Instructors Manual Table of Contents

for

Biology 10e by Sylvia Mader

1 PART I 2 3 4 " $ ( * PART II 1. 11 12 13 14 PART III 1" 1$ 1( 1* 1PART IV 2. 21 22 PART V 23 24 2" 2$ 2( A View of Life THE CELL Basic Chemistry The Chemistry of Organic Molecules Cell Structure an !unction Mem#rane Structure an !unction Meta#olism% &nergy an &n'ymes )hotosynthesis Cellular +es,iration GENETIC BASIS OF LIFE The Cell Cycle an Cellular +e,ro uction Meiosis an Se/ual +e,ro uction Men elian )atterns of 0nheritance Molecular Biology of the 1ene +egulation of 1ene Acti2ity Biotechnology an 1enomics EVOLUTION 3arwin an &2olution 4ow )o,ulations &2ol2e S,eciation an Macroe2olution Origin an 4istory of Life Systematics an )hylogeny MICROBIOLOGY AN EVOLUTION Viruses5 Bacteria5 an Archaea )rotist &2olution an 3i2ersity &2olution an 3i2ersity of !ungi PLANT EVOLUTION AN BIOLOGY )lant &2olution an 3i2ersity !lowering )lants% Structure an Organi'ation !lowering )lants% 6utrition an Trans,ort !lowering )lants% Control of 1rowth an +es,onses !lowering )lants% +e,ro uction

PART VI 2* 23.

ANIMAL EVOLUTION AN 0n2erte#rate &2olution Verte#rate &2olution 4uman &2olution

IVERSITY

PART VII COMPARATIVE ANIMAL BIOLOGY 31 32 33 34 3" 3$ 3( 3* 34. 41 42 Animal Organi'ation an 4omeostasis Circulation an Car io2ascular Systems Lym,h Trans,ort an 0mmunity 3igesti2e Systems an 6utrition +es,iratory Systems Bo y !lui +egulation an &/cretory Systems 6eurons an 6er2ous Systems Sense Organs Locomotion an Su,,ort Systems 4ormones an &n ocrine Systems +e,ro ucti2e Systems Animal 3e2elo,ment

PART VIII BEHAVIOR AN ECOLOGY 43 44 4" 4$ 4( Animal Beha2ior )o,ulation &cology Community an &cosystem &cology Ma7or &cosystems of the Bios,here Conser2ation of Bio i2ersity

T!e I"#$r%&$'r(# Ma"%al The Instructor's Manual is esigne to hel, you coor inate the 2arious ancillaries an ai s that accom,any Biology. The manual is aligne with the te/t8 There is a cha,ter in the manual for each cha,ter in the te/t8 &ach cha,ter inclu es the following% T!e C!a)$er O%$li"e The conce,ts as ,resente in the te/t are outline un er each ma7or hea ing in each cha,ter8 The outline ,ro2i es a #asis for an organi'e lecture or iscussion class5 an the outline format is 9e,t irect an concise to hel, stu ents who ha2e not e2elo,e goo outlining s9ills to learn them8 :hile it is critical that stu ents meaningfully internali'e istinct #iology conce,ts5 #iology ma7ors must also organi'e this huge #o y of information as they ,ursue a 2ance wor9 an s,eciali'e8 6ote;ta9ing in an organi'e manner is an im,ortant as,ect of un erstan ing the intellectual content of #iology8 An instructor who ,resents material in a clear an logically organi'e manner hel,s to set the stu ent<s un erstan ing of the cha,ter conce,ts8 The im,ortance of organi'ing #iology conce,ts #y outline cannot #e o2erstate 8 Te"$! Edi$i'" C!a"*e# Significant changes #etween the ninth an tenth e itions are escri#e 8 This will assist you in re2ising your lecture notes if you use the ,re2ious e ition of this te/t#oo98 Le&$%re E"ri&!+e"$ Idea# &2ery cha,ter in this Instructor's Manual inclu es from 3=2. enrichment i eas8 These ,ro2i e i eas for iscussions5 techni>ues to relate the conce,ts to stu ents meaningfully within their realm of e/,eriences5 suggeste >uestioning strategies5 an a itional a,,lications of the cha,ter conce,ts8 Cri$i&al T!i",i"* -%e#$i'"# Sam,le critical thin9ing >uestions are su,,lie for use in testing or to stimulate class iscussion8 A&,"'.led*+e"$# Syl2ia Ma er wrote the e ition changes an the te/t#oo9 cha,ter >uestions5 an of course ,ro2i e the #asis on which the cha,ter outline is con ense 8 0t is therefore her 2oice that shows through most of the content outlines8 Margaret 4orn wor9e closely to get the finishe ,ro uct coor inate with the te/t an ancillary materials an get it to ,ress8

1 INTRO
CHAPTER

UCTION

A VIE/ OF LIFE

The te/t o,ens with a escri,tion of the characteristics of life5 followe #y a iscussion of the human s,ecies< integration into the highly; i2erse #ios,here8 Ta/onomic classification5 the system #y which all organisms are categori'e 5 is iscusse 8 The ste,s of the scientific metho are outline 8 Two s,ecific ty,es of scientific e/,eriments?the controlle stu y an the fiel stu y?are escri#e in etail8

C!a)$er O%$li"e
101 H'. $' e1i"e Li1e A8 Li2ing Things Are Organi'e 18 Organi'ation of li2ing systems #egins with a$'+#5 which ma9e u, #asic #uil ing #loc9s calle ele+e"$#0 28 The &ell is the #asic structural an functional unit of all li2ing things8 38 3ifferent cells com#ine to ma9e u, $i##%e# @e8g85 myocar ial tissueA8 48 Tissues com#ine to ma9e u, an 'r*a" @e8g85 the heartA8 "8 S,ecific organs wor9 together as a #y#$e+ @e8g85 the heart5 arteries5 2eins5 etc8A8 $8 Multicellular organisms @each an Bin i2i ualC within a ,articular s,eciesA contain 'r*a" #y#$e+# @e8g85 car io2ascular5 igesti2e5 res,iratory5 etc8A8 (8 A s,ecies in a ,articular area @e8g85 gray s>uirrels in a forestA constitutes a )')%la$i'"0 *8 0nteracting ,o,ulations in a ,articular area com,rise a &'++%"i$y0 -8 A community ,lus its ,hysical en2ironment is an e&'#y#$e+0 1.8 The bi'#)!ere is com,rise of regions of the &arth<s crust5 waters5 an atmos,here inha#ite #y organisms8 118 &ach le2el of organi'ation is more com,le/ than the le2el ,rece ing it8 128 &ach le2el of organi'ation has emergent properties ue to interactions #etween the ,arts ma9ing u, the wholeD all emergent ,ro,erties follow the laws of ,hysics an chemistry8 B8 Li2ing Things Ac>uire Materials an &nergy 18 Maintaining organi'ation an con ucting life;sustaining ,rocesses re>uire an outsi e source of e"er*y5 efine as the ca,acity to o Bwor98C 28 Me$ab'li#+ is all the chemical reactions that occur in a cell8 38 The ultimate source of energy for nearly all life on &arth is the sunD ,lants an certain other organisms con2ert solar energy into chemical energy #y the ,rocess of )!'$'#y"$!e#i#0 48 All organisms must maintain a state of #iological #alance5 or !'+e'#$a#i#0 Tem,erature5 moisture le2el5 ,45 etc8 must #e maintaine within the tolerance range of the organism8 Organisms ha2e intricate fee #ac9 an control mechanisms to maintain homeostatic #alance8 C8 Li2ing Things +es,on 18 Li2ing things interact with the en2ironment an with other li2ing things8 28 +es,onse often results in mo2ement of the organism @e8g85 a ,lant #en ing towar the sun to ca,ture solar energy5 a turtle with rawing into its shell for safety5 etc8A8 38 +es,onses hel, ensure sur2i2al of the organism an allow the organism to carry out its #iological acti2ities8

48 The collecti2e res,onses of an organism constitute the be!avi'r of the organism8 38 Li2ing Things +e,ro uce an 3e2elo, 18 Re)r'd%&$i'" is the a#ility of e2ery ty,e of organism to gi2e rise to another organism li9e itself8 28 Bacteria5 ,roto'oans5 an other unicellular organisms sim,ly s,lit in two @binary fissionA8 38 Multicellular organisms often unite s,erm an egg5 each from a ifferent in i2i ual5 resulting in an immature in i2i ual that e2elo,s into the a ult8 48 The instructions for an organism<s organi'ation an e2elo,ment are enco e in *e"e#0 "8 1enes are com,rise of long molecules of DNA @ eo/yri#onucleic aci AD 36A is the genetic co e in all li2ing things8 &8 Li2ing Things 4a2e A a,tations 18 A a,tations are mo ifications that ma9e organisms suite to their way of life8 102 Ev'l%$i'"3 $!e U"i1yi"* C'"&e)$ '1 Bi'l'*y A8 Organi'ing 3i2ersity 18 Ta/onomy is the isci,line of i entifying an grou,ing organisms accor ing to certain rules8 28 Ta/onomic classification changes as more is learne a#out li2ing things5 inclu ing the e2olutionary relationshi,s #etween s,ecies8 38 !rom smaller @least inclusi2eA categories to larger @more inclusi2eA5 the se>uence of classification categories is% s,ecies5 genus5 family5 or er5 class5 ,hylum5 9ing om5 an omain8 48 The s,ecies within one genus share many s,ecific characteristics an are the most closely relate 8 "8 S,ecies in the same 9ing om share only general characteristics with one another8 B8 3omains an Eing oms 18 Biochemical e2i ence suggests that there are three omains% Ba&$eria3 Ar&!aea3 an E%,arya0 28 The omains Bacteria an Archaea contain unicellular ,ro9aryotesD organisms in the omain &u9arya ha2e a mem#rane;#oun nucleus8 38 The ,ro9aryotes are structurally sim,le #ut are meta#olically com,le/8 48 Archaea can li2e in water e2oi of o/ygen5 an are a#le to sur2i2e harsh en2ironmental con itions @tem,eratures5 salinity5 ,4A8 "8 Bacteria are 2ariously a a,te to li2ing almost anywhere @water5 soil5 atmos,here5 inFon the human #o y5 etc8A8 $8 The omains Archaea an Bacteria are not yet categori'e into 9ing oms8 (8 &u9arya contains four 9ing oms% Pr'$i#$a3 F%"*i3 Pla"$ae5 an A"i+alia0 *8 Pr'$i#$# @9ing om )rotistaA range from unicellular forms to multicellular ones8 -8 Pla"$# @9ing om )lantaeA are multicellular ,hotosynthetic organisms8 1.8 F%"*i @9ing om !ungiA are the mol s an mushrooms8

118 A"i+al# @9ing om AnimaliaA are multicellular organisms that ingest an ,rocess their foo 8
C8 Scientific 6ame 18 A bi"'+ial "a+e is a two;,art scientific name% the genus @first wor 5 ca,itali'e A an the s,ecific e,ithet of a s,ecies @secon wor 5 not ca,itali'e A8 28 Binomial names are #ase on Latin an are use uni2ersally #y #iologists8 38 &ither the genus name or the s,ecific e,ithet name may #e a##re2iate 8 38 &2olution is Common 3ecent with Mo ification 18 Na$%ral #ele&$i'" is the ,rocess #y which s,ecies #ecome mo ifie o2er time8 28 0n natural selection5 mem#ers of a s,ecies may inherit a genetic change that ma9es them #etter suite to a ,articular en2ironment8 38 These mem#ers woul #e more li9ely to ,ro uce higher num#ers of sur2i2ing offs,ring8 104 H'. $!e Bi'#)!ere i# Or*a"i5ed A8 Le2els of Com,le/ity 18 The bi'#)!ere is the 'one of air5 lan 5 an water where organisms e/ist8 28 A )')%la$i'" consists of all mem#ers of one s,ecies in a ,articular area8

"

B8

C8

107 A8

B8

C8

38

A &'++%"i$y consists of all of the local interacting ,o,ulations8 An e&'#y#$e+ inclu es all as,ects of a li2ing community an the ,hysical en2ironment @soil5 atmos,here5 etc8A8 "8 0nteractions #etween 2arious foo chains ma9e u, a 1''d .eb0 $8 &cosystems are characteri'e #y chemical cycling an energy flow8 (8 &cosystems stay in e/istence #ecause of a constant in,ut of solar energy an the a#ility of ,hotosynthetic organisms to a#sor# it8 The 4uman )o,ulation 18 The human ,o,ulation mo ifies e/isting ecosystems which can u,set their natural nutrient cycles5 causing harm to human ,o,ulations an isru,ting the ecosystem<s natural energy flow8 Bio i2ersity 18 Two #iologically i2erse ecosystems5 rai" 1're#$# an &'ral ree1#3 are se2erely threatene #y the human ,o,ulation8 28 3estruction of healthy ecosystems has uninten e effects inclu ing% loss of foo 5 me icine5 raw materials5 an e/tinction of organisms8 38 Bi'diver#i$y is the total num#er of s,ecies5 their 2aria#le genes5 an their ecosystems8 48 E6$i"&$i'" is the eath of a s,ecies or larger grou,D ,erha,s 4.. s,ecies #ecome e/tinct e2ery ay8 "8 The continue e/istence of the human s,ecies is e,en ant on the ,reser2ation of ecosystems an the #ios,here8 T!e Pr'&e## '1 S&ie"&e Scientific Metho 18 Bi'l'*y is the scientific stu y of life5 an it consists of many isci,lines8 28 The scientific ,rocess iffers from other ways of learning in that science follows the #&ie"$i1i& +e$!'d5 which is characteri'e #y 'b#erva$i'"3 e2elo,ment of a !y)'$!e#i#3 e6)eri+e"$a$i'" a"d da$a &'lle&$i'"3 an forming a &'"&l%#i'"0 O#ser2ation 18 Scientists #elie2e nature is or erly an measura#le5 an that natural laws @e8g85 gra2ityA o not change with time8 28 6atural e2ents5 calle )!e"'+e"a3 can therefore #e un erstoo from o#ser2ations8 38 Scientists also use the 9nowle ge an e/,eriences of other scientists to e/,an their un erstan ing of ,henomena8 48 Chance alone can sometimes hel, a scientist get an i ea @e8g85 Ale/an er !leming<s isco2ery of ,enicillinA8 4y,othesis 18 I"d%&$ive rea#'"i"* allows a ,erson to com#ine isolate facts into a cohesi2e whole8 28 A scientist uses in ucti2e reasoning to e2elo, a ,ossi#le e/,lanation @a !y)'$!e#i#A for a natural e2entD the scientist ,resents the hy,othesis as an actual statement8 38 Scientists only consi er hy,otheses that can #e teste @i8e85 moral an religious #eliefs may not #e testa#le #y the scientific metho A8 &/,erimentsF!urther O#ser2ations 18 Testing a hy,othesis in2ol2es either con ucting an e/,eriment or ma9ing further o#ser2ations8 28 ed%&$ive rea#'"i"* in2ol2es Bif5 thenC logic to ma9e a )redi&$i'" that the hy,othesis can #e su,,orte #y e/,erimentation8 38 An e6)eri+e"$al de#i*" is ,ro,ose to test the hy,othesis in a meaningful way8 48 An e/,eriment shoul inclu e a &'"$r'l *r'%) which goes through all the ste,s of an e/,eriment #ut lac9s @or is not e/,ose toA the factor #eing teste 8 "8 Scientists may use a +'del @a re,resentation of an actual o#7ectA in their e/,eriments8 $8 +esults o#taine from use of a mo el will remain a hy,othesis in nee of testing if it is im,ossi#le to test the actual ,henomenon8

38 48

&8 3ata 18 28 38

a$a are the results of an e/,eriment5 an are o#ser2a#le an o#7ecti2e rather than su#7ecti2e8 3ata are often is,laye in a gra,h or ta#le8 Many stu ies rely on statistical ata which5 among other things5 etermines the ,ro#a#ility of error in the e/,eriment8 !8 Conclusion 18 :hether the ata su,,ort or re7ect the hy,othesis is the #asis for the &'"&l%#i'"0 28 The conclusion of one e/,eriment can lea to the hy,othesis for another e/,eriment8 38 Scientists re,ort their fin ings in scientific 7ournals so that their metho ology an ata are a2aila#le to other scientists8 48 The e/,eriments an o#ser2ations must #e re,eata#le or the research is sus,ect8 18 Scientific Theory 18 The ultimate goal is to un erstan the natural worl in #&ie"$i1i& $!e'rie#3 which are s,eculati2e i eas that 7oin su,,orte 5 relate hy,otheses5 an are su,,orte #y a #roa range of o#ser2ations5 e/,eriments5 an ata8 28 Some #asic theories of #iology are% a8 Cell% all organisms are ma e of cells8 #8 4omeostasis% the internal en2ironment of an organism stays relati2ely constant8 c8 1ene% organisms contain co e information that ictates their form5 function5 an #eha2ior8 8 &cosystem% organisms are mem#ers of ,o,ulations which interact with each other an the ,hysical en2ironment8 e8 &2olution% all li2ing things ha2e a common ancestor8 38 A )ri"&i)le or a la. is a theory that is generally acce,te #y most scientists8 48 Gsing the Scientific Metho 18 A controlle stu y ensures that the outcome is ue to the e6)eri+e"$al 8i"de)e"de"$9 variable3 the factor #eing teste 8 28 The result is calle the re#)'"di"* 8de)e"de"$9 variable #ecause it is ue to the e,en ent 2aria#le8 38 The &/,eriment a8 O#ser2ation% 6itrogen fertili'er in the short run e/changes yiel an increases foo su,,lies8 #8 4y,othesis% ,igeon ,eaFwinter wheat rotation will increase winter wheat ,ro uction as well as or #etter than the use of nitrogen fertili'er8 c8 )re iction% wheat #iomass following the growth of ,igeon ,eas in the soil will sur,ass wheat #iomass following nitrogen fertili'er treatment8 8 Control grou,% winter wheat that recei2es no fertili'er8 e8 Test grou,s% winter wheat treate with ifferent le2els of fertili'erD winter wheat grown in soil into which ,igeon ,ea ,lants ha #een tille 8 f8 &n2ironmental con itions an watering were i entical in control an test grou,s8 g8 +esults% all test grou,s ,ro uce more #iomass than control grou,5 #ut high le2el of nitrogen fertili'er ,ro uce more #iomass than ,igeon ,ea test grou,8 Thus5 hy,othesis is "'$ #%))'r$ed0 48 Continuing the &/,eriment a8 To test the hy,othesis that ,igeon ,ea resi ues will #uil u, o2er time an will increase winter wheat ,ro uction com,are to nitrogen fertili'er5 the stu y is continue for another year8 #8 The fertili'er;only treatment no longer e/cee e #iomass ,ro uction with the use of ,igeon ,easD #iomass in the ,igeon ,ea;treate test grou, was highest8 c8 Conclusion% at the en of two years5 the yiel of winter wheat is #etter in the ,igeon ,ea;treate test grou,8 4y,othesis #%))'r$ed0 8 Continuation of the stu y for another year showe that the soil was continuously im,ro2e #y the ,igeon ,eas com,are to the nitrogen fertili'er test grou,s8 e8 +esults were re,orte in a scientific 7ournal8

08

H8

A !iel Stu y 18 4y,othesis% aggression of the male mountain #lue#ir 2aries uring the re,ro ucti2e cycle8 28 )re iction% aggression will change after the nest is #uilt5 after the first egg is lai 5 an after hatching8 38 To test the hy,othesis5 a male #lue#ir mo el was ,lace near the nest while the male was gone an o#ser2ations were ma e u,on his return8 48 Control% a mo el of a male ro#in ,lace near certain nests8 "8 +esults% resi ent male #lue#ir s i not #other the control mo el #ut were aggressi2e towar the male #lue#ir mo el e,en ing on the stage in the re,ro ucti2e cycle8 $8 Conclusion% hy,othesis is #%))'r$ed0 (8 Stu y was re,orte in scientific 7ournal with e2olutionary inter,retation8 The Benefits an Limitations of Statistical Stu ies @Science Focus #o/A 18 Benefits of Statistical Stu ies a8 Benefits of statistical stu ies inclu e% Basis for su,,orting null or alternati2e hy,otheses5 gaining information an insights into ,ro#lems scientists are trying to sol2e8 28 Limitations of Statistical Stu ies a8 One of the main limitations to statistical stu ies is that ata collecte su,,orts correlations5 not causations8 #8 There are always a itional etails that coul #e i entifie an >uantifie 8 There is no scientific stu y that has collecte the ,erfect >uantity an >uality of ata8

Le&$%re E"ri&!+e"$ Idea#

E6)erie"&e Ba#e% IAs teachers, we ma e assumptions about the common e!periences share" with our stu"ents an" thus the meaningfulness of the #ocabulary we use. $uestions that solicit stu"ent fee"bac establish if those e!periences are a"e%uate an" the concepts are being un"erstoo". Stu"ents who relate their e!periences an" un"erstan"ing in turn help classmates learn the concepts8J Lecturers new to a college or uni2ersity may wish to confer with 2eteran teachers a#out the state<s high school #iology an other science re>uirements5 an the ,ro,ortion of stu ents li9ely to come from farm or ur#an #ac9groun s8 Most high school #iology te/t#oo9s a ress #asic ,ro,erties of life an the fi2e 9ing om system8 Only the 1--* te/ts onwar mention omains8 Most entering college un ergra uates o not ha2e genuine e/,erience with o,en;en e an ,ur,oseful science research8 18 )eo,le from all #ac9groun s an e ucational le2els ma9e istinctions #etween li2ing an non;li2ing things8 &2en if they ha2e not rea the material in the te/t5 stu ents can #e le through a common sense iscussion of Bwhat is lifeKC List the common traits of li2ing things% growth5 re,ro uction5 res,onse to the en2ironment5 meta#olism5 etc8 As9 whether any one of these as,ects alone istinguishes a li2ing organism from a nonli2ing su#stance8 0s it necessary5 for e/am,le5 that e2ery in i2i ual within a s,ecies #e a#le to re,ro uceK Select s,ecific s,ecies from 2arious 9ing oms an escri#e some of the res,onses an some of the a a,tations those s,ecies ha2e8 3iscuss how those res,onses an a a,tations allow those s,ecies to sur2i2e in their en2ironment8 Scientists are continuing attem,ts to confirm whether there is or e2er has #een life on Mars8 :hat ,henomena shoul they loo9 forK :hat is re>uire for us to 9now for sure that there is or was life on MarsK +ea 7o# escri,tions for #iologists @e8g85 #iochemist5 anatomist5 ,o,ulation ecologist5 etc8A a2aila#le from current 7ournals an news,a,ers an as9 stu ents what le2el of #iological organi'ation the scientist stu ies8 List organisms with which stu ents shoul #e familiarD as9 them to ,lace the organisms into the correct 9ing om #ase on their 9nown characteristics8 List unfamiliar organisms an their characteristicsD as9 stu ents to etermine the 9ing om to which they #elong8 3iscuss the e2olutionary relate ness of mammals8 As9 stu ents to consi er Australian marsu,ials that fit into the 2arious niches fille #y other mammals in other ,arts of the worl 8 6ote how marsu,ials are more closely relate to one another #ut ha2e i2ersifie to fill many niches8

28 38 48

"8

$8 (8 *8

3iscuss the theory that ,ro,oses that all life is a result of the e2elo,ment from unicellular ancestors with the same #asic chemical structures an meta#olism8 3iscuss how organisms i2ersify ue to the effects of mutation an selection #y the en2ironment8 Caution stu ents not to confuse use of the terms Bname5C Bi entify5C an Bclassify8C BClassifyC only in2ol2es grou,ing8 Only a s,ecialist who escri#es an ,u#lishes a new s,ecies BnamesC the s,ecies8 0n most cases5 we are merely Bi entifyingC organisms that are alrea y 9nown to science5 originally Bname C #y ta/onomists an Bclassifie C #y systematists8 As9 stu ents to esign an e/,eriment5 following the scientific metho 5 in which they test a weight loss rug8 &nsure that the e/,eriments ha2e the ,ro,er controls5 are con ucte logically an realistically5 that the ata @ma e u, #y the instructor for the sa9e of this e/,erimentA are inter,rete correctly5 an that a ,ro,er conclusion is rawn8

-8

1.8 As9 stu ents for e/am,les of scientific metho in their e2ery ay li2es5 such as fi/ing inner5 etermining how to ress for the ay<s weather or acti2ities5 fin ing their way aroun a strange area5 or ealing with a malfunctioning car8 118 4a2e stu ents search a wee9<s news,a,ers for e/am,les of using the scientific metho in the news?such as testing consumer goo s or re,orts on me ical research?an iscuss them in class8 Bring in a ta#loi news,a,er ma9ing fa#ulous claims an iscuss why it oes not fulfill scientific stan ar s8 128 3iscuss the ifference #etween scientific o#ser2ations of the natural worl an su,erstitions such as those associate with !ri ay the thirteenth an #lac9 cats8 Scientific e/amination of e/am,les in2ol2ing water ousing5 s,ontaneous human com#ustion5 cro, circles5 an other mo ern mis#eliefs are gi2en in the S eptic an S eptical In%uirer maga'ines8 138 3iscuss why it is ,ossi#le to ,ro2e a hy,othesis or theory false #ut not to ,ro2e it a#solutely true8 @This Earl )o,,er conce,t of Bfalsifia#ilityC has limite usage in science an is not a,,lica#le in all areas of #iology8 4owe2er5 ee, iscussion of this conce,t is #est left to u,,er le2el ,hiloso,hy of science courses where the stu ents will ha2e ha some actual irect e/,eriences with genuine research8A 148 As9 stu ents if they #elie2e the worl is s,herical8 4a2e them cite e2i ence to su,,ort their #elief8 4owe2er5 unless they ha2e flown in the Concor e5 they ha2e no irect o#ser2ational e2i ence to ,ro2e that the &arth is in fact s,herical8 &m,hasi'e the ,oint that e2en though they ha2e no irect5 ,ersonal e2i ence that fits the s,herical &arth mo el5 science fre>uently relies on reasoning an mo"els as well as o#ser2ational ata8

