Microphone Techniques For Music Sound Reinforcement

MICROPHONE
TECHNIQUES FOR MUSIC
SOUND
REINFORCEMENT
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I N D E X
MICROPHONE
SOUND
REINFORCEMENT
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
MICROPHONE CHARACTERISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
MUSICAL INSTRUMENT CHARACTERISTICS . . . . . . .11
ACOUSTIC CHARACTERISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
MICROPHONE PLACEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
STEREO MICROPHONE TECHNIQUES . . . . . . . . . . .32
MICROPHONE SELECTION GUIDE . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
GLOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
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Introduction ties of the microphone. The two most common
types are Dynamic and Condenser.
Microphone techniques (the selection and place-
ment of microphones) have a major influence on Dynamic microphones employ a diaphragm/
the audio quality of a sound reinforcement sys- voice coil/magnet assembly which forms a
tem. For reinforcement of musical instruments, miniature sound-driven electrical generator.
there are several main objectives of microphone Sound waves strike a thin plastic membrane
techniques: to maximize pick-up of suitable (diaphragm) which vibrates in response. A
sound from the desired instrument, to minimize small coil of wire (voice coil) is attached to the
pick-up of undesired sound from instruments or rear of the diaphragm and vibrates with it. The
other sound sources, and to provide sufficient voice coil itself is surrounded by a magnetic
gain-before-feedback. “Suitable” sound from the field created by a small permanent magnet. It is
desired instrument may mean either the natural the motion of the voice coil in this magnetic
sound of the instrument or some particular field which generates the electrical signal corre-
sound quality which is appropriate for the appli- sponding to the sound picked up by a dynamic
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cation. “Undesired” sound may mean the direct microphone.

or ambient sound from other nearby instruments
or just stage and background noise. “Sufficient”
gain-before-feedback means that the desired
instrument is reinforced at the required level
without ringing or feedback in the sound system.
Obtaining the proper balance of these factors

may involve a bit of give-and-take with each. In
this guide, Shure application and development
engineers suggest a variety of microphone tech-
niques for musical instruments to achieve these
objectives. In order to provide some background
for these techniques it is useful to understand
some of the important characteristics of micro-
phones, musical instruments and acoustics. Dynamic microphones have relatively simple
construction and are therefore economical and
rugged. They can provide excellent sound quali-
Microphone Characteristics ty and good specifications in all areas of micro-
phone performance. In particular, they can han-
The most important characteristics of micro- dle extremely high sound levels: it is almost
phones for live sound applications are their oper- impossible to overload a dynamic microphone.
ating principle, frequency response and direc- In addition, dynamic microphones are relatively
tionality. Secondary characteristics are their unaffected by extremes of temperature or humid-
electrical output and actual physical design. ity. Dynamics are the type most widely used in
general sound reinforcement.
Operating principle - The type of transducer
inside the microphone, that is, how the micro- Condenser microphones are based on an electri-
phone picks up sound and converts it into an cally-charged diaphragm/backplate assembly
electrical signal. which forms a sound-sensitive capacitor. Here,
sound waves vibrate a very thin metal or metal-
A transducer is a device that changes energy coated-plastic diaphragm. The diaphragm is
from one form into another, in this case, acoustic mounted just in front of a rigid metal or metal-
energy into electrical energy. The operating coated-ceramic backplate. In electrical terms this
principle determines some of the basic capabili- assembly or element is known as a capacitor (his-
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torically called a “condenser”), which has the PHANTOM POWER
ability to store a charge or voltage. When the
element is charged, an electric field is created Phantom power is a DC voltage (usually 12-48
R E I N F O R C E M E N T
between the diaphragm and the backplate, pro- volts) used to power the electronics of a con-
portional to the spacing between them. It is the denser microphone. For some (non-electret)
variation of this spacing, due to the motion of condensers it may also be used to provide the
the diaphragm relative to the backplate, that pro- polarizing voltage for the element itself. This
duces the electrical signal corresponding to the voltage is supplied through the microphone
sound picked up by a condenser microphone. cable by a mixer equipped with phantom power
or by some type of in-line external source. The
voltage is equal on Pin 2 and Pin 3 of a typical
balanced, XLR-type connector. For a 48 volt
phantom source, for example, Pin 2 is 48 VDC
and Pin 3 is 48 VDC, both with respect to Pin 1
which is ground (shield).
Because the voltage is exactly the same on Pin 2

and Pin 3, phantom power will have no effect on
balanced dynamic microphones: no current will
flow since there is no voltage difference across
the output. In fact, phantom power supplies
have current limiting which will prevent damage
The construction of a condenser microphone to a dynamic microphone even if it is shorted or
must include some provision for maintaining the miswired. In general, balanced dynamic micro-
electrical charge or polarizing voltage. An phones can be connected to phantom powered
electret condenser microphone has a permanent mixer inputs with no problem.
charge, maintained by a special material deposit-
ed on the backplate or on the diaphragm. Non-
electret types are charged (polarized) by means
of an external power source. The majority of
condenser microphones for sound reinforcement
are of the electret type.
All condensers contain additional active circuitry

to allow the electrical output of the element to be
used with typical microphone inputs. This
requires that all condenser microphones be pow- Fig. 3: phantom power schematic
ered: either by batteries or by phantom power
(a method of supplying power to a microphone Condenser microphones are more complex than
through the microphone cable itself). There are dynamics and tend to be somewhat more costly.
two potential limitations of condenser micro- Also, condensers may be adversely affected by
phones due to the additional circuitry: first, the extremes of temperature and humidity which can
electronics produce a small amount of noise; cause them to become noisy or fail temporarily.
second, there is a limit to the maximum signal However, condensers can readily be made with
level that the electronics can handle. For this higher sensitivity and can provide a smoother, more
reason, condenser microphone specifications natural sound, particularly at high frequencies. Flat
always include a noise figure and a maximum frequency response and extended frequency range
sound level. Good designs, however, have very are much easier to obtain in a condenser. In addi-
low noise levels and are also capable of very tion, condenser microphones can be made very
wide dynamic range. small without significant loss of performance.
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TRANSIENT RESPONSE such as cymbals. It is this transient response
difference that causes condenser mics to have a
Transient response refers to the ability of a more crisp, detailed sound and dynamic mics to
microphone to respond to a rapidly changing have a more mellow, rounded sound.
sound wave. A good way to understand why
dynamic and condenser mics sound different is
to understand the differences in their
transient response.
In order for a microphone to convert sound

energy into electrical energy, the sound wave
must physically move the diaphragm of the
microphone. The amount of time it takes for
this movement to occur depends on the weight
(or mass) of the diaphragm. For instance,
S O U N D
the diaphragm and voice coil assembly of a

dynamic microphone may weigh up to 1000
times more than the diaphragm of a condenser
microphone. It takes longer for the heavy
dynamic diaphragm to begin moving than for
the lightweight condenser diaphragm. It also
takes longer for the dynamic diaphragm to Condenser/dynamic scope photo
stop moving in comparison to the condenser
diaphragm. Thus, the dynamic transient The decision to use a condenser or dynamic
response is not as good as the condenser microphone depends not only on the sound
transient response. This is similar to two source and the sound reinforcement system
vehicles in traffic: a truck and a sports car. but on the physical setting as well. From a
They may have equal power engines but the practical standpoint, if the microphone will be
truck weighs much more than the car. As used in a severe environment such as a rock
traffic flow changes, the sports car can and roll club or for outdoor sound, dynamic
accelerate and brake very quickly, while the types would be a good choice. In a more
semi accelerates and brakes very slowly due controlled environment such as a concert hall
to its greater weight. Both vehicles follow or theatrical setting, a condenser microphone
the overall traffic flow but the sports car might be preferred for many sound sources,
responds better to sudden changes. especially when the highest sound quality is
desired.
Pictured here are two studio microphones
responding to the sound impulse produced Frequency response - The output level or
by an electric spark: condenser mic on top, sensitivity of the microphone over its operating
dynamic mic on bottom. It is evident that it range from lowest to highest frequency.
takes almost twice as long for the dynamic
microphone to respond to the sound. It also Virtually all microphone manufacturers list
takes longer for the dynamic to stop moving the frequency response of their microphones
after the impulse has passed (notice the ripple over a range, for example 50 - 15,000 Hz.
on the second half of the graph). Since con- This usually corresponds with a graph that
denser microphones generally have better indicates output level relative to frequency.
transient response then dynamics, they are The graph has frequency in Hertz (Hz) on the
better suited for instruments that have very x-axis and relative response in decibels (dB)
sharp attack or extended high frequency output on the y-axis.
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A microphone whose output is equal at all THE DECIBEL
frequencies has a flat frequency response.
The decibel (dB) is an expression often used in
electrical and acoustic measurements. The deci-
bel is a number that represents a ratio of two val-
ues of a quantity such as voltage. It is actually a
logarithmic ratio whose main purpose is to scale
a large measurement range down to a much
smaller and more useable range. The form of
the decibel relationship for voltage is:
dB = 20 x log(V1/V2)
where 20 is a constant, V1 is one voltage, V2 is

Flat frequency response the other voltage, and log is logarithm base 10.
Flat response microphones typically have an

extended frequency range. They reproduce a Examples:
variety of sound sources without changing or
coloring the original sound. What is the relationship in decibels
between 100 volts and 1 volt?
A microphone whose response has peaks or dips in
certain frequency areas exhibits a shaped response. dB = 20 x log(100/1)
dB = 20 x log(100)
dB = 20 x 2 (the log of 100 is 2)
dB = 40
That is, 100 volts is 40dB greater

than 1 volt.
What is the relationship in decibels

between 0.001 volt and 1 volt?
dB = 20 x log(0.001/1)
dB = 20 x log(0.001)
Shaped frequency response dB = 20 x (-3) (the log of .001 is -3)
dB = -60
A shaped response is usually designed to enhance That is, 0.001 volt is 60dB less that 1 volt.
a sound source in a particular application.
Similarly:
For instance, a microphone may have a peak in
the 2 - 8 kHz range to increase intelligibility for if one voltage is equal to the other they
live vocals. This shape is called a presence peak are 0dB different
or rise. A microphone may also be designed to be
less sensitive to certain other frequencies. One if one voltage is twice the other they are
example is reduced low frequency response (low 6dB different
end roll-off) to minimize unwanted “boominess”
or stage rumble. if one voltage is ten times the other they
are 20dB different
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Since the decibel is a ratio of two values, there Directionality - A microphone’s sensitivity to
must be an explicit or implicit reference value sound relative to the direction or angle from
for any measurement given in dB. This is usual- which the sound arrives.
ly indicated by a suffix on the decibel value such
as: dBV (reference to 1 volt which is 0dBV) or There are a number of different directional
dB SPL (reference to 0.0002 microbar which is patterns found in microphone design. These
0dB Sound Pressure Level) are typically plotted in a polar pattern to
graphically display the directionality of the
1. Compare 2. Compress 3. scale (x 20) microphone. The polar pattern shows the
0
10 =1 0 variation in sensitivity 360 degrees around the
1 microphone, assuming that the microphone is
10 =10 20
2
in the center and that 0 degrees represents the
10 =100 40 front of the microphone.
b a 3
10 =1000 60
4
10 =10,000 80 The three basic directional types of micro-
b/a
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5
10 =100,000 100 phones are omnidirectional, unidirectional,
6
10 =1,000,000 120 and bidirectional.
Decibel scale The omnidirectional microphone has equal

