Sheet Metal Forming Processes

Material Transformation Processes

SLS Powders Pressing Injection Molding Raw Material Stamping
Continuous Casting/Rolling

Special Firing/ Sintering

Rolling

Molten Material

Casting Shapes Single crystal pulling Current lecture Blow molding

Increasing level of detail

Machining

Ingot casting

Forging/ Press forming

Extruding

Finishing

Assembly

Sheet metal forming

Overview of Sheet Metal Forming

Overview Shearing to make blanks Fundamentals of forming sheet metal

Sheet Metal Forming History

Very old process - back to 5000 BC Original sheet obtained by hammering over a stone anvil Cut to shape with a knife Formed over stone or wooden dies by hammering Now sheet produced by sheet mills Cutting to shape and forming is by machines

General Practices
Most common commercial material is carbon steel Most common aircraft and aerospace materials are aluminum and titanium Aluminum increasingly found in automobiles Sheet metal forming consists of three basic processes;
Cutting to form a shape (blank) Forming by bending and stretching Finishing

Sheet Metal Forming Processes

Punching Blanking Fine Blanking Stamping Embossing Sheet, Plate Shearing Slitting Cutting Sawing Deburring Cleaning Coating Bending Roll forming Stretch forming Deep drawing Rubber forming Spinning Peen forming Superplastic forming Explosive forming Magnetic pulse forming forming Blank

Making blanks

finishing

Sheet Metal Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages
light weight, versatile shapes, low cost

Disadvantages
tooling costs (for high production runs) sheet metal may not be appropriate to design function

Shearing
Needed to cut rough blanks from the large sheets A blank is the term for the rough shape needed to form the final part Rectangular blanks created by shears, saws, rotary cutters These blanks can
be further sheared into more complex shapes be further formed (bent, deep drawn, etc) into more complex shapes also be the final product

The Basic Shearing Process

Like cutting paper with scissors but using a machine Shearing starts with cracks developed on top and bottom of sheet by exceptionally high shear stresses
A fracture process

The Punch is typically the moving part The Die is the stationary part.

The Basic Shearing Process Results

Typically creates rough fracture surfaces Smoothing of this surface occurs by rubbing on the shear blades or the die Shears, the machine for cutting metal can operate up to thickness of several inches

Effect of die clearance on deformation zone

Smaller the clearance, the better the edge

Simple Shearing Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages
Simple Minimal tooling
Stops for dimensions

Disadvantages
Only simple shapes (rectangles)

 Punching More complex shapes than simple shearing Made by punch and die set Internal part (slug) discarded Blanking Same basic process as Punching but Internal part (slug) retained Fine blanking - a specialized kind of blanking Other operations include Parting Stamping Notching Embossing Lancing Perforating Slitting Nibbling Shaving Steel rules (soft materials only)

Shearing Operations for more complex shapes

Other shearing processes

Other shearing processes

Cut-off Parting

Slotting

Perforating

Notching / Seminotching

Circular blanks created by punch and die

Punching

Punch Workpiece

Die

A Punched Hole

Process variables in shearing with a punch and die and punch force

F = 0.7 T L (UTS) where F force T workpiece thickness L total sheared length (the circumference in this case) UTS Ultimate tensile strength of workpiece material

Major Processing Factors in Shearing Die Design

Punch shape
Bevel
Reduces shear forces and noise

Double bevel
Reduces lateral forces of bevel shear

Convex shear

All produce at least one part (e.g. the blank) which is bent.

