only one cell layer thick. 2. The walls of both arteries and veins consist of three layers: (a) The inner layer consists of a thin layer of endothelial cells continuous with the endothelium of the capillaries with which arteries and veins join. (b) The middle layer is made up largely of smooth muscle, but also contains some elastic bres around the outside of the smooth muscle layer. The smooth muscle in this layer controls the diameter of the vessels and therefore the amount of blood and its rate of ow. (c) The outer layer is composed of connective tissue which holds blood vessels in place within
Figure 2.17 Transverse section through arteries, veins and capillaries lumen
The function of arteries is to carry blood away from the heart to the various parts of the body. Since the blood is pumped out of the heart in regular bursts under high pressure, the walls of the arteries are thicker than those of veins, to withstand the force. Major arteries close to the heart have thick layers of smooth muscle in their walls, to allow them to withstand the increases in pressure as blood is pumped from the heart. The smooth muscle also functions to adjust the diameter of the lumen and therefore regulates blood ow in the arteries. When the smooth muscle contracts, the size of the lumen is decreased (vasoconstriction) and this slows down blood ow. When the smooth muscle relaxes, vasodilation results and blood ow can speed up once again.
large lumen endothelium
endothelium elastic layer and smooth muscle connective tissue smooth muscle (very little elastic tissue) connective tissue cross section through a vein lumen fatty deposits cross section through an artery endothelium (single cell layer) cross section through a capillary (not drawn to scalecapillaries are microscopic)
52
The walls of arteries also have a large proportion of elastic bres in both the inner layer (surrounding the endothelium) and in the middle layer (surrounding the smooth muscle). This increased elasticity enables the arteries to expand (stretch) to accommodate the increased volume of blood pumped with each heartbeat. When the heart relaxes, the elastic bres allow the arteries to recoilthe artery walls return to their original diameter, squeezing the blood forward and propelling it along, ensuring a continuous ow in one direction. In certain parts of the body where large arteries are near the surface of the skin, the expansion and recoil of the arteries (in response to increased pressure with each heartbeat, followed by a decrease in pressure) can be felt as a pulse. The force that blood exerts against the walls of the blood vessel in which it is contained is termed blood pressure. (Additional information is available on the Teacher Resource CD.)
Veins
contract, the relatively thin walls of the veins allow them to be compressed and this propels the blood towards the heart. 2. Veins have valvessmall pocket-like folds of the endothelium lining the lumen of veins. These valves occur at regular intervals along the inside walls of veins and by their action they prevent blood from owing backwards. Valves work like oneway swing doorsthey open to allow blood to ow through in one direction (towards the heart), but the pressure of blood trying to ow backwards causes them to swing shut (see Fig. 2.18).
TR
Student worksheet additional information on pulse and blood pressure
Figure 2.18 Functioning of valves
blood propelled forward by muscle contractions
back pressure of blood valve closed
valve open
Blood enters veins from the capillary networks of tissues, via venules. Structurally, veins have walls that are thinner than those of arteries, since the blood that they receive ows in under lower pressure (it is not pumped in). The walls have very few elastic bres as no stretch and recoil is necessary and the smooth muscle layer is much thinner. The lumen also has a wider diameter, for easy ow of blood. Since blood seeps into veins and is not pumped, two mechanisms prevent the backow of blood (this is especially important in veins such as those in the legs, where blood ows against gravity): 1. Many veins are situated between large groups of muscles (particularly in the arms and legs) and their relatively thin walls allow them to be easily compressed. When the muscles in the surrounding tissue
Capillaries
Capillaries are extremely tiny, microscopic vessels that bring the blood into close contact with the tissues, for the exchange of chemical substances between cells and the bloodstream. The walls of capillaries consist of only one layer of cellsthe endotheliumwhich is a continuation of the endothelium lining the lumen (cavity) of arteries and veins. Capillaries have no other layers in their walls (such as the elastic bres, smooth muscle or connective tissue layers found in arteries and veins). Diffusion is a fairly slow, passive process and so the structure of capillaries is suited to slowing down the ow of blood. To maximise exchange of substances between the blood and cells of the body, capillaries have:
SR
TR
Worksheetarteries, veins and capillaries: relating structure to function
53
STUDENT ACTIVITY
Draw up a table to compare arteries, veins and capillaries in terms of how their structure relates to their function. Draw a labelled diagram of each as part of your answer. (There is a worksheet with table outline and headings available on the Teacher Resource CD.)
thin walls to allow for the efcient diffusion of substances, so that they do not have far to travel between the blood and body cells, and a small lumen (only slightly larger than the diameter of red blood cells) to force the red blood cells to pass through in single le, slowing
down their ow and increasing their exposed surface area for gaseous exchange. Capillaries form an expansive network to spread blood ow over a large surface area so that no cells are far from the blood supply.
2.6
Change in chemical composition in blood during Changes circulation circula
describe the main changes in the chemical composition of the blood as it moves around the body and identify tissues in which these changes occur
The importance of the transport system in assisting metabolic functioning
The chemical functioning of cells (metabolism) relies on the correct balance of chemical reactants being brought to cells and the removal of wastes produced. Energy is the basis of all metabolic functioningfor any cell to function, it must produce the energy it requires by means of cellular respiration. This energy production depends on the correct balance of nutrients such as glucose and the gas oxygen arriving at the site. Requirements for energy production must be transported from their source (glucose and food-based nutrients from the digestive system and oxygen from the lungs) to the sites where they are neededthe
The circulatory system in mammals is like a road system within a cityit is responsible for the transport of substances to and from various parts. Most roads are divided into a left- and right-hand side to allow travel in two directions, for example towards and away from the city centre. Similarly, the circulatory system has vessels to ensure that blood can ow in either directiontowards the heart (in veins) and away from the heart (in arteries). Arteries and veins that carry substances to and from the same organ often run alongside each other within the body. The transport system within the body is involved in moving four basic groups of chemicals: 1. gases (carbon dioxide and oxygen) 2. nutrients 3. wastes 4. hormones (chemical signals).
54
cells of the body that require energy, for example muscle cells or nerve cells. The transport system of vessels throughout the body is essential, since the mammalian body is too large and complex to simply rely on diffusion for movement of these substances. Once the reactants reach the cells, cellular respiration occursoxygen is combined with glucose to produce energy in the form of ATP (the chemical energy of cells), and carbon dioxide and water are released as by-products of this process. Carbon dioxide is a toxic waste product and must be removed to prevent a change in the pH of body uids, which would affect enzyme functioning. Nitrogenous wastes are the end products of protein breakdown that occurs during metabolic functioning. All wastes (nitrogenous wastes and carbon dioxide) are carried from their sites of production, to organs where they can be excreted. The blood vessels are responsible for this transport of wastes, to ensure that conditions are right for enzyme functioning in metabolism. Of further importance is the transport of hormoneschemical messenger molecules produced by endocrine glands. These are ductless glands and so they pour their secretions directly into the bloodstream, which transports them to their target organs which are sensitive to the chemical signals. Hormones such as those that control water and salt balance in animals are essential to assist homeostasis, ensuring the maintenance of an optimal internal environment for metabolic functioning.
External gaseous exchange occurs in the lungs (carbon dioxide is released from blood and oxygen is picked up) (see Fig. 2.19). Internal gaseous exchange occurs in all organs of the body and is the result of cellular respiration: oxygen combines with glucose to make energy and carbon dioxide is released as a waste product. Absorption of nutrients into the bloodstream takes place in the digestive tract (and in particular in the small intestine). Nitrogenous waste products are produced in the liver and excreted by the kidneys. Hormones are secreted into the blood by glands and they then travel to where they are required and used by target tissue.
SR
Change in carbon dioxide and oxygen content of blood
The changing chemical composition of blood

