EE2022 Electrical Energy Systems: Lecture 15: Electric Power Distribution - Principle of Transformers 14-03-2013

EE2022 Electrical Energy Systems
Panida Jirutitijaroen
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
3/12/2013 EE2022: Electric Power Distribution by P. Jirutitijaroen 1
Lecture 15: Electric Power Distribution
Principle of Transformers
14-03-2013
Detailed Syllabus
3/12/2013 EE2022: Three-phase circuit by P. Jirutitijaroen 2
31/01/2013 Three-phase power systems: Introduction to three-phase circuit. Balanced three-phase
systems. Delta-Wye connection. Relationship between phase and line quantities
05/02/2013 Three-phase power systems: Per-phase analysis. Three-phase power calculation. Examples.
07/02/2013 Generation: Simple generator concept. Equivalent circuit of synchronous generators
14/02/2013 Generation: Operating consideration of synchronous generators, i.e. excitation voltage
control, real power control, and loading capability
21/02/2013 Generation: Principle of asynchronous generators. Examples.
Transmission: Overhead VS Underground cable.
05/03/2013 Transmission: Four basic parameters of transmission lines.
07/03/2013 Transmission: Long transmission line model, Medium-length transmission line model, Short
transmission line model. Operating consideration of transmission lines i.e. voltage regulation,
line loadability, efficiency. Examples.
12/03/2013
Distribution: Principle of transformer. Ideal transformer.
14/03/2013 Distribution: Reflected load. Impedance matching. Practical transformer. Examples
19/03/2013 Per unit analysis: Single-phase per unit analysis.
21/03/2013 Per unit analysis: Three-phase transformer. Three-phase per unit analysis. Examples.
02/04/2013 2
nd
Mid-term test
Generators, transmission lines, and transformers (Tutorials 4-6)
Ideal Transformer
1. No resistance in both
windings.
2. No leakage flux around
the core.
3. No core resistive loss.
4. Core permeability is
infinite.
Primary side Secondary side
2
1
N
N
a
a:1
Turn ratio =
IN THIS LECTURE
Learning outcomes
Outline
Reference
Learning Outcomes
Use electrical engineering principles to explain
the basic operation of the electrical generator,
transmission line and transformers in an
electrical energy system and able to identify
and construct their equivalent circuits
appropriately.
Outline
Application of transformers
Reflected load
Impedance matching for maximum power transfer.
Practical transformers
An equivalent circuit
A simplified equivalent circuit
Transformer parameter tests
Short-circuit test
Open-circuit test

References
Glover, Sarma, and Overbye, Power System Analysis and
Design.
Chapter 3
APPLICATION OF TRANSFORMERS
Problems with transformers in circuit analysis
Reflected load
Impedance matching
3/12/2013 8 EE2022: Electric Power Distribution by P. Jirutitijaroen
Problems with Transformers
Recall example 1,
10:1
Z = 100
A transformer separates the circuit into two individual
circuits that the voltage and current of both circuits
can are related through the turns ratio.
100 V
(rms)
Reflected Load
We can reflect a load from one side of a transformer to the
other side of the transformer.
This trick allows us to combine the two separate circuits into
one for easy(?) calculation.
a:1
Z
Interest
to find
reflected
load Z
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
Z a
i
V
a
a
i
aV
i
V
Z = = = =
Z
Example 1
Find the reflected load of impedance 100
seen from the primary side of the transformer.
10:1
Z = 100
O = = = 10000 100 10
2
2
2
1
Z a Z
Z = 10000
100 V
A 01 . 0
10000
100
1
= = i
100 V
(rms)
Impedance Matching
Under what condition that
the maximum power be
transferred to the load ZL? ~
ZL
Zs
Vs
*
*
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
)
`
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
= =
L S
S
L S
L
S L L L
Z Z
V
Z Z
Z
V I V S
2
2
L S
L S
L
Z Z
Z V
S
+
=
{ }
L
L S
S
L
Z
Z Z
V
P Re
2
2
+
=
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
From real power expression at the load,

This means that the maximum power will
occur when the denominator is minimum.