for dBV or dB SPL output or sensitivity at all angles. Its coverage
angle is a full 360 degrees. An omnidirectional
One reason that the decibel is so useful in certain microphone will pick up the maximum amount
audio measurements is that this scaling function of ambient sound. In live sound situations an
closely approximates the behavior of human omni should be placed very close to the sound
hearing sensitivity. For example, a change of source to pick up a useable balance between
1dB SPL is about the smallest difference in loud- direct sound and ambient sound. In addition,
ness that can be perceived while a 3dB SPL an omni cannot be aimed away from undesired
change is generally noticeable. A 6dB SPL sources such as PA speakers which may cause
change is quite noticeable and finally, a 10dB feedback.
SPL change is perceived as “twice as loud.”
The choice of flat or shaped response micro-

phones again depends on the sound source, the
sound system and the environment. Flat
response microphones are usually desirable to
reproduce instruments such as acoustic guitars or
pianos, especially with high quality sound sys-
tems. They are also common in stereo miking
and distant pickup applications where the micro-
phone is more than a few feet from the sound
source: the absence of response peaks mini-
mizes feedback and contributes to a more natural
sound. On the other hand, shaped response micro- Omnidirectional
phones are preferred for closeup vocal use and for
certain instruments such as drums and guitar ampli- The unidirectional microphone is most sensitive
fiers which may benefit from response enhance- to sound arriving from one particular direction
ments for presence or punch. They are also useful and is less sensitive at other directions. The
for reducing pickup of unwanted sound and noise most common type is a cardioid (heart-shaped)
outside the frequency range of an instrument. response. This has the most sensitivity at
0 degrees (on-axis) and is least sensitive at 180
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degrees (off-axis). The effective coverage or
pickup angle of a cardioid is about 130 degrees,
that is up to about 65 degrees off axis at the
front of the microphone. In addition, the cardioid
mic picks up only about one-third as much
ambient sound as an omni. Unidirectional
microphones isolate the desired on-axis sound
from both unwanted off-axis sound and from
ambient noise.
The bidirectional microphone has maximum

sensitivity at both 0 degrees (front) and at 180
degrees (back). It has the least amount of out-
put at 90 degree angles (sides). The coverage
or pickup angle is only about 90 degrees at
both the front and the rear. It has the same
amount of ambient pickup as the cardioid.
This mic could be used for picking up two
Cardioid opposing sound sources, such as a vocal duet.
Cardioid Though rarely found in sound reinforcement
For example, the use of a cardioid microphone they are used in certain stereo techniques,
for a guitar amplifier which is near the drum set such as M-S (mid-side).
is one way to reduce bleed-through of drums
into the reinforced guitar sound. Microphone Polar Patterns Compared
Unidirectional microphones have several

variations on the cardioid pattern. Two of these
are the supercardioid and hypercardioid.
Both patterns offer narrower front pickup angles

than the cardioid (115 degrees for the supercar-
dioid and 105 degrees for the hypercardioid) and
also greater rejection of ambient sound. While
the cardioid is least sensitive at the rear (180
degrees off-axis) the least sensitive direction is
at 126 degrees off-axis for the supercardioid and
110 degrees for the hypercardioid. When placed
properly they can provide more focused pickup
and less ambient noise than the cardioid pattern,
but they have some pickup directly at the rear,
called a rear lobe. The rejection at the rear is
-12 dB for the supercardioid and only -6 dB for
the hypercardioid. A good cardioid type has at
least 15-20 dB of rear rejection.
Supercardioid
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USING DIRECTIONAL PATTERNS TO Other directional related microphone characteristics:
REJECT UNWANTED SOURCES Ambient sound rejection - Since unidirectional
In sound reinforcement, microphones must often microphones are less sensitive to off-axis sound
be located in positions where they may pick up than omnidirectional types they pick up less
unintended instrument or other sounds. Some overall ambient or stage sound. Unidirectional
examples are: individual drum mics picking up mics should be used to control ambient noise
adjacent drums, vocal mics picking up overall pickup to get a cleaner mix.
stage noise, and vocal mics picking up monitor
speakers. In each case there is a desired sound Distance factor - Because directional micro-
source and one or more undesired sound sources. phones pick up less ambient sound than omni-
Choosing the appropriate directional pattern can directional types they may be used at some-
help to maximize the desired sound and mini- what greater distances from a sound source and
mize the undesired sound. still achieve the same balance between the
direct sound and background or ambient
Although the direction for maximum pickup is sound. An omni should be placed closer to
S O U N D
usually obvious (on-axis) the direction for least the sound source than a uni—about half the
pickup varies with microphone type. In particu- distance—to pick up the same balance between
lar, the cardioid is least sensitive at the rear (180 direct sound and ambient sound.
degrees off-axis) while the supercardioid and
hypercardioid types actually have some rear Off-axis coloration - Change in a microphone’s
pickup. They are least sensitive at 125 degrees frequency response that usually gets progressive-
off-axis and 110 degrees off axis respectively. ly more noticeable as the arrival angle of sound
increases. High frequencies tend to be lost first,
For example, when using floor monitors with often resulting in “muddy” off-axis sound.
vocal mics, the monitor should be aimed directly
at the rear axis of a cardioid microphone for Proximity effect - With unidirectional micro-
maximum gain-before-feedback. When using a phones, bass response increases as the mic is
supercardioid, however, the monitor should be moved closer (within 2 feet) to the sound source.
positioned somewhat off to the side (55 degrees With close-up unidirectional microphones (less
off the rear axis) for best results. Likewise, than 1 foot), be aware of proximity effect and
when using supercardioid or hypercardioid types roll off the bass until you obtain a more natural
on drum kits be aware of the rear pickup of these sound. You can (1) roll off low frequencies on
mics and angle them accordingly to avoid pick- the mixer, or (2) use a microphone designed to
up of other drums or cymbals. minimize proximity effect, or (3) use a micro-
Monitor speaker placement for phone with a bass rolloff switch, or (4) use an
omnidirectional microphone (which does not
exhibit proximity effect).
Proximity effect graph
maximum rejection:
cardioid and supercardioid
Unidirectional microphones can not only help
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to isolate one voice or instrument from other therefore recommended for nearly all sound
singers or instruments, but can also minimize reinforcement applications.
feedback, allowing higher gain. For these
reasons, unidirectional microphones are
preferred over omnidirectional microphones in
almost all sound reinforcement applications.
The electrical output of a microphone is

usually specified by level, impedance and wiring
configuration. Output level or sensitivity is the
level of the electrical signal from the micro-
phone for a given input sound level. In general,
condenser microphones have higher sensitivity
than dynamic types. For weak or distant sounds
a high sensitivity microphone is desirable while
loud or close-up sounds can be picked up well
by lower-sensitivity models.
The output impedance of a microphone is rough-

ly equal to the electrical resistance of its output:
150-600 ohms for low impedance (low-Z) and
10,000 ohms or more for high impedance.(high-
Z). The practical concern is that low impedance The physical design of a microphone is its
microphones can be used with cable lengths of mechanical and operational design. Types used
1000 feet or more with no loss of quality while in sound reinforcement include: handheld, head-
high impedance types exhibit noticeable high worn, lavaliere, overhead, stand-mounted, instru-
frequency loss with cable lengths greater than ment-mounted and surface-mounted designs.
about 20 feet. Most of these are available in a choice of operat-
ing principle, frequency response, directional
Finally, the wiring configuration of a microphone pattern and electrical output. Often the physical
may be balanced or unbalanced. A balanced design is the first choice made for an application.
output carries the signal on two conductors (plus Understanding and choosing the other character-
shield). The signals on each conductor are the istics can assist in producing the maximum qual-
same level but opposite polarity (one signal is ity microphone signal and delivering it to the
positive when the other is negative). A balanced sound system with the highest fidelity.
microphone input amplifies only the difference
between the two signals and rejects any part of the
signal which is the same in each conductor. Any Musical Instrument Characteristics
electrical noise or hum picked up by a balanced
(two-conductor) cable tends to be identical in the Some background information on characteris-
two conductors and is therefore rejected by the tics of musical instruments may be helpful.
balanced input while the equal but opposite Instruments and other sound sources are char-
polarity original signals are amplified. On the acterized by their frequency output, by their
other hand, an unbalanced microphone output directional output and by their dynamic range.
carries its signal on a single conductor (plus
shield) and an unbalanced microphone input Frequency output - the span of fundamental
amplifies any signal on that conductor. Such a and harmonic frequencies produced by an
combination will be unable to reject any electrical instrument, and the balance or relative level of
noise which has been picked up by the cable. those frequencies.
Balanced, low-impedance microphones are Musical instruments have overall frequency
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ranges as found in the chart below. The dark level of the harmonics is noticeably different
section of each line indicates the range of between these two instruments and provides
fundamental frequencies and the shaded each instrument with its own unique sound.
section represents the range of the highest
harmonics or overtones of the instrument. A microphone which responds evenly to the full
The fundamental frequency establishes the range of an instrument will reproduce the most
basic pitch of a note played by an instrument natural sound from an instrument. A microphone
while the harmonics produce the timbre or which responds unevenly or to less than the full
characteristic tone. range will alter the sound of the instrument,
Instrument frequency ranges though this effect may be desirable in some cases.
Directional output - the three-dimensional pat-

tern of sound waves radiated by an instrument.
A musical instrument radiates a different tone