The difference in the chemical concentration of blood entering or leaving an organ, depends on the function of that organ:
The lungs are the organs of external gaseous exchange in the body (see Assumed Knowledge on the HSC Student Resource CD). Deoxygenated blood arrives at the lungs and it releases carbon dioxide and picks up oxygen. The haemoglobin in red blood cells binds with oxygen and most oxygen (98.5%) is carried in the form of oxyhaemoglobin. A very small proportion (no more than 1.5%) may travel dissolved in the plasma. Oxygenated blood is returned to the lungs via pulmonary veins. The heart then pumps this oxygenated blood via arteries to other tissues of the body, where oxygen is released and used for the process of cellular respiration. (All organs in the body other than the lungs receive oxygenated blood via the arteries and return deoxygenated blood to the heart via the veins.) Internal gaseous exchange occurs in the tissues of the body, as a result of cellular respiration. Cells release carbon dioxide, which diffuses into the blood capillaries in the tissues.
Assumed dk knowledge l d gaseous exchange
55
blood carrying carbon dioxide head pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood away from the heart to the lungs
external gaseous exchange in the lungs alveoli in the lungs pulmonary vein carries oxygenated blood from the lungs towards the heart
lungs
O2 CO2
veins carrying deoxygenated blood towards the heart liver
heart
arteries carrying oxygenated blood away from the heart
gut internal gaseous exchange in tissues in the body
O2 CO2
rest of body
blood carrying oxygen Figure 2.19 Gaseous exchange in the body showing changes in carbon dioxide and oxygen levels in the blood as it travels around the body
rest of body
When carbon dioxide enters the blood, some of it dissolves in the plasma, some is carried by haemoglobin and the rest is transported in the form of bicarbonate ions, all of which make up deoxygenated blood travelling back to the heart in veins. (See Fig. 2.19 and the Assumed Knowledge on the Student Resource CD.)
Changes in other chemicals in the blood
An increase in oxygen and a decrease in carbon dioxide concentrations are evident in blood that has passed through the lungs. A decrease in oxygen and an increase in carbon dioxide is evident in blood that has passed through any organ other than the lungs (that is, any organ where cellular respiration has occurred).
An increase in digestive end products is evident in blood that has passed through an organ involved in absorbing digested food, such as the small intestine. These products of digestion travel in the bloodstream from the digestive tract directly to the liver (see Fig. 2.20). A decrease in digestive end products (such as glucose, fatty acids and amino acids) is evident once blood has passed through the liver as this is the centre of food metabolism. An increase in nitrogenous wastes is evident in blood that has passed through the liver, the organ where proteins are de-aminated to form these wastes. A decrease in nitrogenous wastes is evident in blood that has passed through the kidneys, since they lter nitrogenous wastes out of the blood and excrete them.
56
head and anterior extremities
Figure 2.20 The circulation of blood throughout the body
vein from head artery to lungs artery to lungs
lung blood is oxygenated
heart blood pumped
aorta (main artery)
vein from lower body
liver urea made kidneys wastes are excreted
SR
digestive tract end products of digestion added
TR
posterior extremities
Student worksheet changes in the chemical composition of blood
STUDENT ACTIVITY
Read the preceding text and then, in the form of a table, summarise the forms in which chemicals are transported in the blood and state their source (how they got into the bloodstream) and their destination (where they will be released by the bloodstream). Use the headings below to construct the table and insert one row for each of the following chemicals: oxygen, carbon dioxide, water, salts, lipids, other products of digestion and nitrogenous wastes. (A template of this table is available on the Student Resource CD.)
TR
Table headings Source (carried from) Destination (carried to) Form of chemical in the blood Component of blood in which it travels
Substance
Answers to student activity
57
2.7
PFA
Blood replacement technologiesdonated blood and articial blood

