Body Image Across The Lifespan 1

Running head: ADDRESSING THE EFFECTS OF MEDIA

Addressing The Effects Of Media Messages On Body Image Across The Lifespan:

Lesson Plans for Young Children, Young Adolescents and Young Adults

Travis Sky Ingersoll

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The lesson plans within this developmental curriculum are to help educators assist

their students in adopting a healthier outlook regarding their bodies, and greater

acceptance of the various body types of those around them. It is also meant to be a

catalyst for students’ critical analysis of sociocultural expectations and ideals toward

body shape and size, and illuminate how media and cultural influences exacerbate our

nation’s growing dissatisfaction with the bodies nature provides us. In addition, the role

of or society’s strict dichotomization of gender is examined, in relation to the masculine

and feminine depictions of body types so heralded in our culture.

Satisfaction with one’s body has been found to be a vital factor in determining self-

esteem and overall well-being (Stice & Shaw, 2002; Whetstone, Morrisey & Cummings,

2007). A person’s satisfaction with their physical from has to do with whether or not they

have a healthy body image. Body image is a term that relates to an individual’s internal

perceptions, evaluation and thoughts about one’s physical appearance and/or functioning

(Presnell, Bearman & Madeley, 2007; Reboussin, Rejeski, Martin, Callahan, Dunn, King

& Sallis, 2000). As previously mentioned, a healthy body image is an important factor

contributing to psychological health. However, when someone has a distorted and/or poor

body image, body dissatisfaction may develop. Body dissatisfaction is defined as the

subjective, negative evaluation of some, or multiple aspect(s) of a person’s physical

appearance (Stice & Shaw, 2002). Body dissatisfaction can lead to a variety of negative

outcomes.

Body dissatisfaction has been associated with low self-esteem, frequent feelings of

depression, insecurity, and anxiety in individuals throughout the lifespan (Baldwin &

Hoffman, 2002; Morris, 2005). It has also been linked to various disordered eating
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behaviors like excessive dieting, purging, and binge eating (Ayala, Mickens, Galindo &

Elder, 2007; Paxton, 2002), as well as anorexia nervosa (Mehlenbeck, 2007; National

Institute of Mental Health, 2008) and bulimia (Moradi, Derks & Matteson, 2005; Polivy

& Herman, 2002; Tylka & Hill, 2004). Even more alarming is the research indicating

that body dissatisfaction in both males and females, has been linked to higher levels of

suicidal ideation (Whetstone, Morrissey & Cummings, 2007), a correlation supported by

the sad fact that suicide is one of the most common causes of death among those

diagnosed with anorexia nervosa (National Institute of Mental Health, 2008).

Although body image issues are often viewed as a normal part of adolescent

development (Anderson, Huston, Schmitt, Linebarger & Wright, 2001), they are

becoming increasingly prevalent throughout the lifespan (Morris, 2005). In fact, even

young children are not exempt from the risk of developing a poor body image. Research

on body image suggests that ideas regarding what constitutes an ideal body, and what is

considered physically attractive are acquired at a very early age (Van den Bulck, 2000).

In one study, both girls and boys as young as 4 years of age expressed body image

concerns regarding their weight (for girls) and the size and appearance of their muscles

(for boys) (McCabe, Ricciardelli, Stanford, Holt, Keegan & Miller, 2007). Children in

early as fist grade are likely to believe that “thinner is better” (Morris, 2005, p.163).

Studies regularly find that around 40% of elementary school girls and 25% of their male

peers are dissatisfied with their bodies (Morris, 2005). In addition, there are alarming

findings regarding the increasing prevalence of eating disorders among elementary school

children (Mehlenbeck, 2007). It is obvious that the messages regarding the idealized body

types, reflecting our society’s obsession with enforcing dichotomous gender stereotypes,
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are reaching even the youngest of our citizens.

This societal trend is alarming for many reasons. One potentially hazardous

implication has to do with young children’s physical health. Young children with a

negative body image are more likely to diet, or restrict their food intake at a time when

proper nutrition is vital for healthy physical development (Morris, 2005). This can lead

to a variety of physiological problems such as muscle loss, dry skin and hair, and

gastrointestinal disorders. If their body issues are not addressed early on, long-term

complications may include stunted growth, loss of bone density and critical bone

formation, as well as delayed puberty. In addition, such children may suffer from

lethargy, severe mood swings, an obsession with food and exercise, and increased self-

isolation (Mehlenbeck, 2007).

The time of adolescence has typically been viewed as a period of human development

wrought with insecurities, body issues, and the often desperate search for meaning and

the establishment of one’s place in the world. Body image issues within this age group

have long been common knowledge. However, thanks to influences, such as the media,

body satisfaction within adolescent populations is increasingly in decline (Anderson,

Huston, Schmitt, Linebarger & Wright, 2001; Rand & Wright, 1999). According to

Presnell, Bearman and Madely (2007) only 12% of girls and 17% of boys indicate that

they are satisfied with their body shape, while as many as 46% of girls and 26% of boys

report significant distress regarding their body size and shape. The pressure to conform to

societal ideals, are not only evident in messages from media, but from peers and parents

as well.

Within our culture, body-related ideals include an overemphasis on thinness for

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females, and a proclivity for tallness, and substantial muscle mass for males (Choate,

2005; McCabe, Ricciardelli, Stanford, Holt, Keegan & Miller, 2007). This trend

transcends U.S. socio-cultural and ethnic groups. In a study by Ayala, Mickens, Galindo,

and Elder (2007), it was found that the higher the acculturation into North American

society, the more dissatisfied Latino adolescents were with their bodies. It was also

found that for African Americans, racially stereotyped body depictions are increasingly

contributing to body dissatisfaction (Collins, 2005; Reboussin, Rejeski, Martin, Callahan,

Dunn, King & Sallis, 2002).

When adolescents do not fit into their assigned and enforced parameters of socially

acceptable body types, a variety of unfavorable outcomes may manifest. Adolescents

that are unhappy with their bodies are prone to self-esteem issues, a decreased sense of

well-being, greater levels of depression, eating disorders, and steroid use with boys

(Clark & Tiggemann, 2007; Morris, 2005; Whetsone, Morrissey, & Cummings, 2007).

Culturally-idolized body types may also lead to social problems such as teasing and

bullying of children deemed overweight (Whetstone, Morrissey & Cummings, 2007),

delinquency issues, and aggressive and antisocial behavior in boys (Donnellan,

Trzesniewski, Robins, Moffitt & Caspi, 2005; Hendel, 2006). Most seriously, adolescent

body image dissatisfaction is correlated with an increased likelihood of suicidal ideation

and self-mutilation (Whetstone, Morrissey & Cummings, 2007).