S O U N D
quality (timbre) in every direction, and each part

of the instrument produces a different timbre.
Most musical instruments are designed to sound
best at a distance, typically two or more feet
away. At this distance, the sounds of the various
parts of the instrument combine into a pleasing
composite. In addition, many instruments pro-
duce this balanced sound only in a particular
direction. A microphone placed at such distance
and direction tends to pick up a natural or well-
balanced tone quality.
On the other hand, a microphone placed close to

the instrument tends to emphasize the part of the
instrument that the microphone is near. The result-
It is this timbre that distinguishes the sound ing sound may not be representative of the instru-
of one instrument from another. In this man- ment as a whole. Thus, the reinforced tonal bal-
ner, we can tell whether a piano or a trumpet ance of an instrument is strongly affected by the
just played that C note. The following graphs microphone position relative to the instrument.
show the levels of the fundamental and
harmonics associated with a trumpet and an Unfortunately, it is difficult, if not impossible, to
oboe each playing the same note. place a microphone at the “natural sounding”
distance from an instrument in a sound rein-
forcement situation without picking up other
Instrument spectra comparison (undesired) sounds and/or acoustic feedback.
Close microphone placement is usually the only
oboe practical way to achieve sufficient isolation and
gain-before-feedback. But since the sound
picked up close to a source can vary significantly
trumpet in Bb with small changes in microphone position, it is
very useful to experiment with microphone loca-
tion and orientation. In some cases more than
200 500 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
frequency
one microphone may be required to get a good
sound from a large instrument such as a piano.
The number of harmonics along with the relative
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Dynamic range - the range of volume of an
INSTRUMENT LOUDSPEAKERS instrument from its softest to its loudest level.
Another instrument with a wide range of charac-
teristics is the loudspeaker. Anytime you are The dynamic range of an instrument determines
placing microphones to pick up the sound of a the specifications for sensitivity and maximum
guitar or bass cabinet you are confronted with input capability of the intended microphone.
the acoustic nature of loudspeakers. Each indi- Loud instruments such as drums, brass and
vidual loudspeaker type is directional and dis- amplified guitars are handled well by dynamic
plays different frequency characteristics at differ- microphones which can withstand high sound
ent angles and distances. The sound from a loud- levels and have moderate sensitivity. Softer
speaker tends to be almost omnidirectional at instruments such as flutes and harpsichords can
low frequencies but becomes very directional at benefit from the higher sensitivity of condensers.
high frequencies. Thus, the sound on-axis at the Of course, the farther the microphone is placed
center of a speaker usually has the most “bite” or from the instrument the lower the level of sound
high-end, while the sound produced off-axis or reaching the microphone.
at the edge of the speaker is more “mellow” or
bassy. A cabinet with multiple loudspeakers has In the context of a live performance, the relative
an even more complex output, especially if it has dynamic range of each instrument determines how
different speakers for bass and treble. As with much sound reinforcement may be required. If all
most acoustic instruments the desired sound only of the instruments are fairly loud, and the venue is
develops at some distance from the speaker. of moderate size with good acoustics, no reinforce-
ment may be necessary. On the other hand, if the
Sound reinforcement situations typically require performance is in a very large hall or outdoors,
a close-mic approach. A unidirectional dynamic even amplified instruments may need to be further
microphone is a good first choice here: it can reinforced. Finally, if there is a substantial differ-
handle the high level and provide good sound ence in dynamic range among the instruments,
and isolation. Keep in mind the proximity effect such as an acoustic
when using a uni close to the speaker: some guitar in a loud rock VIOLIN
bass boost will be likely. If the cabinet has only band, the micro- PIA NO
one speaker a single microphone should pick up phone techniques GUI TAR
a suitable sound with a little experimentation. If (and the sound sys-
SAX OPHONE
the cabinet has multiple speakers of the same tem) must accom-
HAR MONICA
type it is typically easiest to place the micro- modate those differ-
phone to pick up just one speaker. Placing the ences. Often, the TRUMPET
microphone between speakers can result in maximum MALE VOICE
strong phase effects though this may be desirable volume of the FEMALE VOICE
to achieve a particular tone. However, if the overall sound
BASS DRUM
cabinet is stereo or has separate bass and treble system is limited
speakers multiple microphones may be required. by the maximum SNARE DRUM
gain-before-feed- CYM BAL

Placement of loudspeaker cabinets can also have a back of the softest
significant effect on their sound. Putting cabinets instrument. 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
on carpets can reduce brightness, while raising Intensity Level in Decibels

them off the floor can reduce low end. Open-back An understanding (at distance of 10 feet)
cabinets can be miked from behind as well as from of the frequency
the front. The distance from the cabinet to walls or output, directional output, and dynamic range
other objects can also vary the sound. Again, characteristics of musical instruments can help
experiment with the microphone(s) and placement significantly in choosing suitable microphones,
until you have the sound that you like! placing them for best pickup of the desired
sound and minimizing feedback or other unde-
sired sounds.
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Acoustic Characteristics Approximate wavelengths of common
frequencies:
Sound Waves
100 Hz: about 10 feet
Sound moves through the air like waves in water. 1000 Hz: about 1 foot
Sound waves consist of pressure variations travel- 10,000 Hz: about 1 inch
ing through the air. When the sound wave travels,
it compresses air molecules together at one point.
This is called the high pressure zone or positive Loudness
component(+). After the compression, an expan-
sion of molecules occurs. This is the low pressure The fluctuation of 140
130
zone or negative component(-). This process con- air pressure created 120
tinues along the path of the sound wave until its by sound is a change 110
energy becomes too weak to hear. The sound above and below 100
90
wave of a pure tone traveling through air would normal atmospheric 80
S O U N D
appear as a smooth, regular variation of pressure pressure. This is 70

that could be drawn as a sine wave. what the human ear 60
50
responds to. The 40
Frequency, wavelength and the speed of sound varying amount of 30
pressure of the air 20
1 CYCLE 10
▲
▲
The frequency molecules compress- 0

/ CYCLE
1
▲
▲
2
of a sound wave ing and expanding is
indicates the rate related to the appar-
of pressure vari- + ▲
ent loudness at the Ambient sounds
PRESSURE
ations or cycles. 0 AMPLITUDE human ear. The

One cycle is a _ ▲
greater the pressure change, the louder the
change from DISTANCE WAVELENGTH sound. Under ideal conditions the human ear
▲
▲
high pressure to Schematic of sound wave can sense a pressure change as small as 0.0002
low pressure microbars (1 microbar = 1/1,000,000 atmospher-
and back to high pressure. The number of cycles ic pressure). The threshold of pain is about 200
per second is called Hertz, abbreviated “Hz.” microbars, one million times greater! Obviously
So, a 1,000 Hz tone has 1,000 cycles per second. the human ear responds to a wide range of
amplitude of sound. This amplitude range is
The wavelength of a sound is the physical distance more commonly measured in decibels Sound
from the start of one cycle to the start of the next Pressure Level (dB SPL), relative to 0.0002
cycle. Wavelength is related to frequency by the microbars (0 dB SPL). 0 dB SPL is the threshold
speed of sound. The speed of sound in air is about of hearing Lp and 120 dB SPL is the threshold of
1130 feet per second or 344 meters/second. The pain. 1dB is about the smallest change in SPL
speed of sound is constant no matter what the fre- that can be heard. A 3dB change is generally
quency. The wavelength of a sound wave of any noticeable while a 6dB change is very notice-
frequency can be determined by these relationships: able. A 10dB SPL increase is perceived to be
twice as loud!
The Wave Equation: c = f • l
speed of sound = frequency • wavelength Sound Propagation
or
speed of sound There are four basic ways in which sound can
wavelength =
frequency be altered by its environment as it travels or
for a 500Hz sound wave: propagates: reflection, absorption, diffraction
1,130 feet per second and refraction.
wavelength =
500Hz
wavelength = 4.4 feet
14
S O U N D
MICROPHONE
SOUND
REINFORCEMENT
1. Reflection - A sound wave can be reflected quency sound wave is much longer than a high
by a surface or other object if the object is physi- frequency wave, low frequencies will bend
cally as large or larger than the wavelength of around objects that high frequencies cannot.
the sound. Because low frequency sounds have The effect is that high frequencies tend to have a
long wavelengths they can only be reflected by higher directivity and are more easily blocked
large objects. Higher frequencies can be reflect- while low frequencies are essentially omnidirec-
ed by smaller objects and surfaces as well as tional. In sound reinforcement, it is difficult to
large. The reflected sound will have a different get good directional control at low frequencies
frequency characteristic than the direct sound if for both microphones and loudspeakers.
all frequencies are not reflected equally.
4. Refraction - The bending of a sound wave
Reflection is also the source of echo, reverb, and as it passes through some change in the density
standing waves: of the environment. This effect is primarily
noticeable outdoors at large distances from loud-
Echo occurs when a reflected sound is delayed speakers due to atmospheric effects such as wind
long enough (by a distant reflective surface) to or temperature gradients. The sound will appear
be heard by the listener as a distinct repetition of to bend in a certain direction due to these effects.
the direct sound.
Direct vs. Ambient Sound
Reverberation consists of many reflections of a
sound, maintaining the sound in a reflective space A very important property of direct sound is that it
for a time even after the direct sound has stopped. becomes weaker as it travels away from the sound
source. The amount of change is controlled by
Standing waves in a room occur for certain fre- the inverse-square law which states that the level
quencies related to the distance between parallel change is inversely proportional to the square of
walls. The original sound and the reflected sound the distance change. When the distance from a
will begin to reinforce each other when the dis- sound source doubles, the sound level decreases
tance between two opposite walls is equal to a by 6dB. This is a noticeable decrease. For exam-
multiple of half the wavelength of the sound. This ple, if the sound from a guitar amplifier is 100 dB
happens primarily at low frequencies due to their SPL at 1 ft. from the cabinet it will be 94 dB at 2
longer wavelengths and relatively high energy. ft., 88 dB at 4 ft., 82 dB at 8 ft., etc. Conversely,
when the distance is cut in half the sound level
2. Absorption - Some materials absorb sound increases by 6dB: It will be 106 dB at 6 inches
rather than reflect it. Again, the efficiency of and 112 dB at 3 inches!
absorption is dependent on the wavelength.
Thin absorbers like carpet and acoustic ceiling On the other hand, the ambient sound in a room
tiles can affect high frequencies only, while thick is at nearly the same level throughout the room.
absorbers such as drapes, padded furniture and This is because the ambient sound has been
specially designed bass traps are required to reflected many times within the room until it is
attenuate low frequencies. Reverberation in a essentially non-directional. Reverberation is an
room can be controlled by adding absorption: example of non-directional sound.
the more absorption the less reverberation.
Clothed humans absorb mid and high frequen- For this reason the ambient sound of the room
cies well, so the presence or absence of an audi- will become increasingly apparent as a micro-
ence has a significant effect on the sound in an phone is placed further away from the direct
otherwise reverberant venue. sound source. In every room, there is a distance
(measured from the sound source) where the
3. Diffraction - A sound wave will typically direct sound and the reflected (or reverberant)
bend around obstacles in its path which are sound become equal in intensity. In acoustics,
smaller than its wavelength. Because a low fre- this is known as the Critical Distance. If a micro-
15
SOUND
REINFORCEMENT
phone is placed at the Critical Distance or farther, “phase shift” or an
+1 +2
the sound quality picked up may be very poor. apparent starting 0
This sound is often described as “echoey”, rever- point somewhere -1
berant, or “bottom of the barrel”. The reflected between the origi-

