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com
what makes up matter.
that all matter has mass, weight,
volume, and density.
how the properties of substances
change.
ways that substances combine to
form new substances.
313
314
density mixture
physical change
315
chemical change
solubility
solution
solute
solvent
Chapter 11
Vocabulary
density page 326
mixture page 328
solution page 330
solute page 330
solvent page 330
solubility page 331
physical change
page 332
chemical change
page 336
316
Explore What properties cause liquids
to form layers?
Materials
What to Do
Pour in each liquid in
the order they are listed
in the materials section.
Observe that the liquids
form layers.
Gently drop in a small
paper clip. Watch until
it stops sinking. Next,
drop in a piece of
Styrofoam.

Wait until
it stops. Then drop in a
piece of rubber band.
Explain Your Results
1. Infer Based on your observations,
which liquid has the highest density? the
lowest density? How do you know?
2. Which object has the highest density?
the lowest density? How do you know?
Because of their
different properties,
these liquids can
form layers.
corn oil
water (with red
food coloring)
dishwashing liquid
corn syrup
cup
small paper clip
tiny piece of Styrofoam

piece of rubber band

You make
inferences when
you develop
ideas based on
observations.
A liquid with a higher
density will sink under a
liquid with a lower density.
Day Action Observations
1 We put water in the freezer. Water was liquid.
2 The water was frozen into
ice. We put the ice into a
glass of water.
The ice floated on the water.
317
Compare and Contrast
Comparing and contrasting information helps you
understand some kinds of writing. We compare when we
say how things are alike and contrast when we say how
they are different.
Writers use clue words to signal likenesses and differences.
The most common clue word for likenesses is like.
Clue words such as yet, but, and however signal differences.
In the lab report below, the student made observations that
compare and contrast the water and ice in the activity.
Lab Report
Ice is the same substance as water. But the temperature of ice is lower. Thats
why its a solid instead of a liquid. So we were surprised that the ice floated on
the water. Later, the ice was beginning to melt. It was smaller than before but
still floated on the water.
Apply It!
Use a graphic organizer
like the one shown. Write
observations that
compare and contrast
ice and water.
Alike Different
You hear the liquid water rushing
beneath the boat. You glance
down at the deck. You notice the
puddles from yesterdays rain
have disappeared. The water has
evaporated into the air around
you. As the boat approaches the
iceberg, you reach out to feel a
solid wall of water. How does
the water that surrounds you
change form?
318
319
Lesson 1
What is matter?
All forms of matter are made up of tiny particles that are
too small to see. The way these particles are arranged and
move determines whether the matter is a solid, liquid, or gas.
Properties of Matter
Like ice, water, and air, you are made of matter. All
living and nonliving things are made of matter. Matter
is anything that has mass and takes up space. Scientists
use different ways to identify matter. One way is by its
properties. You can identify many properties of matter by
using your senses. For example, you can look at the color,
size, and shape of some matter. You can touch matter to
decide if its texture is rough or smooth, soft or hard. You
can recognize some matter by its smell and taste.
Testing Matter
Simple tests can show other properties of matter.
You can see how matter reacts if you heat or cool it, for
example. You can see if matter is affected by a magnet
or if it allows electricity to pass through it. You can hit
matter with a hammer to see if it shatters or is not even
dented. You can see how flexible it is. Does it break
or does it simply bend however you move it? You can
observe what happens when you place matter into water.
Does it float or does it sink to the bottom? You can try to
mix it with other matter. Does some matter disappear?
Or does something new seem to take its place?
1. Group five different objects in your
classroom by properties. Describe the properties.
2. Collect pictures or small objects that
show different textures of matter. Make a collage with
the pictures or objects you collect.
States of Matter
Using different instruments, scientists have learned that
all matter is made up of tiny particles. These particles are
arranged in different ways. These particles also move. The
arrangement and movement of the particles in matter
determine its form, or state. The three most familiar states
of matter are solid, liquid, and gas.
Usually substances on Earth exist naturally in just
one state. Can you name a substance that you can find
naturally in all three states? If you said water, you are right.
You can find water naturally in all three forms. Liquid water
is the same substance as the solid called ice and the gas
called water vapor.
320
321
Solids
At temperatures of 0C or below, the shape of an
ice cube is the same whether it is on a plate or in a
container. A solid is matter that has a definite shape
and usually takes up a definite amount of space. Its
particles are closely packed together. The particles have
some energy. They move back and forth, but they do not
change places with each other.
Liquids
Water takes the shape of any container into which
you pour it. If you pour the water in the container onto
a table, its shape changes, but the amount of water stays
the same. Matter that does not have a definite shape,
but takes up a definite amount of space, is a liquid. In a
liquid, the particles are not held together as tightly as in
a solid. The particles of a liquid are able to slide past one
another.
Gases
In the gas state, water is called water vapor. It is
invisible. Water vapor and several other gases make up
the air that is all around us. Like a liquid, a gas takes
the shape of its container. Unlike a liquid, a gas expands
to fill whatever space is available. A gas always fills the
container it is in. The particles in a gas are very far apart
from one another and move in all directions. Particles in
a gas move around more easily and quickly than those
in a solid.
1. Name the solid and gas forms of water.
2. Draw a diagram to show the arrangement and
movement of particles for one state of matter.
3. Compare and Contrast the movement of
particles in solids, liquids, and gases.
You cant see the
particles in a solid.
This drawing shows
how the tightly packed
particles are arranged.
You cant see the
particles in a liquid
either. The particles are
close to each other, but
they are not held tightly
together.
The particles in a gas
are far apart. Even if
you could see them,
you would not see the
particles arranged in
any special way.
322
Lesson 2
How is matter measured?
You can use metric rulers, balances, and graduated
cylinders to measure some properties of matter.
Mass
Did you know that your weight on
Earth is about six times as much as
your weight on the Moon? Thats
because your weight depends upon
the force of gravity. Your weight on
another planet might be much greater
than your weight on Earth, but your
mass is the same. While your weight on
the Moon might be less than your weight
on Earth, your mass is the same wherever
you go.
Scientists use mass because they want a
measurement that will not change if the object
is moved to a different location. Mass is the
measure of the amount of matter in an object.
The mass of an object does not change unless
matter is added to or removed from it.
Using a Pan Balance
You can use a pan balance to
compare a mass that you know
with one that you do not know.
When the pans are level, the two
masses are equal.
Suppose you found the mass of the
toy in the picture and then took it apart.
Next you measured the mass of each part
separately and added them together. What
do think the total would be? The total mass
of all the parts is the same as the mass of the
assembled toy. The toys mass is 23 grams.
The pan balance shows
that the mass of the toy,
23 grams, is equal to the
total mass of its parts.
23 grams
323
Suppose someone who did not see the toy takes all of
the parts and makes a toy that looks very different from
the one you see. What do you think is the mass of this
new toy? Thats right, 23 grams. The only way to change
the toys mass is to add parts or not use all of them. This
is because the only way to change the total mass of an
object is to either add matter or take it away.
Metric Units of Mass
Scientists use metric units when they measure and
compare matter. The gram is the base unit of mass in
the metric system. Some of the metric units that are
used to measure mass are milligram (mg), gram (g),
and kilogram (kg).
Like our place-value system, the metric system is
based on tens. Prefixes change the base unit to larger or
smaller units. For example, 1,000 milligrams are equal
to 1 gram, and 1,000 grams are equal to 1 kilogram.
The mass of a
large paper clip
is about 1 g.
The mass of a
nickel is about 5 g.
The mass of the
milk in this carton
is about 1,000 g,
or 1 kg.
1. Explain why your mass is
the same wherever you go.
2. The mass of a nickel is
about 5 g. About how many nickels are
needed for a mass of 1 kg? Remember
that 1 kg 1,000 g.
23 grams
324
Volume
Take a deep breath. As your lungs fill with air, you
can feel your chest expand. This change in your lung
size is an increase in volume. Volume is the amount of
space that matter takes up.
Like mass, volume is a property of matter that can
be measured. One way to measure the volume of a
solid such as a box, is to count the number of unit
cubes that fill it. Another way to find the volume is to
use a ruler to measure the length, width, and height
of the box. Then multiply the measurements. If a box
measures 5 cm long, 2 cm wide, and 8 cm high, then
the volume of the box is 5 cm 2 cm 8 cm, or
80 cubic centimeters.
Scientists often use metric units when they measure.
The table below shows how the units of length in the
metric system are related. Some metric units that are
often used to measure and compare the volume of a
solid are cubic centimeters (cm
3
) and cubic meters (m
3
).
Comparing Metric Units of Length
Metric Unit
1 millimeter
1 centimeter
1 meter
1 decameter
1 hectometer
1 kilometer
Equivalent
0.001 meter
10 millimeters
100 centimeters or
1,000 millimeters
10 meters
100 meters
1,000 meters
1 decimeter 10 centimeters
The rulers show the
boxs measurements,
which can be
multiplied together to
find its volume.
325
Volume of Liquids
Liquids do not have a definite shape.
To measure a liquid, you use a measuring
container, such as a graduated cylinder.
A graduated cylinder is marked with metric
units. Some metric units used to measure
volume are milliliter (mL) and liter (L).
One liter is equal to 1,000 milliliters. The
units marked on this graduated cylinder are
milliliters (mL).
Volume of Other Objects
A graduated cylinder can be used to find the
volume of solids that sink in water. To measure
the volume of a ball, for example, put some
water into a graduated cylinder. Record its
height. Then place the ball into the cylinder,
and record the height of the water again.
The ball has pushed away some of the water.
The water level has risen the same number of
milliliters as the volume of the ball. A volume
of 1 mL is the same as 1 cm
3
.
1. What metric units are used to
measure the volume of solids? of liquids?
2. Express 2 L in milliliters.
The water level in this graduated
cylinder rose from 50 mL to
55 mL when the ball was added.
The volume of the ball is
55 mL 50 mL 5 mL or 5 cm
3
.
Examples of Metric Lengths
What Was Measured
Thickness of a CD
Length of a paper clip
Measurement
1 mm
32 mm
Thickness of a CD case 1 cm or 10 mm
1 m
12 m
11 km or
11,000 m
10,000 km
Height of a doorknob from the floor
Length of a school bus
Length of 440 blue whales placed
end to end
Distance from the North Pole to
the equator
326
Density
Sometimes you need to know how much
mass is in a certain volume of matter. Suppose
a friend asked you, Which has more mass,
a piece of wood or a piece of steel? Your first
response might be, How big is each piece?
In order to compare the masses of two objects,
you need to use an equal volume of each. The
amount of mass in a certain volume of matter
is a property called density. For example, if
the pieces of wood and steel are the same size,
the piece of steel has more mass and a greater
density than the wood.
Finding Density
You find the density of a substance by
dividing its mass by its volume. The units often
used for the density of solids are grams per
cubic centimeter. You write density as a fraction:
mass in grams
volume in cubic centimeters
. The density of water is 1
because 1 gram of water has a volume of
1 cubic centimeter.
An objects density determines whether it
floats or sinks in a liquid. You can see in the
picture at the right that liquids can float on top
of other liquids. For example, water floats on
top of corn syrup because its density is less than
the density of the corn syrup.
A peeled orange
sinks, but an unpeeled
orange floats.
cooking oil
corn syrup
water
327
Comparing Densities
The substances with the greatest densities are
near the bottom of the cylinder. The substances
with the least densities are near the top.
You can also compare the densities of the
objects that are floating. The density of the grape
is less than the density of the corn syrup but
greater than the density of water. The density
of the plastic block is greater than that of the
cooking oil but less than the density of water.
The cork has the least density of the liquids and
the other objects in the picture.
An ice cube floats in water because the density
of ice is less than the density of water. But its
just a little less! So most of a floating ice cube is
below the surface.
1. Explain why steel sinks in water and cork floats.
2. An unpeeled orange floats in water, but a
peeled orange sinks. What can you conclude
about the density of an unpeeled orange?
3. Scientists use
submersibles (submarines) to explore oceans.
Use library books or the Internet to find out
more about how submarines sink or float.
Life Jacket
Life jackets or life preservers are
much smaller than you are. But
they help you stay afloat in water.
They are filled with foam or other
materials that have densities less
than water. A life jacket pushes
some of the water out of the way
just like the ball in the graduated
cylinder. The life jacket helps you
keep your head above the surface
of the water.
The liquids and other
objects have different
densities.
328
Lesson 3
How do substances
mix?
Mixtures are made by physically combining
two or more substances. The solids, liquids,
or gases in a mixture are not chemically
combined. They can be easily separated.
Mixtures
You may have eaten a snack made
from a mixture of nuts, dried apricots,
and raisins. Each ingredient in this
mixture keeps its own taste and shape.
A mixture is a combination of two
or more substances. Substances in a
mixture can be separated. This means
that they are not chemically combined.
Peas, carrots, and corn can be combined
in a mixture. In fact, you can buy a
bag of frozen mixed vegetables at the
store. Each vegetable can be sorted
into separate piles. The peas, carrots,
and corn taste the same whether
they are separated or mixed together.
All substances in a mixture that are
separated out have the same properties
as before they were mixed.
A magnet can be used to separate
the safety pins from the mixture.
The yellow beads
float in water.
329
Some substances can mix physically with
other substances. The makeup of a mixture can
vary. A mixture does not necessarily contain a
specific amount of each substance. They are not
joined together chemically, so each substance
in the mixture keeps its own properties. You can
easily see the properties of each substance that
makes up the beads, marbles, sand, safety pins,
and salt mixture shown here.
You can easily separate the ingredients in
many mixtures. Since safety pins are attracted
to a magnet, you can use a magnet to separate
them from the rest of the mixture. Then, you
can put the rest of the mixture in water. You
can use a spoon to skim off the floating beads.
If you pour the water through a filter, you can
remove the sand and the marbles. Then, after
the water evaporates, the salt will be left.
You separated the substances of this mixture,
but you did not change the properties of any of
the individual substances.
1. When the bead, marble, sand,
and salt mixture is put into water, the yellow
beads float. What does this tell you about the
density of these yellow beads?
2. Expository In your
science journal, write a numbered set of
instructions for separating a mixture of paper
clips, wood chips, gravel, and sugar.
After the
water from
the mixture of
salt and water
evaporated, salt
was left behind.
Filter paper can be
used to separate
solids from liquids.
330
Solutions
If you stir salt and water together, you make a
mixture. You cannot see the salt in this mixture
because it has broken into very small particles. It
has dissolved in the water. The salt and water is a
special kind of mixture called a solution.
In a solution, one or more substances are
dissolved in another substance. The most common
kind of solution is a solid dissolved in a liquid,
such as salt in water. In this kind of solution, the
substance that is dissolved is the solute. In a
solution of salt and water, the salt is the solute. A
solvent is the substance that takes in, or dissolves,
the other substance. Usually there is more solvent
than solute. In salt water, the solvent is water.
Common Solutions
In the oceans, salt and other minerals
are dissolved in water. Ocean water is a
solution. But a solution does not have
to be a liquid. The air you breathe,
for example, is a solution made
up of gases. The steel used
for buildings and cars is
a solution. During the
process of making steel,
carbon and iron, two solids,
are melted into liquid form.
Then the carbon is dissolved
in the iron.
Club soda is a solution made
up of a gas dissolved in a
liquid. The solubility of the gas
decreases as the temperature
of the solvent increases. That
is why a club soda goes flat
faster when it gets warm. As
the water becomes warmer,
more gas leaves the solution.
The salt is
dissolved in
this solution.
salt
Salt dissolves
in water.
331
Solubility
No matter what you do, you cannot make
sand dissolve in water. The ability of one
substance to dissolve in another is called its
solubility. Solubility is a measure of the
amount of a substance that will dissolve in
another substance. Since sand does not dissolve
in water, the solubility of sand in water is zero.
Sometimes you can speed up the process of
dissolving the solute by raising the temperature
of the solvent. This is true for most solutes that
are solids. For example, you can dissolve more
sugar in warm water than you can in cold water.
Another way to make a solute dissolve more
quickly is to crush it. If you drop a sugar cube
into a cup of water it will dissolve, but it may
take a while. If you crush the sugar cube into
tiny crystals, the crystals will dissolve very
quickly. The reason for this is that more of the
sugar particles are touching the water when
the sugar is in tiny crystals than when it is in a
sugar cube.
1. What are the parts of a solution?
2. What factors affect the solubility of a
substance?
3. During the Gold
Rush, many people panned for gold. Panning
separates gold from a mixture of gold and
other particles such as sand. Use books or
the Internet to find out about the California
Gold Rush.
Instant cocoa dissolves
more quickly in a cup of
hot water than in a cup
of cold water.
sand
Sand does not
dissolve in water.
332
Lesson 4
How does matter
change?
Matter undergoes physical and chemical changes. In a
physical change, the size, shape, or state of the substance
changes. A change that forms a new substance with new
properties is a chemical change.
Physical Changes
If you cut and fold a piece of paper to make an origami
sculpture, you change only the size and shape of the paper.
You have not changed the particles that make up the paper.
A change in the size, shape, or state of matter is an
example of a physical change. A physical change
does not change the particles that make up matter. The
arrangement of the particles, however, may be moved
around during a physical change.
Are you causing a physical change when you mix salt
and water? A solution of salt and water can be compared to
a mixture of nuts and raisins. You can separate the nuts and
raisins by hand. If you make a mixture of salt and water,
the particles are too small for you to separate by hand.
However, if you allow the water to evaporate, the salt will be
left behind. Because the particles in a mixture do not change
and can be separated, making a mixture is an example of a
physical change.
Breaking a pencil is a physical change. The pieces of the
pencil are still made of wood and graphite. If you sharpen
the broken ends, you can keep using the pencil. Another
physical change is tearing. If you tear a sheet of paper into
tiny pieces, it still is made of the same kind of matter.
Have you ever made a bowl out of clay? You start with a
big blob of clay and form it into the shape of a bowl. The
clay bowl is made of same kind of matter as the original
blob of clay. The clay is just a different shape. It has
changed physically.
A knitter uses a
ball of yarn.
The yarn is
knitted into a
long strip.
The knitted strip
can unravel into
the same amount
of yarn as the
original ball.
333
1. Sawing wood,
shredding paper, and crushing a
sugar cube are physical changes.
Give examples of three other
actions that are physical changes.
2. A chunk of cheese
has a mass of 450 g. Suppose you
grate this entire chunk. What do
you expect the mass of the grated
cheese will be?
If you unfold the sculpture,
you will have the same piece
of paper you started with.
The sculpture is finished.
An origami
sculpture begins
with a plain
piece of paper.
The paper is folded
many times.
334
Phase Changes
Suppose you freeze water into an ice cube and
then let it melt. The liquid that results is still water.
Ice and liquid water are the same substance in
different states. These states are called phases.
What causes the particles of a substance to be
in one phase rather than another? The answer has
to do with energy. Energy can cause the particles
in a substance to move faster and farther apart.
Substances change phase when enough heat
energy is added or taken away. For example, you
put liquid water into a freezer to remove heat and
make ice. You add energy to water when you heat
it. If you boil water in a pot, some of the water
becomes water vapor. Phase changes are
examples of physical changes that can be
reversed by adding or removing energy.
Every substance changes phases at a
different temperature.
250C
Some wood
burns.
230C
Paper starts
burning.
100C
Water boils.
Water vapor
condenses.
0C
Water freezes
into ice. Ice melts
into water.
Effects of Temperature
on Matter
335
The melting point is a physical property
that helps identify a substance. The
temperature at which a substance melts is
the same temperature at which it freezes.
This is also true when a substance
evaporates, or changes from a liquid to a
gas. The boiling point is the temperature
at which a substance changes from
a liquid to a gas. The temperature at
which the substance evaporates is the
same temperature at which it condenses.
Condensation is the changing of a gas into
a liquid.
1. How does adding or taking
away heat energy cause changes
in matter?
2. Descriptive Suppose
you are a drop of water. Describe in your
science journal what happens to you
when heat energy is added or taken away.
328C
Lead melts.
1535C
Iron melts.
Energy and Water
These phase changes are
examples of physical changes.
Whether water is a solid,
liquid, or gas, it is still water.
In a solid, the particles are
attracted to each other. They
are close together and do
not move very much.
Adding heat increases the
energy of the particles.
The particles move faster.
Solid ice changes phase by
melting into a liquid.
Boiling water adds even more
heat energy. The particles move
even faster and farther apart.
Liquid water changes phase to
gas water vapor.
Burning wood reacts very
quickly with oxygen in the air.
The new substances formed by
this change are ashes, carbon
dioxide gas, and water vapor.
336
Chemical Changes
If you leave an iron nail in a damp place,
it will rust. Suppose you compare the rust
with the iron nail. You will find that the
nail and the rust have different properties.
The color and hardness of rust and iron are
different. Rust is a different substance that
results from a chemical change in the iron
nail. Unlike a physical change, a chemical
change produces a completely different kind
of matter. In a chemical change, particles of
one substance are changed in some way to
form particles of a new substance with different
properties.
You can see evidence of a chemical change,
such as the bubbles in the picture. Or the new
substance may be a different color. It may
have a different smell or temperature. Many
chemical changes give off heat. In each case,
the chemical properties of the materials that
were mixed have changed.
Rust forms slowly
as oxygen from
the air combines
with the iron in
the gear.
The acid in vinegar reacts
with baking soda and forms
bubbles of carbon dioxide. The
bubbling and fizzing show that
a chemical change is occurring.
Tarnish, like rust,
results from a chemical
change when certain
metals, such as silver,
react with air.
337
Elements
In a pure substance, particles are alike. The
simplest pure substances are called elements. There
are more than 100 known elements. Scientists have
organized information about these elements in
a chart called the Periodic Table. Each element is
in a particular row and column in the table. The
position in the Periodic Table gives information
about the makeup and properties of each element.
Each element has its own symbol. The letter or
letters in the symbol are sometimes from the
elements name in Latin.
1. What is a chemical change?
2. When you chew food, are you causing physical or
chemical changes to the food?
3. Compare and Contrast How are rusting and
burning different? How are they alike?
The Periodic Table
338
Investigate How can you change
the properties of glue?
Mixing glue with another substance can change its properties. The properties
of the new substance are different from the properties of the original substances.
Materials
What to Do
Measure 30 mL of glue into a
small measuring cup. Pour it into
a larger cup. For fun, add
food coloring.
Add 15 mL of water to the cup. Stir the mixture.
Observe its properties.
Observe what happens.
Add 15 mL of borax solution.
Stir.
glue and food coloring
small
measuring cup
borax solution
cup and spoon
safety
goggles
Wear safety goggles.
After you make
observations,
you can collect
your data in a
chart.
water
Wash your hands when fin ished.
339
Explain Your Results
1. How are the physical properties of the
new substance and the glue alike? What
differences did you observe?
2. Would the new substance be a good glue?
Explain.
Play with the new mixture.
Investigate its properties.
Record the data you collect about the properties
of the glue and of the new substance.




















