LECTURE 1 : STYLISTICS AS A LINGUISTIC SCIENCE OUTLINE 1. The object and subject-matter of stylistics. Branches of stylistics. 2.

The methods of stylistic research. 3. Types and kinds of stylistics. 4. Basic notions of stylistics: style, norm, conte t, stylistic meanin!, e pressi"e means, stylistic de"ice and ima!e.

1. The origin of st !isti"s. #tylistics is a branch of lin!uistics $hich in"esti!ates the entire system of e pressi"e resources a"ailable in a particular lan!ua!e. %t is a relati"ely ne$ lin!uistic discipline. The $ord &stylistics' $as firstly attested in the ( ford )n!lish *ictionary only in 1++2, meanin! the science of literary style, the study of stylistic features. ,o$e"er, the first reflections on style can be dated back to the ancient times. -ristotle, .icero, and /uintilian treated style as the proper adornment of thou!ht. -ncient rhetoric and poetics $hich are considered to be the predecessors of stylistics treated style as a specific mode of e pression, the proper adornment of thou!ht. The orator or poet $as e pected to follo$ the norms of artful arran!ement of $ords, to use model sentences and prescribed kinds of &fi!ures' in order to achie"e particular e pressi"eness. -rtful arran!ement of $ords to achie"e a particular emphasis and effect is called rhetoric. The birth of rhetoric 0the 1th c. B...2 is the first indication of a reflection on lan!ua!e. -ristotle3s 4hetoric $as $ritten about 335 B. and is di"ided into three books. The first deals $ith the nature of rhetorical proofs, the second $ith the nature of psycholo!ical proofs, and the third $ith style and arran!ement. %n Book % 0%.22, rhetoric is defined as 6the faculty of disco"erin! the possible means of persuasion in reference to any subject $hate"er3. %n Book %%% 0%.12, -ristotle points

out that 6it is not sufficient to kno$ $hat one ou!ht to say, but one must also kno$ ho$ to say it3. /uintilian 0c. 3171552 in %nstitutio oratoria differentiates three correct styles of speakin!, namely, plain, !rand or forcible, and intermediate or florid. 8lain style is used for instruction. %ntermediate style is for charmin! or conciliatin! an audience, it $ill make more use of metaphor and di!ressions and $ill 6be neat in rhythm and pleasin! in its refle ions9 its flo$, ho$e"er, $ill be !entle, like that of a ri"er $hose $aters are clear, but o"ershado$ed by the !reen banks on either side3. :rand style is for mo"in! an audience, and is likened to 6some !reat torrent that rolls do$n rocks;and car"es out its banks for itself3. %t is e alted by amplification and rises 6e"en to hyperbole3 0o"erstatement2 0Bailey, 1<=1, pp. 152732.0%%%.>.=2. *urin! the ne t centuries the approach to style as the art of $ritin! $ell 0normati"e approach2 dominated in style studies. The first attempts to e"aluate and interpret the e pressi"e possibilities of a national lan!ua!e $ere done in &The philosophy of style' 01+122 by :. #penser, &Zur Stylistik' 01+==2 by ,. #teinthal, & a' 01+<12 by -.?. >eselo"skyi, & ! " !!# $%&' by @. Buslaje", & & ' !' 01<512 by (. 8otebnya. %n 1<5< the #$iss lin!uist .harles Bally published his &Trait( )e stylisti*ue fra+,aise' 0&-re+.h stylisti.s/2 $here he rejected the established normati"e approach to style and de"eloped A lin!uistic stylistics. -ccordin! to .h. Bally the subject of stylistics is e"erythin! emotional and e pressi"e in lan!ua!e and in speech. -s a separate lin!uistic discipline stylistics be!an to form only in the 25-35s of the BBth century. %n modern lin!uistics the term & st !isti"s' is employed in a "ariety of senses. %.>. -rnold defines st !isti"s as a branch of lin!uistics $hich studies the principles and effect of choice and usa!e of different lan!ua!e elements for renderin! thou!ht and emotion under different conditions of communication CDEFGHIJ, 1<<5:KL.