The Blank

Major Processing Factors in Independent parameters Shearing Dependent parameters

Punch and Die Shape Material Clearance between punch and die Increased clearance Workpiece ductility and thickness Increased ductility Decreased thickness

Rougher edge Larger deformation zone Increased burr height Greater ratio of burnished to rough areas Decrease max. punch force

Dulled tools Speed of punch/shear

Decreased speed Increased Lubrication

Major Processing Factors in Shearing Die Design

Clearances
Depends on
Workpiece material Thickness Size of hole Proximity of hole to sheet edge

Small holes required larger clearances than large holes Typically range form 2-8% of sheet thickness Can range from 1%(Fine Blanking) to 30%

Clearances

Large clearance

Small clearance

0.25 to 1.5

Fine Blanking

A device called a V-shaped Stinger locks the sheet in place Prevents distortion at sheared edges Very tight (<1%) clearances) Therefore tight tolerances possible

 Band saw

Other Methods of Cutting Sheet Metal

Very versatile but not very precise Used a lot in job shops

Flame cutting
Used mostly on thick steel sheet Can cut quite complex shapes but is not precise Leaves a very rough edge and often a heat affected zone

Laser-beam cutting
Very popular since it can be readily programmed to cut complex shapes Leaves a fine heat affected zone (much smaller than flame cutting)

Other Methods of Cutting Sheet Metal

Friction sawing
Cut-off saw Uses abrasive disk Versatile but inaccurate

Water jet
Uses high pressure jet of water to cut Leaves nice finished edge Limited in materials that can be cut

Abrasive water jet

Like water jet but with abrasives contained in jet Cuts anything Leaves nice edge and is precise Programmable and can cut almost any shape

 Shears

Equipment

A long stationary blade (lower) and a moveable top blade with a table to support the material. Upper blade can be at an angle to reduce forces but this gives a curved blank

Equipment
Saws
Band
A continuous blade that moves at high speed through a hole in the table which supports the work piece. The material is moved around while the blade is stationary

Cut-off
Can be band type or a circular rotating blade. The material is clamped to a table and the weight of the blade holder forces the moving blade through the material

Punch presses
Like forging machines but can provide high repetition rates

Equipment
Presses
Used for shaped punches and dies Precision Fast acting Often combine forming operations as well

CNC nibblers
Can create many shapes using nibbling tools

Automated punch presses

moves large sheet around to position a specific location over a punch and die which is automatically changed to deliver a variety of shapes and diameters of holes

Equipment
Flame, laser and water jet cutting systems
Typically are robots that have the cutting device on the end of the robot arm (the end effector) The robots are programmed to cut a shape The robot can be a simple as a linear mechanism to move the end effector over a straight line to cut large slabs

Embossing

Embossing
Introduction Shallow impressions are created on sheet metal. Metal is stretched locally.

Embossing
Introduction - Uses Stiffen and strengthen sheet metal parts To impart a raised design on sheet metal parts
Lettering Signs Ashtrays License plates Decorative

Embossing
Theory Involves severe localised stretching to create the desired shape.

Embossing
Theory

B is the stretched length measured along the top surface.

Embossing
Theory For true embossing operations.
Flat metal remains unworked Blank or part edges do not move inwards. If they do move in => drawing

Shallow depressions Deeper cavities

=> embossing => drawing

Embossing
Dies Require closely matches sets of punch and dies to obtain crisp contours..
Solid die Open die

Embossing
Die - Open Advantages
close fit between punch and die steels not required. easier to machine shapes. springback adjustment can be made

Embossing
Die - Solid Disadvantage
careful matching of steels is necessary

Embossing
Beads and Ribs Two types of depressions
Beads Ribs

Primary Function
To stiffen flat areas of sheet metal Prevents deflection under load

Embossing
Applications Bead in the form of a cross is embossed at very end of press stroke in the draw die

Embossing
Applications Complex bead design is used to stiffen the wide flange. Embossing is done in 2 steps after drawing

Embossing
Applications Arc beads to provide sliding surface for other stampings Straight bead/rib for stiffness

Axes of rotation

Sheet Metal Shaping and Forming

Material Transformation Processes

SLS Powders Pressing Injection Molding Raw Material Stamping
Continuous Casting/Rolling

Special Firing/ Sintering

Rolling

Molten Material

Casting Shapes Single crystal pulling Current lecture Blow molding

Increasing level of detail

Overview of Sheet Metal Forming

Overview Shearing to make blanks Fundamentals of forming sheet metal Sheet metal forming processes