C
o
u
ld
y
o
u
do this
w
it
h
g
lu
e
?
If you used a different amount
of borax solution, would the
substance have the same
properties? Develop a plan for
a safe, simple investigation to
answer this question or one
of your own. With teacher
permission, carry out the plan
you designed.
Property
Observations
Glue New Substance
Color
Texture
State of Matter
(solid, liquid, gas)
Odor
The table lists some common liquids and their
densities. Each density is rounded to the nearest tenth.
Density is written as a decimal number. You can use
a number line to compare and order decimals. On
a number line, the values increase as you move to
the right and decrease as you move to the left. For
example, on the number line below, 0.7 is less than
0.9, so 0.7 is to the left of 0.9.
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
340
Substance Density
(
grams
cubic centimeters
)
A Corn Syrup 1.4
B Cooking Oil 0.9
C Ethyl Alcohol 0.8
D Gasoline 0.7
E Water 1.0
D C B E
Use the table and number line on page 340 to answer
the following questions.
1 Which point on the number line represents the
density of cooking oil?
A. Point E B. Point B
C. Point C D. Point D
2 Where on the number line would you plot the point
for the density of corn syrup?
F. to the left of Point D
G. to the left of Point E
H. at Point E
I. to the right of Point E
3 How many liquids in the table have a greater
density than gasoline has?
A. 1 B. 2
C. 3 D. 4
4 Suppose you poured liquids AE into a graduated
cylinder. Which is the correct order of liquid layers
from bottom to top?
F. D, B, C, E, A
G. D, C, B, A, E
H. A, D, C, B, E
I. A, E, B, C, D
An object with a density that is less than
1.0
gram
cubic centimeter

floats in water. List ten items
from your home. Predict whether each item
will float or sink. Record your predictions.
Then test each item. Indicate which items
have a density that is less than 1.0
gram
cubic centimeter
.
341
342
Use Vocabulary
Use the vocabulary term from the list above
that completes each sentence.
1. _____ is the ability of one substance
to dissolve in another substance.
2. The property that compares the mass
of an object with its volume is _____.
3. In a solution, the _____ is the
substance that takes in, or dissolves,
the other substance.
4. A change in size, shape, or state of
matter is a _____.
5. The substance in a solution that is
dissolved is called the _____.
6. The quarters, dimes, nickels, and
pennies in a coin purse are a _____.
7. New substances with different
properties are formed by a _____.
8. In a _____, substances are dissolved
in other substances.
Explain Concepts
9. What does it mean to say that a
liquid has a definite volume but no
definite shape?
10. Suppose you have 50 mL of water in
a graduated cylinder. After you place
a marble in the cylinder, the water
level rises to 78 mL. What is the
volume of the marble? Explain how
you know.
11. Infer A balloon filled with helium
gas rises in the air. What might you
infer about the density of helium
compared with the density of air?
12. Classify Tell whether each of the
following involves a physical change
or a chemical change.
frying an egg
breaking a balloon
boiling water
toasting bread
chemical
change (p. 336)
density (p. 326)
mixture (p. 328)
physical change
(p. 332)
solubility
(p. 331)
solute (p. 330)
solution (p. 330)
solvent (p. 330)
343
13. Observe Suppose you put a
substance in a glass of water and stir
the mixture. Then you observe that all
of the substance settles to the bottom
of the glass. From your observation,
what might you conclude about the
solubility of the substance?
Compare and
Contrast
14. Explain how physical and chemical
changes are different. How are they
alike? Use a graphic organizer like
the one shown.
Test Prep
Choose the letter that best completes the
statement or answers the question.
15. Matter is anything that has mass and
is living.
takes up space.
is not broken.
holds water or air.
16. When most liquids are cooled to the
freezing point, the tiny particles of
matter that make up the liquid
move quickly in all directions.
move out into the air.
come closer together.
move farther apart.
17. A chemical change results in a
loss of matter or energy.
solution.
phase change.
different kind of matter.
18. You make a solution when you mix
salt and water.
sugar and cinnamon.
vegetables in a salad.
cheese sauce and macaroni.
19. Explain why the answer you chose
for Question 16 is best. For each
of the answers you did not choose,
give a reason why it is not the
best choice.
20. Expository
Since ice is less dense than liquid
water, it floats. Explain what you
think would happen to the plants
and animals living in a Minnesota
pond if ice were more dense than
liquid water.
Alike Different
What if your pencil bent every time you tried to
write with it? What if your pillow were made of
metal? All of the properties of matter are important in
deciding how it is used. Matter can be hard or soft,
rough or smooth. It can be sticky, stretchy, spongy,
or slick. Some chemists who work for NASA make
matter that can be used on space vehicles.
Metals used for space shuttles must not be damaged
by a lot of heat. Some metals are better than others
at handling heat. Chemists can also mix metals to
make a material that can stand more heat than either
metal could on its own. The Kennedy Space Center
is close to the ocean. There is so much salty water
nearby that metals often rust. The metals NASA uses
cannot rust easily.
Plastics are also important materials used in space.
They may need to be hard and slick, or soft and
rubbery. Chemists can make plastics that have many
different properties.
Analytical chemists need to understand math and
science well. They must graduate from a college or
university. They can work in many different places.
Dionne Broxton Jackson
is an analytical chemist
at NASA. She works
with metals.
344
Gather different materials in your home,
such as kitchen utensils, toothbrushes,
and food containers. Make a list in your
science journal of which products you
think might be useful in space.
E
C

N
T
L

1
0

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2
the difference between heat and temperature.
three ways heat is transferred.
345
346
thermal energy
conductor
insulator
xes TK
thermal energy
page 351
conduction page 354
conductor page 355
insulator page 355
convection
current page 356
radiation page 358
Chapter 12
Vocabulary
conduction
convection current radiation
347
348
Explore How can you make things warmer?
Materials
What to Do
Touch a paper clip. Observe.
Does it feel warm?
Bend one end back and forth
4 times quickly. Quickly touch
the bent part. Observe.
Touch an eraser. Rub it on paper
for 1 minute. Quickly touch the surface you
rubbed on the paper. Observe.
The paper clip
could break.
Rub your hands together for 15 seconds.
Observe.
Explain Your Results
1. How did bending change the paper clip?
2. What did you observe when you rubbed
the eraser against paper? What happened
when you rubbed one hand against the other?
3. What can you infer about what happens
when one object rubs against another?
You can use what
you learn by
observation
to help you
make accurate
inferences.
safety goggles
eraser
sheet of paper
clock with a second hand
(or timer or stopwatch)
paper clip
Cause Effect
349
Cause and Effect
A cause may have more than one effect. An effect may have more than
one cause. An effect may cause something else to happen. Clues such as
because, so, since, thus, and as a result that signal cause and effect can
also help you make inferences.
Think about what you know and have observed about hot-air balloons and
heat transfer as you read the interview with a balloonist. Cause and effect
are highlighted.
Magazine Interview
Extreme Sports for Kids: I understand that
you enjoy riding in hot-air balloons. Just
what causes a hot-air balloon to rise?
Balloonist: It all results from heat transfer. A balloon is like a huge
plastic bag. To inflate the bag, I fill it with air. Then I heat that air
with a burner. A flame reaches into the plastic bag.
ESK: Then does heat transfer take place?
Balloonist: Yes, the air inside the bag gets warm and less dense than
the air around it. The cool air sinks under the warmer air. As a result,
the balloon goes up!
ESK: I know that air expands when it gets heated because particles
are moving really fast and really far apart!
Balloonist: Youre right. Lets take a ride!
Apply It!
Make a graphic organizer
to help you infer why a
hot-air balloon rises.
350
The red-hot steel flows into an iron mold. Even though
you are wearing a suit that protects you from the
heat, you can sense the scorching air! You work in
one of the worlds most important industries. You are
a steelworker. At your mill, iron ores from rocks and
minerals are crushed and then heated in giant furnaces.
They become liquid steel. Your job is to cast that molten
steel into 2-ton blocks called ingots. The steel that you
pour hardens into an ingot. The ingot is placed in a
huge heated pit where the temperature reaches 1200C
(2,200F). How does heat move?
351
Lesson 1
Why does matter
have energy?
Energy is the ability to cause change or do work.
Heat is the total energy of moving particles in matter.
The more particles something has, the more internal
energy it contains.
Energy in Matter
Rub your hands together. What
happens? You just used energy to
make heat! Energy is the ability
to change something or do work.
Cool hands changed to warm ones.
Whenever the location, makeup, or
look of something changes, energy
is used. All changes need energy!
All matter is made up of tiny
particles that are always moving.
In a solid, particles are closely
packed. They move slightly around
fixed positions. In a liquid, they are close together.
They flow freely past one another. In a gas, particles
are very far apart. They move in all directions.
Particles in an object move because they have energy.
As an object becomes hotter, its particles move
faster. As the object cools, the particles move more
slowly. Thermal energy is energy due to moving
particles that make up matter. We feel the flow of
thermal energy as heat.
1. What is energy?
2. Descriptive You are in a sunny
place wearing a T-shirt and shorts. Write a paragraph
in your science journal that describes changes to
you and to a piece of chocolate on a table near you.
The colors in this
thermogram, or
heat picture,
show the different
amounts of heat
energy.
Measuring Moving Particles
Have you ever seen a thermometer like the one at the
bottom of the page? You measure temperature with it.
Most thermometers are thin glass tubes that are joined to
a bulb that holds colored alcohol. The number lines
marked on the outside of the tube show degrees. One
number line is scaled in degrees Celsius. The other is
scaled in degrees Fahrenheit. A thermometer is based on
the idea that matter expands when its particles move
faster and contracts when they slow down.
If a thermometer touches matter with
particles that are speeding up, particles in
the liquid inside the thermometer speed
up too. They move farther apart. Because
the liquid expands more than the glass
tube, it moves up the tube. The reading on
the number line shows a greater number of
degrees. If the particles slow down, the liquid
contracts. The shorter column in the tube
shows fewer degrees.
The thermometer must be on or in
whatever its measuring. If its not
touching the material, it might not
measure particle motion correctly.
How a Thermometer
Works
This thin glass tube has a bulb
filled with colored alcohol.
The bulb is placed on or in
the material being measured.
Depending on the materials
temperature, liquid travels up or
down the tube. The thermometer
in the photo is measuring the
temperature of the air. The number
lines on the outside of the tube
show degrees Celsius on the right
and degrees Fahrenheit on the left.
352
The water in both pots is
at the same temperature.
The larger pot has more
particles and therefore
more thermal energy.
Heat and Temperature
If you wonder how hot or cold something is, you
might think about its temperature. When a material
has a high temperature, its particles move fast. But
temperature is not a measure of how much heat the
material has.
Many of us mix up the meanings of heat and
temperature. The difference is in the movement of
particles of matter. Temperature is the measure of the
average amount of motion of particles in matter. It
measures the average energy. Thermal energy is the
total energy of those moving particles. It measures
both how fast the particles move and how many are
moving. Heat is the transfer of thermal energy from
one piece of matter to another.
For example, think of a large pot and a
small pot that are each half filled with boiling
water. Because the large pot holds more
water, it has many more water particles
than the small pot has. More particles mean
more energy of motion. The large pot has
more thermal energy. Since the water in
each pot is boiling, the temperature of
the water in both pots is the same.
The average amount of motion of
particles in the water is also the
same. So, the size of the pot does
not affect temperature!
1. What happens to the motion of particles when an object
becomes hotter?
2. Explain why a large pot of water takes longer to begin boiling
than a small pot. Both pots started with the same temperature
of water, and burners for both pots are set on high.
3. Cause and Effect What causes liquid in a thermometer
to travel up and down the tube?
353
Fewer particles
in the smaller pot
mean less thermal
energy.
354
Lesson 2
How does heat move?
Heat is the transfer of thermal energy. Heat can be moved in
several ways. The transfer of heat energy affects climate.
Conduction
Thermal energy flows from something
warm to something cool. The transfer of
thermal energy between
matter with different
temperatures is heat. A heat
source is anything that gives
off energy that particles of matter
can take in. Remember when you
rubbed your hands together earlier? You
used mechanical energy to make heat. When
solids are touching, heat energy moves by
conduction. Conduction is the transfer of heat
energy by one thing touching another.
Suppose that you stick a strip of wax on the
handle of a metal spoon. Then you place the
lower part of the spoon in boiling water. What
happens to the cool spoon? Thats right, it gets
hot! The spoons particles that touch the water
start to move. As they move more quickly,
they crash into the particles in the spoons
handle. More and more crashes take
place. Soon, heat energy from the
water moves throughout the spoon.
The transfer continues until both the
water and the spoon are the same
temperature. How do we know that the
heat energy has moved? The hot spoon
handle and the melting strip of wax
are proof! A wooden spoon does not
conduct heat energy. Its handle stays
cool, and the strip of wax on it
doesnt melt.
Heat energy from the
boiling water moves
through the metal
spoon. The heat
causes the piece of
wax to begin melting.
1. What is the
difference between an insulator
and a conductor?
2.
Use reference sources such as
encyclopedias, nonfiction books,
and the Internet to find other
materials that are used as
insulators. Explain where the
material is used and how it
works as an insulator.
Conductors and Insulators
The raised hairs of
Japanese macaque
monkeys trap heat. The
monkeys share body
heat to keep warm
in the snow.
355
Metal Some materials let heat move through them more easily
than others do. A material that readily allows heat to move is a
conductorlike the metal spoon. Many metals, such as aluminum,
copper, and iron, conduct heat well. If you place an iron pan on
a burner or other heat source, it gets hot quickly.
Wood You also know that some thingslike the wooden spoondo
not get too warm even when they touch something hot. They are
insulators. An insulator is a material that limits the amount of
heat that passes through it. Have you noticed that many pots and
pans have wooden handles? Thats because wood is a great insulator.
The wooden paddle in the photo does not conduct heat to the hands of the
person taking the pizza from a hot oven. Heat moves around the paddle.
Marble Since ancient times, marble has been used in buildings
and monuments because it is strong and beautiful. It resists fires and
erosion. Marble is also an insulator. A slab of marble is helpful in the
kitchen. Its cool, smooth surface is a perfect place to mix tasty treats.
Plastic Do you know why so many foods are served in foam
containers? The plastic foam that is used to make the containers has
many small air pockets. The plastic is not the only insulator. Air is a
good insulator, too. The plastic and air insulators keep the food at the
right temperature.
356
Convection
If you dont like the heat, get out of the kitchen! Have you
felt how warm a kitchen gets when a stove is on? Its the result
of convection working! In convection, a fluid moves from place
to place. A fluid is a substance that flows but has no definite
shape. Gases and liquids are fluids.
A pattern of flowing heat energy is a convection current.
A convection current forms when heated fluid, such as air,
expands. It becomes less dense than an equal volume of the
cooler air around it. The cooler air sinks below the warmer air.
The warm air is forced upward, and the pattern continues. The
cool air warms and is forced upward by colder air.
Look at the two mobiles in the photo below. Can you find the
heat source? Its the candles. As the energy from the burning
candles heats the air above them, the air particles move faster.
The particles move farther apart as they take in the energy. This
makes the air less dense. Cooler air rushes under the less dense
air. It pushes the warmer air upward. As long as the candles
the heat sources are burning, movement of the rising warm
air will make the spiral twirl and the blades spin.
One kind of much larger convection current shapes our
weather. Uneven heating of the air around Earth causes
currents that cover thousands of kilometers. They make Earths
major wind patterns.
1. How does a convection
current form?
2. Choose a major city
in your state. Use the Internet or other
sources to find the average temperature
for each month of the year. Display your
data in a bar graph.
keyword: convection current
code: g4p356
357
Warm fluid is
pushed upward.
Cooler fluid
moves down
under warmer
fluid.
Warm fluid is
less dense.
Cooler fluid is
more dense.
Radiators in Buildings
A radiator heats the air by convection. Water is heated in a boiler
that is often located in the basement. Then the hot water or steam
is pumped into pipes throughout the building. The pipes lead into
radiators in each room. Radiators are made of various metals such as
cast iron. As the hot water or steam moves, some of its heat energy
passes through the walls of the radiator into the air. Convection
currents move the air to heat the entire room. The cooler water returns
to the boiler through another pipe. The heating cycle begins again.
Radiation
You know that the Sun is a major energy source.
Every time you get warm in the Sun, you feel radiation.
You feel it when you sit near a fire too. Radiation
is energy that is sent out in little bundles. When the
radiant energy hits you, the particles in your skin move
more quickly. You feel warm.
Radiation can travel through matter or empty space.
Dark-colored or dull surfaces absorb radiation. But
polished, shiny surfaces reflect radiant energy or let
it pass. Clear materials such as air and glass allow
radiant energy inside. They also prevent heat loss
through convection. That is why greenhouses are made of materials
such as plastic or glass. In a greenhouse, radiation provides an
environment where plants grow regardless of the climate outdoors.
People control the temperature, light, and moisture the plants receive.
Other objects that send out light also send out heat. For example,
a pet lizard might need a special light to stay warm. The light sends
out heat. Perhaps youve seen special lamps that restaurants use to
keep food warm.
Radiation is different from conduction and convection. Conduction
depends on the crashes of particles in a substance. Convection needs
the spreading out of a fluid when particles crash. But radiation does
not need particles. It happens all by itself. Radiation can move
energy great distances, like from the Sun to Earth.
Heat transfers through radiation in different ways. Have you
warmed cold hands near a fireplace? When you do, energy moves
to your hands by radiation. Like all thermal energy, radiation
moves from warmer areas to cooler ones.
358
Radiation from the
Sun passes through
the windows of a
greenhouse.
Conduction, Convection,
and Radiation
Once the Suns energy reaches Earth, Earths
surface heats up. Then conduction takes place.
Earths surface transfers heat to the air. Earth
warms the air around you. And Earth is heated
by the Sun.
But its not just conduction that is happening!
Convection currents form as the air is heated
by Earths surface. That warm air expands and
rises. As the rising air cools, the water vapor in
it condenses and falls to Earth as rain or snow.
Convection currents in the air cause Earths
wind and rain patterns.
The radiant energy
from the Sun warms
Earths surface.
Sun
Earth
Radiant
energy
1. How does energy from the Sun reach Earth?
2. Cause and Effect What causes Earths
surface to get warm?
3. Expository In your science
journal, write a paragraph that explains why a
greenhouse might be part of a flower shop.
359
360
Materials
What to Do
Measure carefully. Pour 300 mL of
warm water into cup A. Pour 150 mL
of warm water
into cup B.
Temperature of Water (C)
Cup A
(300 mL water)
Cup B
(150 mL water)
Before adding ice
After 1 ice cube melts
After 2 ice cubes melt
After 3 ice cubes melt
After 4 ice cubes melt
After 5 ice cubes melt
Investigate How are thermal
energy and temperature different?
300 mL
150 mL
Sometimes
you can test
a prediction
by doing an
experiment.
ice cubes
2 plastic spoons
masking tape
2 large cups and
2 thermometers
measuring cup and
warm water
Record the temperature of the water in each cup.
Label the cups.
Number of ice cubes
completely melted
when temperature
reached 10C
361
Put an ice cube in each cup.
Stir each cup gently. Record the
water temperature.
When the temperature in a cup
reaches 10C, stop adding ice
cubes to that cup.
Develop and conduct a
scientific investigation to test
the prediction you made.
Design any tables, charts,
graphs, or diagrams to help
record, display, and interpret
your data.
Explain Your Results
1. Which cup had more thermal energy? How
do you know?
2. Suppose you used 600 mL of your warm
water. Predict how many ice cubes would
be needed to lower the temperature to
10C. How could you test your prediction?
To organize and display your data,
construct a chart and a graph like the
ones shown. They will help you examine,
analyze, and evaluate the information.
Interpret your chart and graph and
those of other groups. Share your
results. Do not change your results
just because they are different from
those of other groups.
Cup A
(300 mL water)
Cup B
(150 mL water)
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