The sections of the syllabus that deal with research and its progress in the development of donated blood and its products, as well as current (and future) developments in the research of articial blood provide the ideal opportunity for you to address the Prescribed Focus Area of Current issues, research and developments in biology. At the end of these investigations, you should develop knowledge and understanding of: areas currently being researched career opportunities in biology and related elds events reported in the media that require an understanding of some aspect of biology.
H5
PFA H5: Current issues, research and developments in biology: identies possible future directions of biological research Scientists rely on research to develop scientic principles. If these principles stand the test of experiment and are supported by sufcient evidence, they become broadly accepted by the scientic community until they are disproved. Biology, like all science, is in a constant state of change. There are two types of biological research: basic and applied. Basic research Applied research
This type of research adds to the body of

scientic knowledge to improve knowledge and understanding.
This involves the application of discoveries

made in basic research. These impact on society and the environment and may be contentious.
How students should tackle this prescribed focus area
SR
Additional Additi l informationPFA H5
Identify and describe scientic principles on which the current research is based. Identify and describe the driving forces behind such research. Identify and describe the current research and possible future directions of biological research. Identify the publications (both scientic journals and the media) in which the research or analysis of the research is reported and assess the reliability and validity of these sources. Analyse the response of scientists and society to this current research. Discuss the different viewpoints if there are contentious issues or new developments. Outline any Australian achievements and involvements.
Donated blood and its products

SECONDARY S EC SOURCE INVESTIGATION I NVE PFA
H3 H4 H5
analyse information from secondary sources to identify and describe the products extracted from donated blood and the uses of these products
only discovered 80 years later that people have specic, inherited blood types and that transfusions of incompatible blood groups were fatal. Cross-matching of blood groups became the rst and critical step before blood donation could take place and, as the number of successful transfusions increased, many lives
Almost 200 years ago, humans trialled humanto-human blood transfusions in an attempt to treat massive bleeding and its associated risks. At rst, these transfusions gave mixed resultssome were highly successful, whereas others resulted in death in patients. It was
BIOLOGY SKILLS
H12.3; H12.4 H13.1 H14.1; H14.3
58
were saved, particularly during wars. Since the early 1900s, major advances in blood donation technology have been made, largely driven by the military.
Research challenges
The initial challenge facing blood transfusion units was the lack of available on-site donors. Research into blood donation technology progressed and the shelf life of blood was increased by adding chemicals such as citrateglucose, making the storage of blood and the development of blood banks possible. Challenges facing blood banks continued, including insufcient supplies, short shelf life and the difculty in transporting donated blood under the necessary refrigerated conditions, particularly in war zones. Up to half the deaths of soldiers on battleelds were due to severe bleeding, because suitably stored donated blood could not reach them in time. Continued research led to a move away from using whole blood. Instead, donated blood was separated by centrifugation and ltration into its component parts, commonly referred to as products of donated blood. These products, including red blood cells, platelets, plasma and plasma proteins (or alternative substitutes for these products) allow the treatment of the particular need of each patient by transfusing only the specic required blood product into the patient. The use of blood products rather than whole blood has tripled the number of transfusions that can be given for each unit of blood donated. Research then began in earnest, directed towards the development of better techniques for processing and storing blood products to increase their shelf life and make them easier to transport (for example, to battleelds and sites of natural disasters). Three main uses of blood products were identied and are still applicable todayto assist in blood clotting, to allow oxygen transfer and as volume expanders. An enormous problem which arose in the 1980s was the risk of contracting infections from donated blood. Patients such as haemophiliacs, who were regular recipients of blood products that contained coagulants, were particularly affected. (Recommended reading is the novel titled April Fools Day, written by Australian author Bryce Courtenay, based on the true story of the life of his haemophiliac son.) Blood and blood products were being screened for infective agents, but the viruses which caused diseases such as AIDS and hepatitis could bypass normal screening methods, because of a window period between the infection of the donor and the possibility of their presence being detected in donated blood.
This led to a new surge in research for safer blood products. One common trend that arose at around this time was a change from allogenic transfusion (blood donated by one person and transfused into another) to autologous transfusion (collection of blood and its re-transfusion into the same person; for example, some patients would donate their own blood and have it stored for their own future use, such as impending surgery). Current research continues to try to improve blood screening methods, as well as to evaluate and improve the quality of stored blood and its products. There is also research to try to increase the shelf life by implementing new methods of preservation such as freeze fractioning and recombinant manufacturing technology. Another idea that arose as a result of ongoing shortages of blood and blood products, was to create articial blooda suitable chemical blood substitute which could be transfused into patients to temporarily provide some of the essential life-giving functions of blood until the patients bone marrow could make enough blood to replenish their normal supply. Note: Research into the development of articial blood will be dealt with in the secondary-source investigation on page 61, but an understanding of the difculties and risks of transfusions of donated blood and blood products gives a good idea of the importance of the development of suitable blood substitutes.
Figure 2.21 Products of donated blood
Products of donated blood