#. The o$%e"t &n' s($%e"t)*&tter of st !isti"s. The object of a science is a certain phenomenon $hich e ists irrespecti"e of the co!niMin! and transformin! role of human mind. The subject-matter of a science co"ers one or se"eral aspects of the !i"en object CNOPGJQRFS TUAVSTUQ, 2551: 3L. -s a lin!uistic discipline stylistics in"esti!ates a natural lan!ua!e. The definition of the subject-matter of stylistics causes certain difficulties $hich are primarily connected $ith its comple nature. Wan!ua!e is a hierarchy of le"els. )ach le"el is studied correspondin!ly by phonetics, morpholo!y, le icolo!y, synta and te t lin!uistics. )ach of these disciplines in"esti!ates lan!ua!e from a particular aspect. 8honetics deals $ith speech sounds and intonation9 le icolo!y treats separate $ords $ith their meanin!s and the structure of "ocabulary as a $hole9 !rammar analyses forms of $ords 0morpholo!y2 and forms of their combinations 0synta 2. %n a $ord, these are le"el-oriented areas of lin!uistic study, $hich deal $ith sets of lan!ua!e units and relations bet$een them. But it is not the case $ith stylistics. %t pertains to all lan!ua!e le"els and in"esti!ates lan!ua!e units from a functional point of "ie$. Thus stylistics is subdi"ided into separate, Xuite independent branches, each treatin! one le"el and ha"in! its o$n subject of in"esti!ation. ,ence $e ha"e stylistic phonetics, stylistic morpholo!y, stylistic le icolo!y and stylistic synta , $hich are mainly interested in the e+,ressi-e ,otenti&! of !&ng(&ge (nits of & "orres,on'ing !e-e!. St !isti" ,honeti"s studies the style-formin! phonetic features of sounds, peculiarities of their or!aniMation in speech. %t also in"esti!ates "ariants of pronunciation occurrin! in different types of speech, prosodic features of prose and poetry. St !isti" *or,ho!og is interested in stylistic potential of !rammatical forms and !rammatical meanin!s peculiar to particular types of speech. St !isti" !e+i"o!og "ocabulary. considers stylistic functions of le icon, e pressi"e, e"aluati"e and emoti"e potential of $ords belon!in! to different layers of

St !isti" s nt&+ in"esti!ates the style-formin! potential of particular syntactic constructions and peculiarities of their usa!e in different types of speech. The stylistic "alue of the te t is manifested not merely throu!h a sum of stylistic meanin!s of its indi"idual units but also throu!h the interrelation and interaction of these elements as $ell as throu!h the structure and composition of the $hole te t. Thus stylistics deals $ith all e pressi"e possibilities and e pressi"e means of a lan!ua!e, their stylistic meanin!s and colourin!s 0the so-called connotations2. %t also considers re!ularities of lan!ua!e units functionin! in different communicati"e spheres. .. /etho's of st !isti"s. Yethodolo!y defines the approach of science to the object of in"esti!ation and specifies its !eneral orientation in a research. The most traditional method of stylistics is the *etho' of se*&nti"o)st !isti" &n&! sis 0stylisti. a+alysis2. This method aims at definin! the correlation bet$een lan!ua!e means employed for e pressi"e con"eyance of intellectual, emotional or aesthetic content of speech 0or te t2 and the content of information. The "o*,&r&ti-e *etho' is considered to be the nucleus of the stylistic analysis method. To make the speech more effecti"e speakers constantly select definite lan!ua!e means from a set of synonymous units. These lan!ua!e means ha"e the best stylistic effect only in comparison $ith other lan!ua!e means $hich are either less e pressi"e or neutral in the !i"en conte t. The *etho' of st !isti" e+,eri*ent lies in substitution of the $riter3s $ords, utterances or constructions for ne$ ones $ith the stylistic aim. Zith the help of this method it is possible to characteriMe the stylistic properties of the $riter3s te t and appro"e of the substituted units stylistic possibilities. This method $as e tensi"ely used by such scholars as W. #hcherba, (. 8eshko"skyi, W. Bulaho"skyi. The 0(&ntit&ti-e *etho' consists in definin! the Xuantitati"e properties of a lan!ua!e phenomenon. [sin! the Xuantitati"e data and specific calculations the st&tisti" *etho' aims at distin!uishin! peculiarities and re!ularities of lan!ua!e