I
c
e

C
u
b
e
s
After a cups ice cube melts,
record the water temperature in
that cup. Add another ice cube
to that cup.
Make a bar graph to show your data.
Thermal Energy
Keep stirring until
the ice cubes melt!
Both the Celsius and Fahrenheit temperature
scales measure temperature in degrees (),
but the degree divisions are not the same.
Notice that, on both scales, zero is a
label for a point. The temperature 5 is
read 5 degrees below zero or negative
5 degrees.
Suppose you are asked how many
40-degree days New York City has in
January. Your answer depends on the scale
being used. Using the Celsius scale, the
answer would be zero because New York
City is never that warm in Januaryor in any
other month! But, New York City might get as
warm as 40F in January.
362
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
250
240
230
220
210
200
190
180
170
160
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
C F
Normal body
temperature
Hot day
Room
temperature
Cool day
Freezing point
of water
Cold day
Very cold day
Boiling point
of water
Find three different kinds of thermometers
at home. They might include a weather
thermometer, a fever thermometer, and a
meat thermometer. Make a list of the three
kinds and record the highest temperature on
the Fahrenheit or Celsius scale for each one.
Write a paragraph explaining why they are
different for different thermometers.
363
Decide which temperature scale is being used in each
situation: the Fahrenheit scale or the Celsius scale.
The outdoor thermometer reads 25 degrees, and you are
water skiing.
The temperature is 40 degrees and you are wearing a coat
at an outdoor football game.
The weather report uses below freezing and above
zero to describe the same temperature.
You heat water to 100 degrees, but the water does
not boil.
Effect Cause
A steelworker puts
a copper rod into
a fire.
Cause Effect
Due to
conduction, the
pan gets hot.
364
Use Vocabulary
Use the vocabulary term from the list above
that completes each sentence.
1. The total energy of all the particles in
a body is its _____.
2. A(n) _____ limits the amount of heat
that passes through it.
3. _____ is one kind of energy that
travels from the Sun through space.
4. A material that allows heat to pass
through it is a(n) _____.
5. In a(n) _____, a heated fluid rises and
is replaced by cooler fluid.
6. The transfer of energy by one object
touching another is _____.
Explain Concepts
7. Explain how particles move
differently in a solid, a liquid,
and a gas.
8. Explain why the motion of particles
affects a thermometer reading.
9. Infer why young trees and plants
are sometimes kept in greenhouses
before they are planted outdoors.
10. Make a model that shows how
heat moves through objects.
11. Predict On a bright, sunny day,
you are sitting next to the ice rink
of an outdoor hockey game. Which
will keep you warmer: a dark, wool
blanket or a clear, plastic sheet?
Cause and Effect
12. Fill in the missing cause and effect to
show how heat is transferred in each
situation.
conduction
(p. 354)
conductor
(p. 355)
convection
current (p. 356)
insulator
(p. 355)
radiation
(p. 358)
thermal energy
(p. 351)
365
Test Prep
Choose the letter that best completes the
statement or answers the question.
13. Which is the best conductor?
metal
wood
marble
plastic
14. Temperature is a measure of
the total amount of energy in an
objects moving particles.
the average amount of motion of
an objects particles.
the amount of energy transferred
from the environment to the
particles of an object.
the size of an objects particles.
15. A large pot of boiling water has more
thermal energy than a small pot of
boiling water. The temperature of the
water is
higher in the large pot.
higher in the small pot.
impossible to measure.
the same in both pots.
16. A thermometer measures temperature
by showing
particles.
climate.
degrees.
volume.
17. When two solids touch, thermal
energy transfers by
insulation.
conduction.
convection currents.
liquids.
18. The Sun warms your skin by
insulation.
radiation.
conduction.
convection.
19. Explain why the answer you selected
for Question 13 is best. For each
of the answers you did not select,
give a reason why it is not the
best choice.
20. Informative
Use the Internet to research solar
ovens. Find out what foods can
be cooked in them and how
cooking times compare with those
of conventional ovens. Write an
informative paragraph to share
your findings.
Did you know that the research NASA uses to launch people
into space helps people on Earth? For example, some NASA
scientists are part of the Thermal Protection Materials and Systems
Branch. Their task is to develop TPS (Thermal Protection System)
materials that protect spacecraft and astronauts from heat. Their
research produces materials that are lightweight, yet strong and
heat-resistantmaterials like those needed to protect steel workers,
fire fighters, and others.
Some of the TPS material looks like a carpet. You can roll it out,
cut it to shape, and even walk on it! NASAs scientists are testing
it to find how well it performs.
NASA uses TPS materials in heat shields
that guard spacecraft when they
enter other atmospheres or come
back to Earths. One material
was used on the Mars
Pathfinder space probe.
366
Would you rather work as a scientist who
studies TPS materials or as one who studies
SSE? Tell a partner which job youd prefer
and why.
But the research provides information for people on Earth too.
NASAs scientists use what they know about heat transfer to
help others. In East Africa, many people use wood to cook food.
But wood is hard to find. In some parts of Africa, people spend
over half the money they earn each year on cooking fuel.
One of NASAs energy management programs uses satellite
information to study Earth from a global point of view. NASAs
Surface Solar Energy (SSE) information lets people use their
latitude and longitude to learn the amount of solar energy
available for cooking and many other purposes. Solar Cookers
International, a group that helps others learn to cook with the
Sun, can zoom in on the places where solar cooking can be
best used.
NASAs SSE information helps East Africans use the Sun, a
natural resource and great source of heat energy, to cook.
Then the people dont need to hunt for wood or spend what
little money they have on fuel.
With the Suns energy, East Africans use solar cookers to
prepare meals. The Sun is a safe and clean heat source. Solar
cooking does not cost much. It does not cause a lot of smoke
or air pollution in the environment. Solar cooking helps people
harness some of the
Suns power!
367
Max Planck changed
physics with his theory
about radiant energy.
Max Planck was a German physicist who lived
from 1858 to 1947. A physicist is a scientist who
studies matter and energy. While studying heat and
radiant energy, he noticed the ways that hot surfaces
sent out light and took in radiant energy. Planck
said that objects were able to send out and take in
radiation in only little bunches. Planck called those
bunches quanta. His ideas became known as the
quantum theory.
Plancks ideas about energy quanta were different
from past ideas. Scientists believed energy flowed
without stopping. They knew that at times energy
acted like a wave, but at other times, it acted like
a collection of particles.
Then, another physicist, Albert Einstein, used
Plancks theory to explain his own ideas. Einstein
said that light is quantized. He meant that things
that send out light do so in little bundles of energy.
He thought that radiation was made up of particles,
not waves.
The work of one scientist plays a part
in the work of others. Plancks ideas
affected Einsteins! Scientists now
know that radiation has qualities
of both particles and waves.
The little bundles of energy that Planck
described are the power source for solar
cookers. Use the Internet or other resources
to find other devices that use solar energy.
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368
what causes objects to become
charged.
how electricity moves.
why a compass needle points
north-south.
ways that electricity and magnetism
are related.
how magnetism can be transformed
into electricity.
369
370
static electricity
series circuit
parallel circuit
371
Chapter 13
Vocabulary
static electricity
page 375
electric current
page 378
resistance page 379
series circuit
page 380
parallel circuit
page 381
magnetism page 382
magnetic eld
page 382
electromagnet
page 387
magnetism
magnetic eld
electromagnet
resistance
electric current
372
Materials
What to Do
Tie a string to a balloon.
Rub the balloon with a wool
cloth for about 1 minute.
Explore How can static electricity affect objects?
Based on your
observations,
you made
inferences about
how charged
objects affect
each other.
Explain Your Results
1. What happened as you brought together your
balloon and your cloth? your balloon and the
balloon of another group?
2. Infer How do objects with opposite charges
affect each other? How do objects with the
same charge affect each other?
Rub ALL parts of your balloon
again. Hold it by the string.
Slowly bring it near the
balloon of another group.
Observe.
Hold your balloon by the
string. Hold your cloth about
an arms length away.
Gradually bring them closer
together. Observe.
wool cloth
balloon and string
safety goggles
Rubbing causes your balloon
to have a negative charge
and your cloth to have a
positive charge.
Rub ALL parts
of your balloon!
The effect you
observe is caused by
static electricity.
The balloon has a
negative charge.
The cloth has
a positive
charge.
Both balloons have a
negative charge.
373
Cause and Effect
Learning to find causes and effects can help you
understand what you read. A cause may have more than one
effect. An effect may have more than one cause. Words such
as because, so, and as a result may signal cause and effect.
Sometimes you can infer cause and effect based on what
youve observed.
Causes and effects are marked in the advertisement below.
Magazine Advertisement
This new spray tames static electricity. Spray it on socks before
putting them in the dryer. They wont stick to your shirts. Your hair
will no longer stand up when you remove your winter hat. Using
our patented anti-cling technology, ELECTRO-NOT neutralizes the
charges that build up on your clothing. Let the sparks fly in your
campfire, not on your clothes. Buy ELECTRO-NOT today. Your socks
will be glad you did!
Apply It!
Use the causes and
effects and inferences
you can make from
the advertisement to
complete a graphic
organizer.
Cause Effect
ZZZAPP! A jagged bolt of lightning slashes
and flashes through the sky. Less than a
second later, its gone. But then more and
more brilliant bolts appear, briefly connecting
the clouds to the ground. Like snowflakes
and grains of sand, each bolt is unique.
BOOOOM!! The sound of thunder startles you.
You are glad that you are indoors, watching
this dazzling spark-a-palooza through a
window. What causes this beautiful, super-
charged sight that can pack a deadly wallop?
374
375
Lesson 1
How does matter
become charged?
What causes a thundercloud to make lightning? Why do socks
cling in the dryer? The answer is static electricity.
Electric Charges
You dash across a carpet and touch a metal doorknob.
OUCH! A jolt of static electricity and a small spark startle you.
To understand what happened, start with atoms, the tiny
building blocks of everything. A sheet of paper is about one
million atoms thick. Almost all atoms have three different
particles. Some particles have a positive charge (+), some have
a negative charge (), and some have no charge. Matter usually
has the same number of positive particles as negative particles.
It is neutral.
Charged particles can move between objects that are close
to each other. Static electricity happens when positive
and negative charges no longer balance. Static means not
moving, but eventually the static electricity does move. It may
move gradually or it may move very quickly. Moving charges
generate electrical energy, which changes into sound, light,
and heat energy.
Static Electricity
As charged particles move between atoms in storm clouds,
the clouds become charged. Usually, the positive particles
cluster near the top and the negative particles gather near the
bottom of the clouds. In time, this static electrical energy is
released as lightning. It heats up the surrounding air, making
it glow. Lightning also creates a mighty soundthunder.
1. What causes static electricity on an object?
2. Benjamin Franklin invented the
lightning rod. Use the Internet or other resources to find out
what a lightning rod does.
376
How Charged Objects Behave
You can predict how charged objects will behave. If two
objects have opposite chargesif one is positive and the
other is negativethey will pull toward each other. This
attraction causes an electric force. An electric force is the
pull or push between objects that have a different charge.
A charged object can attract something that has no
charge. If you rub a balloon on your hair, it picks up
negative particles. It becomes negatively charged.
Then, if you hold the balloon near lightweight
neutral objects, such as scraps of paper, they
move toward it. The balloon will stick to a wall
because the negative charge repels the negative
charges in the wall. The part of the wall near
the balloon is positively charged. After a
while, the balloon loses its charge and falls
off the wall.
Suppose you are wearing a wool cap on
a chilly winter day. While you wear the
cap, negative particles move from your
hair to the cap. As a result, each strand of
hair becomes positively charged. When you
remove the cap, all the positively charged
hairs stand up and move as far away as
possible from the other positively charged
hairs. Two objects that have the same charge
push away, or repel, each other.
The negatively
charged balloon
makes part of the
paper positive. That
part of the paper pulls
toward the balloon.
Charged amber
attracts feathers.
The Name Electricity
Millions of years ago sap oozed
from a tree trunk. Gradually
the sap hardened. Sometimes it
trapped prehistoric insects. Amber
is fossilized tree sap. In Greece, a
scientist named Thales noticed that
amber could do amazing tricks.
When amber is rubbed on fur, it
becomes charged. Feathers stick
to it. The word electricity comes
from elektron, the Greek word
for amber.
377
An Electric Field
The space around electrically charged objects is called an
electric field. To represent an electric field, scientists draw
lines coming out of an object. An electric field is invisible. It
is strongest close to the charged object. It gets weaker farther
from the object.
An electric field causes an electric force on charged objects
that touch it. A positive electric field attracts negative charges.
It pushes away positive charges. A negative electric field
attracts positive charges and pushes away negative ones.
The balloons have opposite
charges. They attract each other.
The balloons have the same
charge. They repel each other.
1. What effect will a charged object have on an object with
the opposite charge?
2. Give two examples of static electricity.
3. Narrative Write a story in your
science journal that tells a curious first grader about static
electricity. Include at least two experiences you might have
in a typical day.
378
Lesson 2
How do electric
charges ow?
How does the electrical energy in a battery get to a light bulb?
To study how electricity moves, scientists build models called circuits.
Electric charges travel through different materials at different speeds.
How Electric Charges Move
Static electricity stays in one place. But most electricity is
on the go. An electric charge in motion is called an electric
current. The electric charge flows from one place to another.
An electric current travels quickly and invisibly.
Learning how electricity works can be extremely dangerous.
Studying a model is a much smarter way to learn how charges
travel. A model of a circuit is shown on the next page. A
circuit is a loop. In order for charges to flow through it, a
circuit cannot have any breaks. It must be a closed circuit. In
contrast, an open circuit has at least one break that interrupts
the flow of electric charges. Scientists use symbols to show
different parts of the circuit in diagrams. The diagram and the
picture on the next page both show the same circuit.
Going with the Flow
The flow of electric charge is not the same in all materials.
Some kinds of atoms become charged more easily than others.
Materials made up of such atoms are conductors. The copper
wire in the picture and most metals are good conductors. Silver
is an excellent conductor of electric charge.
Other materials are made of atoms that do not become
charged easily. Electric charge moves through them more
slowly. These materials are insulators. Plastic, rubber, glass,
and dry wood are good insulators. In the circuit picture, the
wire is insulated. This insulation prevents the electric charges
from coming in contact with other wires. Different colored
insulations help show how complex circuits with many wires
are connected.
378
CIkCUII 5YM8OL5
Swllch
Energy Source
Reslslor
379
A Closed
Circuit
Energy source
Batteries are the power source
for this circuit. They cause the
electric charges to flow.
Means of Energy Transfer
The wires provide a path through which
the charges flow.
Switch
When this
switch is
closed, the
circuit is closed.
The electric
charges flow
without any
interruptions.
Resistor
A coiled wire is inside the light bulb. This wire
is made of a material with a high resistance.
Resistance means the material does not allow
electric charges to flow through it easily. Because of
this resistance, the flowing electric charges heat up
the wire. The wire gives off light.
1. What is the
difference between an insulator
and a conductor?
2. Cause and Effect What
causes some materials to be good
insulators of electricity?
Insulated Wire
The copper wire
is insulated with a
plastic covering.
380
Types of Circuits
In a simple circuit, known as a series circuit, electric
charge can flow only in one path. When the power source is
turned on, the charged particles in the wire start flowing in
one direction around a single loop. Any bulb along this path
receives the same amount of electrical energy. If all the bulbs
are identical, none will be any brighter than the others.
But, if one bulb burns out, it acts like an off switch and
opens the circuit. The other bulbs wont receive the energy they
need. They wont light either. In a series circuit, all devices
wired into the circuit share the electric current equally. Today,
people rarely use series circuits. Our appliances and other
electrical equipment need different amounts of current.
In a series circuit, one missing
or burnt-out bulb opens the
circuit. No bulbs will light.
381
Parallel Circuits
One way to prevent all the lights in a circuit
from going out is to connect them in a parallel
circuit. A parallel circuit has two or more paths
for the electric charge to follow. The main loop
leaves from and returns to the power source. Along
the loop, however, there are little loops. Each little
loop is a separate path for the electric charge. How
the charges flow through each little loop does not
affect the flow of charges in any other path.
Circuits in your home, school, and other
buildings are parallel circuits. A break in one part
of the circuit does not stop the charge from flowing.
Unlike a series circuit, a parallel circuit can handle
electrical devices that require different amounts
of current.
1. What is the main difference between a series
circuit and a parallel circuit?
2. Why are most homes wired in a parallel circuit
rather than a series circuit?
3. Make a drawing of a parallel
circuit that has light bulbs on several little loops.
On one of the little loops, draw the light bulbs
connected in a series circuit.
In a parallel
circuit, a missing
or burnt-out bulb
does not open the
circuit. The other
bulbs stay lit.
382
Lesson 3
What are
magnetic elds?
Sometimes magnets pull together, but sometimes
they push apart. What causes magnets and certain
other materials to behave this way?
Magnetism
A magnet is anything that attracts other
things made of iron, steel, and certain other
metals. Magnetism is a force that acts
on moving electric charge and magnetic
materials that are near a magnet. The
word magnet comes from Magnesia, a
part of ancient Greece that today is
part of Turkey. Long ago, Magnesia
was famous for having large
amounts of lodestone, a
magnetic mineral.
Magnetic Fields
How do magnets work?
Each magnet has an
invisible field around it. The
magnetic field goes out in
all directions. The shape of
the magnetic field depends on
the shape of the magnet. Look at the
patterns of iron filings near the horseshoe
magnet and the bar magnets. The patterns
are different because the magnetic fields have
different shapes. But whatever the shape of the
magnet, the field is strongest at the magnets
ends or poles. The pulling or pushing force is
strongest at the poles.
Iron filings near a horsehoe
magnet show that the magnetic
field is strongest near the poles.
383
Magnetic Poles
All magnets have two poles, a north-seeking
and a south-seeking pole. Opposite poles have
opposite charges. Unlike charges attract each
other, while like charges repel each other. So,
the north-seeking pole on one magnet and the
south-seeking pole on another magnet pull
toward each other. But the like poles push apart.
If you break a magnet into two pieces, you
will have two magnets, each with its own
north-seeking pole and south-seeking pole. In
fact, every magnet has both a north-seeking
pole and a south-seeking pole. Think of the two
poles of a magnet like two sides of a coin. One
cannot exist without the other.