Maximum power transfer occurs when:

{ }
L
L S
S
L
Z
Z Z
V
P Re
2
2
+
=
{ } { } ( ) { } { } ( )
2 2
2
Im Im Re Re
L S L S L S
Z Z Z Z Z Z + + + = +
*
L S
Z Z =
{ } { } { } { }
L S L S
Z Z Z Z Im Im , Re Re = =
Impedance Matching for R
Maximum power transfer occurs when Rs = RL.
In the case that we need to connect the voltage source
that has internal impedance of Rs to a load RL that
does not satisfy the above condition, we can design a
transformer to match impedance for maximum power
transfer.
To find an appropriate transformer, we let Rs = aRL
and find a transformer turns ratio.
~
RL
Rs
a:1
RL
~
Rs
a RL
When
Rs RL
Example 2
Given the voltage source with an internal
resistance of 100 . A transformer is used to
connect this voltage source to the load of 4
to achieve maximum power transfer at the
load. What should be the turns ratio of a
transformer?
L S
R a R
2
=
25
4
100
2
= = =
L
S
R
R
a
Ans: The turns ratio is 5.
PRACTICAL TRANSFORMERS
Transformer components
Eddy current and hysteresis losses
Magnetizing current losses
A practical transformer model
A simplified model
Practical Transformers
Lab-sized single-phase transformers
Pole-mounted single-
phase transformer
1. Core type 2. Shell type
Transformer Components
Magnetic core
Mainly two types of design.
1. Core type the magnetic
core is surrounded by the
windings.
2. Shell type the windings
are surrounded by the core.

Primary/Secondary winding
Windings are placed on top
of each other to reduce the
amount of flux leakage
losses.
Primary winding
Secondary winding
Practical Transformers
Flux leakage in
secondary
winding
Flux leakage in
primary
winding
Resistive
(I2R) loss in
primary
winding
Resistive
(I2R) loss in
secondary
winding
Iron core (resistive losses) from
eddy current and hysteresis
Magnetic core material
is not perfect.
H-field strength
B-flux density
H-field strength
B-flux density
Hysteresis Losses
Hysteresis loop is a characteristic
of how a ferromagnetic material
is magnetized.
Each time the direction of
magnetic field is reversed, some
amount of energy is dissipated in
the core.
This means that this loss is
proportional to the frequency of
electricity.
Hysteresis loss produces heat
and is represented as a
resistance parallel to the ideal
transformer.

Source: http://hyperphysics.phy-
astr.gsu.edu/hbase/solids/hyst.html
Eddy Current Losses
Eddy current refers to small circular
current in the magnetic core caused
by the flux that passes through the
core.
The magnitude of eddy current
losses depend on the strength of
the main flux, thus the voltage
supplied.
Eddy current loss produces heat and
is represented as a resistance
parallel to the ideal transformer.
Eddy current loss can be reduced by
making the cores from thin sheets
of steel i.e. the core is laminated.
The thinner the sheets, the smaller
are the eddy current losses.
Source: http://sound.westhost.com/xfmr2.htm
Eddy
currents will
induce a
magnetic
field that
opposes to
the
direction of
the main
flux.
Main flux
Induced field from
eddy current.
Core Construction of Transformers
Source: tpub.com
Source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FXcBKxAc4_k&feature=related
Ideal VS Practical Transformer
Ideal transformer
1. Zero resistance in the both
windings.
2. No leakage flux around the
core.
3. No core resistive loss.
4. Core permeability is infinite
Practical transformer
1. Winding losses (copper losses)
represented as resistance in
both windings.
2. Leakage flux around the core
represented as inductance in
both windings.
3. Core resistive losses (hysteresis
loss + eddy current loss)
represented as resistance in
parallel to the core.
4. Magnetic core permeability is
finite.

How to represent this effect?
Finite Core Permeability
From Amperes law applied to transformers,

When the core material has finite core permeability
(), and (Faradays law), assuming a
constant ,

We call the right hand side, i
m
Magnetizing current.
2 2 1 1
N i N i
Bl
path
=
( )BA j N V e
1 1
=
1
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
1
V
A N
l
j
A N j
l V
i
N
N
i
path path
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =
|
|
.
|
\
|
e e
Recall that in ideal transformer,
is infinite so,
2 2 1 1
N i N i =
Magnetizing Current Losses
From the magnetizing current,

We find that the current lags the voltage V
1
by 90(-j).
As such, we can use an inductor to represent the effect
of finite magnetic core permeability in the equivalent
circuit.

m
i i
N
N
i =
|
|
.
|
\
|
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
V
A N
l
j i
path
m
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
e
i
m
A Practical Transformer Model
Copper
losses
Leakage
reactance
Iron losses
(core)
Magnetizing
susceptance
Reflected copper losses and leakage
reactance of secondary winding.
Note that in Chapter 3 [Glover, Sarma, and Overbye, Power System Analysis and Design],
the core losses are represented as shunt admittance, Y = G jB where G and B are positive.
The imaginary part is negative to represent inductive property.

By convention, the primary side of transformer is the side with a
higher number of turns.
A Simplified Model
Typically the admittance, Y, is
very small i.e. resistance is
very large.
This means that the currents
flowing through Z and aZ
are almost the same.
We can simply combine Z and
aZ to Z
eq
, the equivalent
series impedance.
Z
Y
a:1
aZ
a:1
Zeq = Z+aZ
Y
Simplification
Saturation
In practical transformer model, we
assume a constant core
permeability thus linear
relationship between B and H.
In fact, the B-H curve for
ferromagnetic materials used for
transformer core is nonlinear and
has multiple values.
As H increases, the core become
saturated i.e. the magnetic flux
density B increase at a much lower
rate.
This means that there will be high
magnetizing current flow making
the transformer to heat up.
This effect is NOT included in the
equivalent circuit.