units functionin! that can differentiate indi"idual or functional styles. %t establishes the statistic parameters of the analyMed te t or te ts. These parameters pro"ide reliable and objecti"e data for stylistic analysis. 1. T ,es of st !isti"s. The structure of stylistics is conditioned by its subject matter, main tasks, problems and tendencies of in"esti!ation, aspects and methods of research. %n the course of time se"eral types of stylistics came into e istence. )ach type deals $ith a specific study of lan!ua!e units and their functionin! in speech. Gener&! st !isti"s 0theoreti.al stylisti.s, theory of stylisti.s2 studies uni"ersal stylistic lan!ua!e means $hich e ist in any lan!ua!e and re!ularities of lan!ua!e functionin! irrespecti"e of the content, aim, situation and sphere of communication. St !isti"s of & n&tion&! !&ng(&ge deals $ith the e pressi"e resources of a definite lan!ua!e. #ome more types of stylistics are sin!led out on the basis of the follo$in! principles: 01 The pri+.iple of la+2ua2e a.ti3ities 4a+ifestatio+5

(ne of the fundamental lin!uistic concepts is the dichotomy & la+2ua2e 6 spee.h' introduced by @. de #aussure. Wan!ua!e is "ie$ed as a system of the sin!s, the relations bet$een them and the rules of their usa!e. #peech is the materialisation of lan!ua!e in the process of communication. -ccordin! to the principle of lan!ua!e acti"ities manifestation stylistics is subdi"ided into st !isti"s of !&ng(&ge and st !isti"s of s,ee"h. St !isti"s of !&ng(&ge deals $ith inherent 0permanent2 stylistic properties of lan!ua!e means $hile st !isti"s of s,ee"h analyses adherent stylistic properties, i. e. $hich appear only in the conte t. 71 The pri+.iple of the )es.riptio+ of the la+2ua2e5

-ccordin! to this principle stylistics is di"ided into !ing(isti" st !isti"s 0lin!uostylistics2 and !iter&r st !isti"s.

Ling(isti" st !isti"s studies the lan!ua!e units from the point of "ie$ of their effecti"eness in definite types of speech. %t in"esti!ates not only stylistic in"entory of a national lan!ua!e, but also the means of its or!aniMation in definite types of speech. %t e amines the correlation bet$een a speech situation and lin!uistic means used by speakers and hence 7 different functional styles of speech and lan!ua!e. %n the narro$ sense of a $ord lin!oustylistics is also called functional stylistics. Y.Y. \oMhyna sin!les out f(n"tion&! st !isti"s as a separate branch of stylistics C]G^QFA, 1<+3L. %t is defined by the stylistician as a lin!uistic science that studies peculiarities and re!ularities of lan!ua!e functionin! in different types of speech, speech structure of functional styles, norms of selection and combination of lan!ua!e units in them. %ts object is functional styles of speech and their types. Liter&r st !isti"s deals $ith artistic e pressi"eness characteristic of a literary $ork, literary trend or epoch, and factors $hich influence it. #o, lin!uostylistics in"esti!ates e pressi"e means of a lan!ua!e and literary stylistics studies the $ays these e pressi"e means are employed by a definite author, literary trend or !enre. Witerary stylistics is not homo!enous. Takin! into consideration the initial point of analysis, there may be distin!uished three types of literary stylistics. @rom the point of "ie$ of the addresser, &(thor2s st !isti"s or geneti" st !isti"s is sin!led out. This type of stylistics is interested in indi"idual styles of $riters focusin! on their bio!raphy, beliefs, interests and other factors $hich could influence their literary creati"e $ork. :enetic stylistics is represented by some lin!uistic schools: lo!ical analysis of Y. 4oustan, psycholo!ical analysis of Y. :rammont, statistic stylistics of 8. :uiraud, philolo!ical analysis of W. #pitMer. @rom the point of "ie$ of the addressee 0recipient2, re&'er2s st !isti"s or st !isti"s of ,er"e,tion or 'e"o'ing st !isti"s is determined. #tylistics of perception is presented by a number of trends: W. #hcherba3s lin!uistic analysis, Y. 4iffaterre3s stylistic analysis, %. -rnold3s decodin! stylistics. The term decodin! stylistics su!!ested by Y. 4iffaterre stands for a ne$ trend in stylistics, a theory e"ol"ed by 8rofessor %.>. -rnold. *ecodin! stylistics