Blood products are currently grouped into two main categories, depending on their shelf life:
59
SR
TR
Student activity webquest: products of donated blood
SR
Template table l t t bl s donated blood and blood products
1. Labile products are perishable blood components that have a short shelf life and must be transported under specic, refrigerated conditions. Examples include packed red blood cells, platelets, plasma, plasma proteins and cryoprecipitate. 2. Stable products have a much longer shelf life and are produced by fractioning (separating) the different protein components from plasma or by recombinant (genetic) manufacturing methods. Examples include blood clotting factors, immunoglobulins and the blood protein albumin (all of these products are associated with little or no plasma). Blood products and blood substitutes can also be grouped according to their function. Some examples are listed below:
Category (based on function) Blood volume expanders Oxygen carriers Coagulants Products for immune defence
Blood products Plasma, albumin Packed red blood cells Platelets, clotting factors Immunoglobulins
A table summarising blood components and the alternative donated products that can be received in transfusions is available on the Student Resource CD. This table also provides a column for students to complete when researching the uses of the products of donated blood.
Task
This is an inquiry-orientated, web-based activity providing students with secondary sources in the form of a series of websites. The information on each website should be processed and analysed constructively to reach a conclusion. The questions to be researched are listed below without any website references, but they appear as a fully referenced web-based activity on the Student Resource CD, with relevant websites hyperlinked for each question.
Aims
To identify and describe the products extracted from donated blood and the uses of these products.
To assess the impacts of advances in biology on the development of technology (refers to PFA H3). To assess the impacts of applications of biology on society and the environment (refers to PFA H4). To identify possible future directions of biological research (refers to PFA H5). Note: A guided worksheet with table templates and websites is provided on the Student Resource CD for this investigation. 1. Identify four to six key events that shaped the history of donated blood and blood products. List these events in chronological order and, for each, include a date and a brief outline of the role that the event played in advancing blood transfusion technology (PFA H3). 2. Distinguish between allogenic and autologous blood transfusions and give one advantage and one disadvantage of each. 3. With progress in the technology of blood donation and transfusion, there has been a trend towards giving patients blood products rather than whole blood. Describe the main advantages of using blood products in transfusions, rather than whole blood (refers to PFA H4). 4. In the form of a table, list the normal components of blood and the function of each and then compare these with products extracted from donated blood and the use of each product. 5. (a) Outline the difculties and risks associated with transfusions (of whole blood and of blood products) in general and in war zones specically. (b) Justify your answer (that is, use evidence to support your answer). (c) Outline current areas of research being carried out to make blood transfusions safer and more efcient (PFA H5). 6. Select three products of donated blood (at least one cellular product and one acellular product) and prepare a detailed report on each, covering information as outlined below. (Your answer to Question 4 may help you to decide which blood products to research. Additional information can be obtained from additional secondary sources if necessary.) For each product of donated blood: (a) describe how the product is produced (b) discuss the uses, as well as the difculties and risks, associated with the use of the product (PFA 4).
60
Articial blood and its importance
analyse and present information from secondary sources to report on progress in the production of articial blood and use available evidence to propose reasons why such research is needed
during the Vietnam war (American and Australian soldiers were there between 1962 and 1972). The search was on for an oxygencarrying solution that could expand the blood volume and also deliver (release) the oxygen to tissues where it was required. Research progresses slowly It was during this era that a breakthrough was made by Dr Leland Clark, who began experimenting in the mid-1960s with oxygen carrying compounds know as peruorocarbons. Research into articial blood continued slowly and with poor results until the late 1980s, when active and urgent research began in response to the sudden appearance of HIV (the virus which causes the disease AIDS) in patients who had been given blood transfusions. This brought with it concerns of the transmission of other infectious diseases (such as hepatitis C) that have a similar window period during which they cannot be detected in donated blooda further incentive for progress to be made in research of articial blood. The ideal characteristics expected in an articial replacement for blood have become more complex and include characteristics that were identied in the past as well as some new requirementsthat the product: can be stored for long periods and easily transported does not need to be cross-matched for different blood types can be produced in large quantities at low cost is completely safe (has no toxic effects on the body and is free from disease) does not trigger an immune response continues to circulate (does not settle out) and, once the patients own blood is restored, may be safely excreted. Areas of research One area of research has been that of increasing the volume of blood after massive bleedingsaline solutions and other compounds such as crystalloids and colloids which act as blood expanders are commonly used. Saline solutions that replace lost electrolytes are also used.
SECONDARY SOURCE INVESTIGATION BIOLOGY SKILLS

H13.1 H14.1; H14.3
www.virtualbloodcentre.com/ videopage.asp?vidid=135 Videoclip: A haematologist explains the importance of developing articial blood, the different types of articial blood, their advantages and the difculties in stabilising and using these products.
TR
Teaching strategy articial blood
Progress in the production of articial blood