B-H curve is approximated by a dashed line.
B = H
B = Magnetic flux density (Weber/m or Tesla)
H = Magnetic field intensity (A/m)
= Magnetic core permeability (H/m)
Transformer Heating
Heating is caused by high
loading of the transformer,
eddy current losses,
saturation.
Heating can lead to winding
insulation damage, short
circuit, and even explosion.
In order to prevent
overheating, transformers
are usually cooled by a fan
and a convection oil to
reduce heat inside the iron
core.
Source: http://openbookproject.net/electricCircuits/AC/AC_9.html
Source: abb.com
Transformer Explosion
Source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MywHqdA2_-8
Tap Changing Transformer
Transformers with tap changer
are used to adjust the voltage by
changing the turns ratio.
Tap-changing transformers are
used to regulate the voltage at
the end users to be at the
desired value.
This can be done both off-line
and on-line.
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tap_%28transformer%29
http://www.powertransformerdesign.net
Online
Off-line
TRANSFORMER PARAMETER TESTS
Short-circuit test
Open-circuit test
Transformer Parameters
Series impedance
Z and Z are series
impedances
representing the
resistive loss and flux
linkage loss in the two
windings.
Shunt admittance
Y is a shut admittance
representing iron core
loss and magnetizing
susceptance.

a:1
Z
eq
= Z
1
+aZ
2
Y
Note that by convention, the
primary side of a transformer is
the side with a higher number of
turns. This means that a > 1.
Short-Circuit Test
To find equivalent series
impedance.
Short circuit the
secondary side.
Apply rated current
(implies small voltage)
at the primary side.
Measure real power
and voltage at the
primary side.
a:1
Zeq
Y
~
P, V
Note that we want small voltage
applied to the primary side so
that there will be large amount of
current passing through the
impedance. This will allow more
accurate calculation of the series
impedance
Open-Circuit Test
To find equivalent shunt
admittance.
Open circuit the
primary side.
Apply rated voltage at
the secondary side.
Measure real power
and current at the
secondary side.

a:1
Zeq
Y
~
P,I
Note that we want rated voltage
at the secondary side so that
there will be large amount of
current passing through the
admittance Y (I=YV). This will
allow more accurate calculation
of the shunt admittance.
Example 3: Short Circuit Test
Consider a single-phase 20kVA, 480/120 V 60 Hz transformer.
During short circuit test, rated current is applied to the
primary side. The voltage of 35 V and real power of 300 W are
measured. Find equivalent series impedance of this
transformer.
A 667 . 41
480
10 20
3
, 1
, 1
=
= =
rated
rated
rated
V
S
I
O = = = 1728 . 0
667 . 41
300
2 2
, 1
1
rated
eq
I
P
R
O = = = 84 . 0
667 . 41
35
, 1
1
rated
eq
I
V
Z
O = = 0.822 1728 . 0 84 . 0
2 2
eq
X
480:120
Zeq = Req + jXeq
Y
~
P = 300 W
V = 35 V
Example 4: Open Circuit Test
Consider the same transformer as Example 2. During
open circuit test: rated voltage applied to secondary
side, then I = 12 A and P = 200 W. Find equivalent
shunt admittance Y of this transformer.
V 480 V, 120
, 1 , 2
= =
rated rated
V V
S
V
P
G
rated
eq
000868 . 0
480
200
2 2
, 1
1
= = =
S
V
a I
V
I
Y
rated rated
00625 . 0
480
4 12
, 1
2
, 1
1
= = = =
S B 0.00619 000868 . 0 00625 . 0
2 2
= =
480:120
Zeq
Y = G-jB
~
P = 200 W
I = 12 A
Transformer Parameter Testing
Source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GijrrUbfIXQ
Summary
We can use a transformer for
impedance matching by choosing a
turns ratio that makes the reflected
load equal to an internal resistance of
a voltage source.
A practical transformer equivalent
circuit contains series impedance and
shunt admittance.
Series impedance represents winding
losses and flux leakage losses. The
impedance is found from short circuit
test.
Shunt admittance represents iron core
losses and magnetizing susceptance. The
admittance is found from open circuit
test.

a:1
Zeq = Z+aZ
Y
Next Lecture
Single-phase per unit analysis
This analysis allows us to remove transformers in
circuit analysis!!

EE2022 Electrical Energy Systems: Lecture 15: Electric Power Distribution - Principle of Transformers 14-03-2013

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