combines concepts of poetics, literary stylistics, semasiolo!y, theory of communication, te t theory, sociolin!uistics, pra!ma- and paralin!uistics, aesthetics, hermeneutics, etc. %t focuses on readers3 perception of a literary te t, their reaction to it. The core of reader-oriented decodin! stylistics is formed by special types of conte tual or!aniMation kno$n as fore!roundin!. #ome concepts and the mechanism of fore!roundin! $ere first foreseen and pointed at by the 4ussian formalists _. Tynyano", B. Tomashe"skyi, 4. `akobson, >. #chklo"skyi. The latter introduced the notion $hich he called ostra+e+ie. %t e presses the idea that the function of literature is to restore freshness to perception $hich has become habitual and automated: to make thin!s stran!e, to make the reader see them ane$ C.ook, 1<<1: 135L. This concept $as later defined as fore!roundin!. @ore!roundin! establishes the hierarchy of meanin!s and themes in the te t, brin!in! some to the fore and shiftin! others to the back!round. The follo$in! phenomena may be !rouped under the !eneral headin! of fore!roundin!: couplin!, con"er!ence, stron! position, contrast, irony, interte tual connection, defeated e pectancy effect and a fe$ others. Taken to!ether they form the missin! link bet$een the $hole te t and its minor parts, and help to sharpen the response of the reader to ideas, ima!es and emotions reflected in a $ork of art CDEFGHIJ, 1<<5L. - literary te t can be studied as some immanent fact, $ithout takin! into account the author3s intentions or ho$ this te t is interpreted by the reader 0i**&nent st !isti"s2. This trend is represented by Yosco$ lin!uistic circle 08. Bo!atyr3o", :. >inocur2, structural analysis 04. `akobson2, ne$ critics in )n!land and the [#-, @rench structuralists. There are other types of stylistics such as: Co*,&r&ti-e st !isti"s in"esti!ates national and international features in stylistic systems of national lan!ua!es, defines common and peculiar features in the or!aniMation of functional styles, and specifies national peculiarities in speech structure of functional styles.

Contr&sti-e st !isti"s focuses on stylistic systems of unrelated lan!ua!es CabcOFUG, 25519 dQeROFUG, 255=L. 3istori"&! st !isti"s deals $ith the stylistic system of a lan!ua!e in a diachronic aspect. %t in"esti!ates the formation and e"olution of functional styles durin! all sta!es of a national lan!ua!e de"elopment, dynamics of e pressi"e units formation, temporal and Xualitati"e chan!es in connotations, chronolo!ically marked stylistic means. This branch of stylistics studies both the history of contemporary stylistic means and stylistic means of the past epochs of a definite national lan!ua!e or related lan!ua!es. 4i&!e"t&! st !isti"s studies stylistic stratification and differentiation of lan!ua!e units $ithin a definite !eo!raphical or social dialect. St&tisti"&! st !isti"s 0stylo4etri.s2 analyses the peculiarities of lan!ua!e units functionin! in te ts of different functional styles obtainin! the objecti"e data by applyin! certain methods of statistics. 5r&"ti"&! st !isti"s is a discipline $hich deals $ith !eneral kno$led!e about lan!ua!e and speech styles, stylistic norms, stylistic means, and $ays of employment of lan!ua!e means for correct or!aniMation of speech. Yodern stylistics is constantly de"elopin!. %t has se"eral sub-disciplines $here stylistic methods are enriched by the theories of discourse, culture and society. #uch established branches of contemporary stylistics as feminist stylistics, co!niti"e stylistics and discourse stylistics ha"e been sustained by insi!hts from, respecti"ely, feminist theory, co!niti"e psycholo!y and discourse analysis C#impson, 2554: 2L. 6e*inist st !isti"s is concerned $ith the analysis of the $ay that Xuestions of !ender impact on the production and interpretation of te ts CZales, 2551L. Cogniti-e st !isti"s is a relati"ely ne$, rapidly de"elopin! field of lan!ua!e study that attempts to describe and account for $hat happens in the minds of readers $hen they interface $ith 0literary2 lan!ua!e. .o!niti"e stylistics is mainly concerned $ith readin!, and, more specifically, $ith the reception and subseXuent interpretation processes that are both acti"e and acti"ated durin! readin!