Iron filings near a
bar magnet show the
magnetic field is strongest
near the poles.
The north-seeking pole of one
bar magnet pulls toward the
south-seeking pole of another
bar magnet. The iron filings
show the magnetic field.
Two north-seeking poles repel
each other. The iron filings
show the magnetic field.
1. If you break
a magnet into two pieces,
what happens to its
magnetic poles?
2.
Use the Internet or other
resources to locate places
other than Magnesia where
lodestone is found.
384
The Largest Magnet in the World
Why does a compass needle always move to the north-south?
Many ancient sailors used compasses successfully but didnt
know why they worked. Christopher Columbus used a compass
when he crossed the Atlantic. Around 1600, English scientist
William Gilbert suggested that the worlds largest magnet is
Earth! In other words, he proposed that Earth is a huge magnet,
surrounded by an enormous magnetic field.
Earth behaves like a large magnet. Like all magnets, its
magnetic field is strongest at the poles. But Earths magnetic
poles are not located at its geographic poles. The
geographic poles are on Earths axis, an invisible line
around which our planet rotates. The magnetic north
pole is located in Canada, about 1,000 kilometers
(600 miles) from the geographic North Pole. The
magnetic south pole is located in the Southern
Ocean near Antarctica.
Why does Earth act like a magnet? Scientists
arent sure of the answer. After all, no one has
actually seen the inside of our planet. But based on
indirect evidence, they suggest that Earths outer core
is made of iron that is so hot that it has melted. As
Earth rotates, electric currents that flow in this liquid
iron create a magnetic field. The inner core is probably
solid iron that is also very hot. It doesnt melt because of
the extremely high pressure.
If no magnet
is near, the
compass
needle
points north.
A bar magnet
changes the
direction in
which the
compass
needle points.
How Compasses Work
A compass is a helpful, easy-to-
carry tool. Wherever you are on Earth,
one end of a compass needle will point to
the North Pole. It follows an imaginary line that
connects the magnetic poles of Earth. Once you
know which direction is north, you can easily
determine south, west, and east.
For a compass to work properly, its needle
must be lightweight and turn easily. The
compass cannot be close to a magnet. Otherwise,
the needle will respond to the pull of the magnet
rather than to Earths magnetic field.
385
The Northern Lights
At certain times of the year, sky-watchers see a spectacular light
show called the Aurora Borealis, or the Northern Lights. Auroras
are caused by charged particles traveling quickly from the Sun.
The charged particles are attracted to the strongest parts of Earths
magnetic fieldthe magnetic north and south poles. The particles
collide with gases in Earths atmosphere. Atoms in the gases give
off the colorful light. Earth is not the only planet with auroras.
Astronomers have observed auroras in Jupiters atmosphere.
1. What are some ways that Earth is like a magnet?
2. Why does a compass needle point in a north-south direction?
3. Expository Compasses can be used to
create treasure hunts. Hide a small object. Then write clues
on index cards and hide all but the first one. The first clue tells
how to use a compass to find next clue, and so on. Challenge
a friend to use your directions to find the hidden object.
Earth is like a giant
magnet surrounded by
a huge magnetic field.
When no
current flows,
all compasses
point north.
386
Lesson 4
How is electricity
transformed to
magnetism?
Electricity and magnetism are closely related. Both are the
result of charged particles moving. The combination of these forces,
electromagnetism, is very useful in our daily lives.
Electromagnets
In 1820, Danish scientist Hans Christian Oersted was showing
how electric current flowed through a wire. He noticed that the
magnetic needle on a nearby compass moved each time he
turned on the current. The electric current caused a magnetic field.
The current caused the compass needle to move. Oersted saw that
the forces of electricity and magnetism have a lot in common.
This connection led to an important inventionthe electromagnet.
The compass
needles line
up with the
magnetic field
caused by
the flowing
current.
387
An electromagnet is a coil of wire with
many loops through which an electric
current passes. To make the field even
stronger, the coil is often wrapped around
an iron core. When the current moves
through the wire, an invisible force
surrounds the electromagnet. The force
is a magnetic field. When the current
stops, the wire loses its magnetism. By
transforming electrical energy into
magnetic energy, an electromagnet
can become a very powerful
magnet.
More current passing
through the wire makes the
electromagnet stronger.
A larger core makes the
electromagnet stronger.
More coils make the
electromagnet stronger.
Ways to Make the Magnet Stronger
Like a bar magnet, an electromagnet has a north
and south pole. One advantage electromagnets have over
natural ones is that you can change their strength. You can
make an electromagnet stronger by increasing the amount
of current running through the wire. Another way is by
increasing the number of coils. A third way to boost the power
of an electromagnet is by making the magnetic core larger.
1. How is an electromagnet different from
a magnet?
2. An electromagnet with 12 coils can pick
up 4 thumbtacks. You want to make the electromagnet
stronger by adding coils. Predict how many coils you
need to pick up 5 thumbtacks.
388
Uses for Electromagnets
Electromagnets are used in industry to lift
heavy materials. Sometimes the materials are the
resources needed for manufacturing. Sometimes
they are waste materials that are being moved
so that they can be used in a different way.
Electromagnets are also in complex machines
used by doctors and scientists.
You may not realize that electromagnets
are part of many electronic gadgets that
you use every day. Televisions, fans, VCRs,
computers, and DVD players all work because
of electromagnets. In the examples herea
doorbell, a motor, and earphonesyoull see
how electromagnets help convert electric energy
to magnetic energy to mechanical energy.
ButtonPressing the button
closes the electric circuit.
Current flows to the
TransformerThis device
controls the amount of current
that is sent to the
ElectromagnetElectricity
flowing in the coil of wire
magnetizes the electromagnet.
This pulls up the
Contact ArmThe arm
is attached to a metal
clapper that hits the
BellThis makes
the sound.
Batterypower source
Simple Electric
Motor
A motor uses magnets to
create motion. A simple
motor has six parts.
How a Doorbell Works
389
1. Cause and Effect
How did noticing cause and
effect lead to Hans Christian
Oersteds discovery?
2. Why are electromagnets used
in so many electronic devices?
3.
Use the Internet or other
resources to find examples of
electromagnets used in industry
or medicine.
EARPHONES turn electric current into
sound waves. A metal disc is located
in front of an electromagnet in each
earphone. Changes in the electric current
make the magnetism weaker or stronger.
The changes in magnetic strength make
the disc vibrate. The vibrations are the
sound waves you hear.
Armature or Rotora set of
electromagnets, each with thin
copper wire coiled around it
Commutatorswitch that reverses
the direction of the electric current
Brushthe contact point on each side of
the armature that transfers power when the
motor spins
Axleholds the commutator
and the armature
Permanent Magnetworks with the
electromagnets in the armature. The north
end of the permanent magnet pushes
away the north end of the electromagnet.
The south ends also push away from each
other. This causes the axle to spin.
390
Lesson 5
How is magnetism
transformed to
electricity?
The power of magnetism can be transformed into the power of
electricity. This discovery led to the invention of the electric motor,
generator, and more.
Electrical Energy
Most people take electricity for granted. They find it hard
to picture daily life before electricity. They push plugs into
outlets, without thinking about where the electricity comes
from. They dont realize that the electrical energy that
powers their televisions, refrigerators, and lamps has
traveled a long way.
Today we know more ways to use magnetism to
generate electricity. Sliding coiled wire back and forth
over a magnet generates electricity. Spinning a coiled
wire around a magnet produces electricity too.
When a magnet is moved, its magnetic field
moves with it. And changing a magnetic field
generates electricity. The faster the coiled wire
or the magnet is moved, the stronger the
electric current it produces. In contrast,
the slower the movement, the weaker
the current. The number of
coiled loops also affects
the strength of the
current. More coiled
loops of wire mean the
magnet creates
a stronger current.
Wires are wound in coils
around magnets. The wires are
attached to instruments that
measure the electric current.
391
A Flashlight Without Batteries
In 1831, Michael Faraday invented a machine
that used magnets to transform motion into an
electric current. By turning a crank, he was able to
produce electrical energy. He called this invention
a dynamo. Today this technology is used in an
emergency flashlight. It does not use batteries.
Instead, it produces electricity when the user
squeezes the handle.
Currents Currently
Most homes, schools, and businesses today get
their electricity from generators. A generator is a
machine that creates electric energy by turning
coils of wire around powerful magnets. Modern
generators are much bigger than the magnets
and coils that Faraday and other scientists used in
their experiments. The basic scientific principles,
however, are the same. A generator uses magnets
and wires to turn mechanical energy into
electrical energy.
Joseph
Henry
Michael
Faraday
Pioneers in Electricity
In the early 1820s, British
scientist Michael Faraday
did many experiments with
magnetism and electricity.
At the same time, American
scientist Joseph Henry was
doing similar experiments. In
1829, Henry discovered that
changing a magnetic field
created an electric current in a
wire. But, he didnt share his
findings with other scientists for
several years. In 1831, Faraday
made the same discovery and
shared it with other scientists.
Faraday moved a magnet inside
a wire coil to generate electrical
energy. He used this discovery
to build the first electric motor.
1. What
happens when a magnet
is moved back and forth
inside a coiled wire?
2. How many
years after Joseph Henry
discovered that changing
a magnetic field generates
an electric current did
Michael Faraday make
the same discovery?
392
Thomas Edison demonstrates
the incandescent light bulb.
Charles Parsons develops the
first successful steam turbine.
1896
Electric generator at Niagara Falls begins
producing electricity for Buffalo, New York.
Windfarms in the United States begin
collecting the winds energy.
1980
1884
1879
1870
1831
1829
1820
1740s
1600
600 B.C.
Discoveries in Using Electrical Energy
Benjamin Franklin and Ebenezer Kinnersley
describe electric charges as positive or negative.
Hans Christian Oersted notices that electric
currents affect a compass needle.
Zenobe Gramme improves the electric
generator to make it more powerful.
Thales of Miletus and others
describe static electricity.
William Gilbert suggests
that Earth is a magnet.
Joseph Henry (1829) and Michael Faraday (1831)
produce a current by changing a magnetic field.
How Generators Are
Powered
There are many ways for a
generator to produce electrical
energy. Some use the energy of the
wind, while others rely on falling
water. Still other generators are
powered by steam caused by the
hot temperatures deep below Earths
surface or by nuclear energy heating
the water. In each kind of generator,
mechanical energy spins wires
around a magnet.
1. How do magnets help generators produce electricity?
2. Wind turbines today generate electricity
much better than they did about 25 years ago. In 1981, a
wind turbine produced 25 kilowatts of electrical power. A
modern turbine can create up to 750 kilowatts of electricity.
How many times more powerful is a modern wind turbine?
Hydroelectric Power
The power of falling water
is changed into electricity by
generators near Niagara Falls.
Electrical Safety
Electricity lights homes,
cooks food, and powers
many machines. However, if
youre not careful, electricity
can cause a serious shock or
start a fire.
The Electrical Safety
Foundation urges everyone
to remember the 4 Rs of
electrical safety:
Respect the power of
electricity.
Read and follow the
instructions that come with
every electrical product.
Replace worn or cracked
electrical cords.
Relocate, or move,
appliance cords so people
will not walk on or trip
over them, and children or
pets cant pull them.
Wind Power
A wind turbine changes the energy
of the blowing wind into electricity.
393
394
Materials
What to Do
Start 25 centimeters from one end
of the wire. Coil the wire 30 times
around the bolt near its head.
Investigate What is an electromagnet?
Observe how an electromagnet works. Then make an operational definition.
An operational definition of an electromagnet is a definition that tells you
what you must observe to know if something is an electromagnet. Use this
form: An object is an electromagnet if it acts like a magnet when ______,
but not when ______.
Hold the bolts head near
a paper clip. Record your
observations.
You use your
experience with
an object or event
to help make an
operational
definition of it.
insulated wire
and bolt
safety goggles
and ruler
20 small paper clips
battery and
battery holder
Wear safety goggles.
Disconnect wires if
any parts feel warm.
3
0
c
o
ils
30 coils
(no battery)
L
e
a
v
e

a

2
5

c
e
n
t
im
e
t
e
r
p
iece uncoiled.

395
Make a circuit. Put a battery in the battery holder. Attach both ends
of the wire to it. Find how many paper clips your electromagnet can
pick up. Record. Then remove a wire from the battery holder.
Add 20 more coils. Predict how many paper clips
you can pick up now. Find out.
Make a bar graph or select another way to show
your results.
Explain Your Results
1. Infer What can make an electromagnet
stronger?
2. Make an operational definition of an
electromagnet.
Which objects will a
magnet attract? Use your
electromagnet as a tool.
Develop and carry out a plan
to answer this or another
question you may have. Write
instructions others could use to
repeat your investigation.
Number of Coils Number of Paper
Clips Picked Up
30 coils (no battery)
30 coils
50 coils

30 coils
(no battery)
30 coils 50 coils
Number of Coils
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

P
a
p
e
r

C
l
i
p
s

P
i
c
k
e
d

U
p
3
0
c
o
ils
battery
battery holder
When electricity flows
through the wire, the
bolt works like a magnet.
Negative
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Zero Positive
Positive and negative numbers are often used in science.
Numbers greater than zero are positive, and numbers
less than zero are negative. Positive numbers can be
written without a sign. So positive five can be written
as +5 or 5. You have worked with positive and negative
temperatures. You can also use positive and negative
numbers to represent electrical charges.
When a neutral material loses particles with negative
charges, it has a positive charge. An opposite charge
makes it neutral again. If the charge is +5, a charge
of 5 will make it neutral again.
More negative than
positive particles
More positive than
negative particles
396
Use the number line to answer these questions.
1. If some material has a charge of +4, what charge would
make it neutral?
A. +2
B. 2
C. +4
D. 4
2. If a neutral balloon gains 3 negative charges and then loses
3 negative charges, what will its charge be?
F. +3
G. 3
H. 0
I. +6
3. If a balloon with a negative charge and a balloon with a
positive charge are held up by strings next to each other,
what will happen?
A. They will move toward each other.
B. They will move apart.
C. Nothing will happen.
D. They will both fall to the floor.
Design an experiment in which you try
to stick charged balloons to a variety of
objects at home, such as the refrigerator, a
door, and so on. Time how long the balloon
sticks to each (if it sticks at all). Make a
graph that shows your results. Try this
experiment in different kinds of weather.
397
398
Use Vocabulary
Use the vocabulary term from the list above
that best completes each sentence.
1. If charged particles in an object are
not balanced, the object builds up
_____.
2. A charge in motion is called a(n)
_____.
3. _____ is the pushing or pulling force
that exists when a magnetic material
is near.
4. Current flows in only one direction in
a(n) _____.
5. The quality of _____ opposes the flow
of electric current through a material.
6. Because of Earths _____, a compass
needle points in a north-south
direction.
7. One advantage of a(n) _____ over
a natural magnet is that its magnetic
field can be turned off.
8. A(n) _____ can handle appliances
that use different amounts of electric
current.
Explain Concepts
9. Explain why copper wire is a better
conductor of electricity than a rubber
tube is.
10. Explain why most homes have
parallel circuits rather than series
circuits.
11. Predict A compass needle is
pointing north-south. What would
happen to the needle if a small
magnet were held near the east side
of the compass?
12. Infer You rub two inflated balloons
on your hair. What happens when
you hold them close to each other?
13. Ask a question If you were able
to interview either Joseph Henry
or Michael Faraday about his
experiments with electricity, what
two questions would you ask?
electric current
(p. 378)
electromagnet
(p. 387)
magnetic field
(p. 382)
magnetism
(p. 382)
parallel circuit
(p. 381)
resistance
(p. 379)
series circuit
(p. 380)
static electricity
(p. 375)
Cause Effect
The particles
collide with
gases in Earths
atmosphere.
Cause
The particles
collide with
gases in Earths
atmosphere.
Effect
399
Cause and Effect
14. Complete the graphic organizer
to show cause and effect for the
Northern Lights.
Test Prep
15. Which of the following is NOT used
to power generators?
wind
moving water
hot rocks deep below Earths
surface
static electricity
16. Lights are wired in a parallel circuit.
What happens to the circuit if one
bulb burns out?
None of the bulbs light.
Half of the bulbs light.
All bulbs but one light.
All bulbs light.
17. If you break a magnet into
two pieces, what happens?
The magnetic field disappears
until the pieces are put back
together.
Each magnet piece has only one
magnetic pole.
Each magnet piece has a north
pole and a south pole.
One magnet piece has two
north poles and the other has
two south poles.
18. Which of the following materials
would be the best insulator for a
metal wire?
glass
silver
water
copper
19. Explain why the answer you chose
for Question 18 is the best. For each
answer you did not select, give a
reason why it is not the best choice.
20. Expository
Suppose you are asked to give a
speech to a third-grade class that
explains the 4 Rs of electrical safety.
Write your speech.
William Gilbert is an important person in the
history of electricity and magnetism. He studied
at St. Johns College of Cambridge University in
England. In 1569, he graduated and became a
doctor in London. He later served as the doctor
for Queen Elizabeth I and King James I.
Electricity and magnetism greatly interested
Gilbert. He explained that static electricity and
magnetism are different forces. In 1600, he
published a book called On the Magnet. In this
book he described Earths magnetic field. He
explained that a compass needle points north-
south because Earth is a giant magnet. Gilbert
also developed and conducted experiments to test
his ideas about electricity and magnetism. In one
of these experiments, he discovered that heating
magnets changed their magnetic properties.
Magnets placed in a fire lost their magnetism.
William Gilbert introduced a theory about the
effect electricity and magnetism have on each
other. He was also the first person to use the
word electric to describe the force between
charged objects.
His ideas influenced many scientists after him.
Galileo and Johannes Kepler are two famous
scientists who studied his work.
400
Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Edison are
two scientists who studied electricity. Find
out more about them and write what you
learn in your science journal.
E
C