With regard to body satisfaction, North American adults do not fair much better than

their younger counterparts. Although research indicates increased body satisfaction

among individuals transitioning from middle to late adulthood, the majority of body

issues experienced among older adults have more to do with bodily function than
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appearance (Reboussin, Rejeski, Martin, Callahan, Dunn, King & Sallis, 2000). Among

older adults there are also gender differences in relation to body satisfaction. In a study

by Kaminski and Hayslop (2006), it was found that men become more dissatisfied with

the appearance and function of their bodies during the last decades of their life, whereas

women did not. One explanation of this difference has to do with our culturally-based

sexual objectification of women; in that the older the woman, the less likely media will

target her age group for objectification. Without media enforced ideals of attractiveness

to deal with, women tend to feel better about themselves (Swim, Hyers, Cohen &

Ferguson, 2001). Imagine that!

Unfortunately, media depictions of idealized aspects of body-based attractiveness

affect people throughout most of their lives. This is particularly salient for North

American women. The same media images and messages depicting narrowly defined

beauty ideals females are saturated with in adolescence, continue throughout their

adulthood (Quinn, Kallen & Cathey, 2006).

On the other hand, media depictions of adult men tend to become variable, and in

effect, more representative of the diversity of actual male body types. You can see this

with the characters in many family sitcoms. Typically within these television shows,

there is the beer-bellied husband/father that is married to a beautiful, thin, in-shape wife,

who keeps busy with domestic chores, as well as fixing the problems that her dim-witted

husband creates. What this seems to create is an atmosphere of low expectations, both

physically and intellectually, for North American adult males. While at the same time

setting high expectations for women, through the reinforcement of messages that women
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not only need to stay thin and beautiful, but should also fill the domestic roles our society

dictates, based on outdated sexist stereotypes (Levy, 2005; Moradi, Dirks & Matteson,

2005; Quinn, Kallen & Cathey, 2006).

This disparity in stereotyped ideals of attractiveness has to do with the way in which

our society views femininity, and women in general. According to Objectification

Theory, U.S. culture places an omnipresent emphasis on female bodies as objects to be

examined and consumed for pleasure (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997). As a result,

American women encounter daily messages of objectification ranging from body-related

comments (Swim, Hyers, Cohen & Ferguson, 2001) to an endless barrage of media

images, to male gaze (Calogero, 2004). Living in such a sexually objectifying culture

“can lead to experiences of self-objectification, in which women view themselves from a

third person perspective, as mere objects to be evaluated (Quinn, Kallen & Cathey,

2006).

Addressing body image issues throughout adulthood serves two important functions.

One is to increase the psychological and physical well-being of adults who’ve

internalized the unrealistic, and often sexist, ideologies regarding physical attractiveness;

and secondly to address and counteract the prevalence of such messages being passed

down from adult care-giver to child. Research indicates that the growing problem with

body dissatisfaction among the young, not only has media to blame, but parents, teachers

and physical educators as well (McCabe, Ricciardelli, Stanford, Holt, Keegan & Miller,

2007; O’Brien, Hunter & Banks, 2007).

The following three lesson plans address the issue of body image for three separate

age groups throughout the lifespan. The first lesson plan will be for young children
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between the ages of 4 to 6. The second is geared toward young adolescents between the

ages of 13 to 15, but would be effective for older teens as well. The third lesson plan is

designed to work with adult parents, teachers, and adult care-givers of the two previously

mentioned age groups.

The messages contained within the following lesson plans can be easily adapted to a

variety of age groups, and educational settings. The child and adolescent focused lessons

are meant to be used in racially-diverse public schools, whereas the adult lesson plan can

be used in any arena where parents gather together (i.e., parent teacher conferences, after-

school workshops, etc.). However, teachers and consultants may find these lessons

useful in a variety of educational settings.

Lesson Plan: Building Healthy Body Image in Children

Target Population: This lesson is designed for use with children between the ages of four

to six. Children within this age range begin to explore the world through exploration and

are curious about themselves and their surroundings. In particular, children in this age

range are developing a conscious awareness of their own body, it’s functions, how others

perceive their body, and are intrigued about their own, and the bodies of those around

them (Advocates for Youth, 2008). It is a time of early moral development, and

characterized by the social learning functions of peer-play. It is also an age where

children develop an understanding of their own gender and the gender of others, actively

seeking out visual and behavioral cues in relation to the society’s enforced gender role
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ideology (Neuman & Neuman, 2006).

Due to recent research illuminating the fact that body dissatisfaction in increasing

among the very young (Mehlenbeck, 2007), the target population has been chosen in an

attempt to address the issue before it leads to long term social, physical and psychological

problems (Haines & Neumark-Sztainer, 2007; Smith & Niemi, 2007). This lesson plan is

directed at combating the alarming increase in weight-related teasing and bullying, body

dissatisfaction, and eating disorders within this age group.

Developmental Theories

Psychoanalytic Theory: According to Freudian psychology, it is around the ages of five

and six that a child’s superego forms. The superego represents the parental and societal

values communicated to the child. Operating on an unconscious level, and mostly

through fear, the superego internalizes the rules of write and wrong (Freud, 1953). For

example, a child may feel guilty after eating too much ice-cream, as a result of

continuous television commercials aimed at helping people lose weight. This may happen

even if the child’s parents see no problem with it. With maturity, the superego becomes

more flexible and realistic, allowing individuals to consider their self-interests (Neuman

& Neuman, 2006).

Psychosocial Theory: According to Erikson and Erikson (1998), this is the age in which

children are entering the crisis of Initiative vs. Guilt. This developmental stage is where

a conflict emerges between the child’s urge to form and carry out goals and their moral

judgments about what they want to do. It is a time when youngsters begin to explore the

world, imagining the many possibilities that may lay ahead of them (Erikson, 1982).
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When children do not succeed in meeting their goals, they end up feeling guilty.

Children who successfully negotiate this stage develop the courage to envision and

pursue valued goals, free of debilitating feelings of guilt and the fear of punishment.

If however, the child is unsuccessful in resolving this crisis, they may become guilt-

ridden and repressed. They may grow into self-righteous adults who inhibit their

impulses, are intolerant of others, and in extreme cases may suffer from psychosomatic

illnesses. Or if Initiative is overemphasized, the result may be an individual who feels

that they must constantly achieve (Erikson & Erikson, 1998; Neuman & Neuman, 2006).

Social-Learning Theory: Social learning theorists view personals identification as the

result of observing and imitating a model (Neuman & Neuman, 2006). Typically, a

child’s first model is a parent, but children can also model themselves after a grandparent,

an older sister or brother, a teacher, a baby-sitter, an athlete, or even a television

personality. Through observational learning, a child becomes familiarized with the

general concepts of situations, as well as with specific expected behaviors (Bandura,

1989; Bandura & Huston, 1961).

According to social-learning theorist, Jerome Kagan (1958, 1971), four related

processes establish and strengthen identification: 1) Wanting to be like the model.

Children may want to be like a sports hero whose muscular strength and agility they

would like to have. Or they may want to be like a celebrity model, whose thinness,

attention to style, and reckless behavior makes them so attractive to the public eye. 2)

Acting like the model. Children may adopt the mode’s mannerisms, choice of style, voice

inflections and common phrases they would say. When the model is a parent, they are

often startled when hearing their own words and tone of voice come from their child’s
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mouth. 3) Feeling what the model feels. Children often experience emotions like those of

the models they emulate. 4) Believing that they are like their chosen model. Children

begin to believe they look like the model, will dress and do their hair like the model.