procedures. -t its core, co!niti"e stylistics is interested in the role that unconscious and conscious co!niti"e and emoti"e processes play $hen an indi"idual or !roup of indi"iduals interface $ith a te t that has been purposely desi!ned $ith the aim of elicitin! certain emotions in a reader C)ncyclopedia of Wan!ua!e and Win!uistics, 2551L. 4is"o(rse st !isti"s. 8resent-day stylistics is interested in lan!ua!e as function of te ts in conte t, and ackno$led!es that they are produced in a time, a place, and in a cultural and co!niti"e conte t. %n a $ord, it considers lan!ua!e as discourse, that is a te t3s status as discourse, a $riter3s employment of discourse strate!ies and the $ay a te t 6means3 as a function of lan!ua!e in conte t 0ho$ it functions as discourse2 C#impson, 2554 :+L. Cor,(s st !isti"s is a ne$ direction at the interface bet$een the fields of stylistics and corpus lin!uistics, namely the use of a corpus methodolo!y to in"esti!ate stylistic cate!ories in different te t types or in indi"idual te ts. The Xualitati"e and Xuantitati"e analyses of stylistic phenomena rely on the e"idence of lan!ua!e usa!e as collected and analysed in corpora. 7. 8&si" notions of st !isti"s. The main notion of stylistics is that of st !e. Ze speak of style in architecture, paintin!, clothes, beha"iour, and $ork and so on. Thus style in its most !eneral sense is a specific characteristic of human acti"ity arisin! as a result of choice, $ithin the accepted norms, of a definite mode or manner of conductin! this acti"ity. #tyle is indicati"e of the actor3s social role, of the social !roup to $hich he belon!s or stri"es to belon!, as $ell as of his indi"idual features and psycholo!ical state CYaltMe", 1<+4: 1L. The $ord style is used in many senses that it has become a breedin! !round for ambi!uity. That3s $hy it is interestin! to Xuote different obser"ations re!ardin! style. #tyle is understood as a mark of character. The .ount de Buffon3s famous epi!ram, &8e style est l9ho44e 4:4e' 0&Style is the 4a+ hi4self'2 in his &;is.ours sur le style' 01K132, and -rthur #chopenhauer3s definition of style as

&the physio!nomy of the mind' su!!est that a $riter3s style bears the mark of his personality. >.>. >yno!rado" treats style as socially co!niMed and functionally conditioned internally united totality of the $ays of usin!, selectin! and combinin! the means of lin!ual intercourse in the sphere of one national lan!ua!e or another, a totality correspondin! to other analo!ous $ays of e pression that ser"e different purposes, perform different functions in the social communicati"e practice of the !i"en nation Ccited after fUEOcFOT, 2551: 1<L. #. .hatman defines style as a product of indi"idual choices and patterns of choices amon! lin!uistic possibilities Ccited after :alperin, 1<KK: 12L. (. -chmano"a states that style is one of the distincti"e "arieties of lan!ua!e, lan!ua!e subsystem $ith a peculiar "ocabulary, phraseolo!y, and constructions. %t differs from other "arieties by e pressi"e and e"aluati"e properties of its constituents and is connected $ith certain spheres of speech communication CDgeAFGTA, 1<=<: 411L. _. #krebne" defines style as a peculiarity, the set of specific features of a te t type or of a concrete te t. #tyle in this respect is just $hat differentiates a !roup of homo!enous te ts 0an indi"idual te t2 from all other !roups 0other te ts2 CfUEOcFOT, 2553: 1+L. #tyle may be also defined as a set of characteristics by $hich $e distin!uish one author from another or members of one subclass from members of other subclasses, all of $hich are members of the same !eneral class C:alperin, 1<KK: 12L. %n this respect one more definition of style connected $ith the indi"iduality of the author can be presented. In'i-i'(&! st !e of a $riter is a uniXue combination of lan!ua!e units, e pressi"e means and stylistic de"ices peculiar to a !i"en author, $hich makes the $riter3s $orks or e"en utterances easily reco!niMable C:alperin, 1<KK: 1KL. #o, st !e denotes the collecti"e characteristics of $ritin!, diction or any artistic e pression and the $ay of presentin! thin!s, dependin! upon the !eneral outlook proper to a person, a literary school, a trend, a period or a !enre.