Cri$i&al T!i",i"*
-%e#$i'" 10 Assume that you foun an o#7ect that you thin9 might #e Bali2e8C :hat woul #e se2eral things you woul nee to o#ser2e a#out this o#7ect to etermine if it was5 in fact5 ali2eK A"#.er: Lou coul su#7ect the o#7ect to en2ironmental stimuli @heat5 ,4 changes5 ,hysical ,ressure5 etc8A to see if it res,on e to any of those stimuli8 The o#7ect shoul ha2e a num#er of ,hysical characteristics @a a,tationsA that allow it to sur2i2e in a ,articular en2ironment8 The o#7ect woul ha2e a meta#olism8 At the #iochemical le2el5 the o#7ect woul ha2e 36A an certain molecules in common with all 9nown life on &arth8 The o#7ect may or may not #e a#le to re,ro uce% it coul #e a sterile in i2i ual of a s,ecies or it coul #e a se/ually;re,ro ucing organism5 in which case a BmateC woul #e nee e M -%e#$i'" 20 Arguments a#out teaching e2olution in the ,u#lic school classroom continually attract ,u#lic attention as electe school #oar s @in certain statesA meet to a,,ro2e new science teaching curricula8 0ssues raise in the ,u#lic sector @not from scientistsA inclu e arguments a#out e2olution #eing B7ust a theory5C gi2ing religious creationism Be>ual time5C an re,lacing the efinition of science as stu y of natural ,henomena with science as a logical construct8 :hy o scientists re7ect these argumentsK

A"#.er: Although school #oar s must 2ote on ,olicy5 scientists o not B2oteC on science8 The nature of BtheoryC in this conte/t means consi era#ly more than the street 2ernacular Bit<s 7ust a theory8C Science oes not ,ro2i e Be>ual timeC to non;science e/,lanations that o not len themsel2es to o#ser2ation5 e/,erimentation5 an the e2elo,ment of new research8 An 5 although many aca emic fiel s are #ase on BlogicC @most nota#ly mathematicsA5 science is efine an uni>uely tethere to conce,ts that are in agreement with the wor9ings of the natural worl 8 BSu,ernaturalC e/,lanations sim,ly o not allow a researcher to formulate tests an e/,an un erstan ing of the Bnatural worl 8C -%e#$i'" 40 &cology e/,eriments can #e se,arate into two general categories8 Some ecologists ,refer to #ring an organism into the la#oratory an isolate it in a cham#er where they can 9ee, the setu, sim,le an where they etermine all the en2ironmental con itions8 Other ecologists ,refer to stu y organisms in the wil an attem,t to etermine why they occur in certain natural ha#itats8 Gsing terms for scientific metho ology5 e/,lain the #enefits of #oth systems8 A"#.er: The natural en2ironment is so com,le/ that only sim,le la# settings can eliminate com,le/ factors an show how an organism res,on s to 7ust one 2aria#le8 A controlle cham#er allows the scientist to set u, a control grou, that lac9s 7ust the e/,erimental 2aria#le8 On the other han 5 a natural en2ironment is closer to what the organism actually encounters8 There may #e many factors in a natural en2ironment that are ma7or an im,ortant influences on an organism #ut which a researcher has not consi ere in a controlle la# setting e/,eriment8 :hile two Be>ualC fiel sites can #e use 5 one as a treatment an one as a control5 the ecologist cannot #e certain that another uncontrolle factor in nature is not in2ol2e or that chance 2ariation is not a contri#uting factor8 &cologists often integrate the results of #oth ty,es of research to formulate their conclusions8

Te&!"'l'*y 1r'+ M&Gra.;Hill

)lease consult your C'%r#e I"$e*ra$i'" G%ide for technology correlations for this cha,ter8

1.

PART

THE CELL

Because the cell is the #asic unit of life5 cell structure5 function5 an meta#olism are ma7or conce,ts necessary to un erstan life8 Cellular meta#olism is sim,lifie an cellular ,rocesses are escri#e in ,re,aration for an un erstan ing of genetic control5 the origin of the cell5 an a a,tation to the en2ironment8
2 38 4 "8 $8 (8 *8 Basic Chemistry The Chemistry of Organic Molecules Cell Structure an !unction Mem#rane Structure an !unction Meta#olism% &nergy an &n'ymes )hotosynthesis Cellular +es,iration CHAPTER

BASIC CHEMISTRY

Li2ing organisms an non;li2ing su#stances are com,ose of matter8 The #asic unit of matter is the atom8 This cha,ter ,resents a stu y of atomic structure5 which allows us to see how atoms interact #y ionic or co2alent #on s to form molecules8 All li2ing things are com,ose of (.;-.N waterD as such5 a thorough 9nowle ge of the chemical an ,hysical ,ro,erties of water5 as well as those ,ro,erties of aci s an #ases5 is critical to un erstan ing the chemistry of life8 The chemical an ,hysical ,ro,erties of water are ,resente in etail5 as is the conce,t of aci s an #ases8

C!a)$er O%$li"e
201 C!e+i&al Ele+e"$#

18 Ma$$er is efine as anything that ta9es u, s,ace an has mass8 28 Matter e/ists in three states% #'lid3 li<%id3 an *a#0 A8 &lements 18 All matter @#oth li2ing an non;li2ingA is com,ose of -2 naturally;occurring ele+e"$#0 28 &lements5 #y efinition5 cannot #e #ro9en own to sim,ler su#stances with ifferent chemical or ,hysical ,ro,erties8 38 Si/ elements @car#on5 hy rogen5 nitrogen5 o/ygen5 ,hos,horus5 an sulfur?acronym C46O)SA ma9e u, -"N of the #o y weight of organisms8 B8 Atoms 18 &lements consist of tiny ,articles calle a$'+#0 28 An atom is the smallest unit of an element that is,lays the ,ro,erties of the element8 38 One or two letters @e8g85 45 6aA create the a$'+i& #y+b'l of the element8 48 Atoms contain s,ecific num#ers of )r'$'"#3 "e%$r'"#3 an ele&$r'"#0 "8 )rotons are ,ositi2ely charge ,articlesD neutrons ha2e no chargeD electrons are 11

C8

38

&8

!8

negati2ely charge ,articles locate in or#itals outsi e the nucleus8 $8 )rotons an neutrons are in the nucleus of an atomD electrons mo2e aroun the nucleus8 Atomic Mass an Atomic 6um#er 18 The a$'+i& +a## of an atom e,en s on the ,resence of certain su#atomic ,articles8 28 Atomic mass is the sum of ,rotons an neutrons8 38 )rotons an neutrons ha2e one atomic mass unit @amu of weightAD electrons ha2e 'ero8 48 All atoms of an element ha2e the same num#er of ,rotons5 calle the a$'+i& "%+ber of the element8 The )erio ic Ta#le 18 The ,erio ic ta#le shows how 2arious characteristics of atoms of elements recur8 28 Gr'%)# are the 2ertical columns in the ta#le5 )eri'd# are the hori'ontal rowsD atomic mass increases as you mo2e own a grou, or across a ,erio 8 38 The atomic num#er is a#o2e the atomic sym#ol an the atomic mass is #elow the atomic sym#ol8 0soto,es 18 I#'$')e# are atoms of the same element that iffer in the num#er of neutrons @an therefore ha2e ifferent atomic massesA8 !or e/am,le5 car#on;12 has $ ,rotons an $ neutrons5 car#on;14 has $ ,rotons an * neutrons8 28 A car#on atom with * rather than $ neutrons is unsta#leD it releases energy an su#atomic ,articles an is thus a radi'a&$ive i#'$')e0 38 Because the chemical #eha2ior of a ra ioacti2e isoto,e is the same as a sta#le isoto,e of a ,articular element5 low le2els of the ra ioacti2e isoto,e @e8g85 ra ioacti2e io ine or glucoseA allow researchers to trace the location an acti2ity of the element in li2ing tissuesD these isoto,es are calle $ra&er#8 48 4igh le2els of ra iation can estroy cells an cause cancerD careful use of ra iation can sterili'e ,ro ucts an 9ill cancer cells8 &lectrons an &nergy 18 &lectrons occu,y or#itals within 2arious e"er*y level# @or ele&$r'" #!ell#A near or istant from the nucleus of the atom8 The farther the or#ital from the nucleus5 the higher the energy le2el8 28 An or#ital is a 2olume of s,ace where an electron is most li9ely to #e foun D an or#ital can contain no more than 2 electrons8 38 :hen atoms a#sor# energy uring ,hotosynthesis5 electrons are #ooste to higher energy le2els8 :hen the electrons return to their original energy le2el5 the release energy is con2erte into chemical energy8 This chemical energy su,,orts all life on &arth8 48 The innermost shell of an atom is com,lete with 2 electronsD all other shells are com,lete with * electrons8 This is calle the '&$e$ r%le0 "8 Atoms will gi2e u,5 acce,t5 or share electrons in or er to ha2e * electrons in an electron shell8 18 :hen atoms of two or more ifferent elements #on together5 they form a &'+)'%"d 12

202 C'+)'%"d# a"d M'le&%le#

@e8g85 42OA8 28 A +'le&%le is the smallest ,art of a com,oun that has the ,ro,erties of the com,oun 8 38 A 1'r+%la tells you the num#er of each 9in of atom in a molecule @e/85 1lucose5 C$412O$A8 3 48 &lectrons ,ossess energy5 an #on s that e/ist #etween atoms in molecules therefore contain energy8 A8 0onic Bon ing 18 An i'"i& b'"d forms when electrons are transferre from one atom to another atom8 28 By losing or gaining electrons5 atoms fill outer shells5 an are more sta#le @the octet ruleA8 38 &/am,le% so ium loses an electron an therefore has a ,ositi2e chargeD chlorine gains an electron to gi2e it a negati2e charge8 Such charge ,articles are calle i'"#0 48 Attraction of o,,ositely charge ions hol s the two atoms together in an i'"i& b'"d0 "8 A #al$ @e8g85 6aClA is an e/am,le of an ionically;#on e com,oun 8 B8 Co2alent Bon ing 18 C'vale"$ b'"d# result when two atoms share electrons so each atom has an octet of electrons in the outer shell @or5 in the case of hy rogen5 2 electronsA8 28 4y rogen can gi2e u, an electron to #ecome a hy rogen ion @4OA or share an electron with another atom to com,lete its shell with 2 electrons8 38 The #$r%&$%ral 1'r+%la of a com,oun in icates a share ,air of electrons #y a line #etween the two atomsD e8g85 single co2alent #on @4=4A5 ou#le co2alent #on @OPOA5 an tri,le co2alent #on @6 P 6A8 &ach line #etween the atoms re,resents a ,air of electrons8 C8 6on,olar an )olar Co2alent Bon s 18 0n "'")'lar &'vale"$ b'"d#5 sharing of electrons is e>ual5 i8e85 the electrons are not attracte to either atom to a greater egree8 28 :ith )'lar &'vale"$ b'"d#3 the sharing of electrons is une>ual8 a8 0n a water molecule @42OA5 sharing of electrons #y o/ygen an hy rogen is not e>ualD the o/ygen atom with more ,rotons attracts the electrons closer to it5 an thus ominates the 42O association8
Attraction of an atom for electrons in a co2alent #on is calle the ele&$r'"e*a$ivi$y of the atomD an o/ygen atom is more electronegati2e than a hy rogen atom8 c8 O/ygen in a water molecule5 more attracte to the electron ,air5 assumes a ,artial negati2e charge8 2040 C!e+i#$ry '1 /a$er #8

18 The sha,e of water an of all organic molecules is necessary to the structural an functional roles they ,lay in li2ing things8 28 A !ydr'*e" b'"d is the attraction of a slightly ,ositi2e hy rogen to a slightly negati2e atom in the 2icinity8 A8 4y rogen Bon ing 18 A !ydr'*e" b'"d is a wea9 attracti2e force #etween the slightly ,ositi2e charge of the hy rogen atom of one molecule an slightly negati2e charge of another atom 13

@e8g85 o/ygen5 nitrogenA in another or the same molecule8 28 Many hy rogen #on s ta9en together are relati2ely strong8 38 4y rogen #on s #etween an within com,le/ #iological molecules @e8g85 36A5 ,roteinsA hel, maintain their ,ro,er structure an function8 B8 )ro,erties of :ater 18 :ater has a !i*! !ea$ &a)a&i$y0 a8 The tem,erature of li>ui water rises an falls more slowly than that of most other li>ui s8 #8 A &al'rie is the amount of heat energy re>uire to raise the tem,erature of one gram of water 1Q C8
c8 Because the hy rogen #on s #etween water molecules hol more heat5 water<s tem,erature falls more slowly than other li>ui sD this ,rotects organisms from ra,i tem,erature changes an hel,s them maintain homeostatic tem,erature8

28 :ater has a high !ea$ '1 eva)'ra$i'"0 a8 :hen water #oils5 it e2a,orates5 or 2a,ori'es into the en2ironment8 #8 4y rogen #on s #etween water molecules re>uire a relati2ely large amount of heat to #rea98
c8 8 a8 #8 c8 8 a8 #8 c8 This ,ro,erty mo erates &arth<s surface tem,eratureD ,ermits li2ing systems to e/ist8 :hen animals sweat5 e2a,oration of the sweat remo2es #o y heat5 thus cooling the animal8 :ater issol2es a great num#er of su#stances @e8g85 salts5 large ,olar moleculesA8 A #'l%$i'" contains issol2e su#stances calle #'l%$e#0 0oni'e or ,olar molecules attracte to water are !ydr')!ili& @Bwater lo2ingCA8 6onioni'e an non,olar molecules that cannot attract water are !ydr')!'bi& @Bwater fearingCA8 C'!e#i'" allows water to flow freely without molecules se,arating8 Ad!e#i'" is the a#ility to a here to ,olar surfacesD water molecules ha2e ,ositi2e an negati2e ,oles8 :ater rises u, a tree from roots to lea2es through small tu#es8 1A A hesion of water to walls of 2essels ,re2ents water column from #rea9ing a,art8 2A Cohesion allows e2a,oration from lea2es to ,ull water column from roots8

38 :ater is a #'lve"$0

48 :ater molecules are &'!e#ive an ad!e#ive0

8 :ater has a !i*! #%r1a&e $e"#i'" an is relati2ely ifficult to #rea9 through at its surface8
1A This ,ro,erty ,ermits a roc9 to #e s9i,,e across a ,on surface5 an su,,orts insects wal9ing on surface8

"8 Gnli9e most su#stances5 1r'5e" .a$er 8i&e9 i# le## de"#e $!a" li<%id .a$er0 a8 Below 4Q C5 hy rogen #on ing #ecomes more rigi #ut more o,en5 causing e/,ansion8
#8 c8 8 Because ice is less ense5 it floatsD therefore5 #o ies of water free'e from the to, own8 0f ice was hea2ier than water5 ice woul sin9 an #o ies of water woul free'e soli 8 This ,ro,erty allows ice to act as an insulator on #o ies of water5 there#y ,rotecting a>uatic organisms uring the winter8

2070

A&id# a"d Ba#e# 18 :hen water ioni'es or issociates5 it releases a small @1 / 1.( molesFliterA #ut e>ual num#er of hy rogen @4OA ions an hy ro/i e @O4;A ionsD 4 = O =4 R 4O O O4;8 28 A&id molecules issociate in water5 releasing hy rogen @4OA ions% 4Cl R 4O O Cl;8 14

38 Ba#e# are molecules that ta9e u, hy rogen ions or release hy ro/i e ions8 6aO4 R 6aO O O4;8 48 The )H #&ale in icates aci ity an #asicity @al9alinityA of a solution8
a8 #8 )H is the measurement of free hy rogen ions5 e/,resse as a negati2e logarithm of the 4O concentration @;log I4OJA8 )H 2alues range from . @1 / 1.. molesFliterD most aci icA to 14 @1 / 1.;14 molesFliterD most #asicA8 1A One mole of water has 1 / 1.;( molesFliter of hy rogen ionsD therefore5 has neutral ,4 of (8 2A An aci is a su#stance with ,4 less than (D a #ase is a su#stance with ,4 greater than (8 3A Because it is a logarithmic scale5 each lower unit has 1. times the amount of hy rogen ions as ne/t higher ,4 unitD mo2ing u, ,4 scale5 each unit has 1. times the #asicity of ,re2ious unit8

"8 B%11er# 9ee, ,4 stea y an within normal limits in li2ing organisms8

a8 Buffers sta#ili'e ,4 of a solution #y ta9ing u, e/cess hy rogen @4OA or hy ro/i e @O4;A ions8 #8 Car#onic aci hel,s 9ee, #loo ,4 within normal limits% 42CO3 R 4O O 4CO3;8 A8 The 4arm 3one #y Aci 3e,osition @&cology Focus #o/A 18 A&id de)'#i$i'" is rain or snow with ,4 S "8.5 an ry aci ic ,articles that settle on the &arth from the atmos,here8 28 The #urning of fossil fuels increases the amount of aci e,osition that falls from the atmos,here to the &arth8 38 0m,act of La9es a8 Aluminum is leache from the soil con2erts mercury e,osits to methyl mercury5 which is to/ic an accumulates in fish8 48 0m,act on !orests a8 Aci rain amages ,lant lea2es so they cannot con uct ,hotosynthesis8 #8 Aci rain stresses ,lants an they are then more susce,ti#le to isease an ,ests8 c8 :hen to/ins are leache into the soil5 the to/ins can 9ill 2ital soil fungi that hel, roots a#sor# nutrients8 "8 0m,act on 4umans an Structures a8 0nhaling ry aci ic ,articles can increase the chance of res,iratory illnesses such as asthma8

Le&$%re E"ri&!+e"$ Idea#

E6)erie"&e Ba#e% 0n many states5 fewer than half of high school gra uates ha2e ta9en a chemistry course although stu ents ma7oring in #iology are more li9ely to ha2e such #ac9groun 8 An instructor cannot assume that stu ents ha2e ,re2iously #een e/,ose to many chemical conce,ts in a meaningful way8 18 28 38 Stu ents can e/amine the ,erio ic ta#le an locate the elements that are common in li2ing organisms8 4a2e them etermine how many electrons are in the outer shell #y e/amining the atomic num#ers8 3escri#e how car#on14 #rea9s own into nitrogen14 an what the ifferences in ,rotons an neutrons woul #e #etween these elements8 3iscuss why some isoto,es are ra ioacti2e an others are not8 B+a ioacti2e isoto,esC are often confuse with Bra iation5C the energy or ,article gi2en off #y the ra ioacti2e isoto,es8 Eee, e/,lanations clear an use wor s carefully to istinguish the two8 0soto,es with 2ery low le2els of ra iation can #e concentrate in one tissue5 such as io ine in the thyroi 5 an the ra iation can #e use to amage local cells8 3iscuss the me ical use of this8 3iscuss the formation of ions an how electrons are lost or gaine in such formation8 Ma9e sure stu ents un erstan that an ion can #e a com#ination of atoms5 an that e2en large molecules @e8g85 43)O4A may #ecome ioni'e at ifferent locations within the molecule8

48

1"

"8

Consi er the ,rotons an electrons of an atom as similar to the en s of a #ar magnet5 with ,ositi2e an negati2e charges attracting each other5 an electrons at greater istances from the nucleus ha2ing more energy #ecause they are not as closely attracte to the ,ositi2e charges of the ,rotons8 A hesion5 cohesion5 an surface tension are ifficult conce,ts for some stu ents8 The a#ility of a water stri er to su,,ort itself on the water<s surface can #e escri#e #ase on water molecules ,ushing in all irectionsD lac9 of water a#o2e the surface ,ro2i es an u,war surface tension Bsu,,ort8C :ater ro,lets rolling across the hoo of a newly wa/e car illustrate cohesion5 an su,,orting a water ro,let #etween your fingers 2iewing with an o2erhea ,ro7ector can illustrate #oth a hesion @to fingersA an cohesion @of waterA8

$8

Cri$i&al T!i",i"*
-%e#$i'" 10 :ater rawn through trees #y trans,iration e2a,orates into the air a#o2e forests an generates u, rafts of lighter weight moist airM 1li er ,ilots 9now that they can gain lift from these currents #y flying a#o2e forests8 Consi er that a molecule of water is,laces a molecule of nitrogen or o/ygen gas8 :hy then is air lighter when we a"" moisture to itK A"#.er: The atomic mass of one o/ygen an two small hy rogen atoms is less than the mass of two nitrogen or two o/ygen atoms8 Therefore5 when an 42O is,laces an O2 or 625 a 2olume of air is lighter #ecause the mass of atoms is lighter8 -%e#$i'" 20 3etergent soa,s re uce the surface tension of water5 therefore ma9ing water BwetterC an #etter a#le to ,enetrate irt on ishes5 etc8 A water stri er is an insect that Bs9atesC across the surface of fresh water streams an ,on s to locate foo 8 3isregar ing any chemical reactions that might #e to/ic to the insect5 what woul ha,,en to the water stri er if etergent was a e to the surface of that stream or ,on K A"#.er: Because the water stri er relies on the surface tension of the water to stay on the surface5 the wetting effect of the etergent woul 9ee, the insect<s feet from staying on to, of the water<s surface8 -%e#$i'" 40 The isco2ery of li>ui water un er the fro'en surface of a istant moon in our solar system has cause scientists to s,eculate on the ,ossi#ility of life on that moon8 +esearchers hol no ho,e of any life form e/isting on any ,lanet or moon in the a#sence of water8 :hyK A"#.er: The meta#olic ,athways in a cell are the chemical reactions for life an all are e,en ent u,on water as a sol2ent8 :ater also mo erates the en2ironment5 ser2es as a trans,ort me ium5 su,,lies 4O or O4; ions5 an has hy raulic ,ro,erties for ca,illary action8 -%e#$i'" 70 :hy oes water free'e at a tem,erature lower than .oC when salt is a e to itK A"#.er: The salt isru,ts the water<s a#ility to form rigi hy rogen hy rogen #on s as the tem,erature lowers8 The water thus remains li>ui at a tem,erature where5 without the salt5 the water woul form the soli state ice8

Te&!"'l'*y 1r'+ /CB=M&Gra.;Hill

Life Science Animations Vi eo% Vi eo T1 Chemistry5 The Cell5 an &nergetics F'r+a$i'" '1 a" I'"i& B'"d 8>19 The atomic structure of so ium an chlorine is re2iewe #efore these atoms are seen reacting to form so ium chlori e8

1$

CHAPTER

THE CHEMISTRY OF ORGANIC MOLECULES

Organic molecules are a i2erse grou, of chemicals that contain car#on an hy rogen #on e to other atoms8 0n the li2ing organism5 four ty,es of organic molecules5 or #iomolecules5 e/ist% car#ohy rates5 li,i s5 ,roteins5 an nucleic aci s8 The uni>ue chemistry of car#on ma9es these #iomolecules highly i2erse in structure an function8 This cha,ter ,resents a etaile escri,tion of these #iomolecules an of the macromolecules #uilt from themD 2arious ty,es of chemical reactions in2ol2ing these organic su#stances are escri#e 8 Many e/am,les are ,resente to illustrate the i2ersity an #iological im,ortance of these molecules of life8

C!a)$er O%$li"e
401 Or*a"i& M'le&%le# Or*a"i& +'le&%le# contain car#on an hy rogen atoms #on e to other atoms8 18 !our ty,es of organic molecules @bi'+'le&%le#A e/ist in organisms: &arb'!ydra$e#3 li)id#3 )r'$ei"#3 an "%&lei& a&id#0 28 Organic molecules are a i2erse grou,D e2en a sim,le #acterial cell contains some "5... organic molecules8 A8 The Car#on Atom 18 The chemistry of the car#on atom allows it to form co2alent #on s with as many as four other elements @generally with the C46O)S elementsA8 28 Hydr'&arb'"# are chains of car#on atoms #on e e/clusi2ely to hy rogen atomsD hy rocar#ons can #e #ranche an they can form ringe @cyclicA com,oun s8 38 Car#on atoms can form ou#le or tri,le #on s with certain atoms @car#on5 nitrogenA8 B8 The Car#on S9eleton an !unctional 1rou,s 18 The car#on chain of an organic molecule is calle its #,ele$'" or ba&,b'"e0 28 F%"&$i'"al *r'%)# are clusters of s,ecific atoms #on e to the car#on s9eleton with characteristic structure an functions8 a8 As an e/am,le5 the a ition of an =O4 @hy ro/yl grou,A to a car#on s9eleton turns the molecule into an alcohol. #8 &thyl alcohol @ethanolA is hy ro,hilic @ issol2es in waterA #ecause the hy ro/yl grou, is ,olar8 c8 6on,olar organic molecules are !ydr')!'bi& @cannot issol2e in waterA unless they contain a ,olar functional grou, @e/85 ethaneA5 while !ydr')!ili& com,oun s @such as ethanolA can issol2e in water #ecause the =O4 functional grou, is ,olar8 8 3e,en ing on its functional grou,s5 an organic molecule may #e #oth aci ic an hy ro,hilic8 An e/am,le is a hy rocar#on that contains a car#o/yl grou,D car#o/yl grou,s ioni'e in solution #y releasing hy rogen ions5 #ecoming #oth ,olar an aci ic8 e8 Because cells are (.=-.N water5 the egree to which an organic molecule interacts with water affects its function8 38 I#'+er# are molecules with i entical molecular formulas #ut ifferent arrangements of their atoms @e8g85 glyceral ehy e an ihy ro/yacetoneA8 C8 The Biomolecules of Cells 18 Car#ohy rates5 li,i s5 ,roteins5 an nucleic aci s are calle bi'+'le&%le# #ecause certain foo s are 9nown to #e rich in them8 28 Cellular en'ymes carry out de!ydra$i'" rea&$i'"# to synthesi'e #iomolecules8 0n a ehy ration reaction5 a water molecule is remo2e an a co2alent #on is ma e #etween two atoms of the monomers8 38 Hydr'ly#i# @Bwater #rea9ingCA rea&$i'"# #rea9 own ,olymers in re2erse of ehy rationD a hy ro/yl @? O4A grou, from water attaches to one monomer an hy rogen @? 4A attaches to the other8