N
T
L

1
0

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2
401
how sound travels.
some properties of sound.
what light is.
how light behaves.
402
reection
transparent
translucent
absorption
opaque
frequency
wavelength compression
403
Chapter 14
Vocabulary
compression
page 408
frequency page 409
wavelength
page 409
pitch page 412
reection page 420
absorption
page 420
transparent
page 421
translucent
page 421
opaque page 421
refraction
page 422
refraction
pitch
404
Materials
What to Do
Tie the string around the
neck of a 2 L bottle.
Fill the bottle about
1
3
full
with water. Screw cap
tightly onto bottle.
Explore What makes sound change?
You use what you
know and what
you observe
to make an
inference.
Explain Your Results
1. How did adding more water affect the pitch?
2. Describe how plucking harder changes volume.
3. Infer How does the length of the string affect
the pitch?
Figure out how the sound changes when you:
a. fill the bottle with water,
b. pluck the string gently and hard, and
c. shorten how far the bottle hangs down.
Pluck the string.
Does it vibrate?
Observe the sound.
water
funnel and
2 L plastic bottle
with cap
string and marker
1
3
full of water
Use a funnel to
add the water.
Pluck the
string here.
Tie the string to the marker.
Use the marker as a handle.
Hold it on the desktop.
Put on lid.
Sound is made when
the string vibrates.
The faster it vibrates,
the higher the pitch.
almost touching the floor
First:
Next:
Next:
Last:
Draw Conclusions
A conclusion is a decision you reach after you think about
facts and details. You can also use what you know or observe
to make an inference or form an opinion about events.
Magazine Article
Fly-by-Night Creatures
Bats are flying mammals. Many come out at
night. They use sounds to help them locate objects
in the darkness. The sounds waves travel through
the air and bounce off whatever they strike. This
creates an echo that travels back to the bat.
The bat can learn many things from the
echo. The bat can tell an objects size, direction,
distance, and speed. The bat can avoid crashing into an object such
as a large tree. If the echo is from a tiny flying insect such as a
mosquito or a moth, the bat knows exactly where to catch its dinner.
Even blind bats catch their food without flying into things.
Apply It!
Answer the questions by drawing conclusions or making
inferences from the magazine article. Use a graphic organizer
like the one shown.
1. You see several bats
swooping over a pond at
dusk. Why are they doing
this?
2. What might a bat conclude
from an echo it receives as
it flies over the pond?
405
Fact
Fact
Fact
Conclusion
406
You are standing at the shore of a lake. The water
is as smooth as glass. You pick up a rock and toss it
into the water. It splashes with a loud ker-PLUNK
and vanishesbut not without a trace. A ring of
ripples spreads out from the spot where your rock
plunged into the lake. The outer rings grow bigger.
Smaller new rings that form at the center follow
them. These ripply rings are waves. Did you know
that invisible waves are all around us? How do
these waves bring sunlight, music, TV shows, and
other good things?
407
Lesson 1
What is sound
energy?
Sound is a form of energy that travels in waves. All sounds
have common characteristics that can be measured and
described. Sound can travel through solids, liquids, and gases.
What Sound Is
The blare of an alarm clock, the beep of a car horn, the
quack of a duck, and the rumble of thunder during a storm
are all sounds. Sound is a form of energy. Sounds occur
when objects vibrate. A vibration is a kind of wiggle. It is a
quick back-and-forth movement.
For example, if you pluck a guitar string, the string
will vibrate. The vibrating string passes energy to the air
that surrounds it, so the air vibrates too. The vibrations
travel through the air as sound waves. A sound wave is
a disturbance that moves energy through matter. Sound
waves carry sound energy. If the waves reach our ears, we
hear the sound made by the guitar string.
1. What is sound?
2. Descriptive In your science journal,
write a paragraph that describes one sound you like to
hear and one sound you do not like to hear. Explain what
qualities in a sound make you like it or dislike it.
408
Types of Sound Waves
As sound waves move, they set air
particles into motion. The moving air
particles form a pattern. Areas with groups
of particles that are bunched together
alternate with areas of particles that are
far apart. The part of the wave where the
particles are bunched together is called a
compression.
Scientists classify waves according to
the way they travel through matter. There
are two major types of waves.
Transverse Waves
You are probably familiar with one type of wave. Suppose you
and a friend hold opposite ends of a jump rope. You allow some
slack so the middle of the rope dips toward the ground. With a
quick upward flick of your wrist you send energy through the rope.
The disturbance, or wave, moves through the rope to your friends
hand. However, the rope only moves, or vibrates, up and down.
You created transverse waves.
In a transverse wave, the particles in the material move at a
right angle to the direction that the wave travels. In other words,
the wave traveled forward, toward your friend. However, the rope
moved up and down. Sometimes waves in a lake or an ocean are
transverse waves.
Longitudinal Waves
In a longitudinal wave, the particles in the material move
parallel to the direction the wave travels. If the wave moves from
right to left, then the particles also vibrate from right to left.
A spring toy can help you understand how longitudinal waves
move. Suppose you lay the toy on the floor and stretch it slightly.
You hold one end and your friend holds the other. Suppose you
pull on the end and then push it in. You send energy through the
spring. Vibrations pass along the toy. Some of the coils crowd closer
together. Then, after the vibrations pass, the coils move farther
apart. Sound waves are longitudinal waves. A sound wave travels
as air particles are pushed together and then move apart.
409
Frequency and Wavelength
Waves travel in different ways. They can carry different
amounts of energy. But, all waves have certain properties.
Frequency and wavelength are two of those properties.
The frequency of a wave is the number of waves that
pass a point in a certain amount of time. The faster an object
vibrates, the higher its frequency will be. Frequency is often
described as the number of complete cycles a wave makes in
one second. A cycle is a vibration.
Most sounds consist of sound waves of several frequencies.
Wavelength is the distance between a point on one wave
and a similar point on the next wave.
1. What are two types of waves?
2. The unit used to measure sound frequency
is the hertz. One cycle per second equals one hertz. A person
with normal hearing can hear sounds in the frequency range
of 20 to 20,000 hertz. People older than 70, however, cannot
always hear sounds above 6,000 hertz. Do they have trouble
hearing high-frequency or low-frequency sounds?
Wavelength is the
distance from a
compression to the
next compression.
The slower an object vibrates,
the longer its wavelength and
the lower its frequency
will be.
Wavelength can be measured
between two peaks (highest
points) or between two
troughs (lowest points).
The faster an object vibrates, the shorter its
wavelength and the higher its frequency will be.
Wavelength
Wavelength
Compression
How Sound Travels
Sound waves need a medium in which to travel. A
medium is any kind of matter. Gases, liquids, and solids
are mediums through which sound waves can travel.
A sound wave travels at different speeds through
different mediums. As it travels, the sound wave
compresses the particles in the medium. Several causes
affect how fast the sound moves through a medium.
One cause is how much the particles move in response
to a vibration and how easily they move back to their
original position. Another cause is how strongly the
particles are attached or attracted to each other.
Particles in most solids move fairly quickly
in response to a sound vibration. They
also bounce back fairly quickly from
the compression. The vibration passes
quickly through the particles of most
solids. The particles in solids are also
fairly strongly attracted to each other.
So a sound wave passes quickly.
In most liquids, particles tend to move
a little less quickly and bounce back less
easily than in a solid. The particles of
a liquid are not attracted as strongly to
each other as those in a solid. So sound
waves tend to travel more slowly in a
liquid medium than in most solids.
In a gas such as air, sound waves
travel most slowly. The particles of a gas
are not attracted to each other as strongly
as the particles in a liquid. They are not
compressed easily by sound. They also
do not bounce back very easily. So sound
waves travel slowly.
If you were floating in outer space, you
would be in complete silence. Space is a
vacuuman empty place that contains
no matter. Since there are no particles of
matter in a vacuum, sound waves would
not be able to travel to your ears.
Solid
Liquid
Gas
410
411
Echoes
As a sound wave travels, it often bumps
into objects. If it hits a hard, smooth surface,
the wave reflects. That means that the sound
bounces back. For example, if you shout your
name into a cave, you will hear your name
softly repeated. The sound waves bounced
off the cave walls and traveled back to you.
A reflected sound is called an echo.
Scientists use sound waves to learn about
the bottom of the ocean. The sound waves
travel down, hit the ocean floor, and return to
the surface as echoes. By measuring the total
time that passes between sending the sound
wave and receiving the echo, scientists can
figure out how deep the ocean is there.
1. Why does sound travel fastest in solids and
slowest in gases?
2. How does an echo form?
3. Draw Conclusions A bird perched
in a tree hears the chirping of another bird.
A whale hears the songlike sound made by
another whale swimming near it. Which
sound travels faster, the birds chirping
or the whales singing? Explain how you
decided.
Scientists use
echoes to map
the ocean floor.
412
Lesson 2
How is sound made?
Vibrating objects produce all types of sound. The way an object
is made and the way it vibrates affect the type of sound we hear.
The frequency and the amount of energy in the sound wave also
affect the sound we hear.
Loudness
When you describe a sound, one
of the first things you think about
is loudness. You whisper around a
sleeping baby, but you might give an
ear-splitting shout when your favorite
baseball player hits a home run. Your
shout is a lot louder than the whisper,
but what exactly is loudness? Loudness
is a measure of how strong a sound
seems to us. Loudness is related to the
amount of energy in a sound wave.
If you are far from the source of a
sound, it will not sound as loud as if
you were standing nearer to it. Suppose
you are sitting next to a friend who is playing the drums. The
sound waves do not have far to travel to your ears, so they
will sound loud. But if you were across the street, the sound of
the drums would be softer. The sound waves do not lose some
of their energy as they travel through the air. The energy just
spreads out to cover a larger area, like waves on a pond.
Pitch
Another characteristic of sound is pitch. Pitch is what
makes a sound seem high or low. Pitch depends on a sounds
frequency. Objects that vibrate quickly, those with high
frequencies, have a high pitch. Objects that vibrate slowly
have a low frequency and a low pitch. The material of the
object making the sound and its size and shape affect the
sound you hear.
413
A flute is a wind
instrument. When the
flute player blows across
a hole in the flute, the
column of air inside the
instrument vibrates.
A gong is a
percussion instrument.
When a person hits
a gong, the metal
vibrates. Its sound is
a blend of pitches.
When a tuning fork is
struck, it vibrates at
a single frequency. It
gives off a pure tone
of a certain pitch.
1. What type of pitch does a
high-frequency sound have?
2. The sounds
from machinery, traffic, construction, and
airplanes make noise pollution. Many towns
have rules that limit noise levels. Suppose you
were part of your local government. Write
one rule you would make to keep noise from
becoming a problem.
The violinist rubs the bow
across the strings, causing
them to vibrate. The strings
that play the highest notes
are thin metal wires.
414
How Instruments Make Sound
Guitars, violins, harps, and other string
instruments make sound when a musician
plucks, rubs, or hits the strings. This sends
vibrations through the instrument.
Strings on a guitar are stretched between
the top and bottom of the instrument. A
guitarist plays notes by plucking the strings.
The note depends on the length and thickness
of the string and how tightly it is stretched.
A guitarist tunes the guitar by tightening the
strings to make the pitch higher or loosening
them to make it lower.
Sound waves travel slowest through the thicker,
heavier strings. These strings vibrate slowest and play the
lowest pitches. Waves travel more quickly through the thinner
strings. They vibrate faster and have higher pitches.
Percussion Instruments
Drums, xylophones, and maracas are examples of percussion
instruments. Percussion instruments make sounds when you
shake or strike them. For example, when you hit a drum
with your hand or a stick, the skin across the top of the
drum vibrates and produces sound.
Wind Instruments
In a wind instrument such as a recorder, the
musician blows across a hole. This causes particles
in a column of air inside the instrument to vibrate.
The vibrations produce the sound you hear. The
shorter the instrument, the shorter the column of air
and the higher its pitch will be.
The Piano
A piano has more than 200 strings. Each key on a piano
matches a group of strings. When you press a key, a padded
hammer strikes the group of strings. The strings vibrate and
produce a tone. Pressing a key extra hard will not change
either frequency or pitch. But it will make the sound louder.
The longer recorder
has a lower pitch
than the shorter
instrument.
To shorten a string and raise its
pitch, a musician presses down
on the metal frets or bars along
the neck of the guitar.
415
How We Hear
The outer part of the human ear funnels sounds into the
ear canal. Inside the ear canal, the sound waves hit the
eardrum. The sound waves make the eardrum vibrate.
The vibrating eardrum causes three tiny connected bones
in the middle ear to vibrate. Because of their shapes, the
bones are named the hammer, the stirrup, and the anvil.
Next, the vibrations move into the cochlea in the inner
ear. The cochlea is a snail-shaped organ that is filled
with a liquid. When the liquid in the cochlea starts to
vibrate, tiny hairs in the cochlea move. They convert the
vibrations into signals that travel along the auditory nerve
to the brain. The brain interprets the signals as sound.
The piano has
features of both
percussion and
string instruments.
Hitting a drum closer
to the center lowers
the pitch.
1. How does a wind instrument produce sound?
2. How does the pitch of a thick guitar string compare
with that of a thinner string?
3. Draw Conclusions By shortening or
tightening a guitar string, you raise the pitch. What
do you conclude will happen to the pitch if you
tighten the skin stretched across the top of a drum?
Eardrum
Cochlea

Middle
ear
Inner ear
Outer ear
A tuning key is used
to tighten or loosen
each string.
416
Lesson 3
What is light energy?
Light has much in common with sound. Both are forms of
energy. Both travel as waves. Only a tiny fraction of light energy
can be seen by the human eye.
Sources of Light
Like sound, light is a form of energy. The Sun, a bonfire, a
street lamp, and a firefly are just a few sources of light energy.
No light source is more important to us than the Sun.
Without a constant supply of energy from the Sun, Earth
would be a dead planet. It would be too cold and dark for
any kind of life. Plants, for example, convert sunlight into
chemical energy, which they use to make food. Plants are
part of the food chain. Without plants, animals and people
could not survive.
Some animals give off light called bioluminescence. The
light is a result of chemical reactions inside the animals
body. Some sea animals that live near the bottom of the
oceanwhere it is pitch blackare bioluminescent.
Long, long ago, humans discovered that they
could make their own light. The discovery
of fire opened up a whole new world. No
longer did almost all activities have to
stop as soon as the Sun went down.
People could light a campfire and
stay warm, cook food, or work
even after dark.
The firefly is a
bioluminescent insect.
Stick puppets cast
their shadows
on a screen. The
shadows can
be made larger
by moving the
puppets closer to
the light source.
Shadows
Light travels in straight lines called rays that fan
outward from the source of the light. You can easily see
how light travels by looking at a shadow.
If you hold your hand in front of a wall and then
shine a flashlight on it, a hand-shaped shadow will
show up on the wall. Your hand blocks the path of the
light rays. A shadow, or dark area, appears where the
light rays cannot reach the wall. The size of the shadow
can change. If you hold your hand very close to the wall
and shine the flashlight on it, the shadow will be about
the same size as your hand. If you move your hand
away from the wall and closer to the flashlight, the
shadow will be larger than your hand.
The angle that the light strikes the object also affects
the size of the shadow. Think of your own shadow on a
sunny day. Around noon, when the Sun is highest in
the sky, your shadow is short. Early in the morning
or late in the day, the Sun is lower in the sky.
Your shadow is longer.
1.

What do the Sun, a bonfire, and
a street lamp have in common?
2. You can put on a shadow puppet
play with only a source of light and a darkened
room. Use your fingers and hands to form
characters such as birds, rabbits, and other
animals. Write a short script and put on a play
for some friends or classmates.
The Light Bulb
In the 1870s, American inventor Thomas Edison and British
inventor Joseph Swan discovered that electric current would
heat up a filament, or thread, until it gave off both heat energy
and light energy. They put the filament inside a hollow glass
ball. They passed an electric current through the filament. It got
very hot. It glowed, but it did not catch fire! This invention was
the light bulb.
Thomas Edison
demonstrated this
type of lamp in
the United States
in October 1879.
417
418
Light Waves We See
The light we can see makes up only a thin slice of the
universes light energy. Scientists refer to all forms of light
energy as electromagnetic radiation. Visible light, the light
we see, is the most familiar form of electromagnetic waves.
Light energy travels as a wave. Like all waves, light waves
have wavelengths and frequencies. The human eye can see
only the wavelengths and frequencies of the colors in the
visible spectrum. White light, such as light from a lamp or the
Sun, is actually a blend of the colors in a rainbow. Sunlight
that passes through the raindrops is split into individual colors.
The colors are red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet.
These colors always appear in the same order because of
their wavelength and frequency. As you move from left to
right on the spectrum, wavelength decreases and frequency
increases. So, red light has the longest wavelength and the
lowest frequency. Violet light has the shortest wavelength
and the highest frequency.
Electromagnetic Waves We Cannot See
Most of the waves in the electromagnetic spectrum are
not visible. Radio waves, microwaves, and infrared waves
are invisible because their wavelengths are too long for the
human eye to see. Ultraviolet waves, X rays, and gamma
rays are high-energy waves. They are invisible because their
wavelengths are too short.
Scientists use special equipment to study the invisible waves
in the electromagnetic spectrum. These invisible waves behave
in the same way as the visible light waves. All electromagnetic
waves travel at the same speed through empty space. They all
carry energy. This energy can be absorbed by an object and
then changed to another form of energy such as heat.
Large amounts of high-energy waves can harm living cells.
For example, ultraviolet waves from the Sun can damage the
eyes or cause sunburn or cancer. But in smaller amounts,
these waves can be helpful. Ultraviolet waves are used to kill
bacteria. Microwaves are radio waves that cook or warm food.
X rays show doctors such things as a broken bone inside a
patients body.
Microwaves
passing through
food cause
particles in it to
vibrate quickly.
The vibrations
produce heat.
Red light is at
the left end of
the spectrum of
visible light. It
has the longest
wavelength
and the lowest
frequency.
Radio and television stations send
out signals on different radio wave
frequencies. When you change
the channel, you are changing the
frequency of the radio wave that
your radio or TV receives.
Violet light is at the right
end of the spectrum
of the colors of visible
light. It has the shortest
wavelength and the
highest frequency.
X rays pass
through soft
body parts such
as skin but are
absorbed by
hard substances
such as bone.
Black holes and other mysterious objects
in outer space give off gamma rays.
Earths atmosphere blocks gamma rays.
Special telescopes in spacecraft are used
to detect gamma rays.
Ultraviolet waves, X rays,
and gamma rays have
short wavelengths and
high frequencies.
1. What colors of light make up the visible spectrum?
2. Why cant humans see X rays?
3. Draw Conclusions Laser light waves all have
the same wavelength. What can you conclude about
the color of laser light?
419
420
Lesson 4
How do light and
matter interact?
Light may behave in different ways when it strikes matter. What
happens depends on the type of matter the light waves strike.
Light and Matter
Light rays travel in straight linesas long as nothing is in
their way! But light can change when it strikes an object. The
light rays may pass through the object. They may reflect off
the object. Or, they may be absorbed by the object.
Light waves reflect at least a little off most objects.
Reflection occurs when light rays bounce, or reflect, from a
surface back to our eyes. Some objects reflect more light rays
than others. When you brush your teeth in front of a mirror,
the smooth, shiny surface of the mirror reflects almost all
the light rays that hit it. The rays reflect back to your eyes
at the same angle. You see a clear image, or reflection, of
your toothpaste-filled mouth.
Light waves can also be absorbed. Absorption
occurs when an object takes in the light wave. After a
light wave is absorbed, it becomes a form of heat energy.
Color and Light
We see colors because objects absorb some frequencies
of light and reflect others. The shirt at the right looks
red because it reflects light rays of the red frequency.
It absorbs light rays of other visible color frequencies.
Black and white objects are special cases. When light hits
a white T-shirt, for example, all color frequencies in the
visible spectrum are reflected. When the colors all blend,
they look white. An object looks black because it absorbs
all colors of the visible spectrum. On a sunny day, black
objects feel warm because the light energy they absorb
changes into heat energy.
Reflection
The shirt
absorbs all
colors of
light rays
except red.
421
Letting Light Through
Materials can be grouped by how they react to
light. Materials that transmit nearly all of the light
rays that hit them are transparent. This means
that these materials let the light rays pass through
them. You can clearly see what is on the other side
of transparent material. Air, clean water, and most
windows are transparent. Transparent objects
that are colored reflect and transmit only that
color. They absorb the other colors. For example,
sunglasses that are tinted blue reflect and transmit
only blue frequencies. They absorb all others.
Materials that let some light rays pass through
but scatter other rays are translucent. You
can see that light passes through a translucent
material, but what is on the other side of it looks
blurry. Waxed paper, lampshades, frosted glass,
and beeswax are translucent.
Materials that do not let any light pass through
are opaque. You cannot see through an opaque
object. An opaque material either reflects or
absorbs the light rays that strike it. Aluminum foil
is an example of an opaque material that reflects
light. The light bounces off the foil, making the
surface look bright and shiny. Wood is an opaque
material that absorbs light.
1.