6(n"tion&! st !e of a lan!ua!e may be defined as a system of interrelated lan!ua!e means $hich ser"es a definite aim in communication C:alperin, 1<KK: 33L. The main idea of the functional approach is the distinction bet$een the lan!ua!e 0as a symbolic system2 and the speech 0as the "ery process of discourse !eneration2. Thus, the style of a te t is determined mainly by the communication conte t. @i"e functional styles are usually sin!led out, such as offi.ial style, s.ie+tifi. style, pu<li.ist style, .ollo*uial style, and literary style 0althou!h some scholars consider literary style, or fiction, as a special case that is able to incorporate different features of other styles2. .onsiderin! the problem of style one cannot but mention the notion of the norm. /uite a number of scholars 0Y. 4iffaterre, Y. ,alliday, ). #apora2 consider style to be a de"iation from the lin!ual norm. %.4. :alperin defines nor* as the in"ariant of the phonetic, morpholo!ical, le ical and syntactical patterns circulatin! in lan!ua!e-in-action at a !i"en period of time C:alperin, 1<KK: 1<L. %t is perfectly clear that each functional style of lan!ua!e is marked by a specific use of lan!ua!e means, thus establishin! its o$n norms, $hich are subordinated to the norm-in"ariant and do not "iolate the !eneral notion of the literary norm. Conte+t is a lin!uistic encirclement of a lan!ua!e unit CNGEGgGThUQi Q JE., 1<<1: 31L. %t also comprises conditions and peculiarities of functionin! of a lan!ua!e unit in speech. #uch types of conte t as situatio+al .o+te=t> so.ial a+) histori.al .o+te=t> li+2uisti. .o+te=t> stylisti. .o+te=t are distin!uished CNGEGgGThUQi Q JE., 1<<1: 32L. St !isti" "onte+t is a stretch of a te t interrupted by an une pected element that results in a stylistic de"ice. #tylistic conte t is di"ided into: a2 stylistic microconte t, realiMed $ithin one sentence9 b2 stylistic macroconte t, realiMed $ithin a superphrasal unit or para!raph9 h2 stylistic me!aconte t, comprisin! the $hole literary $ork CNGEGgGThUQi Q JE., 1<<1: 34L. %n lan!ua!e there are different terms to denote particular means by $hich utterances are fore!rounded, made more conspicuous, more effecti"e and therefore impartin! some additional information. They are called e pressi"e means, stylistic means, stylistics de"ices, tropes, fi!ures of speech and other names.

-ll lan!ua!e means contain meanin! 7 some of them contain !enerally ackno$led!ed le ical and !rammatical meanin!s, others besides these ha"e specific meanin!s $hich may be called stylistic meanin! C:alperin, 1<KK: 21L. #tylistic meanin! al$ays makes the perception of the $ord more e pressi"e. %.4. :alperin di"ides all stylistics means of a lan!ua!e into e pressi"e means and stylistic de"ices. ) pressi"e means and stylistic de"ices ha"e a lot in common but they are not synonymous. -ll stylistic de"ices belon! to e pressi"e means but not all e pressi"e means are stylistic de"ices. #o, the e+,ressi-e *e&ns (EM) of a lan!ua!e are those phonetic, morpholo!ical, $ord-buildin!, le ical, phraseolo!ical and syntactical forms $hich e ist in the lan!ua!e-as-a-system for the purpose of lo!ical andjor emotional intensification of the utterance C:alperin, 1<KK: 2KL. These intensifyin! forms are sin!led out in !rammars, courses of phonetics and dictionaries as ha"in! special function in makin! the utterances emphatic. %n most cases they ha"e correspondin! neutral synonymous forms. The table to follo$ !i"es some e amples of e pressi"e means, $hich are !rouped in accordance $ith the le"els of lan!ua!e C:alperin, 1<KK: 2K-2<L: LEVELS OF LANGUAGE Phonetics pitch melody stress Morphology pausation !rammar EXPRESSIVE MEANS dra$lin! dra$lin! of certain syllables $hisperin! a sin!-son! manner of speech means $ord-buildin! means 0e.!.