1(

402 A8

B8

C8

38

404

A8

E"5y+e# are molecules that s,ee u, chemical reactions #y #ringing reactants togetherD an en'yme may e2en ,artici,ate in the reaction #ut is not change #y the reaction8 "8 The largest #iomolecules are calle )'ly+er#3 constructe #y lin9ing many of the same ty,e of small su#units5 calle +'"'+er#0 &/am,les% a+i"' a&id# @monomersA are lin9e to form a )r'$ei" @,olymerAD many "%&le'$ide# @monomersA are lin9e to form a "%&lei& a&id @,olymerA8 a8 0n a ehy ration reaction5 a hy ro/yl @? O4A grou, is remo2e from one monomer an a hy rogen @? 4A is remo2e from the other8 #8 This ,ro uces water5 an 5 #ecause the water is lea2ing the monomers5 it is a ehy ration reaction8 Carb'!ydra$e# Monosacchari es% +ea y &nergy 18 M'"'#a&&!aride# are sim,le sugars with a #ac9#one of 3 to ( car#on atoms8 a8 Most monosacchari es of organisms ha2e $ car#ons @he/oseA8 #8 1lucose an fructose are he/oses5 #ut are isomers of one anotherD each has the formula @C$412O$A #ut they iffer in arrangement of the atoms8 c8 1lucose is foun in the #loo of animalsD it is the source of #iochemical energy @AT)A in nearly all organisms8 28 Rib'#e an de'6yrib'#e are fi2e;car#on sugars @,entosesAD they contri#ute to the #ac9#ones of +6A an 36A5 res,ecti2ely8 3isacchari es% Varie Gses 18 i#a&&!aride# contain two monosacchari es 7oine #y a ehy ration reaction8 28 Mal$'#e is com,ose of two glucose moleculesD it forms in the igesti2e tract of humans uring starch igestion8 38 S%&r'#e @ta#le sugarA is com,ose of glucose an fructoseD it is use to sweeten foo for human consum,tion8 48 La&$'#e is com,ose of galactose an glucose an is foun in mil98 )olysacchari es% &nergy Storage Molecules 18 P'ly#a&&!aride# are ,olymers of monosacchari es8 They are not solu#le in water an o not ,ass through the ,lasma mem#rane of the cell8 28 S$ar&!3 foun in many ,lants5 is a straight chain of glucose molecules with relati2ely few si e #ranches8 Amylose an amylopectin are the two forms of starch foun in ,lants8 38 Gly&'*e" is a highly #ranche ,olymer of glucose with many si e #ranches8 0t is the storage form of glucose in animals8 )olysacchari es% Structural Molecules 18 Cell%l'#e is a ,olymer of glucose which forms microfi#rils5 the ,rimary constituent of ,lant cell walls8 a8 Cotton is nearly ,ure cellulose8 #8 Cellulose is in igesti#le #y humans ue to the uni>ue #on #etween glucose molecules8 c8 1ra'ing animals can igest cellulose ue to s,ecial stomachs an #acteria8 8 Cellulose is the most a#un ant organic molecule on &arth8 28 C!i$i" is a ,olymer of glucose with an amino grou, attache to each glucose8 a8 Chitin is the ,rimary constituent of the e/os9eleton of cra#s an relate animals @lo#sters5 insects5 etc8A8 #8 Chitin is not igesti#le #y humans8 38 Pe)$id'*ly&a" is a ,olymer of glucose eri2ati2es an is foun in #acteria8 Li)id# Li,i s are 2arie in structure8 18 Li)id# are hy rocar#ons that are insolu#le in water #ecause they lac9 ,olar grou,s8 28 Fa$ ,ro2i es insulation an energy storage in animals8 38 P!'#)!'li)id# form ,lasma mem#ranes an #$er'id# are im,ortant cell messengers8 48 /a6e# ha2e ,rotecti2e functions in many organisms8 Triglyceri es% Long;Term &nergy Storage 18 Fa$# an 'il# contain two molecular units% glycerol an fatty aci s8 28 A 1a$$y a&id is a long hy rocar#on chain with a car#o/yl @aci A grou, at one en 8 a8 Most fatty aci s in cells contain 1$ to 1* car#on atoms ,er molecule8 #8 Sa$%ra$ed 1a$$y a&id# ha2e no ou#le #on s #etween their car#on atoms8 c8 U"#a$%ra$ed 1a$$y a&id# ha2e ou#le #on s in the car#on chain where there are less than two

48

1*

B8

C8

38

407

A8

B8

hy rogens ,er car#on atom8 38 Gly&er'l is a water;solu#le com,oun with three hy ro/yl grou,s8 48 Tri*ly&eride# are glycerol 7oine to three fatty aci s #y ehy ration reactions8 "8 Fa$# contain saturate fatty aci s an are soli at room tem,erature @e8g85 #utterA8 $8 Oil# contain unsaturate fatty aci s an are li>ui at room tem,erature8 (8 Animals use fat rather than glycogen for long;term energy storageD fat stores more energy8 )hos,holi,i s% Mem#rane Com,onents 18 P!'#)!'li)id# are constructe li9e neutral fats e/ce,t that the thir fatty aci is re,lace #y a ,olar @hy ro,hilicA ,hos,hate grou,D the ,hos,hate grou, usually #on s to another organic grou, @ esignate #y 'A8 28 The hy rocar#on chains of the fatty aci s #ecome the non,olar @hy ro,ho#icA tails8 38 )hos,holi,i s arrange themsel2es in a ou#le layer in water5 so the ,olar hea s face towar water molecules an non,olar tails face towar one other5 away from water molecules8 48 This ,ro,erty ena#les ,hos,holi,i s to form an interface or se,aration #etween two solutions @e8g85 the interior an e/terior of a cellAD the ,lasma mem#rane is a ,hos,holi,i #ilayer8 Steroi s% !our !use +ings 18 S$er'id# ha2e s9eletons of four fuse car#on rings an 2ary accor ing to attache functional grou,sD these functional grou,s etermine the #iological functions of the 2arious steroi molecules8 28 C!'le#$er'l is a com,onent of an animal cell<s ,lasma mem#rane5 an is the ,recursor of the steroi hormone @al osterone5 testosterone5 estrogen5 calcitriol5 etc8A8 38 A iet high in saturate fats an cholesterol can lea to circulatory isor ers8 :a/es 18 /a6e# are long;chain fatty aci s #on e to long;chain alcohols8 28 :a/es ha2e a high melting ,oint5 are water,roof5 an resist egra ation8 38 :a/es form a ,rotecti2e co2ering in ,lants that retar s water loss in lea2es an fruits8 48 0n animals5 wa/es maintain animal s9in an fur5 tra, ust an irt5 an form the honeycom#8 Pr'$ei"# )rotein !unctions 18 Me$ab'li& e"5y+e# are ,roteins that act as organic catalysts to accelerate chemical reactions within cells8 28 S%))'r$ ,roteins inclu e ,era$i"3 which ma9es u, hair an nails5 an &'lla*e" fi#ers5 which su,,ort many of the #o y<s structures @e8g85 ligaments5 ten ons5 s9inA8 38 Tra"#)'r$ functions inclu e channel an carrier ,roteins in the ,lasma mem#rane5 an hemoglo#in that trans,orts o/ygen in re #loo cells8 48 e1e"#e functions inclu e anti#o ies that ,re2ent infection8 "8 H'r+'"e# are re*%la$'ry ,roteins that influence the meta#olism of cells8 !or e/am,le5 i"#%li" regulates glucose content of #loo an within cells8 $8 M'$i'" within cells an #y muscle contraction is ,ro2i e #y the ,roteins +y'#i" an a&$i"0 )e,ti es 18 A ,e)$ide b'"d is a co2alent #on #etween two amino aci s8 28 Atoms of a ,e,ti e #on share electrons une2enly @o/ygen is more electronegati2e than nitrogenA8 38 The ,olarity of the ,e,ti e #on ,ermits hy rogen #on ing #etween ifferent amino aci s in a ,oly,e,ti e8 48 A )e)$ide is two or more amino aci s #on e together8 "8 P'ly)e)$ide# are chains of many amino aci s 7oine #y ,e,ti e #on s8 $8 A )r'$ei" may contain more than one ,oly,e,ti e chainD it can thus ha2e a 2ery large num#er of amino aci s8 a8 The three; imensional sha,e of a ,rotein is criticalD an a#normal se>uence will ha2e the wrong sha,e an will not function normally8 #8 !re eric9 Sanger etermine the first ,rotein se>uence @of the hormone insulinA in 1-"38 Amino Aci s% )roteins Monomers 18 Amino aci s contain an a&idi& grou, @? COO4A an an a+i"' grou, @?642A8 28 Amino aci s iffer accor ing to their ,articular ' grou,5 ranging from single hy rogen to com,licate ring com,oun s8 38 The ' grou, of amino aci cystine en s with a sulfhy ryl @? S4A that ser2es to connect one chain of amino aci s to another #y a isulfi e #on @? S? S?A8

1-

48 There are 2. ifferent amino aci s commonly foun in cells8 C8 Sha,e of )roteins 18 )rotein sha,e etermines the function of the ,rotein in the organismD ,roteins can ha2e u, to four le2els of structure @#ut not all ,roteins ha2e four le2elsA8 28 The )ri+ary #$r%&$%re is the ,rotein<s own ,articular se>uence of amino aci s8 a8 Hust as the &nglish al,ha#et contains 2$ letters5 2. amino aci s can 7oin to form a huge 2ariety of Bwor s8C 38 The #e&'"dary #$r%&$%re results when a ,oly,e,ti e coils or fol s in a ,articular way8 a8 The 8al)!a9 !eli6 was the first ,attern isco2ere 8 1A 0n a ,e,ti e #on 5 o/ygen is ,artially negati2e5 hy rogen is ,artially ,ositi2e8 2A This allows for hy rogen #on ing #etween the CPO of one amino aci an the 6?4 of another8 3A 4y rogen #on ing #etween e2ery fourth amino aci hol s the s,iral sha,e of an heli/8 #8 The 8be$a9 #!ee$ was the secon ,attern isco2ere 8 1A )leate sheet ,oly,e,ti es turn #ac9 u,on themsel2es8 2A 4y rogen #on ing occurs #etween e/ten e lengths8 c8 Fibr'%# )r'$ei"# @e8g85 9eratinA are structural ,roteins with helices an For ,leate sheets that hy rogen #on to one another8 48 Ter$iary #$r%&$%re results when ,roteins are fol e 5 gi2ing rise to the final three; imensional sha,e of the ,rotein8 This is ue to interactions among the ' grou,s of the constituent amino aci s8 a8 Gl'b%lar )r'$ei"# ten to #all u, into roun e sha,es8 #8 Strong isulfi e lin9ages maintain the tertiary sha,eD hy rogen5 ionic5 an co2alent #on s also contri#ute8 "8 -%a$er"ary #$r%&$%re results when two or more ,oly,e,ti es com#ine8 a8 4emoglo#in is glo#ular ,rotein with a >uaternary structure of four ,oly,e,ti esD each ,oly,e,ti e has a ,rimary5 secon ary5 an tertiary structure8 38 )rotein !ol ing 3iseases 18 As ,roteins are synthesi'e 5 &!a)er'"e )r'$ei"# hel, them fol into their correct sha,esD cha,erone ,roteins may also correct misfol ing of a new ,rotein an ,re2ent them from ma9ing incorrect sha,es8 28 Certain iseases @e8g85 the transmissi#le s,ongiform ence,halo,athies5 or TS&sA are li9ely ue to misfol e ,roteins5 calle )ri'"#0 40? N%&lei& A&id# 18 6ucleic aci s are ,olymers of nucleoti es with 2ery s,ecific functions in cells8 28 NA @de'6yrib'"%&lei& a&idA stores the genetic co e for its own re,lication an for the amino aci se>uences in ,roteins8 38 RNA @rib'"%&lei& a&idA allows for translation of the genetic co e of 36A into the amino aci se>uence of ,roteinsD other functions for +6A in the cell e/ist8 48 Some nucleoti es ha2e in e,en ent meta#olic functions in cells8 a8 C'e"5y+e# are molecules which facilitate en'ymatic reactions8 #8 ATP 8ade"'#i"e $ri)!'#)!a$e9 is a nucleoti e use to su,,ly energy for synthetic reactions an other energy;re>uiring meta#olic acti2ities in the cell8 A8 Structure of 36A an +6A 18 N%&le'$ide# are a molecular com,le/ of three ty,es of molecules% a ,hos,hate @,hos,horic aci A5 a ,entose sugar5 an a nitrogen;containing #ase8 28 36A an +6A iffer in the following ways% a8 6ucleoti es of 36A contain de'6yrib'#e sugarD nucleoti es of +6A contain rib'#e0 #8 0n +6A5 the #ase uracil occurs instea of the #ase thymine8 Both +6A an 36A contain a enine5 guanine5 an cytosine8 c8 36A is ou#le;stran e with com,lementary #ase ,airingD +6A is single;stran e 8 1A C'+)le+e"$ary ba#e )airi"* occurs where two stran s of 36A are hel together #y hy rogen #on s #etween ,urine an ,yrimi ine #ases8 2A The num#er of ,urine #ases always e>uals the num#er of ,yrimi ine #ases8 3A 0n 36A5 thymine is always ,aire with a enineD cytosine is always ,aire with guanine8 Thus5 in 36A% A O 1 P C O T8 8 Two stran s of 36A twist to form a d'%ble !eli6D +6A oes not form helices8 B8 AT) @A enosine Tri,hos,hateA

2.

18 28 38 48 "8

ATP @ade"'#i"e $ri)!'#)!a$eA is a nucleoti e in which ade"'#i"e is com,ose of ri#ose an a enine8 Tri)!'#)!a$e eri2es its name from three ,hos,hate grou,s attache together an to the ri#ose8 AT) is a high;energy molecule #ecause the last two ,hos,hate #on s release energy when #ro9en8 0n cells5 the terminal ,hos,hate #on is hy roly'e 5 lea2ing A3) @a enosine i,hos,hateAD energy is release when this occurs8 The energy release from AT) #rea9 own is use in the energy;re>uiring ,rocesses of the cell5 such as synthetic reactions5 muscle contraction5 an the transmission of ner2e im,ulses8

Le&$%re E"ri&!+e"$ Idea#

E6)erie"&e Ba#e: This cha,ter utili'es a su#stantial amount of terminology for organic molecules that are not in most stu ents< irect e/,erience unless they ha2e ha e/,osure to organic chemistry8 !or stu ents with limite chemistry #ac9groun 5 it is im,ortant to stress that the 2arious acronyms stan for com,le/ molecules an are not a stan ;alone chemical al,ha#et @i8e85 A3) is not a molecule foun in the center of 6A3)4A8 18 3escri#e s,ecific macromolecules @e8g85 car#ohy rates5 ,roteinsA that iffer in 2arious life forms8 :hy are certain macromolecules 2irtually i entical in highly i2erse life forms @i8e85 humans an #acteriaA #ut other macromolecules are 2ery ifferentK 3iscuss why life is #ase on car#on8 6ote the characteristics of car#on that ma9e it the #asis of organic molecules8 &arly researchers ,ro#ing the ,ossi#ility of life on other ,lanets s,eculate that life might #e #ase on another atom #esi es car#on?,erha,s silicon8 As9 stu ents to consi er the chemical ,ro,erties of silicon @note its ,osition on the ,erio ic ta#leA com,are to car#on5 an s,eculate on how this might ma9e life ifferent or im,ossi#le as we 9now it8 3escri#e the structures an characteristics of functional grou,s that are im,ortant in the #iochemistry of li2ing organisms8 &/,lain the ifferent isomeric forms of the he/ose sugars glucose5 fructose5 an galactose5 an reasons for their ifferent characteristics8 3escri#e how the structures fit into en'ymes an why ifferent en'ymes woul #e nee e to interact with ifferent isomers8 As9 if con ensation synthesis an hy rolysis reactions woul #e e/act o,,osites of each other8 )oint out that these reactions are not generally one;ste, ,rocesses #ut re>uire se2eral ste,s an se2eral en'ymes to carry out the com,lete reaction8 S,eculate what woul ha,,en if genetic engineering ga2e humans the a#ility to irectly igest cellulose8 :oul this #e useful or notK As9 stu ents to consi er the structure of our igesti2e tracts an the use of cellulose as BroughageC or B#ul98C 3escri#e how enaturation affects the ifferent le2els of a ,rotein<s structure8 :hich le2els woul #e most affecte #y enaturationK Contrast enaturation cause #y heat @e8g85 frying an eggA as o,,ose to mil enaturation cause #y re2ersi#le ,4 changes8 :oul free'ing affect the le2els of a ,rotein<s structureK Com,are the ifferent ty,es of su#units of the car#ohy rates5 li,i s5 ,roteins5 an nucleic aci s5 an the ty,es of #on s that lin9 these su#units8 )re,are the stu ents for the lin9 #etween the genetic information in 36A5 +6A5 an ,rotein synthesis that will #e iscusse later8 &/,lain how the amount of AT) use in one ay e/cee s #y many times the amount of AT) in the human #o y8

28

38 48

"8

$8

(8

*8

-8

Cri$i&al T!i",i"*
-%e#$i'" 10 !or e2ery molecule that life forms can synthesi'e5 such as cellulose or chitin5 there are #acteria that can igest that ,articular macromolecule into sugar an other smaller molecules8 :hat woul ha,,en if a tree or insect coul #uil a com,le/ molecule that no organism or natural ,rocess coul ecom,oseK

21

A"#.er: This woul #e a isastrous situation8 :ithout organisms that can #rea9 own cellulose5 chitin5 or other large organic molecules5 these molecules woul accumulate8 6ot only woul we #e floo e with5 say5 ea tree trun9s an insect shells5 e2entually these tissues woul ca,ture all of the cycling car#on an #ring life to a halt8 -%e#$i'" 20 Many insects fee e/clusi2ely on one narrow ty,e of foo molecule such as ,lant sa, @sugarA5 #loo ,roteins5 or starch8 Let these organisms are themsel2es ma e of a wi e range of molecules8 :here oes this molecular i2ersity come fromK A"#.er: &ach s,ecies of organism has its uni>ue en'yme com#inations that allow it to fee on certain foo s an con2ert those molecules to the other molecules necessary for its structure an ,hysiology8 Organisms that lac9 the en'ymes to #uil necessary molecules must ta9e in those molecules intact in their iet8 The foo ,references of cater,illars an gru#s5 for e/am,le5 actually reflect the en'yme an meta#olic a#ilities of the insects< cells8 -%e#$i'" 40 :hy is it somewhat true to say that ultimately5 #iology is the stu y of ,roteinsK A"#.er: :hile some other ty,es of molecules are im,ortant for stan ar functions in energy storage5 structure5 etc85 the great ma7ority of 2ariation among organisms is ue to uni>ue ,roteins @e8g85 structural5 en'ymes5 etc8A an the resultant uni>ue #iochemistry8 By un erstan ing the ,rotein chemistry @e8g85 its en'ymatic acti2ity5 its structural ,roteins5 etc8A of an organism5 we can #egin to un erstan how the organism li2es8 An 5 of course5 ifferent ,roteins mean ifferent genes an therefore uni>ueness in 36A8

22

CHAPTER

CELL STRUCTURE AN FUNCTION

This cha,ter ,resents an o2er2iew of the cell theory8 A escri,tion of the 2arious ty,es of microsco,es an their uses ,rece es a etaile stu y of cell structure an function8 The organelles an their acti2ities are iscusse for #oth ,ro9aryotic an eu9aryotic cells8 Various human iseases associate with organellar ysfunction are mentione 8

C!a)$er O%$li"e
701 Cell%lar Level '1 Or*a"i5a$i'" 18 3etaile stu y of the cell #egan in the 1*3.sD some of the scientists contri#uting to the un erstan ing of cell structure an function were +o#ert Brown5 Matthais Schlei en5 Theo or Schwann5 an +u ol,h Virchow8 28 The &ell $!e'ry states that all organisms are com,ose of &ell#3 that cells are the structural an functional unit of organisms5 an that cells come only from ,ree/isting cells8 A8 Cell Si'e 18 Cells range in si'e from one millimeter own to one micrometer8 28 Cells nee a surface area of ,lasma mem#rane large enough to a e>uately e/change materials8 38 The #%r1a&e area $' v'l%+e ra$i' re>uires that cells #e small8 a8 As cells get larger in 2olume5 surface area relati2e to 2olume ecreases8 #8 Si'e limits how large the acti2ely meta#oli'ing cells can #ecome8 c8 Cells nee ing greater surface area utili'e mem#rane mo ifications such as fol ing5 micro2illi5 etc8 B8 Microsco,y To ay @Science Focus #o/A 18 C'+)'%"d li*!$ +i&r'#&')e# use light rays focuse #y glass lenses8 28 Tra"#+i##i'" ele&$r'" +i&r'#&')e# @T&MA use electrons ,assing through s,ecimen an focuse #y electromagnetic lenses8 38 S&a""i"* ele&$r'" +i&r'#&')e# @S&MA use electrons scanne across metal;coate s,ecimenD secon ary electrons gi2en off #y metal are collecte #y a etector8 48 Ma*"i1i&a$i'" is a function of wa2elengthD the shorter wa2elengths of electrons allow greater magnification than the longer wa2elengths of light rays8 "8 Re#'l%$i'" is the minimum istance #etween two o#7ects at which they can still #e seen as se,arate o#7ects8 $8 C'"$ra#$ is the ifference in the sha ing of an o#7ect com,are to its #ac9groun 8 (8 P!a#e &'"$ra#$ a"d di11ere"$ial i"$er1a&e &'"$ra#$ +i&r'#&')y uses fluorescent anti#o ies to re2eal ,roteins in cells8 *8 C'"1'&al +i&r'#&')y uses laser #eam to focus on a shallow ,lane within the cellD this forms a series of o,tical sections from which a com,uter creates a three imensional image8 -8 Vide';e"!a"&ed &'"$ra#$ +i&r'#&')y accentuates the light an ar9 regions an may use a com,uter to contrast regions with false colors8 1.8 Bri*!$;1ield3 )!a#e &'"$ra#$3 di11ere"$ial i"$er1ere"&e 5 an dar,1ield are ifferent ty,es of light microsco,es8 702 Pr',ary'$i& Cell# 18 )ro9aryotic cells lac9 a nucleus an are smaller an sim,ler than eu9aryotic cells @which ha2e a nucleusA8 28 )ro9aryotic cells are ,lace in two ta/onomic omains% Bacteria an Archaea8 Organisms in these two omains are structurally similar #ut #iochemically ifferent8 A8 The Structure of )ro9aryotes 18 )ro9aryotes are e/tremely smallD a2erage si'e is 1=18" Um wi e an 2=$ Um long 8 28 )ro9aryotes occur in three #asic sha,es% s,herical &'&&%#3 ro ;sha,e ba&ill%#3 an s,iral #)irill%+ @if rigi A or #)ir'&!e$e @if fle/i#leA8 38 Cell &n2elo,e