In the past In 1616 when William Harvey rst described the circulation of blood, scientists started thinking about whether blood could be replaced by other liquids to cure diseases. (Wine and milk were amongst those considered!) Attempts to treat massive bleeding in soldiers during World Wars I and II often failed and this spurred on modern efforts to produce articial blood in the hope that this could prove more effective in replacing lost blood. Severe bleeding is a life-threatening condition because of the loss of two main functions of blood: 1. transport of oxygen and its delivery to the cells 2. maintenance of uid volume, water and salt concentration and blood pressure in the internal environment. Although these functions could be served by transfusing donated blood or blood products into patients, blood transfusions bring with them their own problems (as dealt with in the secondary-source investigation on donated blood). The need for articial blood was at rst identied to overcome early setbacks associated with transfused blood, such as: cross-matching of blood types the short storage life (only a few weeks) before donated blood and products must be discarded the difculty transporting blood into battle zones. There was a resurgence in military-driven efforts in research for a blood substitute in the 1960s, in response to difculties in supplying blood to soldiers in the hot jungle conditions
61
normal blood
anaemia
artificial blood
capillary
red blood cells oxygen delivery to tissues (represented as many grey dots) Figure 2.22 Articial blood increases oxygen delivery to tissues
too few red blood cells poor oxygen delivery to tissues
membrane. Future research involves enclosing the haemoglobin, with the required enzymes, inside an articial cell membranea lipid vesicleto increase the circulation time. Articial red cells are currently being developed as microcapsules of phospholipid into which haemoglobin can be placed, but research is still in early stages. Current research At present there is no safe and effective articial blood product being used in Australia and the United States of America, where scientists continue to develop and test possible blood replacements. However, the AIDS crisis in South Africa has been a driving force in it becoming one of the rst countries in the world to clear articial blood for limited use in patients. The brand Haemopure is made from stabilised bovine (cattle) haemoglobin in a balanced salt solution; it has a shelf life of 36 months and can be stored at room temperature. The Haemopure molecule is 1000 times smaller than a red blood cell, allowing it to ow through partially blocked arteries and so it may be useful in heart surgery. Polyheme, currently awaiting approval in Australia and the United States of America, is a brand of articial blood that has been produced in laboratories in South Australia. It is made from modied haemoglobin from human red blood cells. It can deliver oxygen up to three times more efciently than red blood cells. Both of these have a very short circulation time (1224 hours) compared with 50 days for donated red blood cells. Another area of current research is the study of crocodile red blood cells. Using a neutron-scattering technique, scientists have found that crocodile haemoglobin molecules can link together to form more stable haemoglobin (raw human haemoglobin tends to break up and enter the kidneys, causing damage; linked crocodile haemoglobin molecules do not enter the kidneys). Advantages of articial products The main advantages of the current articial bloods available is that they meet the following expectations: They can be sterilised. They can be stored for long periods of time. No cross-matching is needed (no cell membranes). There is no risk of infection. Peruorocarbons are relatively cheap to produce. No substitutes have been developed as yet to carry out immune defence or clotting of blood. These are areas for future research.
artificial blood added to plasma artificial blood increases oxygen delivery to tissues
The main area of current research, however, targets the transport of oxygen so that it is easily picked up and, more importantly, efciently released where it is required. Three main types of oxygen carriers are being developed: peruorocarbons (PFCs), haemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs) and articial red cells called microcapsules. Peruorocarbons carry oxygen in a dissolved form. They can carry up to 50 times more dissolved oxygen than plasma, enough to supply sufcient oxygen to tissues in the absence of red blood cells. The main difculty with these products is in enabling them to mix with the bloodstream they must be combined with lipids to form an emulsion. The lipid tested was approved by the Food and Drug Administration in the United States of America, but has not been successful because it cannot be given in large enough quantities to produce a signicant result. Future research includes improved versions of peruorocarbon emulsions for easier combination with blood. Haemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs) involve extracting haemoglobin from outdated donated human blood (or bovine blood) and modifying it to a form in which it can be used in articial blood. Raw haemoglobin (haemoglobin not contained within red blood cells) cannot be used, as it exists in an unstable form that is potentially toxic and can damage surrounding tissues and the kidneys in particular. It also has a greater afnity for oxygen than haemoglobin found in blood, so it does not release oxygen as readily in tissues where it is needed. Current research for the development and use of HBOCs in articial blood involves the cross-linking of the haemoglobin to enzymes found naturally in blood, to create a more stable second generation HBOC that will not break down. They also have a short circulation time. Second generation HBOCs will not be ideal as they are not protected by a red blood cell
62
Task
Part 1: Questions
(Recommended websites are available on the Student Resource CD for research of all of the following questions.) 1. Describe what articial blood is and outline what it is used for. 2. Outline reasons why research into the production of articial blood is important (see the problems associated with blood transfusions in the previous task). 3. Identify the main driving forces that propelled research in the area of the development of articial blood at various intervals in its history. In your answer, list three or four signicant dates and names (if available) and, for each factor, explain how it provided an important reason for the continuation of research to produce articial blood. 4. Identify the most important features that were expected in an articial blood substitute in the past and new features that are expected in current developments. 5. Table 2.3 lists examples of articial substitutes, grouped according to their functions. For each: (a) give a brief description of the product (b) describe the function it performs (c) discuss any advantage it has compared with whole blood (or a similar product of donated blood) and one difculty that must still be overcome, with current research. 6. Outline the progress that has been made in the development of articial blood, from
Table 2.3 Articial blood substitutes Category (based on function) Blood volume expanders Oxygen carriers
the rst experiments by Dr Leland Clark to current research in Australia and the use of Haemopure in South Africa.
SR
Part 2: Reporting on progress and proposal of reasons for research