“in-phase”
+1
+ = 0
0
sound overlaps and blurs the direct sound. nal starting points. -1 -2
This new wave a
Critical distance may be estimated by listening will have the same
+1
to a sound source at a very short distance, then frequency as the 0
moving away until the sound level no longer original waves but ”1800 out -1
decreases but seems to be constant. That dis- will have of phase” +1

+ = 0
0
tance is critical distance. increased or -1
decreased ampli- b
A unidirectional microphone should be positioned tude depending on
+1 +2
no farther than 50% of the Critical Distance, e.g. the degree of 0
+1
if the Critical Distance is 10 feet, a unidirectional phase difference. -1
“phase shifts” + =
S O U N D
0
mic may be placed up to 5 feet from the sound Phase shift, in this +1
-1
0
source. Highly reverberant rooms may require case, indicates that -1 -2
very close microphone placement. The amount of the 0 degree c
direct sound relative to ambient sound is con- points of two
trolled primarily by the distance of the micro- identical waves Phase relationships
phone to the sound source and to a lesser degree are not the same.
by the directional pattern of the mic.
Most soundwaves are not a single frequency but
Phase relationships and interference effects are made up of many frequencies. When identical
one cycle or one period
multiple-frequency soundwaves combine there
▲
▲
The phase of a are three possibilities for the resulting wave: a

single frequency sound doubling of amplitude at all frequencies if the
wave is always described waves are in phase, a complete cancellation at all
relative to the starting frequencies if the waves are 180 degrees out of
point of the wave phase, or partial cancellation and partial reinforce-
0 90 180 270 360
0 0 0
or 0 degrees. The
0 0
ment at various frequencies if the waves have
Sound pressure wave pressure change is also intermediate phase relationship. The results may
zero at this point. The be heard as interference effects.
peak of the high pressure zone is at 90 degrees,
the pressure change falls to zero again at 180 The first case is the basis for the increased sensi-
degrees, the peak of the low pressure zone is at tivity of boundary or surface-mount micro-
270 degrees, and the pressure change rises to zero phones. When a microphone element is placed
at 360 degrees for the start of the next cycle. very close to an acoustically reflective surface
both the incident and reflected sound waves are in
Two identical sound waves starting at the same phase at the microphone. This results in a 6dB
point in time are called “in-phase” and will sum increase (doubling) in sensitivity, compared to the
together creating a single wave with double the same microphone in free space. This occurs for
amplitude but otherwise identical to the original reflected frequencies whose wavelength is greater
waves. Two identical sound waves with one than the distance from the microphone to the sur-
wave’s starting point occurring at the 180 degree face: if the distance is less than one-quarter inch
point of the other wave are said to be “out of this will be the case for frequencies up to at least
phase” and the two waves will cancel each other 18 kHz. However, this 6dB increase will not
completely. When two sound waves of the same occur for frequencies that are not reflected, that is,
single frequency but different starting points are frequencies that are either absorbed by the surface
combined the resulting wave is said to have or that diffract around the surface. High frequen-
16
S O U N D
MICROPHONE
SOUND
REINFORCEMENT
cies may be absorbed by surface materials such as (electrically) in the mixer. The resulting comb
carpeting or other acoustic treatments. Low fre- filtering depends on the sound arrival time
quencies will diffract around the surface if their difference between the microphones: a large
wavelength is much greater than the dimensions time difference (long distance) causes comb
of the surface: the boundary must be at least 5 ft. filtering to begin at low frequencies, while a
square to reflect frequencies down to 100 Hz. small time difference (short distance) moves
the comb filtering to higher frequencies.
The second case occurs when two closely spaced
microphones are wired out of phase, that is, with The second way
reverse polarity. This usually only happens by for this effect to
accident, due to miswired microphones or cables occur is when a
but the effect is also used as the basis for certain single micro-
noise-canceling microphones. In this technique, phone picks up a
two identical microphones are placed very close direct sound and
to each other (sometimes within the same hous- also a delayed
ing) and wired with opposite polarity. Sound version of the
waves from distant sources which arrive equally same sound.
at the two microphones are effectively canceled The delay may
when the outputs are mixed. However, sound Multi-mic comb filtering be due to an
from a source which is much closer to one ele- acoustic reflec-
ment than to other will be heard. Such close-talk tion of the original sound or to multiple sources
microphones, which must literally have the lips of of the original sound. A guitar cabinet with
the talker touching more than one speaker or multiple loudspeaker
the grille, are used cabinets for a single instrument would be
in high-noise examples. The delayed sound travels a longer
environments distance (longer time) to the mic and thus has a
such as aircraft phase difference relative to the direct sound.
and industrial pag- When these sounds combine (acoustically) at the
ing but rarely with microphone, comb filtering results. This time
musical instru- the effect of the comb filtering depends on the
ments due to their distance between the microphone and the source
limited frequency of the reflection or the distance between the
response. multiple sources.
Polarity reversal
It is the last case which is most likely in musical

sound reinforcement, and the audible result is a
degraded frequency response called “comb filter-
ing.” The pattern of peaks and dips resembles the
teeth of a comb and the depth and location of
these notches depend on the degree of phase shift.
With microphones this effect can occur in two

ways. The first is when two (or more) mics
pick up the same sound source at different dis-
tances. Because it takes longer for the sound to
arrive at the more distant microphone there is
effectively a phase difference between the sig-
nals from the mics when they are combined Reflection comb filtering
17
SOUND
REINFORCEMENT
The 3-to-1 Rule MICROPHONE PHASE EFFECTS
When it is necessary to use multiple micro- One effect often heard in sound reinforcement
phones or to use microphones near reflective occurs when two microphones are placed in close
surfaces the resulting interference effects proximity to the same sound source, such as a drum
may be minimized by using the 3-to-1 rule. kit or instrument amplifier. Many times this is due to
For multiple microphones the rule states the phase relationship of the sounds arriving at the
that the distance between microphones microphones. If two microphones are picking up the
should be at least three times the distance same sound source from different locations, some
from each microphone to its intended sound phase cancellation or summing may be occurring.
source. The sound picked up by the more Phase cancellation happens when two microphones
distant microphone is then at least 12dB less are receiving the same soundwave but with opposite
than the sound picked up by the closer one. pressure zones (that is,180 degrees out of phase).
This insures that the audible effects of comb This is usually not desired. A mic with a different
filtering are reduced by at least that much. polar pattern may reduce the pickup of unwanted
S O U N D
For reflective surfaces, the microphone sound and reduce the effect or physical isolation can
should be at least 11/2 times as far from be used. With a drum kit, physical isolation of the
that surface as it is from its intended sound individual drums is not possible. In this situation the
source. Again, this insures minimum choice of microphones may be more dependent on
audibility of interference effects. the off-axis rejection characteristic of the mic.
Another possibility is phase reversal. If there is