23

704 A8

B8

C8

707 A8

0n #acteria5 the cell en2elo,e inclu es the )la#+a +e+bra"e3 the &ell .all3 an the *ly&'&aly60 The ,lasma mem#rane is a li,i #ilayer with im#e e an ,eri,heral ,roteinsD it regulates the mo2ement of su#stances into an out of the cell8 #8 The ,lasma mem#rane can form internal ,ouches calle +e#'#'+e#3 which increase the internal surface area of the mem#rane for en'yme attachment8 c8 The cell wall maintains the sha,e of the cell an is strengthene #y )e)$id'*ly&a"0 8 The glycocaly/ is a layer of ,olysacchari es on the outsi e of the cell wallD it is calle a &a)#%le if organi'e an not easily remo2e or a #li+e layer if it is not well;organi'e an is easily remo2e 8 48 Cyto,lasm a8 The &y$')la#+ is a semiflui solution containing water5 inorganic an organic molecules5 an en'ymes8 #8 The "%&le'id is a region that contains the single5 circular 36A molecule8 c8 Pla#+id# are small accessory @e/trachromosomalA rings of 36AD they are not ,art of the #acterial genetic material8 8 Rib'#'+e# are ,articles with two +6A; an ,rotein;containing su#units that synthesi'e ,roteins8 e8 I"&l%#i'" b'die# in the cyto,lasm are granules of store su#stances8 f8 Cya"'ba&$eria @also calle bl%e;*ree" ba&$eriaA are #acteria that ,hotosynthesi'eD they lac9 chloro,lasts #ut ha2e $!yla,'id# containing chloro,hyll an other ,igments8 "8 A,,en ages a8 Motile #acteria usually ha2e 1la*ella@ the filament5 hoo95 an #asal #o y wor9 to rotate the flagellum li9e a ,ro,eller to mo2e through flui me ium8 #8 Fi+briae are small5 #ristle li9e fi#ers that attach to an a,,ro,riate surface8 c8 C'"A%*a$i'" )ili are tu#es use #y #acteria to ,ass 36A from cell to cell8 I"$r'd%&i"* E%,ary'$i& Cell# Origin of the &u9aryotic cell 18 Accor ing to the e"d'#y+bi'$i& $!e'ry3 energy;relate organelles5 such as mitochon ria an chloro,last5 arose when a eu9aryotic cell engulfe ,ro9aryotic cells8 28 &u9aryotic cells are mem#ers of the omain &u9arya5 which inclu es the ,rotists5 fungi5 ,lants5 an animals8 38 A mem#rane;#oun e "%&le%# houses 36AD the nucleus may ha2e originate as an in2agination of the ,lasma mem#rane8 48 &u9aryotic cells are much larger than ,ro9aryotic cells5 an therefore ha2e less surface area ,er 2olume8 Structure of &u9aryotic Cells 18 Some eu9aryotic cells @e8g85 ,lant cellsA ha2e a &ell .all containing celluloseD )la#+'de#+a$a are channels in a cell wall that allow cyto,lasmic stran s to e/ten #etween a 7acent cells8 28 &u9aryotic cells are com,artmentali'e D they contain small structures calle 'r*a"elle# that ,erform s,ecific functions8 38 The "%&le%s communicates with rib'#'+e# in the cyto,lasm8 48 The organelles of the en omem#rane system communicate with one anotherD each organelle contains ts own set of en'ymes an ,ro uces its own ,ro ucts5 which mo2e from one organelle to another #y trans,ort 2esicles8 "8 The energy;relate +i$'&!'"dria @,lant an animal cellsA an &!l'r')la#$# @,lant cellsA o not communicate with other organellesD they contain their own 36A an are self;sufficient8 $8 The &y$'#,ele$'" is a lattice of ,rotein fi#ers that maintains the sha,e of the cell an assists in mo2ement of the organelles8 Cell !ractionation an 3ifferential Centrifugation @Science Focus #o/A 18 Cell 1ra&$i'"a$i'" allows the researcher to isolate an in i2i ually stu y the organelles of a cell8 28 i11ere"$ial &e"$ri1%*a$i'" se,arates the cellular com,onents #y si'e an ensity8 38 Gsing these two techni>ues5 researchers can o#tain ,ure ,re,arations of any cell com,onent8 T!e N%&le%# a"d Rib'#'+e# 6ucleus 18 The nucleus has a iameter of a#out " Um8 28 C!r'+a$i" is a threa li9e material that coils into chromosomes 7ust #efore cell i2ision occursD contains 36A5 ,rotein5 an some +6A8

a8

24

B8

70? A8 B8

C8

38

&8

70B A8

N%&le')la#+ is the semiflui me ium of the nucleus8 C!r'+'#'+e# are ro li9e structures forme uring cell i2isionD com,ose of coile or fol e chromatin8 "8 The "%&le'l%# is a ar9 region of chromatin insi e the nucleusD it is the site where ri#osomal +6A @r+6AA 7oins with ,roteins to form ri#osomes8 $8 The nucleus is se,arate from the cyto,lasm #y the "%&lear e"vel')e3 which contains "%&lear )'re# to ,ermit ,assage of su#stances @e8g85 ri#osomal su#units5 messenger +6A5 ,roteins5 etc8A in an out of the nucleus +i#osomes 18 Rib'#'+e# are the site of ,rotein synthesis in the cell8 0n eu9aryotic cells5 ri#osomes may occur freely or in grou,s calle )'lyrib'#'+e#0 28 +i#osomes recei2e messenger +6A @m+6AA from the nucleus5 which instructs the ri#osomes of the correct se>uence of amino aci s in a ,rotein to #e synthesi'e 8 T!e E"d'+e+bra"e Sy#$e+ The e"d'+e+bra"e #y#$e+ is a series of intracellular mem#ranes that com,artmentali'e the cell8 18 0t consists of the nuclear en2elo,e5 the mem#ranes of the en o,lasmic reticulum5 the 1olgi a,,aratus5 an se2eral ty,es of 2esicles8 E"d')la#+i& Re$i&%l%+ 18 The en o,lasmic reticulum @&+A is a system of mem#rane channels an saccules @flattene 2esiclesA continuous with the outer mem#rane of the nuclear en2elo,e8 28 R'%*! ER is stu e with ri#osomes on the cyto,lasm si eD it is the site where ,roteins are synthesi'e an enter the &+ interior for ,rocessing an mo ification8 38 S+''$! ER is continuous with rough &+ #ut lac9s ri#osomesD it is a site of 2arious synthetic ,rocesses5 eto/ification5 an storageD smooth &+ forms $ra"#)'r$ ve#i&le#0 T!e G'l*i A))ara$%# 18 0t is name for Camillo 1olgi5 who isco2ere it in 1*-*8 28 The 1olgi a,,aratus consists of a stac9 of slightly cur2e saccules8 38 The 1olgi a,,aratus recei2es ,rotein;fille 2esicles that #u from the rough &+ an li,i ;fille 2esicles from the smooth &+8 48 &n'ymes within the 1olgi a,,aratus mo ify the car#ohy rates that were ,lace on ,roteins in the &+D ,roteins an li,i s are sorte an ,ac9age 8 "8 Vesicles forme from the mem#rane of the outer face of the 1olgi a,,aratus mo2e to ifferent locations in a cellD at the ,lasma mem#rane they ischarge their contents as #e&re$i'"#5 a ,rocess calle e!ocytosis #ecause su#stances e/it the cell8 Ly#'#'+e# 18 Lysosomes are mem#rane;#oun e 2esicles ,ro uce #y the 1olgi a,,aratus8 28 Lysosomes contain ,owerful igesti2e en'ymes an are highly aci ic8 38 Macromolecules enter a cell #y 2esicle formationD lysosomes fuse with 2esicles an igest the contents of the 2esicle8 48 :hite #loo cells that engulf #acteria use lysosomes to igest the #acteria8 "8 Auto"igestion occurs when lysosomes igest ,arts of cells8 $8 Lysosomes ,artici,ate in a)')$'#i#3 or ,rogramme cell eath5 a normal ,art of e2elo,ment8 E"d'+e+bra"e Sy#$e+ S%++ary 18 )roteins ,ro uce in rough &+ an li,i s from smooth &+ are carrie in 2esicles to the 1olgi a,,aratus8 28 The 1olgi a,,aratus mo ifies these ,ro ucts an then sorts an ,ac9ages them into 2esicles that go to 2arious cell estinations8 38 Secretory 2esicles carry ,ro ucts to the mem#rane where e/ocytosis ,ro uces secretions8 48 Lysosomes fuse with incoming 2esicles an igest macromolecules8 O$!er Ve#i&le# a"d Va&%'le# Per'6i#'+e# are mem#rane;#oun e 2esicles that contain s,ecific en'ymes8 18 )ero/isome action results in ,ro uction of hy rogen ,ero/i e8 28 4y rogen ,ero/i e @42O2A is #ro9en own to water an o/ygen #y &a$ala#e0 38 )ero/isomes in the li2er ,ro uce #ile salts from cholesterol an also #rea9 own fats8 48 )ero/isomes also occur in germinating see s where they con2ert oils into sugars use as nutrients #y the growing ,lant8

38 48

2"

B8 Va&%'le# 18 Va&%'le# are mem#ranous sacs an are larger than 2esicles8 28 Contractile 2acuoles in some ,rotists ri the cell of e/cess water8 38 3igesti2e 2acuoles igest nutrients8 48 Vacuoles generally store su#stances5 e8g85 ,lant 2acuoles contain water5 sugars5 salts5 ,igments5 an to/ic molecules8 "8 The &e"$ral va&%'le of a ,lant cell maintains turgor ,ressure within the cell5 stores nutrients an wastes5 an egra es organelles as the cell ages8 70C T!e E"er*y;Rela$ed Or*a"elle# A8 C!l'r')la#$# are mem#ranous organelles @a ty,e of )la#$idA that ser2e as the site of ,hotosynthesis8 18 )hotosynthesis is re,resente #y the e>uation% solar energy O car#on io/i e O water R car#ohy rate O o/ygen 28 Only ,lants5 algae5 an certain #acteria are ca,a#le of con ucting ,hotosynthesis8 38 The chloro,last is #oun #y a ou#le mem#rane organi'e into flattene isc;li9e sacs calle $!yla,'id# forme from a thir mem#raneD a stac9 of thyla9oi s is a *ra"%+0 48 Chloro,hyll an other ,igments ca,ture solar energy5 an the en'ymes which synthesi'e car#ohy rates are locate in the chloro,lasts8 "8 Chloro,lasts ha2e #oth their own 36A an ri#osomes5 su,,orting the en"osymbiotic hypothesis8 $8 Other ty,es of ,lasti s5 which iffer in color5 form5 an function from chloro,lasts5 inclu e &!r'+')la#$# an le%&')la#$#0 B8 Mi$'&!'"dria are surroun e #y a ou#le mem#rane% the inner mem#rane surroun s the +a$ri6 an is con2olute to form &ri#$ae0 18 Mitochon ria are smaller than chloro,lasts5 an often 2ary their sha,e8 28 Mitochon ria also can #e fi/e in one location or form long5 mo2ing chains8 38 Mitochon ria contain ri#osomes an their own 36A8 48 The matri/ of the mitochon ria is concentrate with en'ymes that #rea9 own car#ohy rates8 "8 AT) ,ro uction occurs on the cristae8 $8 More than forty ifferent iseases in2ol2ing mitochon ria ha2e #een escri#e 8 70D T!e Cy$'#,ele$'" A8 The &y$'#,ele$'" is a networ9 of connecte filaments an tu#ulesD it e/ten s from the nucleus to the ,lasma mem#rane in eu9aryotes8 18 &lectron microsco,y re2eals an organi'e cytosol8 28 0mmunofluorescence microsco,y i entifies ,rotein fi#ers8 38 &lements of the cytos9eleton inclu e% actin filaments5 interme iate filaments5 an microtu#ules8 B8 A&$i" Fila+e"$# 18 Actin filaments are long5 thin fi#ers @a#out ( nm in iameterA that occur in #un les or meshli9e networ9s8 28 The actin filament consists of two chains of glo#ular actin monomers twiste to form a heli/8 38 Actin filaments ,lay a structural role5 forming a ense com,le/ we# 7ust un er the ,lasma mem#raneD this accounts for the formation of )#e%d')'d# in amoe#oi mo2ement8 48 Actin filaments in micro2illi of intestinal cells li9ely shorten or e/ten cell into intestine8 "8 0n ,lant cells5 they form trac9s along which chloro,lasts circulate8 $8 Actin filaments mo2e #y interacting with +y'#i"@ myosin com#ines with an s,lits AT)5 #in ing to actin an changing configuration to ,ull actin filament forwar 8 (8 Similar action accounts for ,inching off cells uring cell i2ision8 C8 I"$er+edia$e Fila+e"$# 18 0nterme iate filaments are *=11 nm in iameter5 #etween actin filaments an microtu#ules in si'e8 28 They are ro,e;li9e assem#lies of fi#rous ,oly,e,ti es8 38 Some su,,ort the nuclear en2elo,eD others su,,ort ,lasma mem#rane an form cell;to;cell 7unctions8 38 Mi&r'$%b%le# 18 Microtu#ules are small hollow cylin ers @2" nm in iameter an from .82=2" Um in lengthA8 28 Microtu#ules are com,ose of a glo#ular ,rotein $%b%li" that occurs as V tu#ulin an W tu#ulin8 38 Assem#ly #rings these two together as imers an the imers arrange themsel2es in rows8 48 +egulation of microtu#ule assem#ly is un er control of a microtu#ule organi'ing center @MTOCA% the main MTOC is calle a &e"$r'#'+e0 "8 Microtu#ules ra iate from the MTOC5 hel,ing maintain the sha,e of cells an acting as trac9s along

2$

which organelles mo2e8 $8 Similar to actin;myosin5 the motor molecules inesin an "ynein are associate with microtu#ules8 (8 3ifferent 9in s of 9inesin ,roteins s,eciali'e to mo2e one 9in of 2esicle or cell organelle8 *8 Cyto,lasmic ynein is similar to the molecule ynein foun in flagella8 &8 Ce"$ri'le# 18 Ce"$ri'le# are short cylin ers with a ring ,attern @- O .A of microtu#ule tri,lets8 28 0n animal cells an most ,rotists5 centrosome contains two centrioles lying at right angles to each other8 38 )lant an fungal cells ha2e the e>ui2alent of a centrosome5 #ut they o not contain centrioles8 48 Centrioles ser2e as ba#al b'die# for cilia an flagella8 !8 Cilia a"d Fla*ella 18 Cilia are short5 usually numerous hairli9e ,ro7ections that can mo2e in an un ulating fashion @e8g85 (arameciumD lining of human u,,er res,iratory tractA8 28 Fla*ella are longer5 usually fewer5 ,ro7ections that mo2e in whi,;li9e fashion @e8g85 s,erm cellsA8 38 Both ha2e similar construction5 #ut iffer from ,ro9aryotic flagella8 a8 Mem#rane;#oun e cylin ers enclose a matri/ containing a cylin er of nine ,airs of microtu#ules encircling two single microtu#ules @- O 2 ,attern of microtu#ulesA8 #8 Cilia an flagella mo2e when the microtu#ules sli e ,ast one another8 c8 Cilia an flagella ha2e a #asal #o y at #ase with the same arrangement of microtu#ule tri,les as centrioles8 8 Cilia an flagella grow #y the a ition of tu#ulin imers to their ti,s8

Le&$%re E"ri&!+e"$ Idea#

E6)erie"&e Ba#e% Many stu ents will ha2e ha some e/,erience wor9ing with a microsco,e5 although the mo2ement towar using a microsco,e;mounte tele2ision camera to emonstrate sli es may remo2e this critical e/,erience from a stu ent<s e/,erience #ase8 )ro2i ing microsco,ic or ,hotogra,hic images uring lecture an iscussions is critical for stu ents to 2isuali'e most cell com,onents8 18 3escri#e the history of o#ser2ing cells?from light microsco,es to electron microsco,es an other new techni>ues8 3iscuss how research has to await new technology an ifferent metho s to allow smaller structures to #e e/amine 8 3escri#e the ifference #etween magnification @the a#ility to ma9e something a,,ear largerA an resolution @the a#ility to istinguish #etween two a 7acent structuresA8 3iscuss why the electron microsco,e has greater resol2ing ,ower than the light microsco,e at the same magnification8 Consi er why #acteria are so numerous an how they com,are to eu9aryotic cells in si'e an com,le/ity8 !or instance5 if a eu9aryotic cell is the si'e of the normal classroom or lecture hall5 the #acterium woul #e the si'e of a es98 3escri#e the functions of the eu9aryotic organelles an how the same cellular functions are con ucte in a #acterial cell8 !ollow the ,athway a ,rotein molecule might ta9e through the en omem#rane system from its ,ro uction on the rough en o,lasmic reticulum through release from a 2esicle at the cell<s surface8 4ow woul this ,athway #e ifferent if the ,rotein were ma e on a free ri#osome in the cytosolK &/,lain that the ,rotein<s #eginning was in a ,articular gene in the 36A8 3is,lay sli es or trans,arencies of eu9aryotic organelles as seen through a light microsco,e or an electron microsco,e8 )oint out the 2arious organellar structures @e8g85 cristaeA an the functions that are associate with those functions8 Calculate how a cell @cu#eli9e or s,hericalA increases its si'e #y ou#ling its imensions5 an consi er the relationshi, of 2olume an surface area8 Consi er the increase in surface area relati2e to 2olume when the cell is s,herical or cu#oi al 2ersus elongate or with the surface rawn out into micro2illi8 6ote that mo2ement @#eyon the natural flow of ,hysical currentsA is normally ,ercei2e #y non;scientists as a mysterious ,ro,erty of life5 #ut is fully un erstoo an e/,laine here as rather sim,le chemistry5 ,ortions of which can #e emonstrate outsi e the li2ing cell in a test tu#e8

28

38

48 "8

$8

(8

38

2(

Cri$i&al T!i",i"*
-%e#$i'" 10 :hen li2ing tissues are 2iewe through the microsco,e5 the cells re2eal com,le/ internal mo2ements that ama'e the early microsco,ists8 BVitalismC is the #elief that some a itional 2ital force is necessary to e/,lain life an this mo2ement insi e cells8 :hy are mo ern #iologists5 who see these com,le/ cells an their mo2ements e2ery ay5 not B2italistsKC A"#.er: As com,le/ as cell mo2ement is5 it can #e un erstoo along with muscle cell mo2ement5 as in chemical reactions5 such as in sli ing actin an myosin filaments5 an the release of energy from AT) molecules8 -%e#$i'" 20 !ree'ing an thawing of 2egeta#les estroys their structure #ecause small shar, ice crystals ,ierce the cell walls an estroy the structure8 Although meat lac9s cell walls5 re,eate free'ing an thawing ,ro uces the #a taste of Bfree'er #urn8C :hat is the main organelle in2ol2e in this ,artial igestion of the cells in the meatK A"#.er: The lysosome contains en'ymes for self; igestion #ut these are usually walle off from the cell contents8 !ree'ing an thawing forms ice crystals that ,ierce the lysosome wall5 an the en'ymes #egin to ,re; igest the cell contents8 -%e#$i'" 40 4ow is cell #iology lin9e to the e2elo,ment of scientific technologyK A"#.er: The recognition of cells an the larger cellular structures ha to await the e2elo,ment of the light microsco,e8 Structural etails of most cell organelles were not o#ser2e until the e2elo,ment of the electron microsco,e8 Techni>ues an e>ui,ment to se,arate cellular com,onents were necessary to stu y isolate organelles8

Te&!"'l'*y 1r'+ M&Gra.;Hill

)lease consult your C'%r#e I"$e*ra$i'" G%ide for technology correlations for this cha,ter8

2*

CHAPTER

MEMBRANE STRUCTURE AN FUNCTION

The com,le/ structure an function of the ,lasma mem#rane are escri#e 5 along with the macromolecules that com,rise the mem#rane8 The mechanisms #y which su#stances mo2e in an out of cells are iscusse 5 as are the general chemical ,rocesses of iffusion an osmosis8 0m,ortant cell surface mo ifications an their significance @e8g85 in cellular 7unctionsA are also etaile 8

C!a)$er O%$li"e
?01 Pla#+a Me+bra"e S$r%&$%re a"d F%"&$i'" 18 The ,lasma mem#rane is a )!'#)!'li)id bilayer with em#e e ,roteins8 28 )hos,holi,i s ha2e #oth hy ro,hilic an hy ro,ho#ic regionsD non,olar tails @hy ro,ho#icA are irecte inwar 5 ,olar hea s @hy ro,hilicA are irecte outwar to face #oth e/tracellular an intracellular flui 8 38 The ,roteins form a mosaic ,attern on the mem#rane8 48 C!'le#$er'l is a li,i foun in animal ,lasma mem#ranesD it stiffens an strengthens the mem#rane8 "8 The ,lasma mem#rane is asymmetricalD glycoli,i s an ,roteins occur only on outsi e an cytos9eletal filaments attach to ,eri,heral ,roteins only on the insi e surface8 $8 0ntegral ,roteins are usually foun in the mem#rane an are hel in ,lace #y the cytos9eleton an the e/tracellular matri/ @&CMA8 (8 &CM are only foun in animals an their functions inclu e su,,orting the ,lasma mem#rane an communicating #etween cells8 A8 Fl%id;M'#ai& M'del 18 The flui ;mosaic mo el escri#es the ,lasma mem#rane8 28 The flui com,onent refers to the ,hos,holi,i s #ilayer of the ,lasma mem#rane8 38 !lui ity of the ,lasma mem#rane allows cells to #e ,lia#le8 48 !lui ity is affecte #y cholesterol molecules in the ,lasma mem#rane8 "8 The mosaic com,onent refers to the ,rotein content in the ,lasma mem#rane8 $8 )rotins #on to the &CM an For cytos9eleton to ,re2ent mo2ement in the flui ,hos,holi,i #ilayer8 B8 Car#ohy rate Chains 18 Gly&'li)id# ha2e a structure similar to ,hos,holi,i s e/ce,t the hy ro,hilic hea is a 2ariety of sugarD they are ,rotecti2e an assist in 2arious functions8 28 Gly&')r'$ei"# ha2e an attache car#ohy rate chain of sugar that ,ro7ects e/ternally8 38 0n animal cells5 the glycocaly! is a Bsugar coatC of car#ohy rate chainsD it has se2eral functions8 48 Cells are uni>ue in that they ha2e highly 2arie car#ohy rate chains @a Bfinger,rintCA8 "8 The immune system recogni'es foreign tissues that ha2e ina,,ro,riate car#ohy rate chains8 $8 Car#ohy rate chains are the #asis for A5 B5 an O #loo grou,s in humans8 C8 The !unctions of the )roteins 18 C!a""el )r'$ei"# allow a ,articular molecule to cross mem#rane freely @e8g85 Cl channelsA8 28 Carrier )r'$ei"# selecti2ely interact with a s,ecific molecule so it can cross the ,lasma mem#rane @e8g85 6aO;EO ,um,A8 38 Cell re&'*"i$i'" )r'$ei"# are glyco,roteins that allow the #o y<s immune system to istinguish #etween foreign in2a ers an #o y cells8 48 Re&e)$'r )r'$ei"# are sha,e so a s,ecific molecule @e8g85 hormoneA can #in to it8 "8 E"5y+a$i& )r'$ei"# carry out s,ecific meta#olic reactions8 $8 E%"&$i'" )r'$ei"# 7oin animal cells so tissues can function8 38 4ow 3o Cells Tal9 to One AnotherK @Science Focus #o/) 18 Cell Signaling a8 Molecules5 or chemical messengers5 Btal9C to other cells an may change cells5 tissues5 or organs8

2-

These cells o not res,on to all molecules8 They re>uire #in ing to a rece,tor ,rotein8 Once the signaling molecule is #oun to a rece,tor5 the signal follows through a trans uction ,athway8 8 The cell<s res,onse to the trans uction ,athway can change the sha,e or mo2ement of the cell5 alter the meta#olism or function of the cell5 or alter the gene e/,ression an amount of a cell ,rotein8 &8 )ermea#ility of the )lasma Mem#rane 18 The ,lasma mem#rane is di11ere"$ially 8#ele&$ively9 )er+eable@ only certain molecules can ,ass through8 a8 Small non;charge li,i molecules @alcohol5 o/ygenA ,ass through the mem#rane freely8 #8 Small ,olar molecules @car#on io/i e5 waterA mo2e B ownC a &'"&e"$ra$i'" *radie"$3 i8e85 from high to low concentration8 c8 0ons an charge molecules cannot rea ily ,ass through the hy ro,ho#ic com,onent of the #ilayer an usually com#ine with carrier ,roteins8 28 Both ,assi2e an acti2e mechanisms mo2e molecules across mem#rane8 a8 Pa##ive $ra"#)'r$ mo2es molecules across mem#rane without e/,en iture of energyD inclu es di11%#i'" an 1a&ili$a$ed $ra"#)'r$0 #8 A&$ive $ra"#)'r$ re>uires a carrier ,rotein an uses energy @AT)A to mo2e molecules across a ,lasma mem#raneD inclu es a&$ive $ra"#)'r$3 e6'&y$'#i#5 e"d'&y$'#i#3 an )i"'&y$'#i#0 38 The ,resence of a mem#rane channel ,rotein calle an a<%a)'ri" allows water to cross mem#ranes >uic9ly8 48 Su#stances enter or e/it a cell through b%l, $ra"#)'r$0 ?02 Pa##ive Tra"#)'r$ A&r'## a Me+bra"e 18 i11%#i'" is the mo2ement of molecules from higher to lower concentration @i8e85 B ownC the concentration gra ientA8 a8 A solution contains a #'l%$e3 usually a soli 5 an a #'lve"$3 usually a li>ui 8 #8 0n the case of a ye iffusing in water5 the ye is a solute an water is the sol2ent8 c8 Once a solute is e2enly istri#ute 5 ran om mo2ement continues #ut with no net change8 8 Mem#rane chemical an ,hysical ,ro,erties allow only a few ty,es of molecules to cross #y iffusion8 e8 1ases rea ily iffuse through the li,i #ilayerD e8g85 the mo2ement of o/ygen from air sacs @al2eoliA to the #loo in lung ca,illaries e,en s on the concentration of o/ygen in al2eoli8 f8 Tem,erature5 ,ressure5 electrical currents5 an molecular si'e influence the rate of iffusion8 A8 Osmosis 18 O#+'#i# is the iffusion of water across a ifferentially @selecti2elyA ,ermea#le mem#rane8 a8 Osmosis is illustrate #y the thistle tu#e e/am,le% 1A A ifferentially ,ermea#le mem#rane se,arates two solutions8 2A The #ea9er has more water @lower ,ercentage of soluteA an the thistle tu#e has less water @higher ,ercentage of soluteA8 3A The mem#rane oes not ,ermit ,assage of the soluteD water enters #ut the solute oes not e/it8 4A The mem#rane ,ermits ,assage of water with a net mo2ement of water from the #ea9er to the insi e of the thistle tu#e8 #8 O#+'$i& )re##%re is the ,ressure that e2elo,s in such a system ue to osmosis8 c8 Osmotic ,ressure results in water #eing a#sor#e #y the 9i neys an water #eing ta9en u, from tissue flui 8 28 T'"i&i$y is strength of a solution with res,ect to osmotic ,ressure8 a8 I#'$'"i& #'l%$i'"# occur where the relati2e solute concentrations of two solutions are e<%al@ a .8-N salt solution is use in in7ections #ecause it is isotonic to re #loo cells @+BCsA8 #8 A !y)'$'"i& #'l%$i'" has a solute concentration that is less than another solutionD when a cell is ,lace in a hy,otonic solution5 water enters the cell an it may un ergo &y$'ly#i# @Bcell #urstingCA8 c8 Swelling of a ,lant cell in a hy,otonic solution creates $%r*'r )re##%re@ this is how ,lants maintain an erect ,osition8 8 A !y)er$'"i& solution has a solute concentration that is higher than another solutionD when a cell is ,lace in a hy,ertonic solution5 it shri2els @a con ition calle &re"a$i'"A8 e8 Pla#+'ly#i# is shrin9ing of the cyto,lasm ue to osmosis in a hy,ertonic solutionD as the central 2acuole loses water5 the ,lasma mem#rane ,ulls away from the cell wall8

#8 c8

3.