How does light behave when it
strikes a transparent object?
2. Sunglasses help protect the
eyes by causing some light rays to be absorbed,
scattered, or reflected away from the eyes. A
typical pair of sunglasses might transmit
3
10
of
visible light rays. What fraction of visible light do
the glasses reflect, scatter, or absorb?
keyword: refraction
code: g4p422
422
How Light Changes Direction
Light can be transmitted,
reflected, and absorbed, but
thats not all. Light can also
be bent!
Unlike sound, light does
not need a medium to travel
through. In fact, light travels
fastest through the emptiness
of a vacuum such as outer
space. Light slows a little
when it travels through
various mediums. Light
travels more slowly in a gas
such as air than in a vacuum.
Suppose a light wave travels
from a vacuum to a gas. As
the wave hits the gas, it slows
down.
Particles in a liquid are
closer together than the
particles in a gas. So, light
travels through a liquid more
slowly than through a gas.
Light moves most slowly
through the tightly packed
particles in solids.
When light moves at an
angle from one medium to
another, some of the light is reflected, some is absorbed, and
some passes through and changes directions. It bends! This
bending is called refraction. As a light ray moves at an
angle from one transparent medium to another, it changes
speed. The change in speed causes the light to refract,
or bend. In white light that is separated into individual
colors, each color bends differently. The longer the colors
wavelength, the less it bends. The picture of the pencil shows
what happens when light that is moving through air strikes a
transparent solid that contains a transparent liquid.
The light rays refract, or bend,
as they travel from air to
water. Thats why the pencil
looks broken.
Rays of light bend and separate
into individual colors when they
strike a piece of glass known as
a prism. Red light bends the least.
Violet light bends the most.
423
The Human Eye
The human eye is a
fluid-filled ball with a bony
area around it. A transparent
covering protects the front of the
eye. The covering also refracts
light that enters the eye. A
doughnut-shaped muscle called
the iris is behind the covering.
The iris is the colored part of the
eye. The dark opening in the
center of the iris is called the pupil.
The iris controls how much light enters the eye. In bright light, the
iris closes and the pupil gets smaller. In dim light, it opens and the
pupil gets larger. The light that enters then passes through the lens
of the eye. The lens refracts the light rays even more. The rays form
an upside-down image on the retina at the back of the eye. Cells in
the retina change the light into signals that travel along the optic
nerve to the brain. You see a right-side up image.
1. In which medium does light travel faster, a gas or a liquid?
2. Suppose you are using a magnifying glass that makes
objects seem 3 times their real-life size. How long would an insect that
measures 1 centimeter look through the magnifying glass?
Iris
Pupil
Retina
Lens
Optic
nerve
424
Lenses
Lenses are curved pieces of clear glass or plastic
that refract light that passes through them.
Lenses can be used to help people see things that
are very small or very far away. There are two
main types of lenses: convex and concave.
Convex Lenses
A convex lens is thicker in the middle than at
the edges, somewhat like a football. When light
passes through a convex lens, the light rays bend
in toward the middle of the lens. The bent light
rays come together and meet at a point on the
other side of the lens. A convex lens can magnify
things, or make them look larger. Magnifying
glasses and microscopes contain convex lenses.
Concave Lenses
A concave lens is thinner in the middle than at
the edges. When light passes through a concave
lens, the light rays bend out toward the thicker
edges of the lens. The light rays spread apart. So,
the object appears smaller than it really is.
Concave lenses and convex lenses are often
used together to make details look sharper. Many
telescopes that are used to view distant objects
have both concave and convex lenses.
Convex lenses make
things look larger.
Concave lenses make
things look smaller.
1275: On a
visit to China, Italian
traveler Marco Polo
sees people wearing
eyeglasses.
1st century
Roman thinker Seneca
notices that a glass
ball filled with water
makes objects appear
larger.
1609: Italian scientist
Galileo uses a telescope
to look at objects
in the sky.
1668: English scientist
Isaac Newton
invents a new type
of telescope with a
reflecting mirror.
425
Ways Light Is Used
Lasers
A laser is a narrow but powerful
beam of light. Laser light can be
visible or invisible. It can travel long
distances and still focus on a small
area. You use laser light when you
store information on or play a CD.
Laser light is used to read bar codes
in stores and libraries. It is used in
printers and scanners.
Laser light has a great deal of
heat energy. In industry, it
is used to cut, drill, and
bond materials together.
In medicine, doctors use
lasers to treat certain
problems with internal
organs, the eye, and
the skin.
Optical Fibers
Optical fibers are very thin
glass or plastic fibers that
are bundled together in a
coated, flexible tube.
A light source, often
a laser, is at one end of
the tube. A human eye, a
camera, or some other detector
is at the other end. The tube can be
twisted or bent without affecting the
image that is sent.
Optical fibers are made from transparent
materials that transmit visible, ultraviolet,
and infrared light. The information they
carry quickly travels long distances. Optical
fibers are used in communication, medicine,
and industry.
1. What happens to light energy when it is absorbed by an
object?
2. What does a convex lens look like?
3. Expository Write a paragraph in
your science journal that explains what happens when
light rays strike a mirror.
1670s: Dutch
scientist Anton
van Leeuwenhoek
becomes the first
person to look at
tiny life forms with
a microscope.
1784: American
Benjamin Franklin
invents bifocal
glasses, which help
people see both near
and far objects.
1800s: German
scientist Joseph von
Fraunhofer uses two
different types of
lenses to make a
compound lens.
1888: Contact lenses
are placed directly
on the eye to correct
eyesight.
426
Materials
What to Do
Tape the black paper square over the hole
in the box. Measure the bottom of the box.
Cut black paper to fit.
Investigate How is light re ected
and refracted?
Light travels in straight lines, but you can make it bend.
Hold the flashlight about 60 cm from the
box. Shine the light through the slits.
See how the black paper
absorbs most of the light,
but some light goes
through the slits.
Observe the lights path
inside the box.
Tilt a mirror in the box to reflect the light.
Observe the lights path.
You can make
inferences
based on your
observations.
scissors
ashlight and mirror
cup and water
black paper square
with slits
shoe box with hole
metric ruler and
black paper
6
0
c
m
Do you see
2 straight lines?
Find objects in your classroom
that reflect light like a mirror.
60 cm
Your teacher will
dim the lights.
427
Draw a sketch or diagram to show the path
of the light from the flashlight, through the slits,
through the water, and beyond.
Explain Your Results
1. Compare how light is affected by the air,
the cup, the water, the box, the black paper,
and the mirror. Use the terms reflect, refract,
absorb, opaque, and transparent.
2. Describe the lights path through the box and
the cup with water. Infer what happens
when light travels from air to water.
How is light affected by
translucent materials, such
as wax paper? Develop and
carry out a written plan to
answer this question or one
of your own. When finished,
give an oral report to your
class or make a written report
in your science journal.
Put an empty plastic cup in the box. Shine light
through the slits and the cup. Observe how light
passes through air in the cup. Add water.
Observe how it refracts the light.
What things are
transparent?
6
0
c
m
Which objects
are opaque?
428
Sound travels through air at about 1,190 kilometers
per hour. That means a sound can travel the length of
a football field in about one third of a second. Many
machines travel just as fast as sound. Some machines
travel even faster than sound. The display below
compares the speeds of some of the worlds fastest
machines to the speed of sound.
Worlds fastest train
Jet airplane
Sound wave in air
Supersonic passenger jet
Jet-powered car
Worlds fastest spy plane
In the display, the bar for the supersonic passenger plane is
about twice as long as the bar for the speed of sound in air.
This shows that the plane flies about twice as fast as sound
travels in air.
Use the data in the display to answer the questions. Explain
how you could find each answer just by comparing the bars.
1 Which machine travels at about the same speed
as sound?
2 Which machine travels about three times as fast
as sound?
3 Which machine travels about one third as fast as sound?
429
In one minute, a sound wave can travel
about 12 miles, or 63,360 feet. Find out
how fast you walk compared with the
speed of sound. Walk down a sidewalk for
one minute while an adult times you. Then
use a tape measure to find the distance
you covered. How much faster is the sound
wave, in feet per minute?
430
Use Vocabulary
Use the term from the list above that best
completes each sentence.
1. Clear glass is an example of a(n)
_____ material.
2. Light rays cannot pass through a
material that is _____.
3. A sound wave with a high frequency
will also have a high _____.
4. The distance from one point on a
wave to the next similar point on a
wave is known as _____.
5. _____ is bending that results from
a light wave changing speed as it
moves at an angle from one medium
to another.
6. When a light wave is taken in by an
object, _____ occurs.
7. Materials that let some light rays pass
through but scatter some of the other
rays are _____.
8. A wave bouncing back off an object
or surface is known as _____.
9. A(n) _____ is the part of a sound
wave where particles are close
together.
10. The number of times a wave makes
a complete cycle in a second is
its _____.
Explain Concepts
11. Explain why a wave with a short
wavelength has a high frequency.
12. Why does a light wave travel
more slowly through a gas than
through a vacuum?
13. Predict what a note played on a
tuba would sound like if you were
standing in front of the tuba player.
Then predict what the note would
sound like if the tuba player were at
one end of a basketball court and
you were standing at the other end.
absorption
(p. 420)
compression
(p. 408)
frequency
(p. 409)
opaque (p. 421)
pitch (p. 412)
reflection
(p. 420)
refraction
(p. 422)
translucent
(p. 421)
transparent
(p. 421)
wavelength
(p. 409)
Facts
Most of the light
will reflect off the
object.
Conclusion
431
14. Interpret the data The Sun gives
off light energy in the visible and
invisible parts of the electromagnetic
spectrum. The circle graph shows the
different kinds of light the Sun gives
off. Explain whether most of the light
energy given off is in the visible or
the invisible part of the spectrum.
Draw Conclusions
15. Make a graphic organizer like the
one shown below. Fill in facts that
might lead you to the conclusion.
Test Prep
Choose the letter that best completes the
statement.
16. A sound wave cannot travel through
a _____.
gas solid
liquid vacuum
17. To hear a higher-pitched note on a
guitar string you should
loosen the string.
shorten the string.
pluck the string harder.
make the string vibrate more
slowly.
18. Radio waves, ultraviolet rays, and
gamma rays are all
part of the visible spectrum.
part of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
longitudinal waves.
used to broadcast television
and radio programs.
19. Explain why the answer you selected
for Question 18 is best. For each
answer you did not select, give a
reason why it is not the best choice.
20. Expository
Write a paragraph explaining what
happens to a ray of sunlight as it
passes from the air through a clear
glass filled with water.
Visible Light
Waves
Infrared
Waves
Ultraviolet
Waves
432
The eye is a sensitive organ and requires special care.
Optometrists help us take care of our eyes. Sometimes people
do not see everything clearly. They may see things that are
close, but things that are far away seem blurry. They are
nearsighted. Other people can see things far away but have
a hard time seeing things up close. They are farsighted. An
optometrist can prescribe lenses to correct these problems.
The kind of lens an optometrist prescribes depends on the
kind of vision problem that needs to be corrected. The shape
of the lens changes how light enters the eye.
Optometrists can help with other eye problems. They can
diagnose and treat some eye diseases. They can check to see
how well you see colors. They may recommend exercises to
help your eyes work together better. Optometrists also can
test your depth perception, the ability to judge how far away
something is.
If you want to help people see better, you might like to
become an optometrist. You must earn a college degree. The
next step is to earn a Doctor of Optometry degree. You also
must pass a test given by the state where you
want to be an optometrist.
The way a camera works is similar to the
way an eye works. Use a library or the
Internet to find out how a camera works.
E
C

N
T
L

1
0

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2
how types of motion are described.
how forces affect motion.
how forces, motion, and energy are related.
433
force
friction
relative motion
velocity work
434
435
frame of reference
gravity kinetic energy
potential energy
speed
relative motion
page 439
frame of
reference page 440
speed page 440
velocity page 441
force page 442
friction page 445
gravity page 446
work page 448
kinetic energy
page 448
potential energy
page 448
Chapter 15
Vocabulary
436
Materials
marble and ruler
with groove
meterstick and
masking tape
calculator or computer
(optional)
books and timer
Explore What can change a marbles speed?
What to Do
Roll a marble down a ramp. Time how long it
takes to move 180 cm. Find the speed.
Predict how raising the ramp would
change the speed. Test your prediction
by adding 1 book.
Explain Your Results
1. Interpret Data Make a bar graph to show
your results.
2. Infer How did raising the ramp change the
speed of the marble?
ruler with a groove
speed = distance time
Place marble at end of ruler.
Stop timing here.
Begin timing here.
book
a
b
o
u
t