cancellation occurring, a 180 degree phase flip will
create phase summing of the same frequencies. A
common approach to the snare drum is to place one
mic on the top head and one on the bottom head.
Because the mics are picking up relatively similar
sound sources at different points in the sound wave,
you may experience some phase cancellations.
Inverting the phase of one mic will sum any frequen-
cies being canceled. This may sometimes achieve a
“fatter“ snare drum sound. This effect will change
dependent on mic locations. The phase inversion can
be done with an in-line phase reverse adapter or by a
phase invert switch found on many mixers inputs.
3-to-1 rule
Potential Acoustic Gain vs. Needed
Strictly speaking, the 3-to-1 rule is based on Acoustic Gain
the behavior of omnidirectional microphones.
It can be relaxed slightly if unidirectional The basic purpose of a sound reinforcement sys-
microphones are used and they are aimed tem is to deliver sufficient sound level to the
appropriately, but should still be regarded as a audience so that they can hear and enjoy the per-
basic rule of thumb for worst case situations. formance throughout the listening area. As men-
tioned earlier, the amount of reinforcement need-
ed depends on the loudness of the instruments or
performers themselves and the size and acoustic
nature of the venue. This Needed Acoustic Gain
(NAG) is the amplification factor necessary so
that the furthest listeners can hear as if they were
close enough to hear the performers directly.
18
S O U N D
MICROPHONE
SOUND
REINFORCEMENT
To calculate NAG: NAG = 20 x log (Df/Dn) The simplified PAG equation is:
Where: Df = distance from sound source to PAG = 20 (log D1 - log D2 + log D0 - log Ds)
furthest listener -10 log NOM -6
Dn = distance from sound source to Where: PAG = Potential Acoustic Gain (in dB)
nearest listener
Ds = distance from sound source to
log = logarithm to base 10 microphone
Note: the sound source may be a musical instru- D0 = distance from sound source to
ment, a vocalist or perhaps a loudspeaker listener
The equation for NAG is based on the inverse- D1 = distance from microphone to
square law, which says that the sound level loudspeaker
decreases by 6dB each time the distance to the
source doubles. For example, the sound level D2 = distance from loudspeaker to
(without a sound system) at the first row of the listener
audience (10 feet from the stage) might be a com-
fortable 85dB. At the last row of the audience (80 NOM = the number of open
feet from the stage) the level will be 18dB less or microphones
67dB. In this case the sound system needs to pro-
vide 18dB of gain so that the last row can hear at -6 = a 6 dB feedback stability margin
the same level as the first row. The limitation in
real-world sound systems is not how loud the sys- log = logarithm to base 10
tem can get with a recorded sound source but
rather how loud it can get with a microphone as In order to make PAG as large as possible, that
its input. The maximum loudness is ultimately is, to provide the maximum gain-before-feed-
limited by acoustic feedback. back, the following rules should be observed:
The amount of gain-before-feedback that a sound 1) Place the microphone as close to the
reinforcement system can provide may be estimated sound source as practical.
mathematically. This Potential Acoustic Gain
involves the distances between sound system com- 2) Keep the microphone as far away
ponents, the number of open mics, and other vari- from the loudspeaker as practical.
ables. The system will be sufficient if the calculated
Potential Acoustic Gain (PAG) is equal to or greater 3) Place the loudspeaker as close to the
than the Needed Acoustic Gain (NAG). Below is audience as practical.
an illustration showing the key distances.
4) Keep the number of microphones to
a minimum.
D1
D2
In particular, the logarithmic relationship means
that to make a 6dB change in the value of PAG
the corresponding distance must be doubled or
halved. For example, if a microphone is 1 ft.
Ds from an instrument, moving it to 2 ft. away will
decrease the gain-before-feedback by 6dB while
D0 moving it to 4 ft. away will decrease it by 12dB.
PAG On the other hand, moving it to 6 in. away
19
SOUND
REINFORCEMENT
increases gain-before-feedback by 6dB while create your desired sound. However, the desired
moving it to only 3 in. away will increase it by sound can often be achieved more quickly and
12dB. This is why the single most significant consistently by understanding basic microphone
factor in maximizing gain-before-feedback is to characteristics, sound-radiation properties of
place the microphone as close as practical to the musical instruments, and acoustic fundamentals
sound source. as presented above.
The NOM term in the PAG equation reflects the Here are some suggestions to follow when mik-
fact that gain-before-feedback decreases by 3dB ing musical instruments for sound reinforcement.
every time the number of open (active) micro-
phones doubles. For example, if a system has a • Try to get the sound source (instrument, voice,
PAG of 20dB with a single microphone, adding or amplifier) to sound good acoustically
a second microphone will decrease PAG to 17dB (“live”) before miking it.
and adding a third and fourth mic will decrease
PAG to 14dB. This is why the number of micro- • Use a microphone with a frequency response
S O U N D
phones should be kept to a minimum and why that is limited to the frequency range of the
unused microphones should be turned off or instrument, if possible, or filter out frequencies
attenuated. Essentially, the gain-before-feed- below the lowest fundamental frequency of the
back of a sound system can be evaluated strictly instrument.
on the relative location of sources, microphones,
loudspeakers, and audience, as well as the num- • To determine a good starting microphone posi-
ber of microphones, but without regard to the tion, try closing one ear with your finger.
actual type of component. Though quite simple, Listen to the sound source with the other ear
the results are very useful as a best case estimate. and move around until you find a spot that
sounds good. Put the microphone there.
However, this may not be practical (or healthy)
Understanding principles of basic acoustics can for extremely close placement near loud
help to create an awareness of potential influ- sources.
ences on reinforced sound and to provide some
insight into controlling them. When effects of • The closer a microphone is to a sound source,
this sort are encountered and are undesirable, it the louder the sound source is compared to
may be possible to adjust the sound source, use a reverberation and ambient noise. Also, the
microphone with a different directional charac- Potential Acoustic Gain is increased—that is,
teristic, reposition the microphone or use fewer the system can produce more level before feed-
microphones, or possibly use acoustic treatment back occurs. Each time the distance between
to improve the situation. Keep in mind that in the microphone and sound source is halved, the
most cases, acoustic problems can best be solved sound pressure level at the microphone (and
acoustically, not strictly by electronic devices. hence the system) will increase by 6 dB.
(Inverse Square Law)
General Rules
• Place the microphone only as close as neces-
Microphone technique is largely a matter of per- sary. Too close a placement can color the
sonal taste—whatever method sounds right for sound source’s tone quality (timbre), by pick-
the particular instrument, musician, and song ing up only one part of the instrument. Be
is right. There is no one ideal microphone to use aware of Proximity Effect with unidirectional
on any particular instrument. There is also no microphones and use bass rolloff if necessary.
one ideal way to place a microphone. Choose
and place the microphone to get the sound you • Use as few microphones as are necessary to get
want. We recommend experimenting with a a good sound. To do that, you can often pick
variety of microphones and positions until you up two or more sound sources with one micro-
20
S O U N D
MICROPHONE
SOUND
REINFORCEMENT
phone. Remember: every time the number of • To reduce “pop” (explosive breath sounds
microphones doubles, the Potential Acoustic occurring with the letters “p,” “b,” and “t”):
Gain of the sound system decreases by 3 dB.
This means that the volume level of the system 1) mic either closer or farther than 3
must be turned down for every extra mic added inches from the mouth (because the
in order to prevent feedback. In addition, the 3-inch distance is worst)
amount of noise picked up increases as does
the likelihood of interference effects such as 2) place the microphone out of the path
comb-filtering. of pop travel (to the side, above, or
below the mouth)
• When multiple microphones are used, the dis-
tance between microphones should be at least 3) use an omnidirectional microphone
three times the distance from each microphone
to its intended sound source. This will help 4) use a microphone with a pop filter.
eliminate phase cancellation. For example, if This pop filter can be a ball-type grille
two microphones are each placed one foot or an external foam windscreen
from their sound sources, the distance between
the microphones should be at least three feet. • If the sound from your loudspeakers is distort-
(3 to 1 Rule) ed even though you did not exceed a normal
mixer level, the microphone signal may be
• To reduce feedback and pickup of unwanted overloading your mixer’s input. To correct this
sounds: situation, use an in-line attenuator (such as the
Shure A15AS), or use the input attenuator on
1) place microphone as close as practical your mixer to reduce the signal level from the
to desired sound source microphone.
2) place microphone as far as practical

from unwanted sound sources such as Seasoned sound engineers have developed
loudspeakers and other instruments favorite microphone techniques through years of
experience. If you lack this experience, the sug-
3) aim unidirectional microphone toward gestions listed on the following pages should
desired sound source (on-axis) help you find a good starting point. These sug-
gestions are not the only possibilities; other
4) aim unidirectional microphone away microphones and positions may work as well or
from undesired sound source (180 better for your intended application.
degrees off-axis for cardioid, 126 Remember—Experiment and Listen!
degrees off-axis for supercardioid)
5) use minimum number of microphones
• To reduce handling noise and stand thumps:
1) use an accessory shock mount (such

as the Shure A55M)
2) use an omnidirectional microphone
3) use a unidirectional microphone with

a specially designed internal shock
mount
21
MICROPHONE
SOUND
REINFORCEMENT
Microphone Placement Tonal Balance Comments
Lead vocal:
Handheld or on stand, microphone Bassy, robust Minimizes feedback and leakage.

windscreen touching lips or just a (unless an omni Roll off bass if desired for more
few inches away is used) natural sound.
Backup vocals:
One microphone per singer. Bassy, robust Minimizes feedback and leakage. Allows
Handheld near chin or stand-mounted. (unless an omni is engineer control of voice balances. Roll
Touching lips or a few inches away used) off bass if necessary for more natural
S T R I N G S
sound when using cardioids.

Choral groups:
1 to 3 feet above and 2 to 4 feet in Full range, Use flat-response unidirectional micro-
front of the first row of the choir, good blend, phones, Use minimum number of
aimed toward the middle row(s) of semi-distant microphones needed to avoid overlap-
the choir, approximately 1 micro- ping pickup areas.
phone per 15-20 people
Miniature microphone clipped Natural, Good isolation. Allows freedom of

outside of sound hole well-balanced movement.
•
Miniature microphone clipped Bassy, less Reduces feedback.

inside sound hole string noise
V O C A L S
Acoustic guitar:
8 inches from sound hole Bassy Good starting placement when leakage
or feedback is a problem. Roll off bass
for a more natural sound (more for a
uni than an omni).
3 inches from sound hole Very bassy, boomy, Very good isolation. Bass rolloff
muddy, full needed for a natural sound.
4 to 8 inches from bridge Woody, warm, Reduces pick and string noise.
mellow. Midbasy,
lacks detail
6 inches above the side, over the Natural, well- Less pickup of ambience and leakage
bridge, and even with the front balanced, than 3 feet from sound hole.
soundboard slightly bright
miniature microphone clipped Natural, well- Good isolation. Allows freedom of

outside of sound hole balanced movement.
miniature microphone clipped Bassy, less Reduces feedback.

inside sound hole string noise
22
MICROPHONE
SOUND
REINFORCEMENT
Banjo:
3 inches from center of head Bassy, thumpy Rejects feedback and leakage.
Roll off bass for natural sound.
3 inches from edge of head Bright Rejects feedback and leakage.
Miniature microphone clipped to Natural Rejects feedback and leakage. Allows

tailpiece aiming at bridge freedom of movement.
Violin (fiddle):
A few inches from side Natural Well-balanced sound.
Cello:
1 foot from bridge Well-defined Well-balanced sound, but little isolation.
S T R I N G S
General string instruments (mandolin, dobro and dulcimer):
Miniature microphone attached to Bright Minimizes feedback and leakage.

strings between bridge and tailpiece Allows freedom of movement.
Acoustic bass (upright bass, string bass, bass violin):
6 inches to 1 foot out front, just Well-defined Natural sound.

above bridge
A few inches from f-hole Full Roll off bass if sound is too boomy.
Wrap microphone in foam padding Full, “tight” Minimizes feedback and leakage.
(except for grille) and put behind
bridge or between tailpiece and body
Harp:
Aiming toward player at part of Natural See “Stereo Microphone Techniques”

soundboard, about 2 feet away section for other possibilities.
Tape miniature microphone to Somewhat Minimizes feedback and leakage.

soundboard constricted
23
MICROPHONE
SOUND
REINFORCEMENT
Grand piano:
12 inches above middle strings, 8 Natural, Less pickup of ambience and

inches horizontally from hammers well-balanced leakage. Move microphone(s) far-
with lid off or at full stick ther from hammers to reduce attack
and mechanical noises. Good coinci-
dent-stereo placement. See “Stereo
Microphone Techniques” section.
8 inches above treble strings, as Natural, well- Place one microphone over bass
above balanced, strings and one over treble strings for
slightly bright stereo. Phase cancellations may occur
if the recording is heard in mono.
Aiming into sound holes Thin, dull, hard, Very good isolation. Sometimes
constricted sounds good for rock music. Boost
mid-bass and treble for more natural
sound.
S T R I N G S
6 inches over middle strings, Muddy, boomy, Improves isolation. Bass rolloff and
8 inches from hammers, with lid on dull, lacks attack some treble boost required for more
short stick natural sound.
Next to the underside of raised lid, Bassy, full Unobtrusive placement.

centered on lid
Underneath the piano, aiming up at Bassy, dull, full Unobtrusive placement.

the soundboard
Surface-mount microphone mounted Bright, well- Excellent isolation. Experiment

on underside of lid over lower treble balanced with lid height and microphone
strings, horizontally close to ham- placement on piano lid for desired
mers for brighter sound, further from sounds.
hammers for more mellow sound
Two surface-mount microphones Bright, well- Excellent isolation. Moving “low”

positioned on the closed lid, under the balanced, strong mic away from keyboard six inches
edge at its keyboard edge, approxi- attack provides truer reproduction of the
mately 2/3 of the distance from mid- bass strings while reducing damper
dle A to each end of the keyboard noise. By splaying these two mics
outward slightly, the overlap in the
middle registers can be minimized.
Surface-mount microphone placed Full, natural Excellent isolation. Minimizes

vertically on the inside of the frame, hammer and damper noise. Best if
or rim, of the piano, at or near the used in conjunction with two sur-
apex of the piano’s curved wall face-mount microphones mounted
to closed lid, as above.
24
MICROPHONE
SOUND
REINFORCEMENT
Upright piano:
Just over open top, above treble Natural (but Good placement when only one
S T R I N G S
strings lacks deep bass), microphone is used.
picks up ham-
mer attack
Just over open top, above bass Slightly full or Mike bass and treble strings for
strings tubby, picks up stereo.
hammer attack
Inside top near the bass and Natural, picks up Minimizes feedback and leakage.
treble stings hammer attack Use two microphones for stereo.
8 inches from bass side of Full, slightly Use this placement with the
soundboard tubby, no following placement for stereo.
•
hammer attack
8 inches from treble side of Thin, constricted, Use this placement with the
W I N D
soundboard no hammer attack preceding placement for stereo.
1 foot from center of soundboard on Natural, good Minimize pickup of floor vibrations
hard floor or one-foot-square plate presence by mounting microphone in low-
on carpeted floor, aiming at piano. profile shock-mounted microphone
Soundboard should face into room stand.
Aiming at hammers from front, sever- Bright, picks up Mike bass and treble strings for
I N S T R U M E N T S
al inches away (remove front panel) hammer attack stereo.
Brass (trumpet, cornet, trombone, tuba):
The sound from these instruments is very directional. Placing the mic off axis with the bell
of the instrument will result in less pickup of high frequencies.
1 to 2 feet from bell. A couple of On-axis to bell Close miking sounds “tight” and
instruments can play into one sounds bright; to minimizes feedback and leakage.
microphone one side sounds More distant placement gives fuller,
natural or mellow more dramatic sound.
Miniature microphone mounted Bright Maximum isolation.