Skill: A report text type A report is a specic text type that identies and describes the features of something (for example, identify and describe articial blood and the functional features it is expected to possess). Reporting can also classify things into categories (for example, the different types of articial blood currently being developed). How to prepare a reportsee the Student Resource CD.
Skilla report t text t t type
Report and proposal Developers of blood substitutes have formed an international networkThe International Society for Articial Cells, Blood Substitutes and Immobilisation Biotechnologyto promote their work and request a higher prole. Imagine that you are a member of this international group and have been requested to seek assistance from the Australian government for funding to subsidise further research within your organisation. Prepare a report on the progress of articial blood and use available evidence to propose reasons why such research is still needed.
TR
Suggested answers for investigation
Articial substitute Crystalloids and colloids 1. 2. 3. 4. Modied red blood cell antigen preparations Cell-free haemoglobin preparations (HBOCs) Liposome-enclosed haemoglobin (microcapsules) Peruorocarbon emulsions
Coagulants Products for immune defence
Not yet available Not yet available
63
2.8
Transport of nutrients in plants Transp
describe current theories about processes responsible for the movement of materials through plants in xylem and phloem tissue
water mineral ions) are carried by xylem tissue from the roots (the site of absorption) up to the leaves where they will be used for the manufacture of food (photosynthesis). Xylem tissue consists of xylem vessels, tracheids, bres and parenchyma cells (Assumed Knowledgesee the Student Resource CD). Most photosynthesis in plants occurs in the leaves. Phloem vessels are involved in the transport of organic nutrient products (particularly sugars, amino acids and plant hormones) to all parts of the plant. Movement occurs in two directionsup towards the owers and down to the roots. Phloem tissue consists of phloem bres, phloem parenchyma, sieve cells and companion cells. been tested by examining whether their consequences (predictions) are borne out by observation and experimentation. They have been modied over time, but the current most commonly accepted theories are: the transpiration stream theory (cohesion-adhesion-tension theory) of movement of water and mineral ions in xylem the pressure ow theory (sourcepath-sink theory) of translocation of organic nutrients in phloem. passive transport. A column of water is sucked up the stem by the evaporative pull of transpiration and is known as the transpiration stream. More detail on how this occurs is given on the following pages.
The function of xylem and phloem in transport

The role of transport in plants is mainly to carry materials for photosynthesis to the cells and to move cell products away to other parts of the plant. In small plants, this may be achieved by diffusion and active transport, but in larger plants, specialised vascular tissue has developed to serve this transport function, since diffusion and active transport by themselves would not be sufcient to move these substances over large distances. The vascular system in plants consists of vessels of xylem and phloem and the movement of materials from one part of the plant to another is known as translocation. Chemical substances that are needed for photosynthesis (such as
PFA
H2
SR
Theories about how materials move in xylem and phloem