Identification with the model can be reinforced by other people’s comments.. (you look

just like a little Brittany Spears!).

Cognitive-Developmental Theory: According to Kohlberg (1966), to learn their gender,

children do not depend on adults as models or to dish out reinforcements and

punishments; instead, they actively classify themselves and others as female or male and

then organize their behaviors around their gender. Gender identity, which is the

awareness of being male or female, may begin as early as age two or three, but gender

constancy comes later, around four or five. Gender constancy is a child’s realization that

his or her sex is permanent. According to Kohlberg (1966), gender differences in

behavior proceed after the establishment of gender constancy. Once children think that

they must always be either male or female, they try to adopt “gender-appropriate”

behaviors.

Another prominent cognitive-developmental theorist, Piaget (1972, as cited in

Neuman and Neuman, 2006), viewed children at this age as completing the stage of

preoperational thought. This stage begins when the child initially learns language, and

typically ends around age five or six. During this time in a child’s life, they are

developing tools for symbolic representation in the forms of language, imitation,

imagery, symbolic drawing and symbolic play. Their knowledge of the world is strongly

associated with their perceptions of it.

Gender-Schema Theory: Gender-schema theory combines elements of social-learning

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theory with cognitive-developmental theory. It is based on the concept of gender-

schema, which is a cognitively organized pattern of behavior that helps a child sort out

information. Bem (1983) asserts that children socialize themselves around their perceived

gender roles. As children witness what girls and boys are supposed to be and do (i.e., the

culture’s gender-schema), they adapt their own attitudes and behaviors accordingly. This

theory surmises, that since gender-schemas are learned, then they can be modified (Bem,

1989).

Sociocultural Theory: Vygotsky (1978) believed that complex mental activities, such as

deliberate memory, problem solving, and voluntary attention, have their origins in social

interaction. He coined The Zone of Proximal Development, to describe a range of tasks

that a child can not yet do alone, but can do with the help of skilled partners. Vygotsky

(1978) viewed make-believe play as the ideal social context for the advancement of early

childhood cognitive development. When children create imaginary situations, they learn

to follow internal ideas and social rules rather than their immediate compulsions.

What all the theorists above illuminate and reinforce, is how developmentally

important a time it is for this targeted age group (i.e., 4-6 year olds). A lot can go wrong

during this age-span, but on the flip side, a lot of great programming can be

accomplished. Positive/healthy messages internalized during this time in a child’s life

can stay with them throughout their lifespan, as can negative/unhealthy messages. For

this reason, combating the barrage of sexist, body-related stereotypes that children are

inundated with, through media, parents, teachers, and peers is vital to the children’s long-

term health.
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Setting: This lesson is designed to be taught to kindergarten to second grade students in

any public school. This lesson can easily be adapted to connect with any socio-cultural

class and/or ethnic group. Parents should be encouraged to sit in on these sessions, not

only to provide comfort and support to their children, but to learn about the issue as well.

This lesson can also be used in private-school settings, after-school programs, or in any

environment where a captive audience of children can be obtained.

Culture of community: Depending on the racial make-up of the classroom, a variety of

“role model” examples should be gathered. A part of this lesson is to provide examples

of role models of various body sizes and shapes. It is also advised to try and include as

many cultural and ethnic examples as possible. If prepared responsibly, an educator will

be able to adapt this lesson to meet the needs of any classroom they encounter.

What is a fact, regardless of one’s ethnic background, race, or socio-economic status,

is that media depictions of idealized body types affect the body image of all. This is

particularly true for ethnic and racial minorities who are in the process of, or have

become fully acculturated (Ayala, Mickens, Galindo & Elder, 2007). Although having

parents of diverse racial and ethnic origins helps to shield children form certain forms of

media-based programming, adult care-givers in many forms internalize messages from

media depictions of what is beautiful and desirable, and what is ideally masculine or

feminine. Once such messages become internalized, adults unconsciously begin to

reinforce them with those around them, including their children.

Concepts:
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• The human body comes in many forms

• Teasing people is not nice

• People of all shapes and sizes do great things

Goals:

• To support and build upon each child’s self-esteem and sense of self

• To make children aware of how teasing someone about their body can hurt

them

• To help children appreciate people of different shapes, sizes and colors

• The create a safe environment for children to ask questions and discuss

Ojectives:

Students will:

- Recognize that people of all shapes, sizes and colors are special just the way

they are, and what really matters is the goodness within.

- Imagine themselves as a person being teased for how they look, or the shape

of their body, and empathize with how they might feel.

- Identify and represent the various shapes, sizes and colors of the people they

like and love in a drawing exercise, and then share good things about the

people represented in their drawings

Rationale: As mentioned earlier, messages that negatively affect body image are

reaching children and younger and younger ages (Birbeck & Drummon, 2006;

Mehlenbeck, 2007). One of the deleterious results of such messages, is the growing

prevalence of weight-related teasing and bullying. As one study found, “students

described the most common reasons kids get teased in their schools to be ‘appearance,’
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and ‘being tubby’” (Haines & Neumark-Sztainer, 2007, p. 15). By designing a lesson

plan for young children aimed at increasing acceptance for people of all shapes and sizes,

it is the authors intention to combat and decrease weight-related teasing.

Materials Needed:

- Book: Shapesville by Andy Mills (isbn# 0936077441)

Description: Shapesville is a small town where five friends of various shapes,

sizes, colors, and talents discuss their differences and celebrate what makes each

of them unique. Simple, rhyming verse and bold, playful illustrations of basic

shapes and colors introduce these charmers: red rectangle Robbie, yellow circle

Cindy, blue square Sam, orange diamond Daisy, and green triangle Tracy.

These endearing characters show that “it’s not the size of your shape or the s

shape of your size, but the size of your heart that deserves first prize.” Questions

at the end encourage discussion of these characters and what they mean.

- Drawing materials: paper, washable-markers and crayons (enough for every

student)

- A child-like drawing of your own, depicting family and friends of various

shapes and sizes, to be used as a model of what you’d like the children to do

Preparation:

- Make sure to have read the book: Shapesville by Andy Mills, and are familiar

with the questions at the end of the story. It may be useful to practice reading

it aloud, especially if you’ve never read to children before. Reading with

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animated expression, and intonation fluctuations, may help keep the children’s

attention

- Prepare an activity space (either on the floor or at a table) with drawing paper,

crayons and washable-markers

- Prepare an area where you will be reading to the children

Time frame: 1 hour

Rationale: Children at this age tend to have short attention spans (Bruess & Greenberg,

2004). Due to this fact, this lesson plan is divided into short time spans to keep their

attention. In addition, by having them engage in “fun activities” like symbolic drawing

and imagination activities, they will be learning in a format typically effective with this

population (Advocates for Youth, 2008; Neuman & Neuman, 2006).

