REMEMBER THESE

1. A conductor having zero resistance is called a superconductor and this phenomenon is called as superconductivity. 2. The temperature below which superconductivity is exhibited is called as critical transistor temperature (Tc). 3. Superconductivity vanishes if temperature magnetic field and current density exceed the critical value. For superconducting state 4. BCS theory states that the superconductivity state is an ordered state of a pair of conduction electrons coupled through a phonon called a copper pair. 5. The expulsion of magnetic field flux from interior of superconductor, when cooled below critical temperature is called as Meissner effect. 6. Critical temperature for different isotopes varies with the mass 7. Variation of critical magnetic field with temperature is given by

Where Hc(0) is critical magnetic field at 0K. 8. Persistent currents : When a current is induced in a superconducting ring or loop held below the critical temperature, it persists undiminished as long as the temperature remains below the critical temperature. 9. The effective depth to which the magnetic field penetrates a superconductor is known as London penetration depth. Its dependence on the temperature is given by.

Where

= penetration depth at 0K

10 Superconductors are characterized by an energy gap whose width is proportional to the critical temperature. 11 Type I superconductors are pure specimens which expels completely magnetic field lines They exhibit perfect diamagnetism They are also called soft superconductors. 12 Type II superconductors are characterized by two critical fields between the two critical fields, the magnetic field partially penetrates the material above the upper critical field flux, penetration is total They are also called as hard superconductors

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q 1. Define the process of doping in semiconductors Ans. The process of adding impurities to a semiconductor material is called doping. Doping is done after the semiconductor material has been refined to a high degree of purity. A doped semiconductor is called an extrinsic semiconductor. Q 2. Write down the relation of critical field with critical temperature superconductors. Ans. Relation between critical field and critical temperature is given by equation

Where be the critical magnetic field at absolute zero temperature and Hc(T) critical magnetic field at any temperature is the critical temperature.

Q 3. What do you mean by the term Field penetration in superconductors? Ans. According to Meissner effect there is complete expulsion of the magnetic flux out body of superconductor at the transition The magnetic flux decays from constant value surface to zero value in the interior somewhat gradually than abruptly So, field penetration refers to persistence of flux through a small volume along the surface of superconductor. Q 4. Write the formula for variation of magnetic field intensity with temperature. Ans. Intensity of magnetization of a magnetic material is inversely proportional temperature

Q 5. State Meissner effect of superconductivity. Ans. When the normal conductor is cooled below critical temperature T and placed in magnetic field H, then flux is excluded from the bulk of specimen. This expulsion of magnetic flux during the transition from normal to superconducting state is known as Meissner effect.

Q 6. What are type-I and type-II superconductors? Ans.

Q 7. What are Cooper Pairs? Ans. According to BCS theory of superconductivity, at very low temperature electrons with equal and opposite momentum and spin coupled together to form pairs are known as cooper pairs which are responsible for existence of superconductivity. Q 8. What is the effect of magnetic field on superconductivity? Ans. Superconductivity can be destroyed using magnetic field The minimum magnetic field below critical temperature which is required to change the superconducting state to normal state is called critical magnetic field. Q 9. What is SQUID? Ans It stands for superconducting quantum interference device It is based upon the fact that the maximum current in superconducting ring that contains a Josephson junction varies periodically as the magnetic flux through the ring changes Magnetic field variations as small as T can be detected by it. Q 10 What is meant by isotope effect? Ans. According to isotope effect the critical temperature of a superconductor varies with isotopic mass. The critical temperature is given by where, M = Isotopic mass.

Q 11. Why good conductors are not good superconductors? Ans. Good conductors have small lattice vibrations at room temperature but lattice vibrations are responsible for the formation of cooper pairs which in turn are responsible for superconductivity so, at low temperature good conductor may have negligible lattice vibrations so, good conductors are not good superconductors. Q 12. Why super conductors are perfectly diamagnetic in nature? Ans. Super conductor are the materials having zero resitivity According to Meissner effect, when a superconducting material is placed in an external magnetic field, magnetic line of force are explained out of the specimen, i e no magnetic line of force will enter the super conductor.

Which show that super conductor are perfectly diamagnetic in nature.