!acilitate Trans,ort a8 Fa&ili$a$ed $ra"#)'r$ is the trans,ort of a s,ecific solute B ownC or BwithC its concentration gra ient @from high to lowA5 facilitate #y a carrier ,roteinD glucose an amino aci s mo2e across the mem#rane in this way8 ?04 A&$ive Tra"#)'r$ A&r'## a Me+bra"e A8 A&$ive $ra"#)'r$ is trans,ort of a s,ecific solute across ,lasma mem#ranes Bu,C or BagainstC @from low to highA its concentration gra ient through use of cellular energy @AT)A8 18 0o ine is concentrate in cells of thyroi glan 5 glucose is com,letely a#sor#e into lining of igesti2e tract5 an so ium is mostly rea#sor#e #y 9i ney tu#ule lining8 28 Acti2e trans,ort re>uires #oth carrier ,roteins an AT)D therefore cells must ha2e high num#er of mitochon ria near mem#ranes where acti2e trans,ort occurs8 38 )roteins in2ol2e in acti2e trans,ort are often calle B,um,sCD the so ium;,otassium ,um, is an im,ortant carrier system in ner2e an muscle cells8 48 Salt @6aClA crosses a ,lasma mem#rane #ecause so ium ions are ,um,e across5 an the chlori e ion is attracte to the so ium ion an sim,ly iffuses across s,ecific channels in the mem#rane8 B8 B%l, Tra"#)'r$ 18 0n e6'&y$'#i#3 a 2esicle forme #y the 1olgi a,,aratus fuses with the ,lasma mem#rane as secretion occursD insulin lea2es insulin;secreting cells #y this metho 8 28 3uring e"d'&y$'#i#3 cells ta9e in su#stances #y 2esicle formation as ,lasma mem#rane ,inches off #y either ,hagocytosis5 ,inocytosis5 or rece,tor;me iate en ocytosis8 38 0n )!a*'&y$'#i#3 cells engulf large ,articles @e8g85 #acteriaA5 forming an en ocytic 2esicle8 a8 )hagocytosis is commonly ,erforme #y ame#oi ;ty,e cells @e8g85 amoe#as an macro,hagesA8 #8 :hen the en ocytic 2esicle fuses with a lysosome5 igestion of the internali'e su#stance occurs8 48 Pi"'&y$'#i# occurs when 2esicles form aroun a li>ui or 2ery small ,articlesD this is only 2isi#le with electron microsco,y8 "8 Re&e)$'r;+edia$ed e"d'&y$'#i#3 a form of ,inocytosis5 occurs when s,ecific macromolecules #in to ,lasma mem#rane rece,tors8 a8 The rece,tor ,roteins are sha,e to fit with s,ecific su#stances @2itamin5 hormone5 li,o,rotein molecule5 etc8A5 an are foun at one location in the ,lasma mem#rane8 #8 This location is a coate ,it with a layer of fi#rous ,rotein on the cyto,lasmic si eD when the 2esicle is uncoate 5 it may fuse with a lysosome8 c8 )its are associate with e/change of su#stances #etween cells @e8g85 maternal an fetal #loo A8 8 This system is selecti2e an more efficient than ,inocytosisD it is im,ortant in mo2ing su#stances from maternal to fetal #loo 8 e8 Cholesterol @trans,orte in a molecule calle a low; ensity li,o,rotein5 L3LA enters a cell from the #loo stream 2ia rece,tors in coate ,itsD in familial hy,ocholesterolemia5 the L3L rece,tor cannot #in to the coate ,it an the e/cess cholesterol accumulates in the circulatory system8 ?07 M'di1i&a$i'" '1 Cell S%r1a&e# A8 Cell Surfaces in Animals 18 The e6$ra&ell%lar +a$ri6 is a meshwor9 of ,olysacchari es an ,roteins ,ro uce #y animal cells8 a8 C'lla*e" gi2es the matri/ strength an ela#$i" gi2es it resilience8 #8 Fibr'"e&$i"# an la+i"i"# #in to mem#rane rece,tors an ,ermit communication #etween matri/ an cyto,lasmD these ,roteins also form BhighwaysC that irect the migration of cells uring e2elo,ment8 c8 Pr'$e'*ly&a"# are glyco,roteins that ,ro2i e a ,ac9ing gel that 7oins the 2arious ,roteins in matri/ an most li9ely regulate signaling ,roteins that #in to rece,tors in the ,lasma ,rotein8 28 E%"&$i'"# Be$.ee" Cell# are ,oints of contact #etween cells that allow them to #eha2e in a coor inate manner8 a8 A"&!'ri"* A%"&$i'"# mechanically attach a 7acent cells8 #8 0n ad!e#i'" A%"&$i'"#3 internal cyto,lasmic ,la>ues5 firmly attache to cytos9eleton within each cell5 are 7oine #y intercellular filamentsD they hol cells together where tissues stretch @e8g85 in heart5 stomach5 #la erA8 c8 0n de#+'#'+e#3 a single ,oint of attachment #etween a 7acent cells connects the cytos9eletons of a 7acent cells8 8 0n $i*!$ A%"&$i'"#3 ,lasma mem#rane ,roteins attach in 'i,,er;li9e fasteningsD they hol cells together so tightly that the tissues are #arriers @e8g85 e,ithelial lining of stomach5 9i ney tu#ules5

38

31

#loo ;#rain #arrierA8 A *a) A%"&$i'" allows cells to communicateD forme when two i entical ,lasma mem#rane channels 7oin8 1A They ,ro2i e strength to the cells in2ol2e an allow the mo2ement of small molecules an ions from the cyto,lasm of one cell to the cyto,lasm of the other cell8 2A 1a, 7unctions ,ermit flow of ions for heart muscle an smooth muscle cells to contract8 B8 )lant Cell :alls 18 )lant cells are surroun e #y a ,orous cell wallD it 2aries in thic9ness5 e,en ing on the function of the cell8 28 )lant cells ha2e a ,rimary cell wall com,ose of cellulose ,olymers unite into threa li9e microfi#rils that form fi#rils8 38 Cellulose fi#rils form a framewor9 whose s,aces are fille #y non;cellulose molecules8 48 Pe&$i"# allow the cell wall to stretch an are a#un ant in the mi le lamella that hol s cells together8 "8 N'";&ell%l'#e ,olysacchari es har en the wall of mature cells8 $8 Li*"i" a s strength an is a common ingre ient of secon ary cell walls in woo y ,lants8 (8 Pla#+'de#+a$a are narrow mem#rane;line channels that ,ass through cell walls of neigh#oring cells an connect their cyto,lasms5 allowing irect e/change of molecules an ions #etween neigh#oring ,lant cells8 e8

Le&$%re E"ri&!+e"$ Idea#

&/,erience Base% This cha,ter is hea2ily la en with terminology an chemical conce,ts that may not #e familiar to many stu ents8 Visuals an emonstrations are critical to un erstan ing mem#rane ,ro,erties5 es,ecially the iscussion of a Bflui C mem#rane an the conce,t of Bhy,otonicC an Bhy,ertonicC as ,ertains to solutions8 Be aware that stu ents will li9ely ha2e a negati2e conce,t of BcholesterolCD stress that it is necessary for animal life an is a 2ital raw material for many im,ortant meta#olic functions an is the #asis of many hormones8
18 28 3escri#e how the sugar resi ues of glyco,roteins an glycoli,i s are locate only on the outsi e face of the ,lasma mem#rane8 &m,hasi'e the im,ortance of these molecules in cellular acti2ity8 &/amine scanning electron microgra,hs of free'e;fracture ,lasma mem#rane8 3etermine which face is the cyto,lasmic an which the e/ternal si e of the mem#rane8 @The ,roteins are more fre>uent in the cyto,lasmic faceA8 3escri#e the function of cholesterol in the ,lasma mem#ranes of animal cells5 an iscuss why cholesterol is missing in ,lant cells8 3escri#e an iscuss the functions of the ifferent 9in s of ,roteins that are locate in an attache to the ,lasma mem#rane8 3iscuss why these mem#rane;associate ,roteins are also foun in mem#rane;#oun organelles such as 2esicles5 2acuoles5 mitochon ria5 an chloro,lasts8 )re,are ialysis #ags containing ifferent molar solutions of saline5 an ,lace them in solutions with ifferent molarities8 3etermine which #ea9ers re,resent a cell in a hy,otonic5 hy,ertonic5 or isotonic solutions8 An egg with its shell B,eele awayC or issol2e away with 2inegar can also #e use D it can swell to the si'e of an orange as water continuously enters8 @This e/,eriment shoul #e set u, at the #eginning of class an analy'e at the en of class8A Com,are the functions of the ifferent 9in s of 7unctions that hol cells together an with what 9in s of cells they woul li9ely #e associate 8 3iscuss the ,ossi#le effects of 2arious chemical agents that alter or eliminate the function of each ty,e of 7unction8

38 48

"8

$8

Cri$i&al T!i",i"*
32

-%e#$i'" 10 0f you o not water your house,lants5 they will first wilt5 then e2entually ie8 :hy o wilting an ying not occur at the same timeK A"#.er: A ,lant maintains its rigi sha,e #y hol ing water insi e a large central 2acuoleD the water ,ushes against the ,lasma mem#rane5 which ,ushes against the rigi cell wall5 an this turgor ,ressure hol s the ,lant rigi 8 The ,lant wilts when the water le2el ro,s to where there is not enough turgor ,ressure to maintain rigi ity5 #ut there is ,lenty of water for life ,rocesses to continue8 Loss of a itional water will ehy rate the cell an e2entually cause eath of ,lant tissue8 -%e#$i'" 20 Lou can B,eelC a raw egg without #rea9ing the mem#rane or BmeltC away the shell in 2inegar8 0f you ,lace it in a glass of istille 5 eioni'e water5 it will swell in si'e until it #rea9s8 :hy is the flow one wayK A"#.er: The egg white is al#umin5 a huge ,rotein molecule that cannot ,ass through the mem#rane8 :ater is a small molecule that can easily ,ass either way across the mem#rane8 Since the water outsi e is 1..N water an the al#umin cannot lea2e5 the ,ercentage of water insi e is always lower than 1.. ,ercentD thus the water molecules will continue to mo2e from higher concentration outsi e the egg to a lower concentration insi e8 -%e#$i'" 40 The 36A of a cell co es for se>uences of amino aci s in ,roteins #ut the main com,onent of a ,lasma mem#rane is ,hos,holi,i s5 a molecule that is not a ,rotein8 :here oes the BnewC ,lasma mem#rane come from when cells re,ro uceK A"#.er: As a li,i 5 the ,lasma mem#rane grows #y a ing li,i molecules from the cellular en2ironment5 a ,rocess calle accretion8 The uni>ue ,roteins that are em#e e in the mem#rane woul #e enco e #y 36A #ut all non; ,rotein elements of a cell must #e e2elo,e #y other cellular mechanisms8

Te&!"'l'*y 1r'+ M&Gra.;Hill

)lease consult your C'%r#e I"$e*ra$i'" G%ide for technology correlations for this cha,ter8

33

CHAPTER

METABOLISM: ENERGY AN ENFYMES

The nature of energy an the laws of thermo ynamics are iscusse 5 followe #y a etaile escri,tion of energy transformations that occur within the cell8 The chemistry an functions of AT) are escri#e 8 The role of en'ymes in meta#olism5 o/i ation;re uction reactions5 an the cellular organelles in which these reactions ta9e ,lace are etaile 8

C!a)$er O%$li"e
B01 Cell# a"d $!e Fl'. '1 E"er*y
A8 !orms of &nergy 18 E"er*y is ca,acity to o wor9D cells continually use energy to e2elo,5 grow5 re,air5 re,ro uce5 etc8 28 Gi"e$i& e"er*y is energy of motionD all mo2ing o#7ects ha2e 9inetic energy8 38 P'$e"$ial e"er*y is store" energy8 48 F''d is &!e+i&al e"er*y@ it contains ,otential energy8 "8 Chemical energy can #e con2erte into +e&!a"i&al e"er*y3 e8g85 muscle mo2ement8 B8 Two Laws of Thermo ynamics 18 !irst law of thermo ynamics @also calle the law of conser#ation of energyA a8 &nergy cannot #e create or estroye 5 #ut it can #e change from one form to another8 #8 0n an ecosystem5 solar energy is con2erte to chemical energy #y the ,rocess of ,hotosynthesisD some of the chemical energy in the ,lant is con2erte to chemical energy in an animal5 which in turn can #ecome mechanical energy or heat loss8 c8 6either the ,lant nor the animal create energy5 they con#ert it from one form to another8 8 Li9ewise5 energy is not estroye D some #ecomes heat that issi,ates into the en2ironment8 28 Secon law of thermo ynamics a8 &nergy cannot #e change from one form into another without a loss of usa#le energy8 #8 4eat is a form of energy that issi,ates into the en2ironmentD heat can ne2er #e con2erte #ac9 to another form of energy8 C8 Cells an &ntro,y 18 &2ery energy transformation ma9es the uni2erse less organi'e an more isor ere D e"$r')y is the term use to in icate the relati2e amount of isorgani'ation8 28 :hen ions istri#ute ran omly across a mem#rane5 entro,y has increase 8 38 Organi'e Fusa#le forms of energy @as in the glucose moleculeA ha2e relati2ely low entro,yD unorgani'e Fless sta#le forms ha2e relati2ely high entro,y8 48 &nergy con2ersions result in heatD therefore5 the entro,y of the uni2erse is always increasing8 "8 Li2ing things e,en on a constant su,,ly of energy from the sun5 #ecause the ultimate fate of all solar energy in the #ios,here is to #ecome ran omi'e in the uni2erse as heatD the li2ing cell is a tem,orary re,ository of or er ,urchase at the cost of a constant flow of energy8 B02 Me$ab'li& Rea&$i'"# a"d E"er*y Tra"#1'r+a$i'"# 18 Me$ab'li#+ is the sum of all the #iochemical reactions in a cell8 28 0n the reaction A O B P C O 35 A an B are rea&$a"$# an C an 3 are )r'd%&$#0 38 Free e"er*y @*A is the amount of energy that is free to o wor9 after a chemical reaction8 48 Change in free energy is note as *D a negati2e * means that ,ro ucts ha2e less free energy than reactantsD the reaction occurs s,ontaneously8 "8 E6er*'"i& rea&$i'"# ha2e a negati#e * an energy is release 8 $8 E"der*'"i& rea&$i'"# ha2e a positi#e *D ,ro ucts ha2e more energy than reactantsD such reactions can only occur with an in,ut of energy8 A8 AT)% &nergy for Cells 18 Ade"'#i"e $ri)!'#)!a$e @AT)A is the energy currency of cellsD when cells nee energy5 they Bs,en C AT)8

34

B8

B04

A8

B8

C8

AT) is an energy carrier for many ifferent ty,es of reactions8 :hen AT) is con2erte into A3) O )5 the energy release is sufficient for #iological reactions with little waste 8 48 AT) #rea9 own is cou,le to en ergonic reactions in a way that minimi'es energy loss8 "8 AT) is a nucleoti e com,ose of the #ase a enine an the ";car#on sugar ri#ose an three ,hos,hate grou,s8 $8 :hen one ,hos,hate grou, is remo2e 5 a#out (83 9cal of energy is release ,er mole8 Cou,le +eactions 18 C'%)led rea&$i'"# are reactions that occur in the same ,lace5 at the same time5 an in a way that an e/ergonic reaction is use to ri2e an en ergonic reaction8 28 AT) #rea9 own is often cou,le to cellular reactions that re>uire energy8 38 AT) su,,ly is maintaine #y #rea9 own of glucose uring cellular res,iration8 Me$ab'li& Pa$!.ay# a"d E"5y+e# 18 E"5y+e# are catalysts that s,ee chemical reactions without the en'yme #eing affecte #y the reaction8 28 &2ery en'yme is s,ecific in its action an cataly'es only one reaction or one ty,e of reaction8 38 Rib'5y+e# are ma e of +6A rather than ,roteins an also ser2e as catalysts8 48 A +e$ab'li& )a$!.ay is an or erly se>uence of lin9e reactionsD each ste, is cataly'e #y a s,ecific en'yme8 "8 Meta#olic ,athways #egin with a ,articular reactant5 en with a ,articular en" pro"uct+s)5 an may ha2e many interme iate ste,s8 $8 0n many instances5 one ,athway lea s to the ne/tD since ,athways often ha2e one or more molecules in common5 one ,athway can lea to se2eral others8 (8 Meta#olic energy is ca,ture more easily if it is release in small increments8 *8 A rea&$a"$ is the su#stance that is con2erte into a )r'd%&$ #y the reactionD often many interme iate ste,s occur8 &nergy of Acti2ation 18 Molecules often o not react with each other unless acti2ate in some way8 28 !or meta#olic reactions to occur in a cell5 an en'yme must usually #e ,resent8 38 The e"er*y '1 a&$iva$i'" 8Ea9 is the energy that must #e a e to cause molecules to reactD without an en'yme @i8e85 in a reaction 2essel in the la#oratoryA this energy may #e ,ro2i e #y heat5 which causes an increase in the num#er of molecular collisions8 &n'yme;Su#strate Com,le/ 18 A #%b#$ra$e is a reactant for an en'ymatic reaction8 28 &n'ymes s,ee chemical reactions #y lowering the energy of acti2ation @&aA #y forming a com,le/ with their su#strate@sA at the acti#e site. a8 An a&$ive #i$e is a small region on the surface of the en'yme where the su#strate@sA #in 8 #8 :hen a su#strate #in s to an en'yme5 the acti2e site un ergoes a slight change in sha,e that facilitates the reaction8 This is calle the i"d%&ed 1i$ +'del of en'yme catalysis8 38 Only a small amount of en'yme is nee e in a cell #ecause en'ymes are not consume uring catalysis8 48 Some en'ymes @e8g85 try,sinA actually ,artici,ate in the reaction8 "8 A ,articular reactant@sA may ,ro uce more than one ty,e of ,ro uct@sA8 a8 )resence or a#sence of en'yme etermines which reaction ta9es ,lace8 #8 0f reactants can form more than one ,ro uct5 the en'ymes ,resent etermine which ,ro uct is forme 8 !actors Affecting &n'ymatic S,ee 18 Su#strate concentration8 a8 Because molecules must colli e to react5 en'yme acti2ity increases as su#strate concentration increasesD as more su#strate molecules fill acti2e sites5 more ,ro uct is ,ro uce ,er unit time8 28 O,timal ,4 a8 &2ery en'yme has o,timal ,4 at which its rate of reaction is o,timal8 #8 A change in ,4 can alter the ioni'ation of the ' grou,s of the amino aci s in the en'yme5 there#y isru,ting the en'yme<s acti2ity8 38 Tem,erature a8 As tem,erature rises5 en'yme acti2ity increases #ecause there are more en'yme;su#strate

28 38

3"

collisions8 &n'yme acti2ity eclines ra,i ly when en'yme is de"a$%red at a certain tem,erature5 ue to a change in sha,e of the en'yme8 48 &n'yme cofactors a8 Many en'ymes re>uire an inorganic ion or non;,rotein &'1a&$'r to function8 #8 0norganic cofactors are ions of metals8 c8 A &'e"5y+e is an organic cofactor5 which assists the en'yme @i8e85 it may actually contri#ute atoms to the reactionA8 8 Vi$a+i"# are small organic molecules re>uire in trace amounts for synthesis of coen'ymesD they #ecome ,art of a coen'yme<s molecular structureD 2itamin eficiency causes a lac9 of a s,ecific coen'yme an therefore a lac9 of its en'ymatic action8 "8 &n'yme inhi#ition a8 E"5y+e i"!ibi$i'" occurs when a su#stance @calle an inhibitorA #in s to an en'yme an ecreases its acti2ityD normally5 en'yme inhi#ition is re#ersible8 #8 0n "'"&'+)e$i$ive i"!ibi$i'"3 the inhi#itor #in s to the en'yme at a location other than the acti2e site @the allosteric siteA5 changing the sha,e of the en'yme an ren ering it una#le to #in to its su#strate8 c8 0n &'+)e$i$ive i"!ibi$i'"3 the su#strate an the inhi#itor are #oth a#le to #in to the en'yme<s acti2e site8 38 &n'yme 0nhi#itors Can S,ell 3eath @,ealth Focus #o/A 18 Cyani e a8 Cyani e was use in human e/ecutions8 #8 Cyani e #in s to the mitochon rial en'yme that is necessary for AT) ,ro uction8 28 M)T) a8 M)T) is an en'yme inhi#itor that sto,s mitochon ria from ,ro ucing AT)8 #8 M)T)<s to/ic characteristics were isco2ere in the 1-*.s5 after intra2enous rug users e2elo,e syn romes of )ar9inson isease8 c8 The rug users ha in7ecte a synthetic form of heroin contaminate with M)T)8 38 Sarin a8 Sarin inhi#its en'ymes at neuromuscular 7unctions8 #8 The muscle contraction can<t turn off5 muscles o not rela/ an #ecome ,araly'e 8 c8 0n 1--"5 terrorists in Ha,an release sarin gas on a su#wayD 1( ,eo,le ie 8 48 :arfarin a8 :arfarin is a chemical ,ro uce #y the s,oiling of the ,lant sweet clo2er8 #8 :afarin inhi#its an en'yme for #loo clotting8 c8 Gse as a rat ,oison5 ,ets an small chil ren also can consume the ,oison8 "8 Couma in a8 Couma in is a me icine to ,re2ent ina,,ro,riate #loo clotting8 #8 Couma in contains a nonlethal ose of warfanin8 #8

B07 Or*a"elle# a"d $!e Fl'. '1 E"er*y

A8 )hotosynthesis 18 )hotosynthesis uses energy to com#ine car#on io/i e an water to ,ro uce glucose in the formula% $ CO2 O $ 42O O energy P C$412O$ O $ O28 28 O6ida$i'" is the loss of electrons8 38 Red%&$i'" is the gain of electrons8 48 :hen hy rogen atoms are transferre to car#on io/i e from water5 water has #een o/i i'e an car#on io/i e has #een re uce 8 "8 0n,ut of energy is nee e to ,ro uce the high;energy glucose molecule8 $8 Chloro,lasts ca,ture solar energy an con2ert it #y way of an electron trans,ort system into the chemical energy of AT)8 (8 AT) is use along with hy rogen atoms to re uce glucoseD when NA PH 8"i&'$i"a+ide ade"i"e di"%&le'$ide )!'#)!a$e9 onates hy rogen atoms @4O O eA to a su#strate uring ,hotosynthesis5 the su#strate has acce,te electrons an is therefore re uce 8 *8 The reaction that re uces 6A3)O is% 6A3)O O 2e O 4O P 6A3)48 B8 Cellular +es,iration

3$

The o2erall e>uation for cellular res,iration is o,,osite that of ,hotosynthesis% C$412O$ O $ O2 P $ CO2 O $ 42O O energy8 28 :hen 6A3 remo2es hy rogen atoms @4O O e;A uring cellular res,iration5 the su#strate has lost electrons an is therefore o/i i'e 8 38 At the en of cellular res,iration5 glucose has #een o/i i'e to car#on io/i e an water an AT) molecules ha2e #een ,ro uce 8 48 0n meta#olic ,athways5 most o/i ations in2ol2e the coen'yme NA H 8"i&'$i"a+ide ade"i"e di"%&le'$ide9@ the molecule acce,ts two electrons #ut only one hy rogen ion% 6A3O O 2e O 4O P 6A348 C8 &lectron Trans,ort Chain 18 Both ,hotosynthesis an res,iration use an ele&$r'" $ra"#)'r$ &!ai" consisting of mem#rane;#oun carriers that ,ass electrons from one carrier to another8 28 4igh;energy electrons are eli2ere to the system an low;energy electrons lea2e it8 38 The o2erall effect is a series of re o/ reactionsD e2ery time electrons transfer to a new carrier5 energy is release for the ,ro uction of AT)8 38 AT) )ro uction 1 AT) synthesis is cou,le to the electron trans,ort system8 28 )eter Mitchell recei2e the 1-(* 6o#el )ri'e for his chemiosmotic theory of AT) ,ro uction8 38 0n #oth mitochon ria an chloro,lasts5 carriers of electron trans,ort systems are locate within a mem#rane8 48 4O ions @,rotonsA collect on one si e of the mem#rane #ecause they are ,um,e there #y s,ecific ,roteins8 "8 The electrochemical gra ient thus esta#lishe across the mem#rane is use to ,ro2i e energy for AT) ,ro uction8 $8 &n'ymes an their carrier ,roteins5 calle ATP #y"$!a#e &'+)le6e#3 s,an the mem#raneD each com,le/ contains a channel that allows 4O ions to flow own their electrochemical gra ient8 (8 0n ,hotosynthesis5 energi'e electrons lea to the ,um,ing of hy rogen ions across the thyla9oi mem#raneD as hy rogen ions flow through the AT) synthase com,le/5 AT) is forme 8 *8 3uring cellular res,iration5 glucose #rea9 own ,ro2i es energy for a hy rogen ion gra ient on the inner mem#rane of the mitochon ria that also cou,les hy rogen ion flow with AT) formation8