0e.!. shifts in tenses, the the usa!e of diminuti"e suffi es to usa!e of obsolete forms as add some emotional colourin! to in ?e hath <rethre+2 Voc !"l ry $ords as 6 y@ie1 in <ir)ie> and 6let t$ofold and in strea4let> pi2let1 $ords $ith emoti"e $ords $ith only, like meanin!, connotati"e denotati"e

meanin! interjections

$ords

$ith and

both

$ords

belon!in!

to

referential

emoti"e different strata of )n!lish set e pressions, idioms,

meanin!, like some of the Synt #

Xualitati"e adjecti"es pro"erbs and sayin!s constructions containin! emphatic elements of different kinds

%.4. :alperin concei"es of st !isti" 'e-i"e (S$) as a conscious and intentional intensification of some typical structural and jor semantic property of a lan!ua!e unit 0neutral or e pressi"e2 promoted to a !eneraliMed status and thus becomin! a !enerati"e model. #*s function in te ts as marked units. They al$ays carry some kind of additional information, either emoti"e or lo!ical C:alperin, 1<KK: 35L. %.>. -rnold classifies all stylistic means into tropes, fi!ures of speech and thematic means. The stylistician defines tropes as all types of $ords $hich create ima!es. They are used for description and in their majority are le ical. Tropes include metaphor, metonymy, irony. @i!ures of speech do not create ima!es, but ser"e to intensify e pressi"eness of speech, increase its emoti"e colourin! $ith the help of syntactic constructions. These means are synta!matic as they are characteriMed by linear arran!ement of the elements and their effect depends upon their position. @i!ures of speech include in"ersion, rhetorical Xuestions, and parallel constructions. Thematic means are the set of topics 0themes2 preferred by a certain literary trend CDEFGHIJ 2552: <5L. The !roup of scholars (.Y. Yorocho"skyi, (.8. >orobjo"a, ?.%. Wyhosherst and k.>. Tymoshenko define e pressi"e means as a marked member of stylistic opposition $hich has an in"ariant meanin! in lan!ua!e: Ar Bi.kCi.k Ce+t i+ @stylisti.ally +eutral1 De+t i+ Ar Bi.kCi.k E+ Ce+t Ar Bi.kCi.k Ar Bi.kCi.k Ce+t i+> he )i)

Et Cas Ar Bi.kCi.k Cho Ce+t i+ 7 all these are in stylistic opposition to the first sentence and ha"e an e pressi"e-emoti"e meanin! CNGEGgGThUQi Q JE., 1<<1: 43L. - stylistic de"ice is an intentional chan!e of fi ed distribution of the lan!ua!e unit in speech CNGEGgGThUQi Q JE., 1<<1: 43-4KL. %t should be mentioned that "ery often the $riters employ more than one type of e pressi"e means in close succession to support the idea $hich they consider to be the most important. This phenomenon is called "on-ergen"e, i.e. a combination of stylistic de"ices promotin! the same idea, emotion or moti"e. %n the no"el The ?orseFs Aouth by `. .ary the main character describes the role of the $ife 04oMMie2 and the lo"er 0#ara2 in his life in such a $ay: Sara Cas a 4e+a.e a+) a to+i.> 4y <est e+e4yG HoIIie Cas a )isease> 4y Corst frie+) . .on"er!ence is achie"ed throu!h the use of parallel constructions, antithesis 0 e+e4y 7 frie+)> Corst 6 <est2, conte tual antonyms 0to+i. 6 )isease2, "iolation from traditional distribution 0<est e+e4y> Corst frie+)2. -ll these means help to re"eal deep contrariety of relations in that lo"e trian!le CDEFGHIJ, 1<+1: =4L. I*&ger is a descripti"e lan!ua!e used in literature to e"oke mental pictures or sensory e periences. Yany ima!es 0but not all2 are con"eyed by fi!urati"e lan!ua!e, as in metaphor, simile, synecdoche, onomatopoeia and metonymy. -n ima!e may be "isual 0pertainin! to the eye2, olfactory 0smell2, tactile 0touch2, auditory 0hearin!2, !ustatory 0taste2, abstract 0appealin! to $hat may be described as the intellect2 and kinaesthetic 0pertainin! to the sense of mo"ement and bodily effort2. (bser"e ho$ skilfully .arl #andbur! employs different ima!es to present a metaphoric ima!e of a fo! in a seaside to$n. Fog The fo! comes ki+aestheti. i4a2e (n little cat feet. au)itory> ta.tile> 3isual i4a2es %t sits lookin! ki+aestheti. i4a2e ("er harbor and city 3isual i4a2e on silent haunches au)itory i4a2e

and then mo"es on. ki+aestheti. i4a2e