Procedure:

Introduction: (5 minutes)

1. Welcome the children as they enter the teaching area. Introduce yourself and

ask them of their names.

2. Invite the children to gather around you for story time, and show them the

book that you are about to read to them. Emphasize how fun and colorful the

story is.

Rationale: By engaging with the students and showing an interest in who they are, you

will be building their comfort level. By holding up the book to show them the cover,
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while exclaiming to them that you will be reading them a story full of colorful pictures,

you are working to draw them in.

Story Time and Discussion (30 minutes)

1. Tell the children that today you will be talking about the many things that

make people special. Tell them to raise their hands if they know people who

are special.

2. Read the book: Shapesville slowly and with as much enthusiasm and

expression as you can. Make sure to allow the children to all see the colorful

pictures on the pages after you’ve read them.

3. After the book is finished, follow the books discussion guidelines in the

appendix, or ask questions such as the following.

a. What did you think of the story?

b. What characters did you like the most?

c. Who here knows people of different shapes, sizes and colors?

d. Who here has friends and family that they like and love, who are

different shapes, sizes and colors?

4. At this point ask the children to raise their hand if they have ever seen

someone being teased or made fun of for the shape, size or color that they

were. Call on the children to tell their story.

5. After you have one or two examples, tell the children that we are going to go

into the world of imagination. Tell them to close their eyes tight and imagine

that they were the person who was being teased or made fun of for being (fat,
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tall, skinny, etc.). Tell them to think about how that would make them feel.

After a few seconds ask them to open their eyes. Now ask them to share with

you how they would feel if they were the one being made fun of. Ask them to

raise their hand if they would like to share with the class how they would feel.

6. Make sure you show compassion and validate all of their feelings and

comments. End the activity with statements about how hurtful it is for people

to tease others for who they are, whether it is their shape, size, or color, and

remind them of how they felt when they imagined that they were the ones

being made fun of.

Rationale: By letting them use their imagination, and having them picture themselves as

someone else who was being teased for their body shape, size or color, you will not only

be helping them learn through an age-appropriate manner (Advocates for Youth, 2008),

but also be building within them, the important skill of empathy. According to Vygotsky

(1978), when children create imaginary situations, they learn to follow internal ideas and

social rules rather than their immediate impulses. By having them put themselves in

someone else’s shoes also drives home the moral of the story you have just read, which is

that the shape or size or color of a person is not what is important. What’s important is

how good of a person they are on the inside.

Energizer (Simon Says) (5 minutes)

1. Have everybody stand up and reach to the ceiling. Then try and touch their

toes, then stand up again and face you.

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2. Let them know that it’s Simon Says time! Play Simon Says with them for 5

minutes to help them release some of their energy from having to sit for so

long.

Rationale: Since it is well known that children at this age have short attention spans and

usually a lot of energy (Bruess & Greenberg, 2004), this “energizer” will break the lesson

up a bit. It could also be a slight “de-energizer” since the children will have been seated

for around 30 minutes at this point.

Art Activity: People We Love and Care About Come in Many Shapes and Sizes

(25 minutes)

1. Ask the children to gather around the art table (or space) that you have

prepared with paper, crayons and washable markers. Ask them to take a seat

and then pass them each at least two pieces of paper (in case they want to start

over).

2. Make sure that crayons and markers are easily accessible to all children

present.

3. Show them the drawing that you made, and point out all the different shapes,

sizes and colors of the people you drew. Then share with the class who those

people are in your life, and what makes them so special to you.

4. Tell them that you would like them to do the same. Instruct them to try and

draw their favorite friends, family members, and other people that they care

about. Tell them to try and draw them tall if they are tall, and small if they are

small, and thin if they are thin, and round if they are round. Also instruct
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them to show the colors of their skin as well.

5. Go around the group and praise their work in progress, give them more paper

as needed, and help when asked.

6. After about 15 minutes, ask them to finish up.

7. Now ask if anyone would like to talk about the very special people they have

drawn. Make sure to acknowledge the shapes, sizes, and colors of the

characters they created. For example, “wow, that a wonderful drawing of a

very tall girl,” or “you did such a good job drawing that happy round man.”

Let them share with you and each other what makes the people they drew so

special.

8. End the activity by telling them how well they all did, and how beautiful their

drawings were. Emphasize how important it is for them to remember that

people are special just they way they are, and that it’s not the shape, or the

size, or the color of the person, but the goodness that’s inside that counts.

9. Let them take their drawings with them if they want, say goodbye to each

child as they leave, then clean up the mess.

Rationale: Drawing helps children refine their motor skills, a feat of importance during

this time in their life. It also utilizes their creativity and imagination, two forms of

learning and intellectual development of significant value during their developmental

stage (Bruess & Greenberg, 2004; Neuman & Neuman, 2006; Vygotsky, 1978).

By having them identify the many shapes, sizes and colors of the important people in

their lives through visual representation, and then sharing those pictures with the rest of
 Body Image Across The Lifespan 21

the class, illustrates just how diverse people really are. It also, once again, reinforces the

message that people shouldn’t be judged based on their appearance, and that just because

the people they know come in many forms, doesn’t change how much they love them.

Lesson Plan: Media’s Affects on Adolescent Body Image

Target Population: This lesson is designed to be used with adolescents between the ages

of 13 to 15, but can easily be adapted for use with anyone in the adolescent age group.

During this time of life, adolescents are cognitively able to make decisions based on

knowledge of their options and the consequences related to the actions they take

(Advocates for Youth, 2008). However, they continue to be heavily influenced by their

peers, and by depictions of popular culture (Presnell, Bearman & Madeley, 2007).

According to Advocates for Youth (2008), although teens do respond to media messages,

they are developing an increasing ability to analyze those messages, which makes

interventions to combat deleterious media messages during this developmental stage so

important.

Adolescence is often a time of intense concerns over bodily characteristics and

physical attractiveness. Media depictions aimed at this age group are filled with

examples of cultural ideals of beauty that are difficult for most adolescents to obtain; for

girls it’s all about being thin, and for boys it is often about being too thin or small.

Research has found that television viewing by adolescent boys and girls, especially

entertainment television and sports programs, produces body dissatisfaction for both

sexes (Anderson, Huston, Schmitt, Linebarger, & Wright, 2001). Being that adolescence
 Body Image Across The Lifespan 22

is also a time were individuals are actively searching for acceptance and a place to

belong, media depictions of unrealistic body ideals can have even greater damaging

effects, such as the formation of eating disorders and depression (Stice & Shaw, 2002).

This is why educating adolescents about this issue, regardless of the community in which

they originate, is vitally important in combating media’s negative influences on body

image.

Developmental Theories

Psychosexual Theory: According to Freud (1950), it is in adolescence that the libido is

reawakened by the physiological changes brought on by puberty. Freud labeled this the

Genital Stage of psychosexual development. In this stage, strong sexual urges fuel the

preoccupation with physical appearance and sexual attractiveness, in many adolescents.