18

Le&$%re E"ri&!+e"$ Idea#

E6)erie"&e Ba#e: 1enerally5 American stu ents enter college with less ,hysics an chemistry coursewor9 than o2erseas stu ents5 so the conce,ts of catalysts5 re o/ reactions5 etc85 may #e new8 0n a ition5 the conce,t of entro,y may not #e well un erstoo 8
18 &/,lain what ha,,ens to the heat that is release from energy transfers on earth8 The Bgreenhouse effectC is only a tem,orary storage of heat energy8

28 3escri#e how life can #e organi-e" when the le2el of entro,y @ isorgani'ationA in the uni2erse continues to increase8 The uni2erse as a whole is Brunning ownDC an in i2i ual cell5 organism5 or ecosystem must #e consi ere as an o,en system that re>uires a continuous energy in,ut from outsi e to maintain its organi'ation8 @This is a critical conce,t to counter the ,ossi#le misun erstan ing that entro,y ,re2ents e2olution8A
38 &/,lain how an en'yme can lower the acti2ation energy for a reaction an why there is an acti2ation energy e2en for a s,ontaneous reaction8

48 3emonstrate how changes in 2arious con itions an inhi#itors can affect the structure of an en'yme an thus its a#ility to interact with a su#strate to cataly'e the en'ymatic reaction8

3(

"8 3iscuss why 2itamins @in ,articular5 the water;solu#le 2itaminsA are re>uire only in small amounts an how they function in the cell8

Cri$i&al T!i",i"*
-%e#$i'" 10 :hy oes the growth of a se2en ,oun #a#y into a 1.. ,oun a olescent not 2iolate the secon law of thermo ynamicsK A"#.er: To ,ro uce an su,,ort the e/tra -3 ,oun s of li2ing tissue5 a much larger amount5 well o2er 15... ,oun s of foo ha to #e igeste 8 Thus5 we are Bislan s of com,le/ityC #uilt u, ami a sea of entro,y8 Such islan s of organi'e life can continue to #e #uilt u, as long as there is an outsi e source of energy?the sun5 ,ro2i ing that in,ut of energy8 0n ,hysics5 this woul #e escri#e as an Bo,en systemC since energy is continually su,,lie from the outsi e @the sunA to 9ee, the systems on earth Brunning8C -%e#$i'" 20 :hat are the 9ey organelles that allow energy to flow through li2ing systemsK A"#.er: The chloro,last an mitochon rion tem,orarily store energy as chemical energy so some of it flows through li2ing systems8 :hen chloro,lasts carry on ,hotosynthesis5 solar energy is use to ,ro uce car#ohy rates5 an when mitochon ria carry on cellular res,iration5 the energy store in car#ohy rates is con2erte to energy store in AT)8 All organisms ma9e use of energy store in AT) #efore the energy is e2entually lost as heat to the uni2erse8

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3*

CHAPTER

PHOTOSYNTHESIS

(hotosynthesis is the #iochemical ,rocess #y which organic molecules @i8e85 sugarsA are synthesi'e for use #y organisms throughout the foo we#8 )hotosynthesis ta9es ,lace in the chloro,lasts of ,lant cells @an certain other ty,es of organismsA8 The ,rocess inclu es the Blight reactions5C in which solar energy is ca,ture 5 an the BCal2in Cycle reactionsC @light in e,en ent reactions5 B ar9 reactionsCA5 in which car#ohy rates are synthesi'e 8 The two ,athways of light reactions are escri#e 5 as are the Cal2in Cycle reactions8 The ,igments in2ol2e in ,hotosynthesis are iscusse 5 as are the C35 C45 an CAM ,hotosynthetic mechanisms8

C!a)$er O%$li"e
C01 P!'$'#y"$!e$i& Or*a"i#+#
18 28 )hotosynthetic organisms @algae5 ,lants5 an cyano#acteriaA transform solar energy into car#ohy rates8 )hotosynthetic organisms @,lants5 algae5 cyano#acteriaA are calle a%$'$r')!# #ecause they ,ro uce their own foo 8 38 Organisms that must ta9e in ,reforme organic molecules are calle !e$er'$r')!#0 48 Both autotro,hs an heterotro,hs use organic molecules ,ro uce #y ,hotosynthesis as chemical #uil ing #loc9s an as a source of energy8 A8 !lowering )lants as )hotosynthesi'ers 18 +aw materials for ,hotosynthesis are car#on io/i e an water8 28 +oots a#sor# water that mo2es u, 2ascular tissue in the stem until it reaches the leaf 2eins8 38 Car#on io/i e enters a leaf through small o,enings calle #$'+a$a0 48 Car#on io/i e an water iffuse into the &!l'r')la#$#3 the organelles that carry on ,hotosynthesis8 "8 0n chloro,lasts5 a ou#le mem#rane encloses a flui ;fille s,ace calle the #$r'+a0 $8 An internal mem#rane system within the stroma forms flattene sacs calle $!yla,'id#3 which in some cases are organi'e into stac9s to form *ra"a0 (8 S,aces within all thyla9oi s are connecte to form an inner com,artment5 the thyla oi" space8 *8 C!l'r')!yll an other ,igments in2ol2e in a#sor,tion of solar energy resi e within thyla9oi mem#ranesD these ,igments a#sor# solar energy5 an energi'e electrons ,rior to re uction of CO2 to a car#ohy rate8 C02 T!e Pr'&e## '1 P!'$'#y"$!e#i# 18 The net e>uation of ,hotosynthesis rea s% $CO2 O $42O P C$ 412O$ O $O28 28 )hotosynthesis in2ol2es o/i ation;re uction5 where the car#on io/i e has #een re uce #y hy rogen atoms an energy5 an the water has #een o/i i'e 8 a8 Solar energy is not use irectly5 #ut rather con2erte to AT) molecules8 #8 &lectrons re>uire to re uce car#on io/i e are carrie #y coen'yme5 6A3)O8 38 0n 1-3.5 2an 6iel showe that O2 gi2en off #y ,hotosynthesis comes from water an not from CO28

A8 Two Sets of +eactions

18 28 0n 1-."5 Blac9man ,ro,ose two sets of reactions for ,hotosynthesis8 Li*!$ rea&$i'"# ta9e ,lace only in the ,resence of light8 a8 Light reactions are the energy;ca,turing reactions8 #8 Chloro,hyl within thyla9oi mem#ranes a#sor#s solar energy an energi'es electrons8 c8 :hen energi'e electrons mo2e own an electron trans,ort chain5 energy is ca,ture an use for AT) ,ro uction8 8 &nergi'e electrons are also ta9en u, #y 6A3)O5 con2erting it to 6A3)48 Cal2in cycle reactions a8 These reactions ta9e ,lace in the stromaD the reactions can occur in either the ,resence or the

38

3-

#8

a#sence of light8 These are synthetic reactions that use 6A3)4 an AT) to re uce CO28

C04 Pla"$# a# S'lar E"er*y C'"ver$er# 18 4igher energy wa2elengths are screene out #y the o'one layer in the u,,er atmos,here8 28 Lower energy wa2elengths are screene out #y water 2a,or an CO28 38 Both the organic molecules within organisms an certain ,rocesses @e8g85 2ision5 ,hotosynthesisA are a a,te to 2isi#le light5 the ra iation that is most ,re2alent in the en2ironment8 48 )hotosynthetic ,igments use ,rimarily the vi#ible li*!$ ,ortion of the electromagnetic s,ectrum8 "8 )igments foun in chloro,hyll a#sor# 2arious ,ortions of 2isi#le lightD this is calle their ab#'r)$i'" #)e&$r%+0 $8 Two ma7or ,hotosynthetic ,igments are &!l'r')!yll a an &!l'r')!yll b0 (8 Both chloro,hylls a#sor# 2iolet5 #lue5 an re wa2elengths #est8 *8 Very little green light is a#sor#e D most is reflecte @this is why lea2es a,,ear greenA8 -8 Car'$e"'id# are yellow;orange ,igments that a#sor# light in 2iolet5 #lue5 an green regions8 1.8 :hen chloro,hyll #rea9s own in the fall5 the yellow;orange ,igments in lea2es show through8 118 A#sor,tion an action s,ectrum a8 A spectrophotometer measures the amount of light that ,asses through a sam,le8 1A As light is shone on a sam,le5 some wa2elengths are a#sor#e an others ,ass through the sam,le8 2A A gra,h of ,ercent of light a#sor#e at each wa2elength is a com,oun <s ab#'r)$i'" #)e&$r%+0

A Light +eactions
18 28 This light reaction re>uires ,artici,ation of two light;gathering units% )!'$'#y#$e+ I 8PS I9 an )!'$'#y#$e+ II 8PS II90 A )!'$'#y#$e+ is a ,hotosynthetic unit com,rise of a ,igment com,le/ an an electron acce,torD solar energy is a#sor#e an high;energy electrons are generate 8

B8 6oncyclic &lectron )athway

The noncyclic ,athway #egins with )S00D electrons mo2e from 42O through )S 00 to )S 0 an then on to 6A3)O8 28 The )S 00 ,igment com,le/ a#sor#s solar energyD high;energy electrons @eA lea2e the reaction;center chloro,hyll a molecule8 38 )S 00 ta9es re,lacement electrons from 42O5 which s,lits5 releasing O2 an 4O ions% 42O P 2 4O O 2 e O X O28 48 O/ygen is release as o/ygen gas @O2A8 "8 The 4O ions tem,orarily stay within the thyla9oi s,ace an contri#ute to a 4O ion gra ient8 $8 As 4O flow own electrochemical gra ient through AT) synthase com,le/es5 chemiosmosis occurs8 (8 Low;energy electrons lea2ing the electron trans,ort system enter )S 08 *8 :hen the )S 0 ,igment com,le/ a#sor#s solar energy5 high;energy electrons lea2e reaction;center chloro,hyll a an are ca,ture #y an electron acce,tor8 -8 The electron acce,tor ,asses them on to 6A3)O8 1.8 6A3)O ta9es on an 4O to #ecome 6A3)4% 6A3)O O 2 e O 4O P 6A3)48 118 6A3)4 an AT) @,ro uce #y noncyclic;flow electrons in the thyla9oi mem#raneA are use #y en'ymes in the stroma uring the light;in e,en ent @ ar9A reactions8 C8 The Organi'ation of the Thyla9oi Mem#rane 18 )S 00 consists of a pigment comple! an electron.acceptor moleculesD it o/i i'es 42O an ,ro uces O28 28 The electron trans,ort system consists of cytochrome comple!es an trans,orts electrons an ,um,s 4O ions into the thyla9oi s,ace8 38 )S 0 has a ,igment com,le/ an electron;acce,tor moleculesD it is associate with an en'yme that re uces 6A3)O to 6A3)48 48 A/( synthase comple! has an 4O channel an AT) synthaseD it ,ro uces AT)8 38 AT) )ro uction 18 The thyla9oi s,ace acts as a reser2oir for 4O ionsD each time 42O is s,lit5 two 4O remain8 28 &lectrons mo2e carrier;to;carrier5 gi2ing u, energy use to ,um, 4O from the stroma into the thyla9oi s,ace8 18

4.

!low of 4O from high to low concentration across thyla9oi mem#rane ,ro2i es energy to ,ro uce AT) from A3) O P #y using an AT) synthase en'yme8 48 This is calle &!e+i'#+'#i# #ecause AT) ,ro uction is tie to an electrochemical @4OA gra ient8 &8 Tro,ical +ain !orest 3estruction an 1lo#al :arming @&cology Focus #o/A 18 Gl'bal .ar+i"* is an une/,ecte rise in the a2erage glo#al tem,erature uring the 21st century ue to the intro uction of certain gases into the atmos,here8 28 !or more than 1... years #efore 1*".5 car#on io/i e le2els remaine fairly constant at .8.2*N8 38 !ollowing the 1*".s @mar9e #y the in ustrial re2olutionA5 the amount of car#on io/i e in the atmos,here increase to .8.3*N8 48 +ole of Car#on 3io/i e a8 Car#on io/i e5 as well as other gases5 tra,s ra iant heat from the sun8 #8 !actors a ing car#on io/i e to the atmos,here inclu e% #urning of fossil fuels5 an estructing tro,ical rain forests8 "8 +ole of Tro,ical +ain !orests a8 Ten = 3. million hectares of rain forests are lost e2ery year ue to ranching5 logging5 an mining8 #8 &ach year5 tro,ical rain forest eforestation accounts for 2.=3.N of all car#on io/i e in the atmos,here8 c8 3estruction of tro,ical rain forests is also trou#lesome #ecause #urning a forest a s car#on io/i e to the atmos,here5 an also remo2es trees that normally woul a#sor# car#on io/i e8 $8 The Argument for )reser2ing !orests a8 Tro,ical rain forests contri#ute to the u,ta9e of car#on io/i e5 an the ,ro ucti2ity of ,hotosynthesis8 #8 Tro,ical rain forests e/ist #etween the Tro,ic of Cancer an Tro,ic of Ca,ricorn5 tem,eratures are a#out 2$ C5 an rainfall is 1..;2.. cm an regular8 c8 Tro,ical rain forest tree characteristics inclu e% large trees5 #uttresse trun9s5 #roa 5 sim,le ar9; green lea2es5 an 2ines @lianasA8 8 +esearchers suggest that as tem,eratures rise5 tro,ical rain forests may a to atmos,heric car#on io/i e accumulation an accelerate glo#al warming rather than the re2erse8 e8 To com#at eforestation5 some countries5 such as Costa +ica5 ha2e e2elo,e national ,ar9 systems an reser2es to ,rotect the forests from estruction8 38

C07

Calvi" Cy&le Rea&$i'"#

The Cal2in cycle is a series of reactions ,ro ucing car#ohy ratesD these reactions follow the light reactions8 28 The cycle is name for Mel2in Cal2in who use a ra ioacti2e isoto,e of car#on to trace the reactions8 38 The Cal2in cycle inclu es car#on io/i e fi/ation5 car#on io/i e re uction5 an regeneration of ri#ulose 15";#is,hos,hate @+uB)A8 !i/ation of Car#on 3io/i e 18 CO2 1i6a$i'" is the attachment of CO2 to an organic com,oun calle R%BP0 28 R%BP 8rib%l'#e bi#)!'#)!a$e9 is a fi2e;car#on molecule that com#ines with car#on io/i eD the resulting $;car#on molecule then s,lits into two 3;car#on molecules8 38 The en'yme R%BP &arb'6yla#e @r%bi#&'A s,ee s this reactionD this en'yme com,rises 2.=".N of the ,rotein content of chloro,lasts?it is an unusually slow en'yme8 +e uction of Car#on 3io/i e 18 :ith the re uction of car#on io/i e5 a 3)1 @3;,hos,hoglycerateA molecule forms8 28 &ach of two 3)1 molecules un ergoes re uction to 13) @glyceral ehy e;3;,hos,hateA in two ste,s8 38 Light; e,en ent reactions ,ro2i e 6A3)4 @electronsA an AT) @energyA to re uce 3)1 to 13)8 +egeneration of +uB) 18 !or e2ery three turns of the Cal2in cycle5 fi2e molecules of 13) are use to re;form three molecules of +uB)8 28 This reaction also uses AT) ,ro uce #y the light reactions8 The 0m,ortance of the Cal2in Cycle 18 13)5 the ,ro uct of the Cal2in Cycle can #e con2erte into many other molecules8 28 1lucose ,hos,hate is one result of 13) meta#olismD it is a common energy molecule8 38 1lucose ,hos,hate can #on with fructose to form sucrose8 48 1lucose ,hos,hate is the starting ,oint for synthesis of starch an cellulose8 "8 The hy rocar#on s9eleton of 13) is use to form fatty aci s an glycerolD the a ition of nitrogen 18

A8

B8

C8

38

41

forms 2arious amino aci s8 C0? O$!er Ty)e# '1 P!'$'#y"$!e#i# 18 0n C3 ,lants5 the Cal2in cycle fi/es CO2 irectlyD the first molecule following CO2 fi/ation is 3)18 28 0n hot weather5 stomata close to sa2e waterD CO2 concentration ecreases in lea2esD O2 increases8 38 This is calle )!'$'re#)ira$i'" since o/ygen is ta9en u, an CO2 is ,ro uce D this ,ro uces only one 3)18 A8 C4 )hotosynthesis 18 0n a C3 ,lant5 meso,hyll cells contain well;forme chloro,lasts5 arrange in ,arallel layers8 28 0n C4 ,lants5 #un le sheath cells as well as the meso,hyll cells contain chloro,lasts8 38 0n C4 leaf5 meso,hyll cells are arrange concentrically aroun the #un le sheath cells8 48 C3 ,lants use +uB) car#o/ylase to fi/ CO2 to +uB) in meso,hyllD the first etecte molecule is 13)8 "8 C4 ,lants use the en'yme )&) car#o/ylase @)&)CaseA to fi/ CO2 to )&) @,hos,hoenol,yru2ate5 a C3 moleculeAD the en ,ro uct is o/aloacetate @a C4 moleculeA8 $8 0n C4 ,lants5 CO2 is ta9en u, in meso,hyll cells an malate5 a re uce form of o/aloacetate5 is ,um,e into the #un le;sheath cellsD here CO2 enters Cal2in cycle8 (8 0n hot5 ry climates5 net ,hotosynthetic rate of C4 ,lants @e8g85 cornA is 2=3 times that of C4 ,lants8 *8 )hotores,iration oes not occur in C4 lea2es #ecause )&)Case oes not com#ine with O2D e2en when stomates are close 5 CO2 is eli2ere to the Cal2in cycle in #un le sheath cells8 -8 C4 ,lants ha2e a 2antage o2er C3 ,lants in hot an ry weather #ecause ,hotores,iration oes not occurD e8g85 #luegrass @C3A ominates lawns in early summer5 whereas cra#grass @C4A ta9es o2er in the hot mi summer8 B8 CAM )hotosynthesis 18 CAM 8&ra##%la&ea";a&id +e$ab'li#+9 ,lants form a C4 molecule at night when stomates can o,en without loss of waterD foun in many succulent esert ,lants inclu ing the family 0rassulaceae8 28 At night5 CAM ,lants use )&)Case to fi/ CO2 #y forming C4 molecule store in large 2acuoles in meso,hyll8 38 C4 forme at night is #ro9en own to CO2 uring the ay an enters the Cal2in cycle within the same cell5 which now has 6A3)4 an AT) a2aila#le to it from the light; e,en ent reactions8 48 CAM ,lants o,en stomates only at night5 allowing CO2 to enter ,hotosynthesi'ing tissuesD uring the ay5 stomates are close to conser2e water #ut CO2 cannot enter ,hotosynthesi'ing tissues8 "8 )hotosynthesis in a CAM ,lant is minimal5 ue to limite amount of CO2 fi/e at nightD #ut this oes allow CAM ,lants to li2e un er stressful con itions8 C8 )hotosynthesis an A a,tation to the &n2ironment 18 &ach metho of ,hotosynthesis has its a 2antages5 e,en ing on the en2ironment8 28 C4 ,lants are a a,te to areas of high light intensities5 high tem,eratures5 an limite rainfall8 38 C3 ,lants o #etter in cooler climates8 48 CAM ,lants o well in an ari en2ironment8

Le&$%re E"ri&!+e"$ Idea#

E6)erie"&e Ba#e: Gnite States farm ,o,ulations ha2e ro,,e from nearly one;thir of the ,o,ulation after :orl :ar 00 to less than one ,ercent to ayD as a result far fewer stu ents ha2e any agricultural e/,erience @cro,s5 farms5 etc8A8 Many stu ents will ha2e ha no real e/,erience with sim,le gar ening8 As such5 the use of 2isual me ia5 la# e/,eriments5 an fiel wor9 are necessary in escri#ing the conce,ts of ,hotosynthesis8 18 3escri#e the relationshi, #etween the reactants an ,ro ucts of ,hotosynthesis5 ,aying s,ecial attention to the car#ohy rate ratio @C42OA. 6ote ,articularly that the water is s,lit into o/ygen an the hy rogen that goes into the car#ohy rate5 an em,hasi'e that the car#on io/i e is in2ol2e in car#ohy rate ,ro uction8 28 &/,lain how electrons lose energy as they mo2e B ownC an electron trans,ort system an how some of that energy is use to mo2e hy rogen ions across the thyla9oi mem#rane to form the electrochemical gra ient use in ma9ing AT)8 42

38 3iscuss how a ing ,hotosystem 00 to ,hotosystem 0 ma9es ,hotosynthesis more efficient5 an lin9 the ,ro uction of organic molecules @car#ohy ratesA to the ,ro uction of AT) from solar energy8
48 "8 &m,hasi'e that the reaction as gi2en for ,hotosynthesis is actually a summary of numerous reactions that occur in #oth light; e,en ent an light;in e,en ent reactions8 Se,arate the ,arts that occur in each grou, of reactions8 Stress that the 2arious ,hotosynthetic ,athways are a a,tations to 2arious en2ironmentsD none is su,erior un er all con itions8 3iscuss what woul ha,,en if one ,athway was always su,erior in e2ery en2ironmental con ition8

Cri$i&al T!i",i"*
-%e#$i'" 10 An astronaut is on a s,aceshi, mo2ing closer to the sun8 The foo su,,ly is su,,lemente #y an on#oar greenhouse8 The light intensity is increasing an for 2isual comfort5 the astronaut must #loc9 out some sunlight8 :hat color of glass;reflecting ,ane shoul #e use to ,reser2e the ma/imum ,hotosynthesis5 an whyK

A"#.er: 1i2en no other limitations5 #loc9ing out green light woul o the least amage to the ,lants since they use less light in the green wa2elength an reflect green themsel2es8 Theoretically5 if all green light was ,re2ente from entering5 an the lea2es a#sor#e all other 2isi#le wa2elengths5 the lea2es in the s,ace greenhouse woul a,,ear #lac9M -%e#$i'" 20 The 3utchman Van 4elmont grew a tree in a large ,ot an foun the soil i not a to the weight of the tree8 Gnaware of the gases in the air5 he therefore conclu e a tree was ma e of water5 the only thing else that he was aware was a e in his e/,eriment8 4ow coul you ,ro2e to Van 4elmont that something in the air was also in2ol2e in ma9ing u, the treeYs su#stanceK A"#.er: Many strategies are ,ossi#le8 1A The air o,enings @stomataA on tree lea2es are on the un ersi e8 Coating the u,,er surface of a leaf with ,etroleum 7elly oes not affect its growthD coating its un ersi e oes8 2A Sealing a ,lant insi e a 2acuum will 9ill itD howe2er5 early researchers conten e a 2ital force ha #een shut off?the same force that 9e,t a flame Bali2e8C This can #e countere #y sealing a ,lant insi e a 7ar with only car#on io/i eD this will often im,ro2e growth8 3A Mo ern ra ioisoto,e tracers can #e use to trace the flow of molecules through organisms8 Stu ents can in2ent other e/,erimental ,roce ures #ase u,on ,lausi#le conce,ts8

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43

CHAPTER

CELLULAR RESPIRATION

This cha,ter un erta9es a etaile stu y of the cellular ,rocess of respiration8 The #iochemical reactions occurring in the cyto,lasm @glycolysis5 fermentationA an in the mitochon ria @citric aci cycle5 electron trans,ort5 o/i ati2e ,hos,horylationA are escri#e 5 as are the molecules that ,artici,ate in the reactions8 O/i ation;re uction chemistry is em,hasi'e 8 The energy yiel @i8e85 AT)A ,ro uction is calculate for the com,lete o/i ation of a glucose molecule5 an is com,are with the energy yiel un er anaero#ic con itions8 Other ana#olic an cata#olic reactions occurring in the cell are iscusse 8