on bell
25
MICROPHONE
SOUND
REINFORCEMENT
French horn:
Microphone aiming toward bell Natural Watch out for extreme fluctuations
on VU meter.
Saxophone:
With the saxophone, the sound is fairly well distributed between the finger holes and the bell.
Miking close to the finger holes will result in key noise. The soprano sax must be considered
separately because its bell does not curve upward. This means that, unlike all other saxo-
phones, placing a microphone toward the middle of the instrument will not pick-up the sound
from the key holes and the bell simultaneously. The saxophone has sound characteristics sim-
ilar to the human voice. Thus, a shaped response microphone designed for voice works well.
A few inches from and aiming into bell Bright Minimizes feedback and leakage.
A few inches from sound holes Warm, full Picks up fingering noise.
A few inches above bell and aiming Natural Good recording technique.
at sound holes
Miniature microphone mounted on bell Bright, punchy Maximum isolation, up-front sound.
Flute:
The sound energy from a flute is projected both by the embouchure and by the first open
fingerhole. For good pickup, place the mic as close as possible to the instrument. However,
if the mic is too close to the mouth, breath noise will be apparent. Use a windscreen on the
mic to overcome this difficulty.
W I N D
A few inches from area between Natural, breathy Pop filter or windscreen may be
mouthpiece and first set of finger holes required on microphone.
A few inches behind player’s head,

aiming at finger holes Natural Reduces breath noise.
Woodwinds (Oboe, bassoon, etc):
About 1 foot from sound holes Natural Provides well-balanced sound.
A few inches from bell Bright Minimizes feedback and leakage.
26
MICROPHONE
SOUND
REINFORCEMENT
Harmonica:
W I N D
Very close to instrument Full, bright Minimizes feedback and leakage.
Microphone may be cupped in hands.
Accordion:
Miniature microphone mounted Emphasized Minimizes feedback and leakage.

internally midrange Allows freedom of movement.
•
Electric guitar amplifier/speaker:
The electric guitar has sound characteristics similar to the human voice. Thus, a shaped
response microphone designed for voice works well.
E L E C T R I C
4 inches from grille cloth at center Natural, well- Small microphone desk stand may be
of speaker cone balanced used if loudspeaker is close to floor.
1 inch from grille cloth at center of Bassy Minimizes feedback and leakage.
speaker cone
Off-center with respect to speaker Dull or mellow Microphone closer to edge of

cone speaker cone results in duller sound.
Reduces amplifier hiss noise.
3 feet from center of speaker cone Thin, reduced Picks up more room ambience and
bass leakage.
Miniature microphone draped over Emphasized Easy setup, minimizes leakage.
amp in front of speaker midrange
Microphone placed behind open Depends on Can be combined with mic in front
back cabinet position of cabinet, but be careful of phase
cancellation.
Bass guitar amplifier/speaker:
Mike speaker as described in Depends on Improve clarity by cutting

Electric Guitar Amplifier section placement frequencies around 250 Hz and
boosting around 1,500 Hz.
Electric keyboard amplifier/speakers:
Mike speaker as described in Depends on Roll off bass for clarity, roll off
Electric Guitar Amplifier section brand of piano highs to reduce hiss.
27
MICROPHONE
SOUND
REINFORCEMENT
Leslie organ speaker:
Aim one microphone into top Natural, lacks Good one-mike pickup.
louvers 3 inches to 1 foot away deep bass
Mike top louvers and bottom bass Natural, well- Excellent overall sound.
speaker 3 inches to 1 foot away balanced
Mike top louvers with two micro- Natural, Stereo effect.

phones, one close to each side. Pan well-balanced
to left and right. Mike bottom bass
speaker 3 inches to 1 foot away and
pan its signal to center
K I T
D R U M
Front View Top View
Drum kit:
In most sound reinforcement systems, the drum set is miked with each drum having its own
mic. Using microphones with tight polar patterns on toms helps to isolate the sound from each
drum. It is possible to share one mic with two toms, but then, a microphone with a wider
polar pattern should be used. The snare requires a mic that can handle very high SPL, so a
dynamic mic is usually chosen. To avoid picking up the hi-hat in the snare mic, aim the null
of the snare mic towards the hi-hat. The brilliance and high frequencies of cymbals are picked
up best by a flat response condenser mic.
1. Overhead-Cymbals:
One microphone over center of drum Natural; sounds Picks up ambience and leakage. For
set, about 1 foot above drummer’s like drummer cymbal pickup only, roll off low fre-
head (Position A); or use two spaced hears set quencies. Boost at 10,000 Hz for
or crossed microphones for stereo added sizzle. To reduce excessive
(Positions A or B). See “Stereo cymbal ringing, apply masking tape
Microphone Techniques” section in radial strips from bell to rim.
28
MICROPHONE
SOUND
REINFORCEMENT
2. Snare drum:
Just above top head at edge of Full, smooth Tape gauze pad or handkerchief on
drum, aiming at top head. Coming top head to tighten sound. Boost at
in from front of set on boom 5,000 Hz for attack, if necessary.
(Position C); or miniature micro-
phone mounted directly on drum
3. Bass drum (kick drum):
Placing a pad of paper towels where the beater hits the drum will lessen boominess. If you
get rattling or buzzing problems with the drum, put masking tape across the drum head to
damp out these nuisances. Placing the mic off center will pick up more overtones.
Remove front head if necessary. Full, good Put pillow or blanket on bottom of
Mount microphone on boom arm impact drum against beater head to tighten
inside drum a few inches from beater beat. Use wooden beater, or loosen
head, about 1/3 of way in from edge head, or boost around 2,500 Hz for
D R U M
of head (Position D); or place sur- more impact and punch.
face-mount microphone inside drum,
on damping material, with micro-
phone element facing beater head
4. Tom-toms:
K I T
One microphone between every two Full, good Inside drum gives best isolation.
tom-toms, close to top heads (Position impact Boost at 5,000 Hz for attack, if
E); or one microphone just above necessary.
each tom-tom rim, aiming at top
head (Position F); or one microphone
inside each tom-tom with bottom
head removed; or miniature micro-
phone mounted directly on drum
5. Hi-hat:
Aim microphone down towards the Natural, bright Place microphone or adjust cymbal
cymbals, a few inches over edge height so that puff of air from closing
away from drummer (Position G). hi-hat cymbals misses mike. Roll off
Or angle snare drum microphone bass to reduce low-frequency leak-
slightly toward hi-hat to pick up age. To reduce hi-hate leakage into
both snare and hi-hat snare-drum microphone, use small
cymbals vertically spaced 1/2” apart.
29
MICROPHONE
SOUND
REINFORCEMENT
6. Snare, hi-hat and high tom:
Place single microphone a few inch- Natural In combination with Placements 3

es from snare drum edge, next to and 7, provides good pickup with
high tom, just above top head of tom. minimum number of microphones.
Microphone comes in from front of Tight sound with little leakage.
the set on a boom (Position H)
7. Cymbals, floor tom and high tom:
Using single microphone, place its Natural In combination with Placements 3

grille just above floor tom, aiming and 6, provides good pickup with
up toward cymbals and one of high minimum number of microphones.
tomes (Position I) Tight sound with little leakage.
K I T
One microphone: Use Placement 1. Placement 6 may work if the drummer limits playing to
one side of the drum set.
D R U M
Two microphones: Placements 1 and 3; or 3 and 6.
Three microphones: Placements 1, 2, and 3; or 3, 6, and 7.
Four microphones: Placements 1, 2, 3, and 4.
Five microphones: Placements 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.
More microphones: Increase number of tom-tom microphones as needed. Use a small micro-
phone mixer (such as the Shure M268) to submix multiple drum microphones into one channel.
Timbales, congas, bongos:
One microphone aiming down Natural Provides full sound with good
between pair of drums, just above attack.
top heads
Tambourine:
One microphone placed 6 to 12 Natural Experiment with distance and

inches from instrument angles if sound is too bright.
30
MICROPHONE
SOUND
REINFORCEMENT
Steel Drums:
Tenor, Second Pan, Guitar

One microphone placed 4 inches Bright, with Allow clearance for movement of pan.
above each pan plenty of attack
Microphone placed underneath pan Decent if used for tenor or second pans.
Too boomy with lower voiced pans.
Cello, Bass
One microphone placed 4 - 6 Natural Can double up pans to a single
inches above each pan microphone.
D R U M
Xylophone, marimba, vibraphone:
Two microphones aiming down Natural Pan two microphones to left and right
toward instrument, about 1 1/2 feet for stereo. See “Stereo Microphone
above it, spaced 2 feet apart, or angled Techniques” section.
135 º apart with grilles touching
K I T / S T A G E
Glockenspiel:
One microphone placed 4 - 6 inches Bright, with lots For less attack, use rubber mallets
above bars of attack. instead of metal mallets. Plastic
mallets will give a medium attack.
Stage area miking Tonal Balance Comments
Downstage:
Surface-mount microphones along
front of stage aimed upstage, one Voice range, Use flat response, unidirectional
microphone center stage; use stage semi-distant microphones. Use minimum num-
left and stage right mics as needed, ber of microphones needed to avoid
approximately 1 per 10-15 feet overlapping pickup area. Use shock
mount if needed.
Upstage:
Microphones suspended 8 -10 feet
above stage aimed upstage, one Voice range, Use flat response, unidirectional
microphone center stage; use stage semi-distant microphones. Use minimum
left and stage right mics as needed, number of microphones needed to
approximately 1 per 10-15 feet avoid overlapping pickup area.
Spot pickup:
Use wireless microphones on
principal actors; mics concealed in Voice range, Multiple wireless systems must
set; “shotgun” microphones from on mic utilize different frequencies. Use
above or below lavaliere or handheld microphones
as appropriate.
31
T E C H N I Q U E S MICROPHONE
SOUND
REINFORCEMENT
Stereo Microphone Techniques
These methods are recommended for pickup of For sound reinforcement, stereo mic techniques
orchestras, bands, choirs, pipe organs, quartets, are only warranted for a stereo sound system and
soloists. They also may work for jazz ensem- even then, they are generally only effective for
bles, and are often used on overhead drums and large individual instruments, such as piano or
close-miked piano. miramba, or small instrument groups, such as
drum kit, string section or vocal chorus.
Use two microphones mounted on a single stand Relatively close placement is necessary to
with a stereo microphone stand adapter (such as achieve useable gain-before-feedback.
M I C R O P H O N E
the Shure A27M). Or mount 2 or 3 microphones

on separate stands. Set the microphones in the
desired stereo pickup arrangement (see below).
Coincident Techniques Comments Musical Ensemble