Machining

Ingot casting

Forging/ Press forming

Extruding

Finishing

Assembly

Sheet metal forming

Sheet Metal Forming Processes

Bending Deep drawing Stretch forming Other

Forming by Bending
Most common forming process Size ranges from millimeters (e.g. disc drives) to yards (ships) Shapes can range from simple right angle linear bends to tubes of a variety of cross sections Several processes for creating the bends

Forming by Bending
Advantages
Easy to perform Simple, low cost tooling Fairly precise

Disadvantages
Limited in the shapes it can produce Spring back difficult to estimate Some material difficult to bend without tearing or necking

Forming by Bending Terminology

Width

Bending Formula
Bend allowance
L = (R + kT) where
is bend angle in radians L is the bend allowance R is bend radius T is thickness k is constant (ranges from 0.33 { R<2T} to 0.5 {R>2T})

Neutral Axis
Is located where the engineering strain is zero If it is at the center of the sheet, k = 1/2 and Bend allowance = (R + T/2)

Engineering strain

= ((2R/T) + 1)-1 (How do we obtain this result)

Minimum Bend Radius

As material is bent, the tensile strain at the outer skin or fiber increases until it cracks The bend conditions for failure are best described by the bend radius at which cracking or tearing occurs The Minimum Bend Radius (MBR) is defined to occur when a crack appears The terminology is to describe this condition in term of the thickness of the material I.E> the MBR is 1T, 2T, 5T, 10T etc

Minimum Bend Radius and Ductility

There is a relationship between MBR and ductility, expressed as the tensile reduction in area, r
MBR = T(50 / r - 1 ) Note that at r = 50%, MBR = 0 The lower the ductility (smaller reduction in area) the larger the MBR

Minimum Bend Radii for Materials

Material Aluminum alloys Beryllium copper Low Lead brass Magnesium Stainless steels Low carbon ,etc. Titanium Titanium alloys Condition Soft Hard 0 6T 0 4T 0 2T 0 13T 0.5T 6T 0.5T 6T 0.6T 3T 2.6T 4T

Maximum Bending Force

P = k Y L T2 / W , excluding friction
where
P is the bending force Y is the yield strength of the material L is the length of the bend T is the material thickness W is the width of the die opening k is a constant that depends on the die shape

Also depends on the position of the punch during its stroke

Bendability
Also depends on
Edge condition of sheet
Rough edges decrease bendability

Amount and shape of inclusions

Stringers more detrimental than globular shaped inclusions

Amount of cold work on edges due to shearing Anisotropy Elastic modulus - the springback phenomenon

Influence of grain direction on failure during bending

Caused by the elastic behavior of workpiece material

Ri / Rf = 4(Ri Y / E T)3 - 3(Ri Y / E T) + 1 where
Ri is the required bend radius Rf is the actual bend radius Y is the yield stress E is elastic modulus T is the thickness

Springback

Springback
Can compensate for by
Overbending (a) and (b) Applying compressive stress to bend zone (c) and (d) Stretch bending/forming (see later) Raising temperature

Figure 16.20

Press brake forming

Bending processes

For long, narrow workpieces Bend occurs all along its length simultaneously. Shaped dies can provide some shaping

Figure 16.21, 16.22

Other bending processes

Bending processes
Roll forming or bending
Roll forming consists of rolling a long sheet with special rollers that bend the material along its axis Uses shaped rolls to bend the sheet into a long narrow shape (e.g. U channel) For long, narrow workpieces Material is bend incrementally Often multiple passes with different shaped rolls are necessary to achieve the final shape Typical shapes are both round and rectangular tubes, channels, frames, siding.