Psychosocial Theory: It is during early adolescence that Erikson’s psychosocial crisis of

group identity vs. alienation takes place. To resolve the conflict of group identity vs.

alienation, is to understand and integrate ideas about norms, expectations, and status

hierarchy of dominant groups in the social world. This includes what is expected of

one’s body shape and personal appearance. As a young adolescent prepares to engage

with the world at large, a positive sense of group identity instills the sense of meaningful

connectedness to society. Successful navigation of this psychosocial stage is vital to

one’s self-concept, as well as the likelihood for an individual to participate and contribute

to their society (Erikson & Erikson, 1998).

Erikson (1968) viewed the primary concern of this stage as the possible development

of a sense of alienation. Alienation has been described as an absence of meaningful

 Body Image Across The Lifespan 23

social connection or support (Neuman & Neuman, 2006). This developmental crisis can

manifest itself in a young person characterized by self-consciousness, shyness,

introversion, or a lack of social skills. Alienated adolescents may also find it hard to

form interpersonal connections that provide a sense of acceptance and emotional support,

and may become typecast as loners or outcasts. However, limited experiences of

alienation may help teens gain an appreciation for how good it feels to be socially

accepted, and how important that is for their mental health (Erikson & Erikson, 1998).

The formation of cliques and an intolerance of differences, are both hallmarks of the

adolescent social scene, both psychological defense mechanisms against alienation. The

yearning to belong, a common characteristic of this age group, helps to explain many

adolescent’s susceptibility to fads, gangs, and cults. When successfully navigated, this

developmental crisis culminates in a sense of social competence and belonging (Erikson,

1968; Erikson & Erikson, 1998; Neuman & Neuman, 2006).

Cognitive Developmental Theory: According to Piaget (as cited in Furth, 1969),

adolescence is where people achieve the highest level of cognitive development they are

capable of: Formal Operations. By acquiring Formal Operations, adolescents are able to

manipulate, or operate on information in a new way. They are no longer imprisoned in

the here and now, and are able to grasp abstract concepts such as exploitation and

freedom. Achieving this level of cognitive development enables them to recognize the

reality that in some situations, there are no definite answers (Furth, 1969; Neuman &

Neuman, 2006; Papalia & Olds, 1992).

Another cognitive developmental theorist, Kohlberg (1981) asserts that there are three

levels of moral reasoning: Level 1: Preconventional morality is when children, under

 Body Image Across The Lifespan 24

external controls, obey rules primarily to obtain rewards or to avoid punishments. Level

2: Conventional morality is where the standards of authority figures have been

internalized. People within this stage of development obey rules to please others or to

maintain order. Level 3: Postconventional morality is the stage in which morality is fully

internal. At this stage, people consciously recognize conflicts between moral standards

and actively choose between them. Most adolescents, like most adults, are at level 2 of

Kohlberg’s (1981) hierarchy of moral reasoning. They conform to social norms, are

motivated to maintain the status quo, and think in terms of doing what’s right in the eyes

of those around them, including the legal system.

Setting: This lesson can be utilized in any classroom setting, whether in private or public

schools. It can also be used within non-educational settings, such as youth centers. The

only stipulation is that the setting have access to electrical outlets, and preferably have

access to basic media equipment (i.e., television and VCR). Since the influence of media

on body image is pervasive throughout all American racial and ethnic groups, educators

can adapt this lesson to be used with a variety of diverse student populations.

Culture of community: Being that this lesson can be applied to a variety of diverse

settings, the culture of the communities will vary. It is the responsibility of educators to

be aware of the community in which they will be providing their services. Although this

lesson plan, by its very nature, is inclusive of all types of adolescents, depending on the

overall makeup of the educational setting in which it will be presented, small alterations

can make it even more effective.

 Body Image Across The Lifespan 25

For example, if the classroom is primarily comprised of African American teens,

preparing examples for class discussion of how media depicts idealized body types for

that population, would make the material more connected to the audience. In addition,

providing African American role models of various body shapes and sizes would also be

useful in helping students connect with the material being presented. Such attention to

detail is advisable to address diversity in many forms.

According to Irvine (1995), society constructs the importance of the body’s role in

sexuality, with each culture differing in the amount of importance they attach to specific

body parts such as breasts, buttocks, necks, and ears. Ideas regarding the body and its

role in attractiveness are often shaped less through rigorous scientific methods than by

social and political influences. With adolescence being a time characterized by the

preoccupation with sex and appearance (Freud, 1950; Neuman & Neuman, 2006),

providing a diverse array of experiential examples, representing a multitude of cultural

backgrounds would be the best practice.

Concepts:

• The media depictions of ideal body types are highly unrealistic

• Media portrayals of gender stereotypes regarding attractiveness likely

contributes to the growing discontent that Americans have about their bodies

• Body dissatisfaction can lead to a variety of negative outcomes

Goals:

• To raise student’s awareness of the negative influence of media depictions of

ideal body types

• To challenge student’s concepts regarding gender stereotypes, and the way in

 Body Image Across The Lifespan 26

which media dictates what is expected from each gender to be considered

attractive and sexually desirable

Objectives:

• Students will be able to identify specific examples of messages they receive

from media, peers, and other sources about ideals of physical attractiveness

• Students will be able to discuss how media depictions of idealized body types

can harm people

Materials Needed:

- Video: Tough Guise, by Jackson Katz

- Television and VCR

- Name Tags, Index Cards (enough for at least three for every participant),

Markers and Masking Tape (at least 3 rolls)

- A writing surface, such as a poster board, chalk-board or dry-erase

board + chalk & dry-erase markers if needed

Preparation:

- Make sure there is a TV and a VCR available, and that they work

- Have the video, “Tough Guise” cued to the section titled “Upping the

Ante,” which is approximately 16.5 minutes into the film

- Know the exact number of students in attendance, and set up the chairs

in a U-shaped pattern prior to the arrival of the participants

 Body Image Across The Lifespan 27

- Become familiar with the research concerning the negative consequences

of media depictions of “ideal bodies” on adolescent mental and physical

health previously reviewed in this curriculum

- Have two large (at least 2 feet by 2 feet) square areas prepared at the

front of the class, either on a writing board, or with poster paper taped

on the wall

- Place blank name tags and at least three index-cards at each seat (or

desk)

Time Frame: 1 hour

Rationale: This lesson is being kept to an hour in length so that participants will be more

likely to be engaged throughout. The adult attention span is typically shorter than 90

minutes, so this lesson utilizes various segments to keep the audience’s interest.

“The virtue of the U-shaped layout is that participants can see each other while a

traditional teacher-in-the-front presentation is going on. Whenever the trainer wants to

break into full group discussion, participants can interact face to face without having to

move. The arrangement is also convenient for handing out materials as the need arises:

the trainer simply moves into the U and gives a stack of handouts to participants at each

side of the horseshoe. If the room is large enough, participants can pull away from the

tables and form small groups” (Silberman, 1998, p. 219-220).

Procedure:

Opening: (10 minutes)

 Body Image Across The Lifespan 28

1. Greet participants as they enter the room, handing them markers, and instruct

them to pick a seat and put on a name tag.