C!a)$er O%$li"e
D01 Cell%lar Re#)ira$i'"
Cellular res,iration in2ol2es 2arious meta#olic ,athways that #rea9 own car#ohy rates an other meta#olites with the concomitant #uil u, of AT)8 28 Cell%lar re#)ira$i'" consumes o/ygen an ,ro uces CO2D #ecause o/ygen is re>uire 5 cellular res,iration is aer'bi&0 38 Cellular res,iration usually in2ol2es the com,lete #rea9 own of glucose into CO2 an 42O8 48 The net e>uation for glucose #rea9 own is% C$412O$ O $ O2 P $ CO2 O $ 42O O energy8 "8 1lucose is a high;energy moleculeD CO2 an 42O are low;energy moleculesD cellular res,iration is thus e!ergonic #ecause it releases energy8 $8 &lectrons are remo2e from su#strates an recei2e #y o/ygen5 which com#ines with 4O to #ecome water8 (8 1lucose is o/i i'e an O2 is re uce 8 *8 The reactions of cellular res,iration allow energy in glucose to #e release slowlyD therefore AT) is ,ro uce gra ually8 -8 0n contrast5 if glucose were #ro9en own ra,i ly5 most of its energy woul #e lost as non;usa#le heat8 1.8 The #rea9 own of glucose yiel s synthesis of 3$ or 3* AT) @ e,en ing on certain con itionsAD this ,reser2es a#out 3-N of the energy a2aila#le in glucose8 118 This is relati2ely efficient com,are to5 for e/am,le5 the 2"N efficiency of a car #urning gasoline8 A8 6A3O an !A3 18 &ach meta#olic reaction in cellular res,iration is cataly'e #y a s,ecific en'yme8 28 As a meta#olite is o/i i'e 5 NA H @nicotinami e a enine inucleoti eA acce,ts two electrons an a hy rogen ion @4OAD this results in 6A34 O 4O8 38 &lectrons recei2e #y 6A3O an !A3 are high;energy electrons an are usually carrie to the electron trans,ort chain8 48 6A3O is a coen'yme of o/i ation;re uction since it #oth acce,ts an gi2es u, electronsD thus5 6A3O is sometimes calle a re"o! coen-yme. "8 Only a small amount of 6A3O is nee e in cells #ecause each 6A3O molecule is use re,eate ly8 $8 !A3 coen'yme of o/i ation;re uction can re,lace 6A3OD !A3 acce,ts two electrons an two hy rogen ions to #ecome !A3428 B8 )hases of Cellular +es,iration 18 Cellular res,iration inclu es four ,hases% a8 Gly&'ly#i# is the #rea9 own of glucose in the cyto,lasm into two molecules of ,yru2ate8 1A &nough energy is release for an imme iate yiel of two AT)8 2A 1lycolysis ta9es ,lace outsi e the mitochon ria an oes not utili'e o/ygenD it is therefore an a"aer'bi& ,rocess8 #8 0n the )re)ara$'ry 8)re)9 rea&$i'"3 ,yru2ate enters a mitochon rion an is o/i i'e to a two; car#on acetyl grou, an CO2 is remo2e D this reaction occurs twice ,er glucose molecule8 c8 The &i$ri& a&id &y&le: 1A occurs in the matri/ of the mitochon rion an ,ro uces 6A34 an !A342D 18

44

2A is a series of reactions that gi2es off CO2 an ,ro uces one AT)D 3A turns twice #ecause two acetyl;CoA molecules enter the cycle ,er glucose moleculeD 4A ,ro uces two imme iate AT) molecules ,er glucose molecule8 The ele&$r'" $ra"#)'r$ &!ai": 1A is a series of carriers in the inner mitochon rial mem#rane that acce,t electrons from glucose;electrons are ,asse from carrier to carrier until recei2e #y o/ygenD 2A ,asses electrons from higher to lower energy states5 allowing energy to #e release an store for AT) ,ro uctionD

D02 O%$#ide $!e Mi$'&!'"dria: Gly&'ly#i#

Gly&'ly#i# occurs in the cyto,lasm outsi e the mitochon ria8 1lycolysis is the #rea9 own of glucose into two ,yru2ate molecules8 1lycolysis is uni2ersally foun in organismsD therefore5 it li9ely e2ol2e #efore the citric aci cycle an electron trans,ort chain8 48 Thycolosis can #e i2i e into the energy;in2estment ste,s where AT) is use to B7um, startC glycolosis5 an the energy;har2esting ste,s5 where more AT) is ma e than use 8 &nergy;0n2estment Ste,s 18 1lycolysis #egins with the acti2ation of glucose with two AT)D the glucose s,lits into two C3 molecules 9nown as 13)5 each of which carries a ,hos,hate grou,8 &nergy;4ar2esting Ste,s 18 O/i ation of 13) occurs #y remo2al of electrons an hy rogen ions8 28 Two electrons an one hy rogen ion are acce,te #y 6A3O5 resulting in two 6A34D later5 when the 6A34 molecules ,ass two electrons to the electron trans,ort chain5 they #ecome 6A3 O again8 38 The o/i ation of 13) an su#se>uent su#strates results in four high;energy ,hos,hate grou,s5 which are use to synthesi'e four AT) moleculesD this ,rocess is calle #%b#$ra$e;level )!'#)!'ryla$i'"0 48 Two of four AT) molecules ,ro uce are re>uire to re,lace two AT) molecules use in the initial ,hos,horylation of glucoseD therefore there is a net gain of two AT) from glycolysis8 "8 )yru2ate enters a mitochon rion @if o/ygen is a2aila#leA an cellular res,iration ensues8 $8 0f o/ygen is not a2aila#le5 fermentation occurs an ,yru2ate un ergoes re uction8 Fer+e"$a$i'" 18 Fer+e"$a$i'" is an anaerobic @i8e85 occurs in the a#sence of o/ygenA ,rocess which consists of glycolysis ,lus re uction of ,yru2ate to either lactate or to alcohol an CO2 @ e,en ing on the organismA8 28 Animal cell fermentation results in lactate8 38 Bacteria can ,ro uce an organic aci li9e lactate5 or an alcohol an CO28 48 Leasts ,ro uce ethyl alcohol an CO28 "8 6A34 ,asses its electrons to ,yru2ate instea of to an electron trans,ort chainD 6A3O is then free to return an ,ic9 u, more electrons uring earlier reactions of glycolysis8 A 2antages an 3isa 2antages of !ermentation 18 3es,ite a low yiel of two AT) molecules5 fermentation ,ro2i es a >uic9 #urst of AT) energy for muscular acti2ity8 28 !ermentation ,ro ucts are to/ic to cells8 a8 :hen #loo cannot remo2e all lactate from muscles5 lactate changes ,4 an causes muscles to fatigue8 #8 The in i2i ual is in '6y*e" deb$ #ecause o/ygen is nee e to restore AT) le2els an ri the #o y of lactate8 c8 +eco2ery occurs after lactate is sent to the li2er where it is con2erte into ,yru2ateD some ,yru2ate is then res,ire or con2erte #ac9 into glucose8 &fficiency of !ermentation 18 Two AT) ,ro uce ,er glucose molecule uring fermentation is e>ui2alent to 148$ 9cal8 28 Com,lete glucose #rea9 own to CO2 an 42O uring cellular res,iration re,resents a ,otential yiel of $*$ 9cal ,er molecule8 38 &fficiency of fermentation is 148$F$*$ or a#out 281N5 far less efficient than com,lete #rea9 own of glucose8 !ermentation 4el,s )ro uce 6umerous !oo )ro ucts @Science Focus #o/A 18 Least !ermentation a8 Ba9er<s yeast5 Saccharomyces cere#isiae5 is a e to #rea for lea2ening8 The ough rises when 18 28 38

A8 B8

D04

A8

B8

C8

4"

28

38

yeasts gi2e off CO28 Leasts ferment the car#ohy rates of fruit to ,ro uce ethyl alcohol in wine5 an ferment grains to ,ro uce ethyl alcohol in #eer8 c8 The acetic aci #acteria5 Acetobacter aceti5 s,oil wine5 an con2ert the alcohol to acetic aci e to ,ro uce 2inegar8 Bacterial !ermentation a8 Lactic aci #acteria cause mil9 to sour an ,ro uce yogurt5 sour cream5 an cheese8 #8 Brine cucum#er ,ic9les5 sauer9raut5 an 9imchi are ,ic9le 2egeta#les ,ro uce #y aci ,ro ucing fermenting #acteria8 Soy Sauce )ro uction a8 Least an fermenting #acteria are a e to soy #eans an wheat to ,ro uce soy sauce8 #8

D07 I"#ide $!e Mi$'&!'"dria

The ne/t reactions of cellular res,iration in2ol2e the )re)ara$'ry rea&$i'"3 the &i$ri& a&id &y&le3 an the ele&$r'" $ra"#)'r$ &!ai"0 28 These reactions occur in the mitochon ria8 38 A +i$'&!'"dri'" has a ou#le mem#rane with an intermem#rane s,ace @#etween the outer an inner mem#raneA8 48 0ristae are the inner fol s of mem#rane that 7ut into the matri!5 the innermost com,artment of a mitochon rion that is fille with a gel;li9e flui 8 "8 The ,re, reaction an citric aci cycle en'ymes are in the matri/D the electron trans,ort chain is in the cristae8 $8 Most of the AT) ,ro uce in cellular res,iration is ,ro uce in the mitochon riaD therefore5 mitochon ria are often calle the B,owerhousesC of the cell8 A8 )re,aratory +eaction 18 The ,re,aratory reaction connects glycolysis to the citric aci cycle8 28 0n this reaction5 ,yru2ate is con2erte to a two;car#on acetyl grou,5 an is attache to coen-yme A5 resulting in the com,oun a&e$yl;C'A0 38 This re o/ reaction remo2es electrons from ,yru2ate #y a ehy rogenase en'yme5 using 6A3O as a coen'yme8 48 This reaction occurs twice for each glucose molecule8 "8 CoA carry the acetyl grou, to the citric aci cycle8 $8 The two 6A34 carry electrons to the electron trans,ort chain8 (8 The CO2 iffuses out of animal cells into #loo 5 trans,orte to lungs5 an e/hale 8 B8 Citric Aci Cycle 18 The citric aci cycle occurs in the matri/ of mitochon ria8 28 The cycle is sometimes calle the Ere#s cycle5 name for Sir 4ans Ere#s5 who escri#e the fun amentals of the reactions in the 1-3.s8 38 The cycle #egins #y the a ition of a two;car#on acetyl grou, to a four;car#on molecule5 forming a si/;car#on citrate @citric aci A molecule8 48 0n the su#se>uent reactions5 at three ifferent times two electrons an one hy rogen ion are acce,te #y 6A3O5 forming 6A348 "8 At one time5 two electrons an one hy rogen ion are acce,te #y !A35 forming !A3428 $8 6A34 an !A342 carry these electrons to the electron trans,ort chain8 (8 Some energy is release an is use to synthesi'e AT) #y substrate.le#el phosphorylation8 *8 One high;energy meta#olite acce,ts a ,hos,hate grou, an transfers it to con2ert A3) to AT)8 -8 The citric aci cycle turns twice for each original glucose molecule8 1.8 The ,ro ucts of the citric aci cycle @,er glucose moleculeA are 4 CO25 2 AT)5 $ 6A345 an 2 !A3428 118 )ro uction of CO2 a8 The si/ car#on atoms in the glucose molecule ha2e now #ecome the car#on atoms of si/ CO2 molecules5 two from the ,re, reaction an four from the citric aci cycle8 C8 The &lectron Trans,ort Chain 18 The electron trans,ort chain is locate in the cristae of mitochon ria an consists of carriers that ,ass electrons successi2ely from one to another8 28 6A34 an !A342 carry the electrons to the electron trans,ort system8 38 Mem#ers of the Chain 18

4$

6A34 gi2es u, its electrons an #ecomes 6A3OD the ne/t carrier then gains electrons an is there#y re uce 8 #8 At each se>uential re o/ reaction5 energy is release to form AT) molecules8 c8 Some of the ,rotein carriers are &y$'&!r'+e molecules5 com,le/ car#on rings with a heme @ironA grou, in the center8 48 Cycling of Carriers a8 By the time electrons are recei2e #y O25 three AT) ha2e #een ma e8 #8 :hen !A342 eli2ers electrons to the electron trans,ort system, two AT) are forme #y the time the electrons are recei2e #y O28 c8 O/ygen ser2es as the terminal electron acce,tor an com#ines with hy rogen ions to form water8 "8 The Cristae of a Mitochon rion an Chemiosmosis a8 The electron trans,ort chain consists of three ,rotein com,le/es an two ,rotein mo#ile carriers that trans,ort electrons8 #8 The three ,rotein com,le/es inclu e NAD,.$ re"uctase comple!, the cytochrome re"uctase comple!5 an the cytochrome o!i"ase comple!D the two ,rotein mo#ile carriers are coen-yme $ an cytochrome c8 c8 &nergy release from the flow of electrons own the electron trans,ort chain is use to ,um, 4O ions5 which are carrie #y 6A34 an !A3425 into intermem#rane s,ace8 8 Accumulation of 4O ions in this intermem#rane s,ace creates a strong electrochemical gra ient8 e8 ATP #y"$!a#e &'+)le6e# are channel ,roteins that ser2e as en'ymes for AT) synthesis8 f8 As 4O ions flow from high to low concentration5 AT) synthase synthesi'es AT) #y the reaction% A3) O ) P AT)8 g8 C!e+i'#+'#i# is the term use for AT) ,ro uction tie to an electrochemical @4OA gra ient across a mem#rane8 h8 Once forme 5 AT) molecules iffuse out of the mitochon rial matri/ through channel ,roteins8 i8 AT) is the energy currency for all li2ing thingsD all organisms must continuously ,ro uce high le2els of AT) to sur2i2e8 38 &nergy Liel from 1lucose Meta#olism 18 Su#strate;Le2el )hos,horylation a8 )er glucose molecule5 there is a net gain of two AT) from glycolysis in cyto,lasm8 #8 The citric aci cycle in the matri/ of the mitochon ria ,ro uces two AT) ,er glucose8 c8 Thus5 a total of four AT) are forme #y su#strate;le2el ,hos,horylation outsi e of the electron trans,ort chain8 28 &TC an Chemiosmosis a8 Most of the AT) is ,ro uce #y the electron trans,ort chain an chemiosmosis8 #8 )er glucose5 ten 6A34 an two !A342 molecules ,ro2i e electrons an 4O ions to the electron trans,ort chain8 c8 !or each 6A34 forme within the mitochon rion5 three AT) are ,ro uce 8 8 !or each !A342 forme #y the citric aci cycle5 two AT) are ,ro uce 8 e8 !or each 6A34 forme outsi e mitochon ria #y glycolysis5 two AT) are ,ro uce as electrons are shuttle across the mitochon rial mem#rane #y an organic molecule an eli2ere to !A38 38 &fficiency of Cellular +es,iration a8 The energy ifference #etween total reactants @glucose an O2A an ,ro ucts @CO2 an 42OA is $*$ 9cal8 #8 An AT) ,hos,hate #on has an energy of (83 9calD 3$ to 3* AT) are ,ro uce uring glucose #rea9 own for a total of at least 2$3 9cal8 c8 This efficiency is 2$3F$*$5 or 3-N of the a2aila#le energy in glucose is transferre to AT)D the rest of the energy is lost as heat8 a8

D0?

Me$ab'li& P''l

18 0n a +e$ab'li& )''l5 su#strates ser2e as entry ,oints for egeneration or synthesis of larger molecules8 28 3egra ati2e reactions @&a$ab'li#+A #rea9 own moleculesD they ten to #e e/ergonic8 38 Synthetic reactions @a"ab'li#+A #uil moleculesD they ten to #e en ergonic8 A8 Cata#olism 18 Hust as glucose is #ro9en own in cellular res,iration5 other molecules in the cell un ergo cata#olism8 28 !at #rea9s own into glycerol an three fatty aci s8 a8 1lycerol is con2erte to 13)5 a meta#olite in glycolysis8

4(

An 1*;car#on fatty aci is con2erte to nine acetyl;CoA molecules that enter the citric aci cycle8 +es,iration of fat ,ro ucts can ,ro uce 1.* 9cal in AT) moleculesD fats are an efficient form of store energy8 38 Amino aci s #rea9 own into car#on chains an amino grou,s8 a8 4y rolysis of ,roteins results in amino aci s8 #8 ';grou, si'e etermines whether car#on chain is o/i i'e in glycolysis or the citric aci cycle8 c8 A car#on s9eleton is ,ro uce in the li2er #y remo2al of the amino grou,5 #y the ,rocess of dea+i"a$i'"0 8 The amino grou, #ecomes ammonia @643A5 which enters the urea cycle an ultimately #ecomes ,art of e/crete urea8 e8 The si'e of the ';grou, etermines the num#er of car#ons left after eamination8 B8 Ana#olism 18 AT) ,ro uce uring cata#olism ri2es ana#olism8 28 Su#strates ma9ing u, ,athways can #e use as starting materials for synthetic reactions8 38 The molecules use for #iosynthesis constitute the cell<s meta#olic ,ool8 48 Car#ohy rates can result in fat synthesis% 13) con2erts to glycerolD acetyl grou,s 7oin to form fatty aci s8 "8 Some meta#olites can #e con2erte to amino aci s #y transamination5 the transfer of an amino aci grou, to an organic aci 8 $8 )lants synthesi'e all the amino aci s they nee D animals lac9 some en'ymes nee e to ma9e some amino aci s8 (8 4umans synthesi'e 11 of 2. amino aci sD the remaining - e##e"$ial a+i"' a&id# must #e ,ro2i e #y the iet8 C8 The &nergy Organelles +e2isite 18 Chloro,lasts an mitochon ria may #e relate #ase on their li9eness5 yet they carry out o,,osite ,rocesses8 a8 The inner mem#rane of the chloro,lasts forms the thyla9oi s of the grana8 The inner mem#rane of the mitochon rion forms the con2olute cristae8 #8 0n chloro,lasts the electrons ,asse own the &TC ha2e #een energi'e #y the sun8 0n mitochon ria the electrons ,asse own the &TC ha2e #een remo2e from glucose ,ro ucts8 c8 0n chloro,lasts the stroma contains the en'ymes of the Cal2in cycle8 0n the mitochon ria the matri/ contains the en'ymes of the citric aci cycle8 28 !low of &nergy a8 &nergy flows through organisms8 !or e/am,le5 the sun is the energy source for ,ro ucing car#ohy rates in chloro,lasts8 0n the mitochon ria5 the car#ohy rate energy is con2erte into AT) molecules uring cellular res,iration8 #8 Chemicals cycle throughout cells8 Mitochon ria use car#ohy rates an o/ygen ,ro uce in chloro,lasts5 an chloro,lasts use car#on io/i e an water ,ro uce in the mitochon ria8

#8 c8

Le&$%re E"ri&!+e"$ Idea#

E6)erie"&e Ba#e: Some stu ents are confuse when the term Bres,irationC is also use for the 2entilation or #reathing ,rocessD early istinction will hel, a2oi confusion8 18 Trace the flow of car#on atoms through glycolysis an cellular res,iration5 focusing on the ,oints at which they enter an lea2e each set of reactions8 28 3o the same with hy rogen5 an #e sure to em,hasi'e that some of the hy rogens #eing carrie off #y 6A34 an !A342 are coming from water an are not the remnants of the glucose8 @:ater can #e ,lace on #oth si es of the general e>uation for cellular res,iration to account for this entry of water into the ,rocess8A 38 )oint out the chemical relationshi,s #etween ,hotosynthesis an cellular res,irationD note that these are com,lementary ,rocesses that are ,art of the interrelate ness of all life an the cyclic renewal of reactants an ,ro ucts8 4*

48 Com,are an contrast the ,ro uction of AT) through chemiosmosis in the mitochon rion an the chloro,last8 "8 3iscuss how the ,ro uction an #rea9 own of AT) must #e cyclic an e/tremely ra,i to allow the many chemical reactions to occur8 6ote the limits on the ,ro uction of AT) @i8e85 must ha2e a ,ool of A3) an ,hos,hateA5 an how recycling of these materials must ta9e ,lace across the outer mem#rane of the mitochon ria8
$8 +otifers an tar igra es are uni>ue in #eing a#le to com,letely shut own cellular res,iration an #egin it again eca es later8 :hile #iologists are uncomforta#le with the conce,t of calling such inanimate stages B ea 5C these organisms are not carrying on acti2e meta#olism8 Therefore the efinition of life must for these organisms #e mo ifie to the B,otential to resume meta#olism8C @A similar conce,t can #e a resse when stu ying the en os,ores of #acteria8A &2en though most water is lost5 a high concentration of trehalose sugar a,,ears to hel, the rie cells maintain structural integrity an the a#ility to resume life when water is restore 8

Cri$i&al T!i",i"*
-%e#$i'" 10 Cyani e interru,ts the cytochrome system of electron trans,ort8 :hy is cyani e a uni2ersal ,oison effecti2e in all organisms with mitochon riaK A"#.er% The electron trans,ort system is the ,ro ucer of AT) from A3) in aero#ic res,iration8 Sto,,ing the electron trans,ort system sto,s AT) ,ro uction5 which sto,s meta#olic reactions5 an this is essentially a uni2ersal system8
-%e#$i'" 20 Brea9ing a,art a molecule through com#ination with o/ygen is burning8 4owe2er5 this is a Bslow #urnC insi e of cells8 To ay5 we hear of Bs,ontaneous human com#ustionC where ,eo,le allege ly #urn u, from runaway meta#olism8 :hy is it im,ossi#le for ra,i irect o/i ation to originate in the cell en2ironmentK A"#.er% !ire re>uires fuel5 an a#un ant su,,ly of gaseous o/ygen5 an a 9in ling tem,erature8 The #o y oes ha2e fats5 sugars5 an other goo fuel molecules8 4owe2er5 cells are (.I-. ,ercent water5 o/ygen is s,arse an issol2e in this flui 5 an the 9in ling tem,erature is far #eyon the #o y tem,eratures that ,ermit life or e2en #oilingM 0n a ition5 the cellular res,iration ,rocess escri#e in this cha,ter shows how the #rea9 own of the glucose molecule is slowe #y stages locate in 2arious ,arts of the cell an #y meta#olic ,athways that ta9e time5 s,rea ing out the B#urnC so the release energy can #e har2este for AT) rather than lost as heat8

Te&!"'l'*y 1r'+ M&Gra.;Hill

)lease consult your C'%r#e I"$e*ra$i'" G%ide for technology correlations for this cha,ter8

4-

PART

II

GENETIC BASIS OF LIFE

The science of 1enetics is e/,laine using a historical a,,roach with genetic ,ro#lems that stress ,ractical as,ects8 The cell cycle5 human genetics5 cancer conce,ts5 an #iotechnology ha2e #een u, ate 8 - The Cell Cycle an Cellular +e,ro uction

1. Meiosis an Se/ual +e,ro uction

11 12 13 14 Men elian )atterns of 0nheritance Molecular Biology of the 1ene +egulation of 1ene Acti2ity Biotechnology an 1enomics

CHAPTER

J THE CELL CYCLE AN

CELLULAR REPRO UCTION

The stages of the cell cycle are escri#e in etail5 as are currently;un erstoo mechanisms #y which the cell cycle is controlle an regulate 8 The structures of the eu9aryotic an ,ro9aryotic chromosome are escri#e 5 as are the ,rocesses in2ol2e in chromosomal re,lication8 Mitosis an cyto9inesis are e/amine 8 Current issues5 such as stem cells5 thera,eutic cloning5 an re,ro ucti2e cloning are iscusse 8 A etaile stu y of cancer is ,resente 8

C!a)$er O%$li"e
J01 T!e Cell Cy&le 18 The cell cycle is an or erly set of stages from the first i2ision to the time the "aughter cells i2i e8
:hen a cell is ,re,aring for i2ision5 it grows larger5 the num#er of organelles ou#les5 an the 36A re,licates8 A8 0nter,hase 18 Most of a cell<s life is s,ent in i"$er)!a#e3 in which the cell ,erforms its usual functions8 28 Time s,ent in inter,hase 2aries #y cell ty,e% ner2e an muscle cells o not com,lete the cell cycle an remain in the G0 stage while em#ryonic cells com,lete the cycle e2ery few hours8 38 The G1 stage is 7ust ,rior to 36A re,licationD a cell grows in si'e5 organelles increase in num#er5 an material accumulates for 36A synthesis8 48 The S stage is the 36A synthesis @re,licationA ,erio D ,roteins associate with 36A are also synthesi'e D at the en of the S stage5 each chromosome has two i entical 36A ou#le heli/ molecules5 calle sister chromati"s8 "8 The G2 stage occurs 7ust ,rior to cell i2isionD the cell synthesi'es ,roteins nee e for cell i2ision5 such as ,roteins in microtu#ules8 $8 0nter,hase therefore consists of 115 S5 an 128 B8 M @MitoticA Stage 18 M #$a*e 8M P +i$'#i#A is the entire cell i2ision stage5 inclu ing #oth mitosis an cyto9inesis8 28 Mi$'#i# @also 9nown as ,ary',i"e#i#A is nuclear i2ision5 &y$',i"e#i# is i2ision of the cyto,lasm8 38 :hen i2ision of the cyto,lasm is com,lete5 two "aughter cells are ,ro uce 8 C8 Control of the Cell Cycle 18 A #i*"al is an agent that influences the acti2ities of a cell8 28

".