Microphone diaphragms Tends to provide a narrow
close together and aligned stereo spread (the reproduced
vertically; microphones ensemble does not always
angled apart. Example: spread all the way between the
1350 angling (X-Y). pair of playback loud-speak-
ers). Good imaging. Mono-
compatible.
(Top View)
MS (Mid-Side) Comments Musical Ensemble

S T E R E O
A front-facing cardioid car- Provides good stereo spread,

tridge and a side-facing bidi- excellent stereo imaging and
rectional cartridge are mount- localization. Some types allow
ed in a single housing. Their adjustable stereo control.
outputs are combined in a Mono-compatible.
matrix circuit to yield discrete
left and right outputs.
(Top View)
Near-Coincident
Techniques Comments Musical Ensemble
Microphones angled and Tends to provide accurate
spaced apart 6 to 10 inches image localization.
between grilles. Examples:
110 0 angled, 7-inch spacing.
(Top View)
32
S T E R E O
MICROPHONE
SOUND
REINFORCEMENT
Spaced Techniques Comments Musical Ensemble
Two microphones spaced Tends to provide exaggerated
M I C R O P H O N E
several feet apart horizontal- separation unless microphone
ly, both aiming straight ahead spacing is 3 feet. However,
toward ensemble. Example: spacing the microphones 10
Microphones 3 to 10 feet feet apart improves overall
apart. coverage. Produces vague
imaging for off-center sound
sources. Provides a “warm” (Top View)
sense of ambience.
Three microphones spaced Improved localization com- Musical Ensemble

several feet apart horizontal- pared to two spaced micro-
ly, aiming straight ahead phones.
toward ensemble. Center
microphone signal is split
equally to both channels.
Example: Microphones 5
feet apart.
T E C H N I Q U E S
(Top View)
33
G U I D E V O C A L S
PERFORMANCE PERFORMANCE HEADWORN STUDIO ENSEMBLE
VOCAL (dynamic) VOCAL (condenser) VOCAL VOCAL VOCAL
BETA 58A™ BETA 87® WH10XLR SM81 SM81
SM58 SM87 SM10A SM7 SM94
BETA 57A™ BG5.1 SM12A BETA 87® BG4.1
SM57 512 SM87
BG3.1 BG5.1
BG2.1
S E L E C T I O N
BG1.1
GUITAR BASS KICK SNARE TOMS
AMPLIFIER AMPLIFIER DRUM DRUM RACK & FLOOR
BETA 56™ BETA 52™ BETA 52™ BETA 57A™ SM98A1
BETA 57A™ SM7 SM91A BETA 56™ BETA 57A™
SM57 BETA 57A™ BETA 57A™ SM57 BETA 56™
BG3.1 BETA 56™ SM57 BG3.1 SM57
BG2.1 SM57 BG6.1
BG6.1
OVERHEAD CONGA MALLET MARIMBA & OTHER PIANO2

CYMBALS HIGH HAT2 INSTRUMENTS2 PERCUSSION2
M I C R O P H O N E
SM81 SM98A SM81 SM81 SM81

SM94 BETA 56™ SM94 BETA 57A™ SM91
BG4.1 BETA 57A™ BG4.1 SM57 BG4.1
SM57
STRINGS ACOUSTIC BRASS WOODWINDS SAXAPHONE

BASS INSTRUMENTS
SM81 BETA 52™ SM98A3 SM81 SM98A3
SM94 SM81 BETA 56™ SM98A SM7
BG4.1 SM94 BETA 57A™ BG4.1 BETA 56™
SM114 BG4.1 SM57 BETA 57A™
SM98A4 SM57
ACOUSTIC HARMONICA LESLIE ORCHESTRA2 LIVE CONCERT

GUITAR SPEAKER RECORDING OR
STEREO
S H U R E
PICKUP/AMBIENCE2
SM81 520D “Green Bullet” BETA 57A™ SM81 SM81 (pair)
SM94 SM57 BETA 56™ SM94 SM94 (pair)
BG4.1 SM58 SM57 BG4.1 BG4.1 (pair)
BETA 57A™ BG3.1 VP88
SM57 SM91A
SM114
This guide is an aid in selecting microphones for various applications. Microphone sound quality and
SAMPLING KARAOKE appearance are subject to specific, acoustic environments, application technique and personal taste.
SM81 SM58S
1
With A98MK drum mount kit.
2
For single point stereo miking, use VP88 MS Stereo Microphone.
SM94 565 3
Bell-mounted with A98KCS clamp.
4
With RK279 mounting kit for instrument applications.
BG4.1 BG3.1
BG2.1
BG1.1 (Hi or Lo Z)
34
G L O S S A R Y
MICROPHONE
SOUND
REINFORCEMENT
3-to-1 Rule-When using multiple microphones, Close Pickup-Microphone placement within 2

the distance between microphones should be at feet of a sound source.
least 3 times the distance from each microphone
to its intended sound source. Comb Filtering-An interference effect in which
the frequency response exhibits regular deep
Absorption-The dissipation of sound energy by notches.
losses due to sound absorbent materials.
Condenser Microphone-A microphone that
Active Circuitry-Electrical circuitry which generates an electrical signal when sound waves
requires power to operate, such as transistors and vary the spacing between two charged surfaces:
vacuum tubes. the diaphragm and the backplate.
Ambience-Room acoustics or natural Critical Distance-In acoustics, the distance from

reverberation. a sound source in a room at which the direct
sound level is equal to the reverberant sound
Amplitude-The strength or level of sound level.
pressure or voltage.
Current-Charge flowing in an electrical circuit.
Audio Chain-The series of interconnected audio Analogous to the amount of a fluid flowing in a
equipment used for recording or PA. pipe.
Backplate-The solid conductive disk that forms Decibel (dB)-A number used to express relative
the fixed half of a condenser element. output sensitivity. It is a logarithmic ratio.
Balanced-A circuit that carries information by Diaphragm-The thin membrane in a microphone

means of two equal but opposite polarity signals, which moves in response to sound waves.
on two conductors.
Diffraction-The bending of sound waves around
Bidirectional Microphone-A microphone that an object which is physically smaller than the
picks up equally from two opposite directions. wavelength of the sound.
The angle of best rejection is 90 deg. from the
front (or rear) of the microphone, that is, directly Direct Sound-Sound which travels by a straight
at the sides. path from a sound source to a microphone or
listener.
Boundary/Surface Microphone-A microphone
designed to be mounted on an acoustically reflec- Distance Factor-The equivalent operating
tive surface. distance of a directional microphone compared
to an omnidirectional microphone to achieve the
Cardioid Microphone-A unidirectional micro- same ratio of direct to reverberant sound.
phone with moderately wide front pickup (131
deg.). Angle of best rejection is 180 deg. from the Distant Pickup-Microphone placement farther
front of the microphone, that is, directly at the than 2 feet from the sound source.
rear.
Dynamic Microphone-A microphone that
Cartridge (Transducer)-The element in a generates an electrical signal when sound waves
microphone that converts acoustical energy cause a conductor to vibrate in a magnetic field.
(sound) into electrical energy (the signal). In a moving-coil microphone, the conductor is a
coil of wire attached to the diaphragm.
35
G L O S S A R Y MICROPHONE
SOUND
REINFORCEMENT
Dynamic Range-The range of amplitude of a Harmonic-Frequency components above the

sound source or the range of sound level that a fundamental of a complex waveform. They are
microphone can successfully pick up. generally multiples of the fundamental which
establish the timbre or tone of the note.
Echo-Reflection of sound that is delayed long
enough (more than about 50 msec.) to be heard Hypercardioid-A unidirectional microphone
as a distinct repetition of the original sound. with tighter front pickup (105 deg.) than a
supercardioid, but with more rear pickup. Angle
Electret-A material (such as Teflon) that can of best rejection is about 110 deg. from the front
retain a permanent electric charge. of the microphone.
EQ-Equalization or tone control to shape Impedance-In an electrical circuit, opposition to

frequency response in some desired way. the flow of alternating current, measured in ohms.
A high impedance microphone has an impedance
Feedback-In a PA system consisting of a of 10,000 ohms or more. A low impedance
microphone, amplifier, and loudspeaker feedback microphone has an impedance of 50 to 600 ohms.
is the ringing or howling sound caused by ampli-
fied sound from the loudspeaker entering the Interference-Destructive combining of sound
microphone and being re-amplified. waves or electrical signals due to phase differences.
Flat Response-A frequency response that is Inverse Square Law-States that direct sound
uniform and equal at all frequencies. levels increase (or decrease) by an amount pro-
portional to the square of the change in distance.
Frequency-The rate of repetition of a cyclic
phenomenon such as a sound wave. Isolation-Freedom from leakage; ability to reject
unwanted sounds.
Frequency Response Tailoring Switch-A switch
on a microphone that affects the tone quality Leakage-Pickup of an instrument by a micro-
reproduced by the microphone by means of an phone intended to pick up another instrument.
equalization circuit. (Similar to a bass or treble Creative leakage is artistically favorable leakage
control on a hi-fi receiver.) that adds a “loose” or “live” feel to a recording.
Frequency Response-A graph showing how a NAG-Needed Acoustic Gain is the amount of
microphone responds to various sound frequen- gain that a sound system must provide for a
cies. It is a plot of electrical output (in decibels) distant listener to hear as if he or she was close to
vs. frequency (in Hertz). the unamplified sound source.
Fundamental-The lowest frequency component Noise-Unwanted electrical or acoustic interference.