2. Once everyone is seated, introduce yourself (if you are a guest presenter).

3. Ask them all to close their eyes. Once everyone has complied, have them

raise their hand if they are totally happy with their bodies. Tell them to keep

their hands up if they are, and open their eyes.

4. Instruct them to look around. Let those who had raised their hands lower them

and ask the class if they were surprised at what they saw

Rationale: Knowing that a great deal of research demonstrates that very few adolescents

are satisfied with their bodies, the most likely outcome of this exercise is that participants

will see how few people are actually satisfied with how they look. Being that group

cohesion is a developmental characteristic in early adolescence (Erikson & Erikson,

1998), creating a sense of common experience is beneficial to the class atmosphere. In

this way, normalization of body dissatisfaction will most likely occur, setting the stage

for further discussion about the topic. Creating this dynamic may also open the doorway

to greater honesty and disclosure regarding participants’ feelings about the topic.

Activity: What I Would Change About My Body (35 minutes)

Part I

1. Ask them as a group to think about their own bodies for a moment. Have them

think about parts of their bodies they wish they could change; which parts

they are unhappy with. Then ask them to write down those aspects or parts on
 Body Image Across The Lifespan 29

the index cards provided (one per card).

2. While they are writing down parts of their body they would like to change, go

to the front of the class and write “Male” over one square (previously

prepared), and “Female” over the other. Tear off as many small pieces of

masking tape as you can, and loosely stick to an edge or surface. These tape

pieces will be used to attach index cards to the surface of the drawn boxes.

3. Once they are done, have them get up and attach their index cards to the space

under the gender they identify with. Let them know where the masking tape is

if what you previously ripped off isn’t enough.

4. Once they have all back at their seats, have then take a look at what has been

posted on the board, and take a few minutes to read aloud what people wrote.

5. Allow questions, and entertain any reactions students may have had to what

was presented. Use this time to mention some of the research that links body

dissatisfaction to a number of negative outcomes, such as low-self esteem,

eating disorders, anorexia nervosa, depression, etc.

Rationale: By having them write down the things they are dissatisfied with about their

bodies, and putting them on the board under the gender they are identified, you will not

only be building upon the realization of common experiences illuminated in the previous

exercise, but will avoid alienating any transgender individuals in the classroom. By

getting up and taping their responses to the board, students will be able to see what others

feel, and will most likely see patterns. Being that they have to get up and affix their

responses themselves, this is also an energizer.

 Body Image Across The Lifespan 30

Part II

1. Have the students count off in four’s. Instruct them to gather into groups

based on their numbers. Instruct them to have one person designated as

“record-keeper,” and have that person get a piece of paper and a writing

utensil.

2. Ask them to work together to come up with examples of popular media

depictions of the “ideal male and female body” (i.e., popular advertisements,

TV shows, magazines, songs, etc.) that relate to what the previous exercise

presented. For example, one could argue about a relation between the

excessive thinness of most fashion models, and the amount of people who

wished they could lose weight.

3. After about 5 to 8 minutes, ask them to finish writing their examples.

4. Ask for a group to volunteer to share some media examples they came up

with. Go from one group to the next until all the groups have had a chance to

share.

5. Engage in a discussion about what was generated and shared. Use this time as

an opportunity to discuss research linking amount, and types of television

watched by teens, and its effects on their body image.

6. Instruct them to return to their seats.

Rationale: This activity uses the Group Interaction Model, the Discussion Model, the

Inductive Model and guided teaching. Guided teaching involves asking series of

questions in order to gather group knowledge (Silberman, 1998). The Discussion Model

is an instructional method designed to foster critical thinking and the development of

 Body Image Across The Lifespan 31

social skills. The less-structured format of the Discussion Model provides students and

teachers a great deal of freedom to express ideas and opinions (Eggen & Kauchak, 2006).

The Group Interaction Model uses the “think-square-share” technique, whereby students

are asked to get into learning groups of four, answer teacher posed questions, and then

share what they’ve come up with, with the rest of the class. This technique was chosen

since it elicits responses from all participants, while promoting involvement and active

learning (Eggen & Kauchak, 2006).

Video Part: Tough Guise by Jackson Katz (section = Upping the Ante)

(Time: 10 to 15 minutes) Depending upon how much time is left

1. Let the class know that they will be watching a short video clip.

2. Turn on the movie, and turn down the lights.

3. Once the segment “Upping the Ante” has finished, turn of the video and TV,

and turn on the lights.

4. Ask them what they thought about the clip. Engage in discussion about all that

was presented until the class period ends.

5. Thank them for their time and participation.

Rationale: By using media to illustrate the effects of media on body image, not only ads

variety to the lesson, but also provides a dramatic visual representation of the material

already covered. Since the section they will be watching is all about media’s effects on

primarily adolescent populations, it should speak well to the audience. It is also a way to

engage visual learners. All of the sections in this lesson were geared to meet enhance

learning as stated by Silberman (1998). According to Silberman, learning is enhanced if

 Body Image Across The Lifespan 32

people are asked to: State the information in their own words, give examples of it,

recognize it in various guises and circumstances, make use of it in various ways, and

foresee some of its consequences. This lesson aimed to do just that.

Lesson Plan: Recognizing the Influence of Media on Body Image in Early

Adulthood

Target Population: This lesson is targeted primarily for young adult parents, between the

early 20s to mid 30s, but would be beneficial for use with other adult care givers,

including teachers and physical education instructors. It can be used with any racial or

ethnic population, as well as with same sex parents, since media depictions of ideal body

types are pervasive throughout or society. This population is targeted, not only because

of their susceptibility to the negative effects on body image media messages produce, but

also because of the possibility for transmission of such messages from adult care-giver to

child.

According to research by O’Brien, Hunter and Banks (2007), physical education

students with lower body esteem, displayed strong negative prejudice toward obese

individuals. Such expressions of prejudice were found to be correlated with an

overemphasis on physical attributes, rooted in media-based ideological beliefs. It was

also found that mothers and teachers, concerned about their own bodies, often

communicated messages to their daughters about losing weight, and to their sons about

increasing their muscles. This was discovered to be taking place as early as preschool.

As a result, both boys and girls studied became concerned about their appearance,

particularly their clothes and hair. Girls also demonstrated a desire to lose weight, and
 Body Image Across The Lifespan 33

boys with increasing muscle mass (McCabe, Ricciardelli, Stanford, Holt, Keegan &

Miller, 2007).

Developmental Theories

Psychosocial Theory: Typically, adults within this target population are experiencing

the psychosocial crisis of Intimacy vs. Isolation. This psychosocial stage is characterized

by the challenge of subordinating one’s personal gratification in order to meet another

halfway. In essence, the main developmental task of young adulthood is to establish an

intimate relationship(s) with someone outside of the family (Erikson, 1968). Because of

our culture’s idiocentric nature, it is often difficult for people to deal with giving up total

independence and rely upon others. For this reason, achieving true intimacy with another

adult is often a road paved with challenges (Ingersoll, Norvilitis & Zhang, 2008).