Q 13. What is critical magnetic field? How it varies with temperature? Ans. The minimum value of magnetic field at given temperature which is required to change the superconducting state of a given sample to normal conducting state of sample at thattemperature is called critical magnetic field. The variation of critical magnetic field w.r.t temperature is given by

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q 1. Derive and explain the London equations and calculate the expression for penetration depth. Ans. (a) London Equation : London equations can be derived by using two filled model. According to this theory, super conductors can be thought be composed of both normal and superfluid electrons. Let Nn = no. of normal electrons per unit volume Ns = no. of superfluid es per unit volume Vn= velocity of normal electrons Vs= velocity of super fluid electrons If no is total electron density, then

This is Londons first equation Take curl of eqn (5) on both sides

.(6)

.(7)

(8)

..(9)

.(10)

.(11)

Q. 2. Define Levitation effect and explain the various factors that can destroy superconductivity. Ans. Levitation Effect: It is based upon Meissner effect that if a long superconductor is cooled in a magnetic field to below the value of critical temperature, then magnetic field lines are pushed out of that material. The factors that can destroy superconductivity are following 1. Magnetic field can destroy superconductivity. The minimum value of magnetic field at a given temperature which is required to change the superconductivity state of a given sample to normal conducting state of the sample at that temperature is called critical magnetic field.

2. The normal conductors get converted to superconductors at temperature below critical temperature. If we increase the temperature above critical temperature, the superconductors gets converted to normal conductor. Q 3 Explain the BCS theory of superconductivity. Ans. BCS Theory of Superconductivity: BCS theory was given by Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer in 1957. The formation of BCS theory is based on the electron-phonon interaction. Considering it as a possible source for the formation of the superconducting state: Copper pair : Consider an electron passes near, an iron core. There is mutual interaction between electron and ion core because of Coulomb interaction and the ion core is set into motion. Next consider another electron passes nearby. It is observed that the electron must feel the effect of motion of ion core or the ion motion has provided a mean for two electrons to interact. This pair of electron-electron through lattice vibration is called copper pair. The first electron which have vector K emits a virtual phonon q which is absorbed by second electron with wave vector 1<2 and two electrons are scattered with wave K1 q and K2 + q.

Consider a Fermi gas having probability of occurrence 0 and 1 with electron spins and It is also clear that one form an excited state here by taking an electron from the Fermi surface and raising it just above the Fermi surface. In BCS theory, there is interaction (attractive) between the electrons. So sufficient energy has to be supplied to exceed the force of attraction between electrons. This implies that BCS ground state is separated by a finite energy gap, Eg from its lowest excited state Features of BCS state: (a) Total energy of BCS state is lower w.r.t fermi state. (b) If a state with vector K and spin up is occupied then the state with wave vector K and spin down is also occupied. Similarly, if Kt is vacant, then K is also vacant.. Q 4 What is Critical Field? Write down the expression for Hc. Ans. Critical Field The minimum value of the magnetic field at a given temperature (below critical temperature) which is required to change the super conducting state of a given sample to the normal conducting state of the sample at that temperature is called critical magnetic field It is denoted by Hc (T)Let Hc (0) be the critical magnetic field at absolute zero temperature and Hc (T) the critical magnetic field at any temperature T (such that T <Tc) Corresponding to each value of temperature below critical temperature there is a value of magnetic field which when applied to the sample can change it into the normal conductor

Q 5. Derive First London Equation and give its physical significance. Ans. We can derive the London equations using Two fluid model According to this theory a superconductor can be thought to be composed of both normal and superfluid electrons.

But from Maxwells equation

Significance of London 1st equation It show that even if the electric field is zero for perconductors, they have current density . Which is constant i.e., along with zero resistivity per conductiors have current density. Q 6. What is London penetration depth? How does it vary with temperature? Ans. According to Ampere circuital law

Taking curl on both sides

Thus penetration depth is defined as the distance inside the sample at which magnetic flux density reduces to 1/e of its value at the surface. Its variation with temperature is given by

Q 7.Derive London equations of superconductivity and estimate the magnitude of the penetration depth of an applied magnetic field. Ans. According to him, a superconductor is made up of two types of electrons namely normal (nn) and super fluid electrons (ns) i.e n=nn+ns

Expression for penetration depth:

(b) What is isotope effect in superconductors? Ans. According to isotope effect, th critical temperature of a superconductor varies with isotopic mass. The critical temperature .is given by

Q 8. Discuss various phenomena related to superconductor. Ans. (i) When the current through a superconductor is increased beyond a critical value, the superconductor becomes a normal conductor. (ii) The transition temperature remains unaffected by the frequency and at 0 K the resistance approaches a value which is less than 1 O of the resistance in normal stage. (iii) Critical temperature of a superconductor varies with isotopic mass. (iv) Electron-phonon interaction may be a cause of superconductivity. (v) If a superconductor is cooled in a magnetic field down to transition temperature, then at transition temperature, the tines of induction are pushed out i.e. Meissner effect.