Experimental evidence has shown the type of materials that move through xylem and phloem in plant stems and the directions in which they move, but the explanation of how this movement occurs in each is presented as a theorya scientists explanation of the phenomenon, based on observation and evidence. The theories of how movement of substances occurs in plants have
Transport of materials in xylem: the transpiration stream theory (cohesion-adhesion-tension theory)
Assumed dk knowledge l d structure and function of the xylem and phloem
The transpiration stream in xylem occurs due to physical forces that result from water (and ions) being moved by
64
1 as the sun warms the leaves, stomata open and water evaporates through the openings (transpiration occurs) 2 increased evaporation at the leaf surface creates a pull at the upper end of the water column 3 the pulling force is extended to the water column and creates a force that pulls water upwardsthe transpiration stream (depends on properties of water) 4 this creates a force that pulls water into the roots
3
Figure 2.23 The transpiration stream: moving water and mineral ions up xylem
transverse section dicot leaf
phloem xylem phloem
xylem
transverse section young root
transverse section dicot stem
Once water has been absorbed into the roots of plants (by osmosis) along with mineral ions (by diffusion and active transport), these substances move across the root into the xylem. A small amount of root pressure results from the continual inux of more water and ions, forcing the solution already present in the xylem upwards. This pressure, however, is not sufcient to lift the water and ions very high. Most of the upward movement in xylem seems to be as a result of the transpiration streamthat is, water is drawn up the xylem tubes to replace the loss of water from the leaves by transpiration (the evaporation of water through stomata). This is based on evidence gathered by biologists:
Xylem vessels are hollow and narrow, offering very little resistance to the ow of water. The physical properties of water contribute to the formation of a continuous stream: adhesive forces (the attraction between the water molecules and the walls of the xylem vessels) lead to capillarity (water rises up the narrow bore (central lumen) of xylem), and cohesive forces (the attraction of water molecules to each other to form a continuous stream). Together these forces ensure that a continuous column of water that moves upwards is maintained in the xylem vessels. A concentration gradient exists across the leaf:
65
Figure 2.24 Pressure ow: moving organic nutrients in phloem
At the surface of the leaf, the osmotic pressure is high (water concentration is low) because water is continually being lost by evaporation through the stomata (transpiration). In the centre of the leaf (e.g. the xylem and leaf tissues nearest the veins) the osmotic pressure is low (water concentration is high). The ow of the transpiration stream can be explained as follows. (Trace this on the diagram provided in Fig. 2.23.) Water loss at the leaf surface (e.g. from cells in the spongy mesophyll to the air chambers of the stomata or through the guard cell opening) results in the osmotic movement of water across from the adjacent internal cells into those that have just lost some water. This osmotic ow continues across the leaf, right to the xylem tissue. When molecules of water leave the xylem and move along the concentration gradient, this creates tension in the column of water rising up the xylem. Because of the properties of adhesion and cohesion, the water column does not break and so the whole column of water is pulled
xylem phloem sugars
upwards (much like the suction pull when you drink through a drinking straw lifts the column of water). The combination of adhesive and cohesive forces, together with the suction pull of transpiration create the transpiration stream. Mineral ions dissolved in the water are carried along by the transpiration stream and can move out by active transport, to reach the tissues where they are needed. The only way that plants suffering water stress can control water loss is by closing their stomata. However, stomata must be open for at least part of the day so that carbon dioxide can enter for photosynthesis.
Transport of materials in phloem: the pressure ow theory (sourcepath-sink theory)
source leaf mesophyll cell water companion cell
root cell
sink
Translocation in phloem tissue moves products of photosynthesis (such as glucose, sucrose and amino acids) by active transport. Up to 90% of the dissolved substances in the sap of phloem is sucrose (common sugar such as that which we have in tea and coffee). When sucrose reaches the cells, it may be converted back to glucose for respiration or to starch for storage. The ow of materials in phloem is an active process that requires energy. The mechanism of ow is driven by an osmotic pressure gradient, generated by differences in sugar and water concentrations. It involves the active loading sugar into phloem at one end (known as the source) and then the active unloading from phloem into surrounding tissues it at the other end (the sink). The loading of sugar into phloem at the source attracts water to ow in (because of differences in osmotic pressure) and the ofoading at the sink causes water to ow out of the phloem, hence the name pressure ow.
66
Loading at the source
Ofoading at the sink
Amino acids, sucrose and other mineral nutrients are loaded into the phloem in the leaves. There are two theories as to how this may occur: 1. symplastic loadingsugars and other nutrients move in the cytoplasm from the mesophyll cells to the sieve elements through plasmodesmata (strands of cytoplasm that pass through pits in the cell walls) 2. apoplastic loadingsugars and nutrients move along a pathway through the cell walls until they reach the sieve element. They then cross the cell membrane to enter the phloem tube. These sugars pass into the sieve cell by active transport. As sugars enter the phloem, the phloem sap becomes more concentrated and so the osmotic pressure at the source end is high. This draws water into the phloem, from the adjacent xylem tissue, by osmosis (see Fig. 2.24, blue arrows).
Materials ow to the sink. At the sink (for example roots, owers or any other parts of the plant that need nutrients), sugars and materials are removed from the phloem by active transport (see Fig. 2.24, red arrows). As sugars move out of the phloem, they draw water out with them (by osmosis). This results in a lower osmotic pressure (due to the higher water concentration) in the phloem at the sink region.
Pressure ow (along the path)
This difference in osmotic pressure between the source and the sink in the phloem drives the phloem sap to ow. The direction of ow depends on where the sink areas (roots or owers) of the plant are, in relation to the source (leaves). Water can move into the phloem by osmosis at any point along the gradient. The ow is continuous, because sucrose is continually being added at one end and removed at the other.
SR
TR
Student worksheet transport in xylem and phloem
STUDENT ACTIVITY
Create a ow chart to show the sequence of steps in pressure ow, from loading the sugars at the source to ofoading them at the sink. (Include any changes in the osmotic pressure.)
Investigating xylem and phloem tissue in plants (using a light microscope)
choose equipment or resources to perform a rst-hand investigation to gather rst-hand data to draw transverse and longitudinal sections of phloem and xylem tissue
stems and roots of plants and the directions in which plant material may be cut. (Also see Assumed Knowledge on the Student Resource CD.)

H11.3 H12.1; H12.2 H13.1 H14.3
Locating xylem and phloem in plant organs

Examine Figure 2.23 and Figure 2.25 to identify the location of xylem and phloem in the
67
C R D S
C A B
D B xylem cambium phloem parenchyma (packing cells) epidermis
longitudinal sections: A B C D transverse/cross section: S R
cortex parenchyma cells
supporting tissue (collenchymal sclerenchyma)
Figure 2.25 Diagram representing cutting planes in a plant organ
Microscopic examination of phloem and xylem