Roll Forming

Beading

Other Bending processes

Figure 16.24

Edge rolled into a tube Eliminates sharp edges Strengthens edge Can be formed by roll forming or pushing the sheet into a special die

Flanging
Shrink Stretch

Figure 16.25

Dimpling
Used to create flanges from sheet

Other Bending processes

Piercing
Creates holes initial process to create flanges

Flaring Hemming
Forming a narrow fold of material at a cut edge Strengthens edge
Figure 16.23

Seaming
Like hemming but folds from two different sheets interlock to form a bond

Tube Bending and Forming

Bending
To bend tubes,
must fill the core with material
Sand Segmented mandrels

Or use stretch bending, draw bending or wipe bending

Interior material or process prevents buckling failure on the inside radius

Bulging
Used to create shapes in tubes E.g. copper T's in copper plumbing pipes, bellows

Sheet Metal Forming Processes

Bending Stretch forming Deep drawing Other

Deep Drawing
Like shearing but with clearance > material thickness The Process
Place round blank over die Clamp in place Punch travels downward into die
metal deforms by stretching into the die

Deep Drawing
Advantages
Very high production rates (e.g. cans) Can make parts no other process can make
Containers of all shapes and sizes

Disadvantages
Limited shapes Material quality critical to obtaining good parts Dies are expensive

Deep Drawing

Deep Drawing

Deep Drawing

Deep Drawing

Blankholder force

Deep Drawing Parameters and Practices

Too high - workpiece tears Too low - - cup gets wrinkles Blankholder force is 0.7 to 1 % of the total of the yield and ultimate tensile strength of the workpiece

Radius/diameter of punch Diameter of blank Thickness of blank

Deep Drawing Parameters and Practices

Clearance between punch and die
Clearances usually 1.07 to 1.14 thickness Too low - blank pierced

Friction/lubrication Radius of entry into die Radius on end of punch

too small - cracking at corners Too large - wrinkling

Punch force

Stress states are complex, force difficult to compute

Under blankholder
Compressive through thickness Tensile along radius Compressive (poisson's effect along circumference

Deep Drawing Forces and Stresses

In die
Mostly tensile in punch direction Also tensile at right angles to punch direction Stresses cause material to thin in punch direction and shrink around die in circumferential direction

Deep Drawing Stress State

If blankholder force is not enough to hold the circumference fixed, the boundary material is pulled into the die
Wrinkling

Deep Drawability
Deep drawability is a complex phenomenon An important empirical metric is
Limiting Drawing Ratio (LDR) given by
LDR = Maximum blank diameter Punch diameter

LDR is related to fundamental properties of the material being drawn through a mechanical property called:
Normal or Plastic Anisotropy

Normal Anisotropy
Normal Anisotropy,
R = width strain/thickness strain LDR is proportional to the average normal anisotropy

It is measured by measuring the deformations in length on width of a normal tensile specimen

Anisotropy

rm ( r value ) =

1 ( r0 + 2 r45 + r90 ) 4

 Rolled sheet is anisotropic and R must be measured in several different directions on the sheet
Parallel to the rolling direction, R0 45o to the rolling direction, R45 At right angles to the rolling direction, R 90

Anisotropy

Typically R avg is computed from these three values

R avg = (R0 + 2R45 + R90)/2

LDR and Anisotropy

 If R0 and R90 are different, the metal deforms differently in different directions of the drawing process This causes earing

Planar Anisotropy

R = (R0 - 2 R45 + R90)/2

The top edge of the cup is no longer in one plane (wavy) Ears must be trimmed off resulting in scrap Ears are bad Where R is the Normal Anisotropy and the subscripts are the direction in which R is measured relative to the rolling direction Ears are formed when R is not zero

Deep draw cup with ears

 Between die and punch flow is similar to that in drawing Under the blankholder much smaller metal movement and is uniform In non-circular products flow becomes nonuniform To control flow in non--circular products use
Drawbeads
The bending and straightening of the metal as it flows provides greater resistance to metal movement Design and location important to good products

Metal Flow

Design blank appropriately

Cut corners of square blanks at 45o

Metal Flow

Anisotropy
1 Rolling Direction 2
r=
0 45

90

Wi

Li

ln(Wi / Wf ) ln(Wi / Wf ) = ln( Ti / Tf ) ln( L f Wf / LiWi ) 1 rm ( r value ) = ( r0 + 2 r45 + r90 ) 4 1 r ( planar anisotropy ) = ( r0 2 r45 + r90 ) 2