5

c
m
You interpret
data when you
use data to help
answer questions.
S
t
a
r
t
in
g
L
in
e
E
n
d
in
g
L
in
e
180 cm
Use masking tape to make a
Starting Line and a Ending Line.
Sequence
Sequence refers to the order in which events happen.
Words such as first, next, then, after, and finally signal
sequence. Knowing the order of events can help you
interpret data.
Science Journal
Rolling Along
First, my friend gave me a ruler with a groove
in the center. I put one end of the ruler on the
floor and propped the other end on a book to form
a ramp. Next, I put a marble in the groove at the high
end of the ruler and let it go. When the marble stopped rolling,
my friend used a piece of tape to mark how far it had traveled.
I measured and recorded the distance the marble rolled on the floor.
Then we did the same thing two more times. Finally we compared
our results.
Apply It!
Use clue words to help you
complete a graphic organizer
that shows the order in which
things happened in the
journal entry.
Add as many boxes as you
need to show the entire
sequence of events.
437
First
Next
Then
FPO
438
You thought the stairs would never end, but finally youre
at the top. You lower yourself into the steep, looping tube
as water swirls around your feet. Then you let go. Suddenly,
youre sliding, twisting, turning, faster and faster. At each
curve, you fear that youll fly right out of the tube, but your
body slams against the wall and bounces back into the
cushion of rushing water. After one last loop, you shoot out
the end of the tube. Whoosh! You splash into the pool. You
cant wait to go again, but you just dont know if you have
the energy to climb all those stairs. If only you could slide
up the stairs too! Why cant you?
439
Lesson 1
What is motion?
All kinds of things around you move in different ways. Cars,
trucks, and buses transport people and goods from place to place.
You can describe and measure their motion in different ways.
Types of Motion
Different things move
in different ways. One way
objects can move is in a
straight line. A baseball player
racing for home plate is likely
to run in a straight line. Trains
on a track often travel in
straight lines.
Objects can also move in
a curved path. A car turning
a corner moves in a curved
path. Curved motion takes place around a center point.
A bicycle wheel follows a curved path around its axle.
Earth moves in a curved path around the Sun.
Another way things can move is back and forth. When
a player plucks a guitar string, the string moves back and
forth. This back-and-forth motion is known as vibration.
But as you ride your bicycle or walk down your street, you
pass plants, buildings, and other things that do not move.
They are fixed in place. When you pass a fixed object, you
know you are moving. When you stand still, you can tell
that a car you see moves because it changes position. Your
understanding of motion is related to the things around you.
Every day, you compare objects that change position with
objects that dont. The change in one objects position compared
with another objects position is relative motion.
1. What are three different types of motion?
2. Sequence Describe the sequence of events of the yellow
racecar as it travels around the track above.
Sometimes the cars
move in a curved path.
Sometimes the
cars move in a
straight path.
Toy cars change
speed as they race
around the track.
440
How You Know You Are Moving
How do you know if a person on a water slide
moves? How do you know if the water moves? You
look at the changing positions of the person and the
water. You compare their changing positions with the
fixed position of the slide. You use the relative motion
of the objects around you to decide what is moving
and what is not moving.
Objects that dont seem to move define your frame
of reference. How an object seems to move depends
on your frame of reference. Your frame of reference is
like your point of view.
Suppose you are on a float in a parade. Your friend
is on the same float. The float begins moving down
the parade route. You wave at the people sitting and
watching the parade as your float moves past them.
From your frame of reference on the float, the people
seem to be moving. But, your friend hasnt moved a
bit. From your friends frame of reference, you havent
moved either. As the parade moves down the street,
people on the sidewalk see you and your friend pass
by. From their frame of reference, you and your friend
are both moving.
Suppose you use your classroom as your frame of
reference. If you were sitting at your desk, you would
say that you are not moving. But suppose you choose
the Sun as your frame of reference. Now you would
say that you are moving, because Earth carries you
along with it as it travels around the Sun.
Measuring Motion
Speed is the rate at which an object changes
position. It measures how fast an object moves.
The unit for speed is a unit of distance divided by
a unit of time, such as kilometers per hour. A car
moving at a high speed changes position faster than
a car moving at a slow speed. To find an objects
average speed, divide the distance the object moves
by the total time spent moving.
From your frame of reference
on the sidewalk, the bus and
the people on it are moving.
From your frame of reference
on the bus, everything on the
bus seems to be standing still.
From your frame of reference
on the bus, if the bus moves,
everything outside it seems
to move.
Velocity combines both the speed and the direction an
object is moving. Some words that describe direction are north,
south, east, and west. Others are left, right, up, and down.
Any change in the speed or direction of an objects motion
is an acceleration. Starting, speeding up, and slowing down
are accelerations. The roller coaster accelerates as it speeds
up. It is changing speed. A roller coaster on a curved path
accelerates even if its speed does not change. That is because
it changes direction as it moves around the curve.
441
1. What is a frame of reference?
2. What are two ways that a roller coaster can accelerate?
3. Descriptive Write a paragraph in
your science journal that describes the difference
between speed and velocity.
The roller coaster
slows as it moves up
to the top of the loop.
It goes faster heading
downhill. The velocity
changes as the coaster
changes direction
from up to down.
This roller coaster reaches
its greatest speed at the
bottom of the loop.
As the roller coaster
moves uphill again,
its velocity changes.
Its speed decreases.
442
Lesson 2
How does force affect
moving objects?
Objects do not just move on their own. Something must make
a ball start to roll. Something must also make a rolling ball stop.
Force
A force is any push or pull. Force can make
an object that is standing still start to move. It
can also make a moving object move faster, slow
down, stop, or change direction. The object
moves in the same direction as the force.
Some forces act only on contact. These forces
must touch an object to affect it. A marble on a
level surface will not move until you hit it with
your finger or another object. Contact force
starts the ball rolling.
Other forces can act at a distance. These forces
can affect objects without touching them. For
example, without any contact, a magnet can
pull a piece of iron toward it. The magnet has
a force that acts on the iron from a distance.
Pushing or pulling can change both the
position and motion of an object. The size of the
change depends on the strength of the push or
pull. For example, the harder you push a swing,
the higher and faster it will move. Also, a
strong magnet will pull a piece of iron
toward it from farther away than a
weak magnet will.
Magnets can
make things
move without
touching them.
Magnetism is a force that can
act at a distance. Magnetic
force has an effect on metals
such as iron and steel.
A marble that
is standing still
moves when it
is bumped by
another marble.
A moving
marble hits one
that is standing
still. The contact
force of the
moving marble
starts the other
marble moving.
443
Combining Forces
All forces have both size and direction. Notice the dogs
pulling on the rubber toy. They are combining forces, but
they are working against each other. They are pulling in
opposite directions, but with the same amount of force. As
long as they both pull with forces that are the same size,
the forces are balanced. The toy will not move. But if one
dog pulls with more force, the forces will be unbalanced.
The toy will move toward the dog with the greater force.
Many objects are acted upon by more than one force.
Suppose you push on a door to open it. Your friend on the
other side of the door also pushes on it with the same size
force. But your friend is pushing the door in the opposite
direction. The forces are balanced and the door does not
move. But suppose you continue to push the door while
your friend pulls it. Now both forces are acting on the
door in the same direction. The door movesquicklyin
your friends direction. The total force on the door can be
found by adding the forces together.
1. What causes objects to move or
moving objects to stop moving?
2. Sequence Describe the sequence of events
if the dog on the right suddenly stops pulling on
the toy.
Two train engines
pull together in the
same direction.
They are combining
forces and working
together. The total
force of the engines
is equal to the sum
of the two forces.
444
Force and Motion
If two dogs tug on a toy with balanced force, the toy will
not move. If two or more forces acting on an object in opposite
directions are balanced, the forces cancel each other. The
objects motion does not change. A still object will not start
moving unless the forces acting on it change. The resistance
an object has to any change to its motion is called inertia.
In the same way, a moving object changes its motion only
when a force acts on it. If balanced forces are applied to a
moving object, it will keep moving at the same speed and in
the same direction. The moving object will not slow, speed up,
or turn until the forces acting on it become unbalanced.
The amount of force acting on an object affects how that
object changes speed and direction. When you ride a bike,
you first start pushing on the pedals. Next you push harder.
The bicycle goes faster. Then you squeeze the brakes.
The bicycle slows. You turn the handlebars. The bicycle
changes direction.
More force is needed to change the motion of an object with
more mass. Thats why football players find big players are
harder to tackle than smaller players. Thats why you can easily
move an empty wagon. When your friends climb in, you must
pull with more force to move the wagon and its passengers.
Force is needed to move
the plow. Even more force
would be needed to move
larger equipment.
445
Friction
You learned that a moving object will not slow until the
forces acting on it change. You also know that unless an object
is coasting downhill, moving objects do slow down. You know
that if you dont pull a wagon, it will eventually slow and stop.
Actually, the wagon slows because there is a force acting on it.
Friction is a force that acts when two surfaces rub together.
Friction can slow or stop moving objects. It can also keep objects
from starting to move. The amount of friction between two
surfaces depends on each objects surface and its mass.
The surface of every object has high and low spots. On
a rough surface, you can see and feel these uneven places.
When objects with rough surfaces rub, the high spots catch
on each other. This causes a lot of friction. On a smooth
surface, the uneven places are too tiny to see or feel. When
most objects with smooth surfaces rub, there is less friction.
The objects move more easily.
The amount of friction also depends on the weight of the
objects that are pressing together. If you push a box of feathers
along the floor, it moves easily. What would happen if you fill
the same box with books? The weight of the box presses
against the floor with more force. This causes more friction,
and the box is harder to push.
If you cant change the surfaces or
the weight of the objects you are trying to
move, you can reduce friction in other
ways. You can use oil or wax to make
the surfaces smoother. Less
friction means you need less
force to move the objects.
The surface of
the Super Slide is
very smooth.
Ball bearings
reduce friction
because they roll
rather than drag
across each other.
Oil makes their
surfaces smoother.
1. What is friction?
2. Descriptive
Write a short story in your
science journal describing
what would happen if suddenly
there was no friction.
Lesson 3
How are force,
mass, and
energy related?
The force of gravity acts between all objects.
How gravity and other forces act depends on
the mass, distance, and motion of the objects.
The Force of Gravity
When you drop a ball, it doesnt hang in the air.
Instead, it falls to the ground. A force acts on the ball
to make it fall. That force is gravity, which makes
objects pull toward each other. The force of gravity
between two objects depends on their masses and the
distance between them.
The force of gravity is stronger if objects are close
together. As the objects move farther apart, the force
of gravity between them becomes weaker.
The force of gravity between massive objects
is strong. As the mass of the objects is
reduced, so is the force of gravity between
them. Doubling the mass of one object
doubles the force of gravity between
it and another object.
The ball you drop falls because
Earths large mass pulls on it.
The ball also pulls on Earth, but
the balls mass is too small to move
a mass as large as Earth.
The astronaut weighs about
900 newtons on Earth but
only about 150 newtons on
the Moon.
Mass and Weight
Mass and weight are not
the same. Mass is the
amount of matter in an
object. Weight is a
measure of the force of
gravity acting on that
objects mass. The
Moons mass is much
less than Earths mass.
So the Moon pulls things
toward it with only one-
sixth as much force. This
means that people on
the Moon weigh only
one-sixth as much as
they do on Earth. But
their mass does not
change.
446
The heavier
the weight
is, the more
it stretches
the spring.
447
Measuring Force
The amount and direction of many forces can be
measured. A spring scale is one tool used to measure
force. A spring scale has a hook on the bottom. An
object hanging from the hook stretches the spring
inside. How much the spring stretches depends on
the objects weight. Weight is a measure of the force
of gravity acting on an objects mass. The heavier
an object is, the stronger the force. And the stronger
the force, the more the spring will stretch. Look at
the springs in the picture at the top of page 446. The
heaviest weight stretched the spring the most.
The marker on the spring scale shows the size of
the force that has stretched the spring. As the spring
stretches, the marker moves along a row of numbers
on the scale. These numbers are the unit of force
that scientists call the newton. One newton (1 N) is
about the force you would need to lift a small apple.
The newton was named after Sir Isaac Newton, who
explained how force and motion are linked.
1. What two factors affect the
force of gravity between two objects?
2. If a dog weighed about
240 newtons on Earth, how much would
it weigh on the Moon?
Sir Isaac Newton
made many
discoveries that
relate force and
motion.
448
Energy and Motion
Scientists define energy as the ability to do work.
Work is the ability to move something. When work is
done, a change happens. Energy is the source of that
change. Any change in motion requires energy.
You should know about two kinds of energy. The
energy of motion is kinetic energy. All moving things
have kinetic energy. The amount of kinetic energy
depends on an objects speed and mass. The faster the
giant swing in the photo moves, the more kinetic energy
it has. The swing also has more kinetic energy if the cage
is full of riders. That is because the added mass of the
riders has increased the total mass of the cage.
Stored Energy
When the swing reaches the top of
its path, it stops for a moment. The
swing is not moving, so it has
no kinetic energy. But now it
has another kind of energy.
Potential energy is
stored energy. The swing
has potential energy
because of its position
at the top of its path.
The swing has the most
potential energy when it is as
high as it can possibly be. As soon as
the cage starts to swing down toward the ground,
it starts to use its potential energy. Now that the
cage is moving, the stored energy is changing to
energy of motion.
Objects that are stretched or squeezed also have
potential energy. A stretched rubber band has
potential energy. So does the tightened spring in a
wind-up toy.
Like a roller coaster,
the energy of this giant
swing constantly changes
back and forth between
potential energy and
kinetic energy.
The wrecking ball has
a great deal of kinetic
energy before it crashes
into the building.
449
1. What kind of energy does a stretched rubber band have?
2. How is energy changed in the toy bird?
3. Use the Internet or other sources to find
out how Niagara Falls became a source of electrical energy.
Changing Kinds of Energy
Potential energy can change into kinetic energy and
back again. Picture a child winding the spring of the toy
bird. Each turn winds the spring tighter, which adds
more stored energy. Then the child releases the toy.
The spring unwinds, and the bird hops forward.
The energy stored in the spring is changing into the
energy of motion.
At the top of its path, the giant swing has potential energy.
As it swoops toward the ground, stored energy changes to kinetic
energy. Then it swings back up. Now the energy of motion is
changing back into the energy of position. At the top of the
path, the swing has regained its high position. The energy of
motion has become the stored energy of position. When the
giant swing starts back down the path, the process starts again.
In the giant swing, you saw that energy can change from
one type to another. By nudging a rock so that it starts
rolling down a hill, you change its potential energy into
kinetic energy. The potential energy that fuel gives a
rocket on the launch pad changes to kinetic energy
when the rocket blasts off. Energy cannot be
made or destroyed. The total amount of energy
never changes.
Changing Types of Energy
Type of Stored Energy How the Energy Is Used
Fossil fuels store potential energy
from the Sun.
Fossil fuels burn to give cars and other
vehicles kinetic energy.
Plants store potential energy from
the Sun.
The energy is released to support
the animals that eat the plants.
The water behind a dam has
potential energy.
A hydroelectric power
plant produces electric energy.
The wound spring
inside this toy has
potential energy.
450
You can use a
table or a chart
to collect and
record data.
Materials
tape
toy car and eraser
calculator or computer
(optional)
sandpaper and
waxed paper
cardboard
Pattern for a
Ramp Angle Protractor
Use only 1 piece
of tape.
cardboard ramp
Investigate How does friction
affect motion?
What to Do
Tape the sandpaper to the cardboard.
Put the car and the eraser on the ramp at the
top. Have someone in your group hold the
Ramp Angle Protractor.
Use your hand to slowly raise the ramp. Observe
the angle of the ramp. When each object reaches
the bottom of the ramp, record the angle. Repeat 2
more times. Collect and record your data.
Start with the car
and the eraser on
the sandpaper at the
top of the ramp.
tape
451
Find the averages.
Your teacher might
ask you to use a
calculator or a
computer to find
the averages.
Based on your observations,
predict what would
happen if you replaced
the sandpaper with waxed
paper. Test your prediction
3 times. Record your data.
Make a bar graph of your
results.
Angle at Which Object Reached
Bottom of Ramp (degrees)
Sandpaper Surface Waxed-Paper Surface
Car Eraser Car Eraser
Trial 1
Trial 2
Trial 3
Average
Explain Your Results
1. Interpreting Data How did using waxed
paper instead of sandpaper affect the
angle at which the objects moved?
2. What force pulled the eraser down the
ramp? What force kept the eraser from
moving until the ramp was steep enough?
Sandpaper is
rougher than
waxed paper.
Compare the force
of friction of the
2 surfaces.
How could you increase or
decrease the force of friction
between the objects and the
ramp? Design and conduct a
scientific investigation to find
out. Provide evidence for
your conclusion.
Average Angle at Which Object Reached Bottom of Ramp
Car Eraser Car Eraser
Sandpaper Surface Waxed-Paper Surface
A
n
g
l
e

(
d
e
g
r
e
e
s
)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
The distance a moving object travels is
the product of its average speed and the
time it travels. You can use the formula
below to find distance.
Distance average speed time
452
Use the distance formula to answer each question.
Today, a car traveling on a highway might have an
average speed of 92 kilometers per hour. How far
would the car travel in 8 hours?
A jet passenger plane might have an average speed of
775 kilometers per hour. If an international flight takes
8 hours, how far has the plane traveled?
A roller coaster travels an 852-meter track in 3 minutes.
What is the average speed of the roller coaster in
meters per minute?
Plan a trip with the following conditions.
You have 4 hours to travel each way. You
may go by car, train, or airplane. Choose a
destination you could reach from home by
your choice of transportation in 4 hours.
In the 1850s, wagons on the
Oregon Trail traveled at an
average speed of 3 km per
hour. At this pace, they could
travel only 3 8 km, or
24 km, in 8 hours. Today,
at highway speeds, you
can travel 24 kilometers in a
car in 15 minutes or less.
453
454
force (p. 442)
frame of
reference
(p. 440)
friction (p. 445)
gravity (p. 446)
kinetic energy
(p. 448)
potential
energy (p. 448)
relative motion
(p. 439)
speed (p. 440)
velocity (p. 441)
work (p. 448)
Use Vocabulary
Use the vocabulary term from the list above
that best completes each sentence.
1. A child at the top of a slide has
________.
2. When you push or pull on a wagon,
you make a ________ act on the
wagon.
3. ________ tells both the speed and
direction that something is moving.
4. ________ is done when you move
an object.
5. A change in the position of one
object compared with the position of
another object is called ________.
6. The force that makes a ball fall
toward the ground is ________.

7. Objects that dont seem to move
define your ________.
8. The energy that a bicycle has when it
moves is called ________.
Explain Concepts
9. Why do you need to use force to
move a ball up a ramp when it moves
downward by itself?
10. Use vocabulary terms to explain why
a soccer ball that is quickly rolling
across a grass field slows and finally
stops rolling.
11. Infer Why is it easier to push an
empty grocery cart than one that
is filled with canned foods?
12. Predict what would happen if you
tried to walk on a sidewalk where
there was no friction between your
shoes and the sidewalk.
455
13. Classify Copy the chart below. Then
classify each motion as straight line,
curved, or vibration.
Motion Kind of Motion
Swinging back and
forth on a swing
Riding on a
merry-go-round
Crossing the street
at a crosswalk
Sequence
14. Complete a graphic organizer to
show the order in which things
happen on a roller coaster ride.
Test Prep
Choose the letter that best completes the
statement or answers the question.
15. Gravity is a force that makes objects
push apart.
pull toward each other.
stop moving.
move uphill.
16. Which object has kinetic energy?
a ball lying on the floor
a stopped merry-go-round
a dog running through a yard
a car parked in a garage
17. What happens to the force of
gravity between two objects
when the mass of one of the
objects is increased?
It increases.
It decreases.
It stays the same.
It pushes the objects apart.
18. Speed is expressed in units of
time per distance.
direction per time.
distance per time.
force per time.
19. Explain why the answer you selected
for Question 16 is best. For each
answer you did not select, give a
reason why it is not the best choice.
20. Descriptive
Write a paragraph describing what
types of motion take place during a
tug-of-war.
First
Next
Then
Would you like to be part of the space program when
you grow up? Even if flying in space is not something you
would like to do, you can still work for NASA.
Most space engineers do not go into space. Their work is
here on Earth. An engineer at NASA might work on many
different projects. Engineers design the Space Shuttle, the
computers, and everything that the space vehicle needs to
reach its destination, complete its tasks, and return home
safely. Engineers design such things as the places where the
astronauts will live or the Space Shuttle lands.
Engineers also design simulations on Earth. A simulation
is a model of an actual event that helps us learn about the
real thing. Simulations of gravity in space or of flying in
a Space Shuttle help engineers design the Space Shuttle.
Simulations also help astronauts learn what to do in
different situations when they are in space. The simulations
prepare astronauts for how life in space will be different
from life on Earth.
Math skills are used often in engineering. If engineering
interests you, you will want to start now. Study all the math
and science you can.
Estela Hernandez is
a flight simulation
engineer for NASA.
Think of something you would like to
improve. Maybe you want skates with
better brakes or a clock that tells what the
weather is like. Write about your idea.
E
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N
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1
0