Plant organs may be cut in different planes (sections) in order to study the distribution of tissue within them. There are two types of sections: A longitudinal section (L.S.) is cut along the length of the organ (see Fig. 2.25). A transverse section (T.S.) or crosssection is cut across the width of the organ (i.e. at right angles to the lengthsee Fig. 2.25).
Materials
Students should list all materials used.
Safety
Students should identify risks and describe safe work practices to overcome these (see Risk AssessmentSafety on the Student resource CD).
TR
Light micrographs and worksheet to assist students with the investigation
Method
1. Set up a slide of a longitudinal section of a plant root or stem (showing phloem and xylem) on the microscope. 2. Locate the appropriate tissue types under low power using the additional notes in the guided investigation on the Student Resource CD and in Fig. 2.23. Identify the colours that xylem and phloem are stained (see step 3 below)this will help you to recognise them under high power. 3. Investigate the structure of: xylemmost easily identied by its pink-stained walls
Task
It is strongly recommended that students refresh their knowledge of the structure of xylem and phloem by referring to the diagrams on the Student Resource CD under Assumed knowledge: Diagrams of xylem and phloem distribution and structure.
SR
Assumed knowledge dk l d and guided practical investigation of xylem and phloem tissue
Aim
To observe and draw transverse and longitudinal sections of phloem and xylem.
68
phloemappears green in colour, elongate and much narrower than parenchyma cells. 4. Using the most appropriate magnication, draw the phloem and xylem. Write a heading for your diagram, label each part identied and state the magnication. When drawing xylem in L.S., include at least two different patterns of wall thickening. When drawing phloem tissue, include sieve tube elements, companion cells and sieve plates. 5. Remove the slide and repeat the process using the slide of the transverse section. 6. Answer the discussion questions on the Student Resource CD.
Results
1. Highlight the tissue distribution of xylem (pink) and phloem (green) provided on the worksheet on the Student Resource CD (Fig. CD2.4). 2. Draw clear, fully labelled diagrams of each of the following: (a) T.S. xylem and T.S. phloem (seen in a plant stem or root) (b) L.S. xylem and L.S. phloem (seen in a plant stem or root).
TR
Drawings in biology
Conclusion
Write a conclusion for this investigation.
Discussion
See questions on the Student Resource CD.
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Compare the role of haemoglobin in transporting oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood. 2. Explain the adaptive advantage of haemoglobin in terms of its being pH sensitive. 3. In a table, identify the forms in which carbon dioxide is transported in the blood and the proportion of each form. 4. Distinguish between the terms oxygenated and deoxygenated blood and identify in which blood vessels in the body one would expect to nd the mostly highly oxygenated blood and why. 5. Compare arteries, capillaries and veins in terms of the structure of their walls, the size of the lumen and the direction of blood ow. 6. Explain, Explain in terms of their functions, why: (a) the walls of arteries need to be thicker than those of veins (b) the walls of capillaries are so thin (c) veins have valves. 7. Outline the advantages of the use of blood products as opposed to whole blood. 8. Identify the main substances that need to be transported in plants and state the importance of these substances in the plant. 9. With the aid of a labelled diagram, illustrate the forces involved in lifting water and dissolved mineral ions up the xylem. 10. In a table, compare the translocation of materials in xylem with translocation in phloem.
SR
TR
Answers to revision questions
69

Chidrawi M1 Ch02 PDF

Încărcat de

Informații document

Titlu original

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Chidrawi M1 Ch02 PDF

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

CHAPTER 2

Transportdissolved nutrients and gases

TRANSPORTDISSOLVED NUTRIENTS AND GASES

Blood as a medium of transport

The transport function of blood

Figure 2.1 Composition of blood

leukocytes (white blood cells)

erythrocytes (red blood cells)

The composition of blood

Figure 2.2 The shape and dimensions of a red blood cell

TRANSPORTDISSOLVED NUTRIENTS AND GASES

Student worksheetthe composition of blood

Estimating the size of red and white blood cells

FIRST-HAND INVESTIGATION BIOLOGY SKILLS

Background information: measurement in science

H14.1; H14.2 (Extension activity: H14.3)

Teaching strategy estimating the size of objects

Precision, reliability and accuracy

General resources drawings in biology and answers to investigation

TRANSPORTDISSOLVED NUTRIENTS AND GASES

grid line at edge of field

Discussion and conclusion

Chemic substances and how they are transported Chemical in blood

TRANSPORTDISSOLVED NUTRIENTS AND GASES

Figure 2.6 The transport of carbon dioxide within the blood

interstistial CO 2 fluid blood plasma within capillary

H2O red blood cell

CO2 haemoglobin picks up CO2 and H+

H2CO3 carbonic acid

HCO3 CO2 transport HCO3 to lungs

HCO3 + H+ haemoglobin releases CO2 and H+

H2CO3 H2O CO2

CO2 CO2 CO2 CO2 alveolar space in lung

haemoglobin molecule. Only 23% of carbon dioxide is carried in this form.

Lipids and other products of digestion

Glucose and amino acid transport

phospholipid protein lacteal ch-esters surface

lipid micelles blood capillaries chylomicron

triglycerides chylomicron 100-1000nm (b) absorption of end products of digestion

TRANSPORTDISSOLVED NUTRIENTS AND GASES

The adapative advantage of haemoglobin

explain the adaptive advantage of haemoglobin

The structure of haemoglobin

The adaptive advantage of haemoglobin

% saturation of blood with oxygen

100 % saturation of blood with oxygen 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 8 10 12 2 4 6 partial pressure of oxygen/kPa

Oxygen, carbon dioxide and cell functioning Oxygen

TRANSPORTDISSOLVED NUTRIENTS AND GASES

The effect of carbon dioxide on the pH of water

FIRST-HAND INVESTIGATION BIOLOGY SKILLS

General resources risk assessment: safety

Investigation ti ti worksheet: carbon dioxide and the pH of water

TRANSPORTDISSOLVED NUTRIENTS AND GASES

Discussion and conclusion

Technologymeasuring blood gases

SECONDARY SOURCE INVESTIGATION PFA

Part 1: Identify current technologies to measure blood gases

Teaching strategy blood technologies

right radial artery

Part 2: Conditions under which technologies are used

pulse oximeter measures oxygen saturation

1. Explain why: (a) living cells need oxygen

TRANSPORTDISSOLVED NUTRIENTS AND GASES