Intimacy is defined as “the ability to experience an open, supportive, tender relationship

with another person without fear of losing one’s own identity in the process (Neuman &

Neuman, 2006, p. 417).” The ultimate prize in the psychosocial stage of intimacy vs.

isolation is the virtue of love, or the mutual devotion between two (or more) partners that

have chosen to share their lives together (Papalia & Olds, 1992).

Not succeeding in this developmental stage will often lead to isolation and self-

absorbtion. Humans are social beings, so we need to feel connected and to belong. If we

do not, and instead feel isolated from our fellow humans, psychological distress may

result (Erikson, 1968). This can have far reaching effects, both for the individual

themselves, as well as their families and/or their children (Erikson & Erikson, 1998).

Cognitive Developmental Theory: There are various cognitive theories regarding this
 Body Image Across The Lifespan 34

age group. According to Schaie (as cited in Berk, 2004), people the early twenties to

early thirties are the Achieving Stage. In this cognitive stage of development, people no

longer seek out knowledge just for the sake of acquiring it, rather they use what they

know to become more competent and independent.

Although Piaget considered the stage of formal operations as being the highest level of

thought, a further level of cognitive development, postformal thought, has been written

about (Berk, 2004; Papalia & Olds, 1992). Postformal thought, also known as mature

thinking, relies on intuition and subjectivity, as well as on pure the pure logicality

characteristic of formal operations. “Mature thinkers personalize their reasoning, using

the fruits of their experience when they are called on to deal with ambiguous situations

(Papalia & Olds, 1992, p. 384).

According to Kohlberg (1981) it isn’t until adults reach their twenties, if ever, do they

reach the highest stages of moral development. It is within level 3: post-conventional,

when adults reach stage 5: Social contract orientation, and stage 6: Universal ethical

principles. If adults reach these stages of moral development, they become less concerned

with maintaining society for its own sake, and become more concerned with the values

and principles that make for a good society. At stage 5 they begin to focus on basic

rights and democratic processes for all, while at stage 6 they specify the principles to

most justly live by.

Setting: This lesson would be great to use during a setting like a Parent-Teacher

Conference, PTA meeting, or any time adult caregivers of children come together. The

messages within are salient for all who care for children, as well as for individual adults
 Body Image Across The Lifespan 35

themselves. Just like the previous lesson plans presented, knowing your audience is

important to best prepare examples and materials to speak to their experiences and

realities. For example, if parents of diverse cultural backgrounds are present, they may

feel that their familial culture will shield their children from media’s negative affects on

their child’s body image. By meeting them where they are at, but also pointing out the

fact that the influence of media depictions can not be avoided, and that many of the

people the children interact with reinforce those messages as well, whether consciously

or subconsciously, it may be easier to illuminate how important a topic this is to them as

well.

Culture: The culture of any gathering where parents gather to discuss the welfare of their

children will most likely be diverse. Parents from diverse backgrounds will hold specific

beliefs regarding gender, sexuality, and a variety of behaviors (Irvine, 1995). To best be

prepared for such a setting is to be ready and open for any and all concerns and questions.

When parents are discussing their children, there may be a tendency for them to become

defensive or reactive. Demonstrating empathy, and understanding this about being a

parent may be useful when addressing them as individuals or in groups.

As educators, we must work to become aware of the values and belief systems held by

the many cultural backgrounds represented within the average public school system

(Irvine, 1995). As long as we do our best to make everyone feel that their unique

experiences are valid and valued, things should work out fine. Although parents may

have different belief systems, they are all gathered together for one primary objective, the

healthy development of their children. Capitalize on that unifying factor.

 Body Image Across The Lifespan 36

Concepts:

• The media depictions of ideal body types impact people throughout their life-

spans, and that those depictions are highly unrealistic

• Media portrayals of gender stereotypes regarding attractiveness are likely

responsible for the growing discontent that Americans have about their bodies

• Body dissatisfaction can lead to a variety of negative outcomes, not only for

individual adults, but for their children as well

• Body dissatisfaction can be passed down from parent to child, teacher to child,

or through any adult care-giver to child

Goals:

• To raise participant’s awareness of the negative influence of media depictions

of ideal body types

• To challenge participant’s concepts regarding gender stereotypes, and the way

in which media dictates what is expected from each gender to be considered

attractive and sexually desirable

• To illuminate the fact that internalized messages from media may not only be

affecting how they feel about themselves, but that the expressions of those

feelings may contribute to their children’s (or students if the participants are

teachers) body image(s)

Objectives:

• Participants will be able to identify specific examples of messages they

 Body Image Across The Lifespan 37

receive from media, peers, and other sources about ideals of physical

attractiveness

• Participants will be able to discuss how media depictions of idealized body

types can harm people

• Participants will be able to discuss the research findings presented, regarding

the negative consequences of body dissatisfaction

Materials Needed:

- Powerpoint Projector and Projector screen, or computer based

projection system.

- Prepared Powerpoint presentation, highlighting the various research

findings regarding media’s influence on body satisfaction throughout the

lifespan (as presented in this curriculum).

- Name Tags, Index Cards (enough for at least two for every participant),

Markers and Masking Tape (at least 3 rolls)

- A writing surface, such as a poster board, chalk-board or dry-erase

board + chalk & dry-erase markers (if needed)

(Alternative Materials)

- If your teaching environment does not have Powerpoint

presentation/Computer presentation access, prepare your research briefs

onto poster paper, or on any writing surface (prior to participant arrival)

Preparation:
 Body Image Across The Lifespan 38

- Know the exact number of students in attendance, and set up the chairs

in a U-shaped pattern prior to the arrival of the participants. However,

since this lesson does not require much moving around, any seating

arrangement will be fine.

- Become familiar with the research concerning the negative consequences

of media depictions of “ideal bodies” on child and adolescent mental and

physical health previously reviewed in this curriculum

- Have two large (at least 2 feet by 2 feet) square areas prepared at the

front of the class, either on a writing board, or with poster paper taped

on the wall

- Have markers/writing instruments and index cards ready and easily

accessible

Time Frame: 1 hour

Procedure:

Activity 1: Round Robin Icebreaker (5 to 10 minutes)

1. As people enter the room, hand each person a name tag and say hello.

2. Once they are all seated, introduce yourself and tell them that in order to get to

know each other better everyone will take turns saying their name, as well as a

few aspects about themselves (i.e., where they work, their favorite hobbies,

etc.).

3. You can start with a volunteer, or simply start on one side of the room and go

from there.
 Body Image Across The Lifespan 39

Rationale: This ice breaker is designed to get the group better acquainted with each

other, and to build comfort in the room.

Activity 2: Gauging Group Body Satisfaction (10 minutes)

1. Ask the audience members to close their eyes for a minute. Once everyone

has complied, have them raise their hand if they are totally happy with their

bodies. Tell them to keep their hands up if they are, and open their eyes.