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2
456
457
how simple machines help us do work.
how simple machines work together
as parts of complex machines.
458
lever
fulcrum
load
effort
pulley inclined plane
How do simple machines
make work easier?
459
wheel and axle
Chapter 16
Vocabulary
lever page 464
fulcrum page 464
load page 464
effort page 464
wheel and
axle page 466
pulley page 466
inclined plane
page 468
wedge page 470
screw page 471
wedge screw
460
Materials
eraser
2 markers
2 metric rulers
marble
bell
Explore How can a machine ring a bell?
Explain Your Results
1. Draw a diagram that communicates how
to make the machine. Draw another diagram
that communicates how the machine works.
2. How else could you use the machine?
What else could you make with the parts?
What to Do
Set up a machine that can ring a
bell. Your machine could look like
the one in the picture.
Test your machine.
Push down.
You can
communicate
information about
the machine you
made by drawing
a diagram.
Detail
Summary Detail
Detail
Summarize
A summary is a short retelling of something you have
read. You can use a summary to communicate the most
important ideas.
Leave out most details, and do not add any new ideas.
Use your own words when you summarize.
A graphic organizer can help you organize the information
for your summary.
Science Article
Many musical instruments use levers to play
different notes. A piano key is connected to
levers inside the piano. The levers move a
hammer that hits a group of strings that make
the sounds. Flutes and clarinets have levers
that open and close small holes. Opening and
closing different holes make different sounds.
Drummers use levers attached to hammers that strike the drums.
Apply It!
Read the science article.
Use a graphic organizer
to choose which ideas you
want to communicate.
Then write a one- or two-
sentence summary about
Musical Levers.
461
Musical Levers
462
On the way home from school, you walk by an empty lot.
You see a huge machine digging a hole. A shovel on the end
of a long arm scoops up dirt. It dumps the dirt into a dump
truck. You watch carefully for a while, thinking about how
the parts of the machine work together. Some parts look
familiar. How do small, simple machines work together to
do big jobs?
Lesson 1
What is a machine?
A lever is a simple machine. It helps people do work. Other
simple machines include the wheel and axle, pulley, inclined plane,
wedge, and screw.
Machines and Work
A machine can be just one piece or it can have many
moving parts. But all machines help us do work. Do you
think that work means doing homework or chores around
the house? In science, work has a special meaning. Work
means using forcepushing or pullingin order to move
an object or make a change.
You could use a lot of force but not do any work. Can
you think of a way? Suppose you push as hard as you can
on a brick wall. You may be pushing very hard, but you
wont move the wall one tiny bit. Because nothing moves
or changes, you arent doing any work.
Machines make work easier. Some simple machines
allow you to use less force to do work. The heavier the object,
the more force you must use to move it. Without
simple machines, we couldnt budge heavy things.
Other simple machines change the direction of the
force you use. You can push or pull in one direction and
get work done in a different direction.
You will learn about simple machines that have just
one or two parts. Yet each of these machines makes work
easier. Some basic types of simple machines are the lever,
the pulley, the inclined plane, the wheel and axle, the wedge,
and the screw.
1. How do you use force to do work?
2. Descriptive Distance is the amount
of space between two things. In your science journal,
write a paragraph that describes how you would measure
the distance someone pushes a wheelbarrow. Be sure your
description includes the tools and the units you would use.
463
464
Levers help
us lift things
that are very
heavy.
Levers
One useful machine is the lever. A lever is a long bar with
a support. The weight of both the bar and what it carries rests
on the support. We call this support the fulcrum. The object
you want to lift or move is the load. When you use a lever, you
have to apply some effort, or force. The effort is a push or a
pull on the bar that makes the load move in some way.
A lever doesnt make you stronger, but it does make doing
hard work easier. It adds to your force. It can also change the
direction of the force. When you use a lever, you can make
some choices about the best way to get the work done. The
pictures show how moving the fulcrum changes the amount of
force you need to use.
The first picture shows a lever
with the fulcrum exactly halfway
between the load and the effort.
When you use this kind of lever,
the effort you use matches the
downward force, or weight, of
the load. The lever changes the
direction of the force.
In the second picture, the
fulcrum is much closer to the
load than to the effort. The load,
on the right, is a stack of eight
rings. The effort, on the left, is
a stack of four rings. When the
fulcrum of a lever is closer to
the load, the force is applied
over a greater distance. You use
the same effort to lift a heavier
object.
For any lever, the effort times its distance from the fulcrum
is equal to the load times its distance from the fulcrum. This
equation matches the second picture.
Effort Distance = Load Distance
4 4 = 8 2
16 = 16
On this lever, the effort is 4 units
from the fulcrum, but the load is
only 2 units from it. The same effort
balances a larger load.
Effort
4 rings
Load
4 rings
Fulcrum
4 4
Effort
4 rings
Load
8 rings
Fulcrum
4 2
The effort and the load are equal.
Each is 4 units from the fulcrum.
The lever is balanced.
Types of Levers
Levers can be classified into
three different groups. In the first
group of levers, the fulcrum is
between the effort and the load.
Levers with the load between the
effort and the fulcrum are in the
second group. When the effort is
between the load and the fulcrum,
the lever is in the third group.
Groups of Levers
Some levers have two bars that work
together. Levers with two bars can also
be divided into groups.
1. Define fulcrum, load,
and effort.
2. A load of 3 rings
is 4 units from the fulcrum of a lever.
When 2 rings are placed on the other
side of the fulcrum, the lever balances.
How far are the 2 rings from the
fulcrum?
The fulcrum on the pliers is
between the effort and the
load. The effort is the part
of the pliers you squeeze,
and the load is the object
you want to hold or turn.
The fulcrum on
the nutcracker
is at the closed end. The
effort is at the open end,
where you squeeze. The load
is the nut you want to crack
open. It is between the
fulcrum and the effort.
The fulcrum on the tongs is at the closed
end. The load is at the open end, which
picks up the ice cube. The effort is in
the middle, where you squeeze. It is
between the fulcrum and the load.
465
Group 1
Group 2
Group 3
466
Wheel and Axle
The wheel and axle is a special kind of lever that moves
or turns objects. The axle is a rod that goes through the center
of the wheel. The steering wheel on a car is a wheel and axle.
When the driver turns the steering wheel, the axle that connects
with the cars front wheels also turns. The force the driver uses to
turn the steering wheel is increased to turn the cars wheels.
A screwdriver is another example of a
wheel and axle. The handle is the wheel and
the metal blade is the axle. The end of the blade
fits into a slot on the screw. The force you use to
turn the handle increases. The blade turns and
tightens the screw.
In another type of wheel and axle, the door knob,
you put force into turning the knob, or wheel. This
force changes into a larger force that turns the axle.
The axle is the turning shaft inside the doorknob.
That makes it easy to turn.
Look at the picture of the garden hose reel.
You turn the crank, and the long hose winds
onto the reel. The crank you turn is the wheel. It
is joined to the axle, which goes through the
center of the reel. You use effort to turn the crank
and with each turn, more hose is wound up!
Pulley
A pulley is a wheel with a rope, wire, or
chain around it. This pulley is actually two pulleys.
At the top is a fixed pulley, which is fastened to one
place. At the bottom is a movable pulley. It moves
up or down along with the load that is hanging
from the hook.
One thing a pulley does is change the direction of
force. Look at the picture again. The force scale
shows how much force is being used to raise the
weight. The strong pull from down and to the right
makes the load go up. The pulley has changed the
direction of the force.
A pulley can also reduce the amount of force
needed to lift a load. This is true, however, only
when at least two pulleys are used together.
Although there is only one length of rope
between the top pulley and the pulling arm,
there are two lengths of rope between the two
pulleys. Because those two lengths both carry
weight, the person or machine operating the
pulley can use less force to lift the load.
Block and Tackle
When you use two or more
pulleys together, you are using
a system of pulleys. When
one of the pulleys is fixed, the
compound pulley is known as
a block and tackle. Each pulley
you add to a compound system
reduces the amount of effort
needed to lift a load. A system with
many pulleys allows you to lift a heavy
load using only a fraction of the effort
you would need without the pulleys.
Look at the pictures of the pulleys.
Which do you think would be best for
lifting a piano?
1. How does an axle fit into a wheel?
2. How does a fixed pulley help you lift a load?
3. Summarize How many ways can you
use pulleys? Briefly describe at least three ways.
467
Lesson 2
How can machines
work together?
The inclined plane is a simple machine. The wedge and the
screw are special kinds of inclined planes. Simple machines can
be connected to do all kinds of work.
Inclined Plane
Suppose you want to put a heavy box of books on your desk.
You could lift the box from the floor straight to your desk
ouch! Can you think of an easier way?
Did you think of making a ramp? If you could find a long,
strong board, you could place one end on the floor and one end
on the edge of the desk. Then you could push the heavy box up
the flat, smooth surface of the ramp (the board). That would be
a lot easier than lifting the box straight up!
In science, a ramp is a simple machine called an inclined
plane. You do the same amount of work when you lift an
object straight up as when you slide it up to the same level on
an inclined plane. On an inclined plane, you use less force over
a greater distance. You may think the job is easier, but you did
the same work.
Factors That Affect Force
Inclined planes can help move objects up or down. Several
factors affect the amount of force needed to move an object. If
two ramps are the same height but different lengths, a greater
force is needed to move an object up the shorter, steeper ramp.
Friction can slow things as they move along an inclined
plane. Friction is a force that develops between two
surfaces that touch and rub. Friction makes it harder
to push, drag, or slide things.
468
469
A box near the top of an inclined
plane often stays where it is because
the force of friction balances the
downward-pulling force of gravity.
However, if you attach wheels
to the bottom of the box, it will
probably roll down the inclined
plane. The wheels take away
most of the friction. The forces are
unbalanced. Now the gravity has
more force than friction.
Suppose two boxes are at the
bottom of an inclined plane. One
box is very heavy. The other is light.
Which box would you have to push
harder to get to the top? Thats right,
the heavy box. You use more force
to move heavier things.
Now, suppose you and a friend
time how long each of you takes to
push the heavy box to the top of the
inclined plane. Who do you think
used more force? Whoever took less
time used more force. The stronger
a force is, the faster it will move
an object.
1. You move a
heavy box up an inclined plane,
farther than if you lifted it straight
up to the same height. Is using
the inclined plane a good idea?
Explain your answer.
2.
Many roads in mountainous
areas are built as zigzag inclined
planes called switchbacks. What
effect do the switchbacks have
on the effort travelers use and the
distance they travel?
Less force is needed
to move up inclined
planes that arent
very steep.
More force
is needed to
move up
a steep
inclined
plane.
470
Wedges
A wedge is a special kind of inclined
plane. Wedges can be used to split things
apart or to move things. They can also be
used to hold things in place.
To do its work of splitting things apart,
the wedge must be moving. A force
aimed against the end of the wedge
drives the inclined planes forward. The
force can drive the thin edge of the wedge
deep into an object.
In the picture below, you can see a
wedge being driven into part of an old
tree trunk. The force of the hammer
pounding on the flat end of the wedge
drives the pointed end of the wedge
deeper and deeper into the wood. The
wedge changes the downward force of the
hammer into a sideways force that will
split the wood into smaller pieces.
A force at the thick
end of the wedge
pushes the narrow
end into the log.
A wedge used as a
wheel block stops
much larger objects
from moving.
A nail is a kind of wedge.
You drive a nail into wood
by striking the flat end of
the nail with a hammer.
The nail fastens the wood to
something else.
471
Screws
Another simple machine is the screw. Perhaps
you have seen someone using a screwdriver to
tighten a screw. Did you look closely at the
screw? It is like a small stick with slanting
ridges wrapped around it. We call these
ridges threads of the screw.
Actually, the screw is
a type of inclined plane.
If you could unwrap a
screws threads, you would clearly
see the inclined plane. The pictures
at the right will help you see how
this might look.
Screws are used in many
ways. They can fasten things.
They can also lift things. A screw holds pieces of
wood together better than a nail does because
the threads make it hard to pull out the screw. To
tighten a screw, you must make many turns with
a screwdriver. But you would probably use less
total effort with the screwdriver than you would
using a hammer to drive a nail.
Screws That Drill Holes
An auger is a type of screw. It is used
to drill holes. The auger twists downward.
At the same time, pieces of the material
being drilled move upward.
The people in the photo are drilling a
hole in the ice sheet in Antarctica. They
will study the ice that the auger brings
from deep in the hole to the surface.
1. What part does an inclined
plane play in a wedge? in a screw?
2. Persuasive Suppose you
have made an auger for a special purpose.
Write an advertisement to persuade people to
buy it. Be sure to explain the special type of
work the auger is designed to do.
472
Complex Machines
Simple machines are often put together to do bigger jobs.
Complex machines have parts that are simple machines
working together. Complex means having many parts.
At home, you probably have a can opener in your
kitchen. Does it look like the one below? Which simple
machines are parts of the can opener? You can see circle
shapes, so there are probably wheels and axles. Some of the
wheels have spikes or points. They are gears. The spikes are
called teeth. A gear is a kind of wheel. Gears are often used
in pairs to change the speed or direction of motion.
When you turn the winding
handle, an axle turns the
gears. The gears change the
motion into a cutting action
that opens the can.
The sharp edge
that you use to cut
into the top of the
can is a wedge.
Look carefully at
the garden shears.
Levers combined
with wedges on
the cutting blades
make this a
complex machine.
You open and close, or
squeeze, the long handles.
They are levers.
473
The picture above shows another complex
machine. This machine has a different source of
power than the can opener. Instead of your muscle
power, this machine uses solar energy, or energy
from sunlight. The box on the left is filled with
solar cells. They change the energy of the Suns
rays into electricity that the machine can use.
Now look carefully at the other parts of the
machine. You will see some simple machines.
There is more than one wheel and axle. Can
you find them? You will also see some gears. Can
you tell how two gears are changing the direction
of motion?
The machine is lifting a load. Does the lifting
part remind you of a simple machine? What is it?
This machine has wheels and axles and
a pulley. It may have some other simple
machines that you arent able to see.
You can easily see one
wheel and axle in the
lawnmower. What
other simple machines
can you find?
Do you see more than
one wheel and axle in
the eggbeater? What
other simple machines
do you see?
1. Name three kinds of work that a screw can do.
Give an example of each.
2. What is a complex machine?
3. Summarize what you know about a
can opener.
474
A prediction
tells what result is
expected. You test
your prediction
by trying out your
device.
Materials
Investigate What tasks can a
machine do?
What to Do
Plan a device to do a task. Your
device could make a toy car move,
push a marble, make noise, or lift
something. Or make a device to do
something else.
Think about how your
task could be done.
Design and build a device
made of 2 or more simple machines
to do your task. Describe your
device. Predict whether your
device will do its task.
Test your prediction. Investigate how
well your device does the task. Investigate
what might have caused problems.
safety goggles
What materials and
tools did you use?
common objects
475
How would removing
one part of your device
affect how well it works?
Demonstrate that in an object
consisting of many parts,
the parts usually influence or
interact with one another.
Make a chart. Record the task you chose, the
materials and tools you used, your prediction,
your test and the results of your test, and how you
changed your device.
Explain Your Results
1. What task did you decide to do?
2. How did you test your prediction?
3. Communicate Explain how your change
made your device work better.
Change your device so it works even better.
Task
Design
(Describe and
draw your
device.)
Materials and
tools used
Prediction
Test and test
results
Change
When you take off
the clothespin, this
device will knock
down the dominoes.
Pulleys can be very helpful for moving heavy loads. Using
a movable pulley, the force needed to move an object is only
half of what it would be without a pulley. Another way to say
it is that the force needed without a pulley is twice the force
needed with a movable pulley. Remember, to find half of a
number, you can divide by 2. Finding twice a number is the
same as multiplying it by 2.
476
Copy and complete the chart below.
Use a ruler and a stack of books
to make an inclined plane. Tape a
rubber band to the side of a small
plastic container. Measure how far
you have to pull the rubber band to
start moving the empty container up
the inclined plane. Then do the same
with the container half-full of pennies
and then full of pennies. Record
the measurements on a chart and
compare them.
477
Force Needed Force Needed With
Without a Pulley a Movable Pulley
Job 1 500 newtons
Job 2 290 newtons
Job 3 1,000 newtons
Job 4 380 newtons
478
Use Vocabulary
Use the vocabulary term from the list above
that best completes each sentence.
1. The support on which a lever rests is
the _____.
2. The _____ is a simple machine with
slanted threads along its sides.
3. The pointed end of a moving _____
can split things apart.
4. A(n) _____ can be made from a rope
and wheel or a chain and wheel.
5. The _____ is a push or squeeze that
makes a lever move.
6. A windup key on a toy is an example
of a _____.
7. A wheelchair ramp is a type of ____.
8. A baseball bat is a kind of _____.
9. In a simple machine, a weight to be
lifted or moved is the _____.
Explain Concepts
10. Explain how moving the fulcrum on
a lever changes the amount of force
needed to move an object.
11. Explain how a simple machine differs
from a complex machine.
12. How are inclined planes, wedges,
and screws alike?
13. Infer You meet two carpenters.
One uses nails, but the other prefers
screws. Write one possible reason
for each carpenters choice.
14. Classify each picture as a simple
machine or a complex machine.
effort (p. 464)
fulcrum (p. 464)
inclined plane
(p. 468)
lever (p. 464)
load (p. 464)
pulley (p. 466)
screw (p. 471)
wedge (p. 470)
wheel and axle
(p. 466)
Detail
Summary Detail
Detail
479
Summarize
15. Make a graphic organizer like
the one shown below. Write three
details about levers. Use them
to summarize what you know
about levers.
Test Prep
Choose the letter that best completes the
statement or answers the question.
16. In science, work means
using force to move or change
something.
how far something moves.
doing a job.
how hard you push on something.
17. Which object is NOT
a lever?
a pair of scissors
a nutcracker
a gear
a crowbar
18. A gently sloping driveway on
a hill is
a wedge.
a pulley.
a lever.
an inclined plane.
19. Explain why the answer you
chose for Question 16 is the
best. For each of the answers
you did not choose, give a reason
why it is not the best choice.
20. Expository
Suppose someone you know has
never seen a pair of scissors. You
want to explain how to use the
scissors and what is happening
when they cut. Using what you
know about simple machines, write
a paragraph that tells this person
how scissors work.
480
Archimedes was perhaps the greatest scientist of the
ancient world. He was born about 287 B.C. in Syracuse,
a Greek colony in Sicily. Archimedes and King Hielo II
of Syracuse were friends. They may have been related.
Archimedes probably studied in Alexandria, Egypt.
Historians think that while he lived in Egypt, he invented
a device that could raise water from the Nile River to
irrigate nearby farmland. The device, which was a type
of auger, became known as Archimedes Screw. It is a
simple machine that has been used in the Nile Valley for
thousands of years.
Archimedes discovered laws for the use of simple
machines such as levers and screws. He also developed
many complex machines. Some were weapons used in
battle. Others were devices that could move heavy loads.
One device was a system of pulleys that could raise and
move a whole shipeven a ship with passengers on it! In
explaining how the lever can be used, he is said to have
told King Hielo, Give me a place to stand on, and I will
move the entire Earth.
Make a list of objects in your home that
have pulleys, wheels, screws, levers,
wedges, or inclined planes.
481
Use Information from
Text and Graphics
Sometimes information that you need is
given in a graphic organizer, a table, a
graph, or some other display. Once you
understand exactly what the display shows,
you can decide how to use it. Then, by
adding new facts to the facts you already
know, you can answer the questions.
In a graph or a table, look for a pattern
to see how the data compare. A pattern
can also help you estimate the answer. If
the data are in a table or chart, changing
the order of the items may make the new
information easier to use.
Read the passage. Then use the data in
the table to answer the questions.
One substance may sink under or float on
top of another substance. To decide what
happens, compare the density of the two
substances. Density is mass divided by
volume. The substance with the greater
density sinks under the other substance.
Substance Density at 20C
Corn oil 0.93
Corn syrup 1.38
Gold 19.32
Honey 1.4
Lead 11.35
Mayonnaise 0.91
Milk 1.03
Piece of apple 0.6
Salt 2.16
Water 1.00
Use What You Know
Suppose a sample of each substance
were put into the same container. Use
the information in the table to answer
the questions about what would happen.
1. Which would float at the top?
corn oil
mayonnaise
piece of apple
water
2. Which is the best explanation why
the two substances might be hard
to tell apart in the container?
Corn syrup and corn oil are
both made from corn.
Gold and a piece of apple
are both solids.
Honey and corn oil are both
golden colored.
Milk and water have about the
same density.
3. How would you arrange the items to
make the information easier to use?
Keep the items in alphabetical
order.
List all of the liquids first.
List all of the solids first.
List items in order of their
densities.
4. Suppose you make a bar graph from
the data. Which substances would
have bars that were almost the same
length?
corn oil and mayonnaise
gold and lead
milk and honey
piece of apple and salt
482
Chapter 11
Chapter 12
Chapter 13
Chapter 14
Chapter 15
How can matter be compared, measured,
and combined?
We use tools to measure the mass and volume
of matter.
Observations and measurements help us
compare matter.
Physical and chemical changes can happen
when matter is combined.
How does heat energy move from one
object to another?
Heat energy can move from one object to another
by conduction.
Heat moves through liquids and gases in a pattern
called convection.
Energy from the Sun comes to Earth by radiation.
What are some ways that energy can be
changed from one type to another?
Electric charges can move through wire as
electric current. Current moving through a light bulb
produces light and heat.
Electric current produces magnetic fields.
How do sound and light travel?
Sound travels in waves through solids, liquids,
and gases.
Light travels as electromagnetic waves.
What causes motion and how does it affect us?
Forces start objects moving, speed them up, slow
them down, stop them, or change their direction.
Changes in motion require force.
483
Performance Assessment
Height and Potential Energy
Find out if the height of an object affects its potential
energy. Use modeling clay to make three balls of the same
size. Place a ball in a plastic bag and put it on the floor.
Hold a thick book flat above the ball. Release the book
so that it lands on the clay. Remove the flattened ball
from the bag and trace its outline on a sheet of paper.
Repeat the procedure using the other balls of clay. Drop
the book from different heights. Record your procedures
and your observations. Based on your observations, draw
a conclusion about height and potential energy.
Read More About Physical Science
Look for books like these in the library.
Chapter 16
How do simple machines make work easier?
Simple machines change the direction in which a force
is applied.
Simple machines can also change the amount
of force you need to apply.
484
Ask a question.
How does the mass of a cup affect the distance
a rolling marble will move the cup?
State a hypothesis.
If the mass of a cup is increased, then will the
distance the cup is moved by a rolling marble
increase, decrease, or remain the same?
Write your hypothesis.
Identify and control variables.
You will increase the mass of the cup by taping
pennies to the cup. You will measure the
distance the cup moves. Everything else must
remain the same.
Experiment How is motion
affected by mass?
A force can cause an object to move. In this experiment
you will find out how the mass of an object affects the
distance the object will move.
You experiment
when you
carry out a fair
test of your
hypothesis.
A force is needed to
move the snow.
4 pennies and tape
2 books
1
2
of a cup and marble
2 metric rulers
Materials
balance and gram cubes
calculator or computer
(optional)
485
Roll a marble down a ramp into a cup.
Observe and record the results.
Use a balance and gram cubes to find the
mass of the cup. Record the mass in grams.
Test your hypothesis.
Measure the
distance the
cup moves.
Place the open end of the cup
at the end of the ruler.
ra
m
p
about
5 cm
486
Repeat using 2, 3, and 4
pennies.
Tape a penny on top of the cup.
Move the cup back to the end of
the ramp.
Roll the marble down the ramp
into the cup. Record the results.
Then find the mass of the cup
with the penny taped on it.
Record the mass.
Make a table to
record your data.
penny taped on cup
Collect and record your data.
Number of
Pennies
Distance Cup
Moved (cm)
Mass of Cup
with Pennies (g)
0
1
2
3
4
487
Explain your data.
Use your data to make a line graph. Look at
your graph closely. Describe how the distance
the cup moved was affected by the mass of the
cup with pennies.
Based on the data and the pattern shown
by your line graph, predict the distance
the cup would move with 5 pennies.
You may wish to use
graph paper.
State your conclusion.
Explain how mass affects the distance that
the cup moves. Compare your hypothesis
with your results. Communicate your
conclusion.
How would changing the
height of the ramp affect
how the cup moves?
Design and carry out a
plan to investigate this or
other questions you may
have. Make sure to write
a procedure others can
understand and use to
repeat your experiment.
Your teacher may wish you
to use a computer (with the
right software) or a graphing
calculator to help collect,
organize, analyze, and present
your data. These tools can
help you make tables, charts,
and graphs.
Effect of Mass on Distance Moved
A
v
e
r
a
g
e

D
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

m
o
v
e
d

(
c
m
)
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Mass of Cup with Pennies (g)
A Pinhole
Camera
A camera uses light
to form images on
photographic paper.
Idea: Make a pinhole
camera.
Build a Better Door Opener
People invent and then improve machines to do
different jobs.
Idea: Use common objects to make a machine that
will do a simple task such as close a door, water
plants, crack an egg, or open a window. Name the
machine and design a box or container to package
it. Make a diagram with labels to show all the simple
machines included in the new machine.
Battery Power
Like other power sources, batteries have different
life spans.
Idea: Use several different brands of batteries.
You will need a flashlight for each brand. Make
sure all batteries are the same size. Turn on all of
the flashlights and time how long each battery
brand keeps the flashlight lit.
488
E
C

N
T
L

1
0

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

Using Scientic
Methods
1. Ask a question.
2. State a
hypothesis.
3. Identify and
control variables.
4. Test your
hypothesis.
5. Collect and
record your data.
6. Interpret your
data.
7. State your
conclusions.
8. Go further.