of a complex waveform such as musical note. It
establishes the basic pitch of the note. Noise Canceling-A microphone that rejects
ambient or distant sound.
Gain-Amplification of sound level or voltage.
NOM-Number of open microphones in a sound
Gain-Before-Feedback-The amount of gain that system. Decreases gain-before-feedback by 3dB
can be achieved in a sound system before everytime NOM doubles.
feedback or ringing occurs.
36
G L O S S A R Y
MICROPHONE
SOUND
REINFORCEMENT
Omnidirectional Microphone-A microphone that Presence Peak-An increase in microphone output

picks up sound equally well from all directions. in the “presence” frequency range of 2000 Hz to
10,000 Hz. A presence peak increases clarity,
Overload-Exceeding the signal level capability of articulation, apparent closeness, and “punch.”
a microphone or electrical circuit.
Proximity Effect-The increase in bass occurring
PAG-Potential Acoustic Gain is the calculated with most unidirectional microphones when they
gain that a sound system can achieve at or just are placed close to an instrument or vocalist
below the point of feedback. (within 1 ft.). Does not occur with omnidirectional
microphones.
Phantom Power-A method of providing power
to the electronics of a condenser microphone Rear Lobe-A region of pickup at the rear of a
through the microphone cable. supercardioid or hypercardioid microphone polar
pattern. A bidirectional microphone has a rear
Phase-The “time” relationship between cycles of lobe equal to its front pickup.
different waves.
Reflection-The bouncing of sound waves back
Pickup Angle / Coverage Angle-The effective from an object or surface which is physically
arc of coverage of a microphone, usually taken to larger than the wavelength of the sound.
be within the 3dB down points in its directional
response. Refraction-The bending of sound waves by a
change in the density of the transmission medium,
Pitch-The fundamental or basic frequency of a such as temperature gradients in air due to wind.
musical note.
Resistance-The opposition to the flow of current
Polar Pattern (Directional Pattern, Polar in an electrical circuit. It is analogous to the
Response)-A graph showing how the sensitivity friction of fluid flowing in a pipe.
of a microphone varies with the angle of the
sound source, at a particular frequency. Examples Reverberation-The reflection of a sound a
of polar patterns are unidirectional and omnidirec- sufficient number of times that it becomes
tional. non-directional and persists for some time
after the source has stopped. The amount of
Polarization-The charge or voltage on a reverberation depends on the relative amount of
condenser microphone element. sound reflection and absorption in the room.
Pop Filter-An acoustically transparent shield Rolloff-A gradual decrease in response below or
around a microphone cartridge that reduces above some specified frequency.
popping sounds. Often a ball-shaped grille, foam
cover or fabric barrier. Sensitivity-The electrical output that a micro-
phone produces for a given sound pressure level.
Pop-A thump of explosive breath sound produced
when a puff of air from the mouth strikes the Shaped Response-A frequency response that
microphone diaphragm. Occurs most often with exhibits significant variation from flat within
“p,” “t,” and “b” sounds. its range. It is usually designed to enhance the
sound for a particular application.
37
G L O S S A R Y MICROPHONE
SOUND
REINFORCEMENT
Sound Chain-The series of interconnected audio Transducer-A device that converts one form of
equipment used for recording or PA. energy to another. A microphone transducer
(cartridge) converts acoustical energy (sound)
Sound Reinforcement-Amplification of live into electrical energy (the audio signal).
sound sources.
Transient Response-The ability of a device to
Speed of Sound-The speed of sound waves, respond to a rapidly changing input.
about 1130 feet per second in air.
Unbalanced-A circuit that carries information by
SPL-Sound Pressure Level is the loudness of means of one signal on a single conductor.
sound relative to a reference level of 0.0002
microbars. Unidirectional Microphone-A microphone that
is most sensitive to sound coming from a single
Standing Wave-A stationary sound wave that is direction-in front of the microphone. Cardioid,
reinforced by reflection between two parallel supercardioid, and hypercardioid microphones are
surfaces that are spaced a wavelength apart. examples of unidirectional microphones.
Supercardioid Microphone-A unidirectional Voice Coil-Small coil of wire attached to the

microphone with tighter front pickup angle (115 diaphragm of a dynamic microphone.
deg.) than a cardioid , but with some rear pickup.
Angle of best rejection is 126 deg. from the front Voltage-The potential difference in an electric
of the microphone, that is, 54 deg. from the rear. circuit. Analogous to the pressure on fluid flow-
ing in a pipe.
Timbre-The characteristic tone of a voice or
instrument; a function of harmonics. Wavelength-The physical distance between the
start and end of one cycle of a soundwave.
38
A B O U T
MICROPHONE
SOUND
REINFORCEMENT
RICK WALLER Now residing in the others affiliated with the field use technology
Chicago area, Rick grew up near Peoria, Illinois. to better fulfill their artistic interpretations.
T H E
An interest in the technical and musical aspects John continues to pursue his interests as a
of audio has led him to pursue a career as live and recorded sound engineer for local
both engineer and musician. He received a bands and venues, as well as writing and
BS degree in Electrical Engineering from the recording for his own band.
A U T H O R S
University of Illinois at Urbana/Champaign,
where he specialized in acoustics, audio TIM VEAR Tim is a native of Chicago
synthesis and radio frequency theory. Rick is who has come to the audio field as a way of com-
an avid keyboardist, drummer and home bining a lifelong interest in both entertainment
theater hobbyist and has also worked as a and science. He has worked as an engineer in live
sound engineer and disc jockey. Currently he sound, recording and broadcast, has operated his
is an associate in the Applications Engineering own recording studio and sound company, and has
Group at Shure Brothers. In this capacity Rick played music professionally since high school.
provides technical support to domestic and At the University of Illinois, Urbana-
international customers, writing and conducting Champaign, Tim earned a BS in Aeronautical
seminars on wired and wireless microphones, and Astronautical Engineering with a minor in
mixers and other audio topics. Electrical Engineering. During this time he also
worked as chief technician for both the Speech
JOHN BOUDREAU John, a life- and Hearing Science and Linguistics departments.
long Chicago native, has had extensive In his tenure at Shure Brothers, Tim has
experience as a musician, a recording engineer, served in a technical support role for the sales and
and a composer. His desire to better combine marketing departments, providing product and
the artistic and technical aspects of music led applications training for Shure customers, dealers,
him to a career in the audio field. installers, and company staff. He has presented
Having received a BS degree in Music seminars for a variety of domestic and international
Business from Elmhurst College, John audiences, including the National Systems
performed and composed for both a Jazz and contractors Association, the Audio Engineering
a Rock band prior to joining Shure Brothers Society and the Society of Broadcast Engineers.
in 1994 as an associate in the Applications Tim has authored several publications for
Engineering group. At Shure, John leads Shure Brothers and his articles have appeared
many audio product training seminars and in Recording Engineer/Producer, Live Sound
clinics, with an eye to helping musicians and Engineering, Creator, and other publications.
39
A D D I T I O N A L
S H U R E P U B L I C A T I O N S
A V A I L A B L E :
• Introduction to Wireless Systems

• Shure’s Selection and Operation of Wireless
Microphone Systems
• The Shure Guide to Better Audio
(for video production)
• Shure’s Microphone Selection and
Application for Church Sound Systems
• Shure’s Microphone Techniques for Music—
Recording
These booklets are all available free of charge,

as are product brochures on all Shure sound
reinforcement products. To request your
complimentary copies, call one of the phone
numbers listed below.
O U R D E D I C A T I O N
T O Q U A L I T Y P R O D U C T S
Shure offers a complete line of microphones

and wireless microphone systems for everyone
from first-time users to professionals in the
music industry— for nearly every possible
application.
For over seven decades, the Shure name has

been synonymous with quality audio.
All Shure products are designed to provide
consistent, high-quality performance under the
most extreme real-life operating conditions.
Shure Brothers Incorporated

222 Hartrey Avenue, Evanston, Illinois U.S.A. 60202-3696
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Microphone Techniques For Music Sound Reinforcement

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Microphone Techniques For Music Sound Reinforcement

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MICROPHONE

TECHNIQUES FOR MUSIC

MUSICAL INSTRUMENT CHARACTERISTICS . . . . . . .11

ACOUSTIC CHARACTERISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14

MICROPHONE PLACEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22

STEREO MICROPHONE TECHNIQUES . . . . . . . . . . .32

MICROPHONE SELECTION GUIDE . . . . . . . . . . . . .34

cation. “Undesired” sound may mean the direct microphone.

Obtaining the proper balance of these factors

Because the voltage is exactly the same on Pin 2

All condensers contain additional active circuitry

In order for a microphone to convert sound

the diaphragm and voice coil assembly of a

where 20 is a constant, V1 is one voltage, V2 is

Flat response microphones typically have an

That is, 100 volts is 40dB greater

What is the relationship in decibels

Decibel scale The omnidirectional microphone has equal

The choice of flat or shaped response micro-

The bidirectional microphone has maximum

Unidirectional microphones have several

Both patterns offer narrower front pickup angles

The electrical output of a microphone is

The output impedance of a microphone is rough-

Directional output - the three-dimensional pat-

A musical instrument radiates a different tone

quality (timbre) in every direction, and each part

On the other hand, a microphone placed close to

gain-before-feed- CYM BAL

on carpets can reduce brightness, while raising Intensity Level in Decibels

appear as a smooth, regular variation of pressure pressure. This is 70

The frequency molecules compress- 0

ations or cycles. 0 AMPLITUDE human ear. The

berant, or “bottom of the barrel”. The reflected between the origi-

decreases but seems to be constant. That dis- will have of phase” +1

The phase of a are three possibilities for the resulting wave: a

It is the last case which is most likely in musical

With microphones this effect can occur in two

Another possibility is phase reversal. If there is

2) place microphone as far as practical

5) use minimum number of microphones

• To reduce handling noise and stand thumps:

1) use an accessory shock mount (such

2) use an omnidirectional microphone

3) use a unidirectional microphone with

Handheld or on stand, microphone Bassy, robust Minimizes feedback and leakage.

sound when using cardioids.

Miniature microphone clipped Natural, Good isolation. Allows freedom of

Miniature microphone clipped Bassy, less Reduces feedback.

miniature microphone clipped Natural, well- Good isolation. Allows freedom of

miniature microphone clipped Bassy, less Reduces feedback.

3 inches from edge of head Bright Rejects feedback and leakage.

Miniature microphone clipped to Natural Rejects feedback and leakage. Allows

A few inches from side Natural Well-balanced sound.

1 foot from bridge Well-defined Well-balanced sound, but little isolation.

Miniature microphone attached to Bright Minimizes feedback and leakage.

Acoustic bass (upright bass, string bass, bass violin):

6 inches to 1 foot out front, just Well-defined Natural sound.

Aiming toward player at part of Natural See “Stereo Microphone Techniques”

Tape miniature microphone to Somewhat Minimizes feedback and leakage.

12 inches above middle strings, 8 Natural, Less pickup of ambience and

Next to the underside of raised lid, Bassy, full Unobtrusive placement.