2. Instruct them to look around. Let those who had raised their hands lower them

and ask the class if they were surprised at what they saw

3. Inform them of the results of this same activity when done with adolescents

and comment on the similarity and or differences in overall body

dissatisfaction. If you haven’t done this exercise with adolescents yet, inform

them of the research regarding adolescent body satisfaction.

(According to Presnell, Bearman and Madely (2007) only 12% of girls and

17% of boys indicate that they are satisfied with their body shape, while as

many as 46% of girls and 26% of boys report significant distress regarding

their body size and shape.)

Rationale: This activity is meant to illustrate the fact that body dissatisfaction is

prevalent throughout the life-span. Since research indicates an overall discontent with

one’s body among Americans, this activity will demonstrate how few people are truly

satisfied with their bodies. Even if most people in the audience raise their hands, the

teacher can use this as a juxtaposition with findings regarding children and adolescents.
 Body Image Across The Lifespan 40

This activity is also an attempt to connect the adults to the experiential realities of their

children/students.

Lecture/Research Presentation (20 minutes)

1. Transition into the lecture by letting them know that research indicates

growing body dissatisfaction across every age group within the United States.

Let it be known that there is alarming evidence that body dissatisfaction and

related outcomes, such as eating disorders, depression and low self-esteem, is

beginning to affect children as early as pre-school.

2. Cover the following topic points according to your own unique teaching style.

It is advisable to use some kind of visual, but this can be effective in strict

lecture format as well. Use the research presented within this curriculum to

guide you.

a. Body dissatisfaction in US populations is growing at an alarming rate,

and that research indicates that media messages regarding idealized

forms of attractiveness are significant contributors to this alarming

trend.

b. Body dissatisfaction has been associated with low self-esteem,

depression, insecurity and anxiety in individuals throughout the

lifespan.

c. It has been linked to various disordered eating behaviors like excessive

dieting, purging, and binge eating, as well as anorexia nervosa and

bulimia.
 Body Image Across The Lifespan 41

d. Research has shown that the most common forms of bullying and

teasing are weight related

e. Studies have shown that boys and girls as young as 4 years old are

expressing body image concerns regarding their weight (for girls) and

the size and appearance of their muscles (for boys)

f. Studies on elementary school children find that around 40% of

elementary school girls and 25% of elementary school boys are

dissatisfied with their bodies.

g. Most alarming is the research indicating that body satisfaction in both

males and females, has been linked to higher levels of suicidal

ideation, especially among teens.

3. After your lecture, open the group up for discussion about what was presented,

and what ideas they might have to help solve this problem.

Make sure to be empathetic with their concerns, and aware of cross-cultural

differences in perceptions of the issue

Rationale: According to Knowles (1980), adults need to know that what they are

learning is important. Connecting current research to the realities of their

children/student, makes the topic being discussed more salient. By presenting the

material as problems that need to be solved, the educator is emphasizing the issue as

something of immediate value, and speaks to the way adults approach learning as

problem-solving.

Activity: Where Are These Messages Creating Body Dissatisfaction Coming From?
 Body Image Across The Lifespan 42

(15 minutes)

1. Now have the audience members form groups of 4 or 5 with the people closest

to them.

3. Pass around index cards (at least 6 per group) and instruct them to think about

the messages they see on any given day regarding depictions of beauty and

attractiveness for men and women.

4. Instruct them to write down stereotypical characteristics of what the media

depicts as ideals of beauty. Have them discuss it as a group and then write 2 or

3 for each sex (male or female) on the index cards provided.

5. As they are doing that, tear off as many small pieces of masking tape as

possible. Write “Male” over one drawn square and “Female” over the other

drawn square.

6. When they are finished, ask them to send two members of their group to affix

the characteristics to the sex (male or female) on the board or poster pad.

7. Show them where the roles of masking tape are if there are not enough pieces

of tape prepared.

8. Once they have sat down, have them look at the messages media puts out to

all, concerning the ideal characteristics of beauty for men and women.

9. Allow some discussion, making sure to point out that media messages to not

discriminate. These messages are reaching everybody, regardless of race,

culture or age. All it takes is for someone to turn on a TV, walk past a

magazine stand or watch a movie.

Rationale: This activity uses the Group Interaction Model, the Discussion Model, Guided
 Body Image Across The Lifespan 43

Teaching and the “think-square-share” technique presented earlier in this curriculum

(Eggen & Kauchak, 2006; Silberman, 1998). By having them work in groups and then

physically get up to attach their answers to the board, we are encouraging and active

mode of learning, a style found to be most effective in young adult populations

(Silberman, 1998). This activity also allows a variety of opinions and perspectives to be

expressed. By acknowledging various social and cultural differences in how this topic is

perceive, respects and recognizes the various cultures represented in the learning

environment (Knowles, 1980).

Ending Lecture and Wrap-Up Discussion (15 minutes)

1. Now it’s time to give the participants something to think about, long after they

leave the workshop. Let them know that although media is partly to blame for

increasing body satisfaction among young children, teens, and young adults,

there are other factors to think about. Inform them of the following research

findings.

a. A recent study of preschool children demonstrated that parents who

expressed concerns about their own bodies, often communicated

messages to their daughters about losing weight, and to their sons

about increasing their muscles. As a result, those children began

expressing body image concerns themselves (McCabe, Ricciardelli,

Stanford, Keegan & Miller, 2007).

b. Another study found that Physical Education teachers who had their

own body image issues, expressed anti-fat prejudice toward students

 Body Image Across The Lifespan 44

they deemed overweight (O’Brien, Hunter & Banks, 2007).

c. In a study of 10,956 kindergarten boys, it was demonstrated that

teachers perceive young boys who are shorter/smaller than the

perceived norm, as being less academically capable. Those messages

typically became internalized in those boys, resulting in lower

academic achievement, and higher incidences of “acting-out” behavior

(Smith & Niemi, 2007)

2. Discuss with the group how important it is for all of us to be cognizant about

the messages we send our children. The same media messages that damage

our children’s body image, damages ours as well. It is extremely important to

let ourselves, each other, and our children know that we think they are

beautiful just the way they are. It is also important to acknowledge the

unrealistic expectations media creates regarding the ideals of beauty and

attractiveness.

3. Ask if there are any last questions, and allow a short discussion before

wrapping the session up and thanking everyone for coming.

Rationale: This ending lecture/discussion is meant to engender a great deal of thought

about the topic presented once the participants leave. It is not meant to accuse anyone of

anything, only to make them aware of the possible negative effects that their own

internalization of negative body image messages could have on their children. This

closing activity was also another attempt at driving home the relevancy of the topic

discussed is, in their own lives, as well as with their children, or the children they care for

(Knowles, 1980).
 Body Image Across The Lifespan 45

This entire lesson plan was designed to create a sense of community among the

participants. It allowed them to share and discuss their feelings, opinions, and

experiences regarding the topic of media’s influence on body dissatisfaction. By

focusing on the health and welfare of the children they all care for, this lesson hoped to

bring those in attendance together to address a common problem facing them all, which is

the growing problem with body dissatisfaction among the young.

 Body Image Across The Lifespan 46

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