28 38

Gr'.$! 1a&$'r# are e/ternal signals recei2e at the ,lasma mem#rane8 Cell Cycle Chec9,oints

a8 There a,,ear to #e three chec9,oints where the cell cycle either sto,s or continues onwar 5 e,en ing on the internal signals it recei2es8
#8 +esearchers ha2e i entifie a family of ,roteins calle cyclins5 internal signals that increase or ecrease uring the cell cycle8

c8 Cyclin must #e ,resent for the cell to mo2e from the 11 stage to the S stage5 an from the 12 stage to the M stage8 8 The ,rimary chec9,oint of the cell cycle is the 11 chec9,oint8 e8 36A amage sto,s the cycle at the 11 chec9,oint #y the ,rotein )?4D if the 36A is not re,aire 5 ,"3 triggers a)')$'#i#0 f8 Another ,rotein5 RB @retinoblastomaA5 is res,onsi#le for inter,reting growth an nutrient a2aila#ility signals8 g8 The cell cycle sto,s at the 12 stage if 36A has not finishe re,licatingD sto,,ing the cell cycle at this stage allows time for re,air of ,ossi#le amage 36A8 h8 Also5 the cycle sto,s if chromosomes are not ,ro,erly attache to the +i$'$i& #)i"dle0
38 A,o,tosis 18 A,o,tosis is ,rogramme cell eath an in2ol2es a se>uence of cellular e2ents in2ol2ing% a8 fragmenting of the nucleus5 #8 #listering of the ,lasma mem#rane5 an c8 engulfing of cell fragments #y macro,hages an For neigh#oring cells8 28 A,o,tosis is cause #y en'ymes calle &a#)a#e#0 38 Cells normally hol cas,ases in chec9 with inhi#itors8 48 Cas,ases are release #y internal or e/ternal signals8 "8 A,o,tosis an cell i2ision are #alancing ,rocesses that maintain the normal le2el of #'+a$i& @#o yA &ell#0 $8 Cell eath is a normal an necessary ,art of e2elo,ment% frogs5 for e/am,le5 must estroy tail tissue they use as ta ,oles5 an the human em#ryo must eliminate we##ing foun #etween fingers an toes8 (8 3eath #y a,o,tosis ,re2ents a tumor from e2elo,ing8 &8 The 11 Chec9,oint @Science Focus #o/A 18 3uring cell i2ision5 only certain cells in an a ult #o y are acti2ely i2i ing8 28 Once cell i2ision occurs5 cells enter 11 stage8 38 !ollowing the 11 stage5 cells enter the 11 chec9,oint to ma9e sure that the correct con itions occur to continue cell i2ision8 48 &2aluating 1rowth Signals a8 Signal molecules are sent to encourage or iscourage cells from entering the cell cycle8 Cells may enter a 1. stage5 com,lete 11 an enter S stage8 #8 Cell i2ision ,romoting signals can cause a cyclin; e,en ent;9inase @C3EA to a a ,hos,hate grou, to +B5 which is a regulator of the 11 chec9,oint8 c8 :hen +B is ,hos,horylate 5 the sha,e of +B changes an it releases the ,rotein &2!5 rather than #in ing to &2!8 8 &2! then #in s to 36A an acti2ates genes to com,lete the cell cycle8 e8 0f growth signals are sufficient5 a cell will ,ass through the 11 chec9,oint an cell i2ision will occur8 "8 3etermining 6utrient A2aila#ility a8 Cells re>uire a e>uate nutrient le2els ,rior to cell i2ision8 #8 :hen nutrients are a2aila#le5 C3Es #ring a#out ,hos,horylation of +B5 which releases &2!8 &2! #in s to 36A to ,ro uce ,roteins8 c8 :hen nutrients are not a2aila#le5 the cell enters the 1. stage an oes not ,rogress to the 11 stage8 $8 Assessing 36A 0ntegrity

"1

36A must #e free of errors an amage in or er for cell i2ision to occur8 0f 36A amage is etecte 5 C3E ,hos,horylates ,"38 +ather than #eing #ro9en own5 ,"3 le2els in the nucleus rise8 c8 The ,hos,horylate ,"3 #in s to 36A to ,ro uce 36A re,air ,roteins8 8 0f 36A amage cannot #e re,aire 5 ,"3 le2els continue to rise to trigger a,o,tosis8 4owe2er5 if 36A amage is re,aire 5 ,"3 le2els fall5 an cell com,letes 11 stage as long as other re>uirements are met8 J02 Mi$'#i# a"d Cy$',i"e#i# A8 &u9aryotic Chromosomes 18 36A in chromosomes of eu9aryotic cells is associate with ,roteinsD !i#$'"e# organi'e chromosomes8 28 :hen a cell is not un ergoing i2ision5 36A in the nucleus is a tangle mass of threa s calle &!r'+a$i"0 38 At cell i2ision5 chromatin #ecomes highly coile an con ense an is now 2isi#le as in i2i ual chromosomes8 48 &ach s,ecies has a characteristic num#er of chromosomes8

a8 #8

a8 The di)l'id 82"9 "%+ber inclu es two sets of chromosomes of each ty,e8 1A The i,loi num#er is foun in all the non;se/ cells of an organism<s #o y @with a few e/ce,tionsA8 #8 The !a)l'id 8"9 "%+ber contains one of each 9in of chromosome8 1A 0n the life cycle of many animals5 only s,erm an egg cells ha2e the ha,loi num#er8
B8 )re,arations for Mitosis 18 Cell i2ision in eu9aryotes in2ol2es nuclear i2ision an cyto9inesis8

a8 Somatic cells un ergo mitosis for e2elo,ment5 growth5 an re,air8 1A This nuclear i2ision lea2es the chromosome num#er constant8 2A A 2n nucleus re,licates an i2i es to ,ro2i e aughter nuclei that are also 2n8 #8 A chromosome #egins cell i2ision with two #i#$er &!r'+a$id#0 1A Si#$er &!r'+a$id# are two stran s of genetically i entical chromosomes8 2A At the #eginning of cell i2ision5 they are attache at a &e"$r'+ere3 a region of constriction on a chromosome8 28 The &e"$r'#'+e5 the main microtu#ule organi'ing center of the cell5 i2i es #efore mitosis #egins8 38 &ach centrosome contains a ,air of #arrel;sha,e organelles calle &e"$ri'le#0 48 The mitotic s,in le contains many fi#ers5 each com,ose of a #un le of microtu#ules8
"8 Microtu#ules are ma e of the ,rotein $%b%li"0 a8 Microtu#ules assem#le when tu#ulin su#units 7oin5 isassem#le when tu#ulin su#units #ecome free5 an form interconnecte filaments of cytos9eleton8

#8 Microtu#ules isassem#le as s,in le fi#ers form8

C8 )hases of Mitosis 18 Mitosis is i2i e into fi2e ,hases% ,ro,hase5 ,rometa,hase5 meta,hase5 ana,hase5 an telo,hase8 28 )ro,hase a8 6uclear i2ision is a#out to occur% chromatin con enses an chromosomes #ecome 2isi#le8 #8 The nucleolus isa,,ears an the nuclear en2elo,e fragments8 c8 3u,licate chromosomes are com,ose of two sister chromati s hel together #y a centromereD chromosomes ha2e no ,articular orientation in the cell at this time8 8 The s,in le #egins to assem#le as ,airs of centrosomes migrate away from each other8

"2

e8 An array of microtu#ules calle a#$er# ra iates towar the ,lasma mem#rane from the centrosomes8 38 )rometa,hase @Late )ro,haseA a8 S,eciali'e ,rotein com,le/es @,i"e$'&!'re#A e2elo, on each si e of the centromere for future chromosome orientation8 #8 An im,ortant e2ent uring ,rometa,hase is attachment of the chromosomes to the s,in le an their mo2ement as they align at the meta,hase ,late @e>uatorA of the s,in le8 c8 The 9inetochores of sister chromati s ca,ture inetochore spin"le fibers8 8 Chromosomes mo2e #ac9 an forth towar alignment at the meta,hase ,late8 48 Meta,hase a8 Chromosomes5 attache to 9inetochore fi#ers5 are now aligne at the +e$a)!a#e )la$e0 #8 6on;attache s,in le fi#ers5 calle polar spin"le fibers5 can reach #eyon the meta,hase ,late an o2erla,8 c8 A cell chec9,oint calle the M chec point elays the start of ana,hase until 9inetochores are ,ro,erly attache to the s,in le fi#ers5 an chromosomes are ,ro,erly aligne along meta,hase ,late8 "8 Ana,hase a8 The two sister chromati s of each u,licate chromosome se,arate at the centromere8 #8 3aughter chromosomes5 each with a centromere an single chromati 5 mo2e to o,,osite ,oles8

1A )olar s,in le fi#ers lengthen as they sli e ,ast each other8 2A Einetochore s,in le fi#ers isassem#le at the 9inetochoresD this ,ulls aughter chromosomes to ,oles8 3A The motor molecules inesin an "ynein are in2ol2e in this sli ing ,rocess8 4A Ana,hase is the shortest stage of mitosis8
Telo,hase a8 S,in le isa,,ears in this stage8 #8 The nuclear en2elo,e reforms aroun the aughter chromosomes8 c8 The aughter chromosomes iffuse5 again forming chromatin8 8 The nucleolus rea,,ears in each aughter nucleus8 38 Cyto9inesis in Animal an )lant Cells 18 Cyto9inesis in Animal Cells $8

a8 A clea#age furrow in ents the ,lasma mem#rane #etween the two aughter nuclei at a mi ,ointD this ee,ens to i2i e the cyto,lasm uring cell i2ision8 #8 Cyto,lasmic clea2age #egins as ana,hase raws to a close an organelles are istri#ute 8 c8 The clea2age furrow ee,ens as a #an of actin filaments5 calle the contractile ring5 constricts #etween the two aughter cells8 8 A narrow #ri ge e/ists #etween aughter cells uring telo,hase until constriction com,letely se,arates the cyto,lasm8
28 Cyto9inesis in )lant Cells

a8 The rigi cell wall that surroun s ,lant cells oes not ,ermit cyto9inesis #y furrowing8 #8 The 1olgi a,,aratus ,ro uces 2esicles5 which mo2e along the microtu#ules to a small flattene isc that has forme 8 c8 Vesicles fuse forming a &ell )la$e@ their mem#ranes com,lete the ,lasma mem#ranes of the aughter cells8 8 The new mem#rane also releases molecules from the new ,lant cell wallsD the cell walls are strengthene #y the a ition of cellulose fi#rils8
&8 The !unctions of Mitosis

"3

18 Mitosis ,ermits growth an re,air8 28 0n flowering ,lants5 the meristematic tissue retains the a#ility to i2i e throughout the life of the ,lantD this accounts for the continue growth5 #oth in height an laterally5 of a ,lant8
38 0n mammals5 mitosis is necessary as a fertili'e egg #ecomes an em#ryo an as the em#ryo #ecomes a fetusD throughout life5 mitosis allows a cut to heal or a #ro9en #one to men 8

!8 Stem Cells 18 Many mammalian organs contain stem cells @or a"ult stem cellsA5 which retain the a#ility to i2i e8 28 +e #one marrow stem cells re,eate ly i2i e to ,ro uce the 2arious ty,es of #loo cells8 38 T!era)e%$i& &l'"i"* to ,ro uce human tissues can #egin with either a ult stem cells or em#ryonic stem cells8 48 &m#ryonic stem cells can #e use for re)r'd%&$ive &l'"i"*3 the ,ro uction of a new in i2i ual8 18 +e,ro ucti2e an Thera,eutic Cloning @Science Focus #o/A 18 There are two ty,es of cloning% re,ro ucti2e cloning an thera,eutic cloning8 28 +e,ro ucti2e @somatic cellA cloning a8 0n re,ro ucti2e cloning5 the onor cells are first star2e 5 then the nucleus is ta9en out of cell an trans,lante into enucleate egg8 #8 The onor cell sto,s i2i ing an goes into 1. stage8 c8 &m#ryonic stem cells are forme an im,lante into the em#ryo of a surrogate mother8 8 :hen em#ryo is fully e2elo,e 5 a clone is #orn8 38 Thera,eutic cloning a8 One way to con uct thera,eutic cloning is #y the same ,roce ure as re,ro ucti2e cloning5 embryonic stem cells are se,arate an su#7ecte to treatment that causes it to e2elo, into ifferent ty,es of cells% re #loo cells5 muscle cells5 ner2e cells8 #8 The other way to con uct thera,eutic cloning is to use a"ult stem cells8 c8 One raw#ac9 to using a ult stem cells is they are limite in the num#er of cell ty,es they may #ecome8 4owe2er5 researchers are trying to o2ercome this o#stacle8
J04 T!e Cell Cy&le a"d Ca"&er 18 Ca"&er is a cellular growth isor er that occurs when cells i2i e uncontrolla#lyD i8e85 cancer results from the loss of control an a isru,tion of the cell cycle8 28 Most cancers #egin as a#normal cell growth that is be"i*"3 or not cancerous 38 :hen a itional mutations occur5 the growth #ecomes +ali*"a"$3 or cancerous5 an ,ossesses the a#ility to s,rea 8 A8 Characteristics of Cancer Cells 18 Cancer cells lac9 ifferentiation8 a8 Gnli9e normal cells that ifferentiate into muscle or ner2es cells5 cancer cells ha2e an a#normal form an are nons,eciali'e 8 #8 6ormal cells enter the cell cycle only a#out ". timesD cancer cells are immortal in that they can enter the cell cycle re,eate ly8 28 Cancer cells ha2e a#normal nuclei8 a8 The nuclei may #e enlarge an may ha2e an a#normal num#er of chromosomes8 #8 The chromosomes ha2e mutate D some chromosomes may #e u,licate or elete 8 38 Cancer cells o not un ergo a,o,tosis a8 :hereas or inary cells with 36A amage un ergo a,o,tosis5 cancer cells o not8

"4

48

"8

Cancer cells form tumors8 a8 6ormal cells are anchore an sto, i2i ing when in contact with other cellsD i8e85 they e/hi#it contact inhibition8 #8 Cancer cells in2a e an estroy normal tissue an their growth is not inhi#ite 8 c8 Cancer cells ,ile on to, of each other to form a $%+'r0 Cancer cells un ergo metastasis an angiogenesis8 a8 A benign tumor is enca,sulate an oes not in2a e a 7acent tissue8 #8 Many ty,es of cancer can un ergo +e$a#$a#i#3 in which new tumors form which are istant from the ,rimary tumor8 c8 A"*i'*e"e#i#3 the formation of new #loo 2essels5 is re>uire to #ring nutrients an o/ygen to the tumor8

B8 Origin of Cancer
Pr'$';'"&'*e"e# co e for ,roteins that stimulate the cell cycle an ,re2ent a,o,tosis8 T%+'r;#%))re##'r *e"e# co e for ,roteins that inhi#it the cell cycle an ,romote a,o,tosis8 Mutations of either of these genes can cause cancer8 )roto;oncogenes are at the en of a stimulatory pathway from the ,lasma mem#rane to the nucleusD a growth factor #in ing at the ,lasma mem#rane can result in turning on an oncogene8 "8 )roto;oncogenes can un ergo mutation to #ecome '"&'*e"e# @cancer;causing genesA8 $8 An oncogene may co e for a faulty rece,tor in the stimulatory ,athway8 (8 Or an oncogene can s,ecify an a#normal ,rotein ,ro uct or a#normally high le2els of a normal ,ro uct that stimulates the cell cycle8 *8 Tumor;su,,ressor genes are at the en of an inhibitory pathwayD a growth;inhi#itory factor can result in turning on a tumor su,,ressor gene that inhi#its the cell cycle8 -8 The #alance #etween stimulatory an inhi#itory signals etermines whether ,roto;oncogenes or tumor;su,,ressor genes are acti2e5 an therefore whether or not cell i2ision occurs8 1.8 +esearchers ha2e i entifie a#out a half o'en tumor;su,,ressor genes8 118 The 'B tumor;su,,ressor gene ,re2ents retino#lastoma5 a cancer of the retina5 an has #een foun to malfunction in cancers of the #reast5 ,rostate5 #la er5 an small;cell lung carcinoma8 128 The p12 tumor;su,,ressor gene is more fre>uently mutate in human cancers than any other 9nown geneD it normally functions to trigger cell cycle inhi#itors an stimulate a,o,tosis8 138 0n some cancer cells5 mutation of an en'yme that regulates the length of $el'+ere# causes the telomeres to remain at a constant length5 which allows the cancer cells to continue i2i ing8 J07 Pr',ary'$i& Cell ivi#i'" 18 Gnicellular organisms re,ro uce 2ia a#e6%al re)r'd%&$i'"3 in which the offs,ring are genetically i entical to the ,arent8 A8 The )ro9aryotic Chromosome 18 )ro9aryotic cells @#acteria an archaeaA lac9 a nucleus an other mem#ranous organelles8 18 28 38 48

28 The ,ro9aryotic chromosome is com,ose of 36A an associate ,roteins5 #ut much less ,rotein than eu9aryotic chromosomes8 38 The chromosome a,,ears as a "%&le'id3 an irregular;sha,e region that is not enclose #y a mem#rane8 48 The chromosome is a circular loo, attache to the insi e of the ,lasma mem#raneD it is a#out 15... times the length of the cell8
B8 Binary !ission

18 Bi"ary 1i##i'" of ,ro9aryotic cells ,ro uces two genetically i entical aughter cells8 28 Before cell i2ision5 36A is re,licate ?#oth chromosomes are attache to a s,ecial site insi e the ,lasma mem#rane8 38 The two chromosomes se,arate as a cell lengthens an ,ulls them a,art8 48 :hen the cell is a,,ro/imately twice its original length5 the ,lasma mem#rane grows inwar 5 a septum @consisting of new cell wall an ,lasma mem#raneA ""

forms5 i2i ing the cell into two aughter cells8 "8 The generation time of #acteria e,en s on the s,ecies an en2ironmental con itionsD &scherichia coli<s generation time is a#out 2. minutes8
C8 Com,aring )ro9aryotes an &u9aryotes

18 Both #inary fission an mitosis ensure that each aughter cell is genetically i entical to the ,arent8 28 Bacteria an ,rotists use ase/ual re,ro uction to ,ro uce i entical offs,ring8 38 0n multicellular fungi5 ,lants5 an animals5 cell i2ision is ,art of the growth ,rocess that ,ro uces an re,airs the organism8 48 )ro9aryotes ha2e a single chromosome with mostly 36A an some associate ,roteinD there is no s,in le a,,aratus8 "8 &u9aryotic cells ha2e chromosomes with 36A an many associate ,roteinsD histone ,roteins organi'e the chromosome8 $8 The s,in le is in2ol2e in istri#uting the aughter chromosomes to the aughter nuclei8

Le&$%re E"ri&!+e"$ Idea#

E6)erie"&e Ba#e: :ithout la#oratory e/,erience with cell i2ision5 most of the cell cycle will #e a#stract an 2isuals will #e critical for any meaningful un erstan ing8 )u#lic conce,ts of cancer are ri le with misconce,tions5 es,ecially since un erstan ing #ase on con2ergent research has #ecome clear recently8 4owe2er5 most stu ents are eager to learn the meaning of terms they ha2e hear in unclear conte/t5 such as metastasis5 malignant5 neo,lasm5 etc8 18 Be sure to clarify terms that closely resem#le each other% chromosome%chromatin%chromati 5 centriole%centromere5 etc8 28 Contrast the ifferences in cell i2ision #etween #inary fission an mitosis with res,ect to% the amount of 36A5 the num#er of chromosomes nee e to go2ern smaller an larger cells5 an the increase nee s of a multicellular organism<s genome8 6ote that 36A re,lication must occur #efore mitosis #egins an that each chromati re,resents one co,y of the 36A molecule8 38 &m,hasi'e why it is im,ortant that each aughter cell recei2es e/actly one co,y of each gene in the genome of the organism8 3iscuss how mitosis is more effecti2e in se,arating the many stran s of 36A in a human @4$ chromosomesA than #inary fission8 48 3iscuss the ,arts of the cell cycle an what might ,ro2i e the irect an in irect control of the cycle8 :hy woul it #e im,ortant to ha2e internal control when a cell re,licates its 36A or starts to i2i eK Consi er why e!ternal signals woul #e im,ortant in controlling the i2ision of cells in a multicellular organism8
"8 $8 &/,lain how a mo ification of cell cycle controls an control mechanisms for cell i2ision coul contri#ute to cancer e2elo,ment8 Most stu ents will ha2e some e/,erience @relati2e5 frien 5 etc8A with cancer an 9now some of the sym,toms5 iagnosis5 treatment5 etc8 0f they wish to 2olunteer ,ersonal o#ser2ations5 it is ,ossi#le to ,oint out the Bfilter ,ointsC for cancer in lungs5 li2er5 etc85 an the reasons that many treatment regimes

"$

ma9e sense in the light of this8

(8 3escri#e the ifferences #etween an iscuss the uses of repro"ucti#e cloning an therapeutic cloning8 These are state;of;the;art research an me ical techni>ues of which stu ents nee to ha2e a wor9ing 9nowle ge8

Cri$i&al T!i",i"*
-%e#$i'" 10 4uman re #loo cells e2elo, in the #one marrow from stem cells5 an lose their nucleus #efore #eing release into the #loo stream8 :hile this gi2es a cell that can #e ensely ,ac9e with hemoglo#in molecules5 what are the conse>uences as far as the longe2ity of the cell an its a#ility to re,licateK A"#.er% Lac9ing 36A co ing5 the re #loo cells will not themsel2es #e a#le to re,licate5 an we must rely on the stem cells in the #one marrow to continue re #loo cell ,ro uction8 0n a ition5 the re #loo cells will #e limite in life s,an an una#le to ma9e 36A;enco e re,airs8
-%e#$i'" 20 0n some #ir s an true #ugs5 the num#er of chromosomes is har to etermine since chromosomes get smaller an smaller until they are too small to see8 Let5 in animals it is rare to fin chromosomes num#ering o2er a hun re ,airs8 :hat is the ,ro#a#le reason for 9ee,ing chromosome num#ers lowK

A"#.er% A s,in le forms to ,ro2i e an or erly istri#ution of chromosomes to the aughter cells8 0t is not ,ractical for s,in le fi#ers to accurately engineer the se,aration of thousan s of chromosomal #its in a minuscule cell with limite s,ace8

Te&!"'l'*y 1r'+ M&Gra.;Hill

)lease consult your C'%r#e I"$e*ra$i'" G%ide for technology correlations for this cha,ter8

"(

CHAPTER

10

MEIOSIS AN SEKUAL REPRO UCTION

Meiosis occurs at ifferent times in the life cycle of ,lants5 animals5 an fungi5 #ut its ,hases are the same8 0n humans5 meiosis is a ,art of s,ermatogenesis an oogenesis8 This cha,ter ,resents a etaile escri,tion of the stages of meiosis5 an 2arious meiotically;relate mechanisms in2ol2e in genetic 2ariation in the offs,ring8 Meiosis an mitosis are com,are an contraste 8 The contri#ution of meiosis to the e2olutionary ,rocess is iscusse 8 The a#normal situations of chromosome num#er change @e8g85 monosomy5 trisomy5 etc8A are escri#e 5 as are the situations of chromosome structural change @e8g85 eletion5 translocation5 etc8A8 Many human iseases in2ol2ing chromosomal a#normalities are escri#e 8

C!a)$er O%$li"e
1001 Halvi"* $!e C!r'+'#'+e N%+ber

18 Mei'#i# is nuclear i2ision5 re ucing the chromosome num#er from the di)l'id @2"A to the !a)l'id @"A num#er8 28 The !a)l'id 8"9 "%+ber is half of the i,loi num#er of chromosomes8 38 Se/ual re,ro uction re>uires *a+e$e @re,ro ucti2e cell5 often s,erm an eggA formation an then fusion of gametes to form a 5y*'$e8 48 A 5y*'$e always has the full or i,loi @2nA num#er of chromosomes8 "8 0f gametes containe same num#er of chromosomes as #o y cells5 ou#ling woul soon fill cells8 A8 4omologous )airs of Chromosomes 18 0n i,loi #o y cells5 chromosomes occur as ,airs8 a8 &ach set of chromosomes is a !'+'l'*'%# ,airD each mem#er is a !'+'l'*'%# &!r'+'#'+e or !'+'l'*%e0 #8 4omologues loo9 ali9e5 ha2e the same length an centromere ,osition5 an ha2e a similar #an ing ,attern when staine 8 c8 A location on one homologue contains gene for the same trait that occurs at this locus on the other homologue5 although the genes may co e for ifferent 2ariations of that traitD alternate forms of a gene are calle allele#8 28 Chromosomes u,licate imme iately ,rior to nuclear i2ision8 a8 3u,lication ,ro uces two i entical ,arts calle sister chromati"sD they are hel together at the centromere8 38 One mem#er of each homologous ,air is inherite from the male ,arent5 the other mem#er from the female ,arent8 48 One mem#er of each homologous ,air will #e ,lace in each s,erm or egg8 B8 O2er2iew of Meiosis 18 Mei'#i# in2ol2es two nuclear i2isions an ,ro uces four ha,loi aughter cells8 28 &ach aughter cell has half the num#er of chromosomes foun in the i,loi ,arent nucleus8 38 Mei'#i# I is the nuclear i2ision at the first meiotic i2ision8 a8 )rior to meiosis 05 36A re,lication occurs5 each chromosome thus has two sister chromati s8 #8 3uring meiosis 05 homologous chromosomes ,airD this is calle #y"a)#i#0 "*

c8 3uring syna,sis5 the two sets of ,aire chromosomes lay alongsi e each other as a bivale"$ @sometimes calle a $e$radA8 48 0n +ei'#i# II5 the centromeres i2i e an aughter chromosomes @ eri2e as sister chromati sA se,arate8 a8 6o re,lication of 36A is nee e #etween meiosis 0 an 00 #ecause chromosomes are alrea y ou#le @36A re,lication occurre ,rior to meiosis 0A8 #8 Chromosomes in the four aughter cells ha2e only one chromati 8 c8 Counting the num#er of centromeres 2erifies that ,arent cells were i,loi D each aughter cell is ha,loi 8 8 0n the animal life cycle5 aughter cells #ecome gametes that fuse uring fertili'ation8 e8 !ertili'ation restores the i,loi num#er in cells8
C8 !ate of 3aughter Cells 18 0n ,lant life cycle5 aughter cells #ecome ha,loi s,ores that germinate to #ecome a ha,loi generation8 28 0n the animal life cycle5 the aughter cells #ecome the gametes5 either s,erm or egg8 1002 Ge"e$i& Varia$i'"

A8 1enetic +ecom#ination 18 3ue to genetic recom#ination5 offs,ring ha2e a ifferent com#ination of genes than their ,arents8 28 :ithout recom#ination5 ase/ual organisms must rely on mutations to generate 2ariation among offs,ringD this is sufficient #ecause they ha2e great num#ers of offs,ring8 38 Meiosis #rings a#out genetic recom#ination in two ways% crossing.o#er an in"epen"ent assortment8 48 Crossing;o2er of non;sister chromati s results in e/change of genetic material #etween non;sister chromati s of a #i2alentD this intro uces 2ariation8 "8 At syna,sis5 homologous chromosomes are hel in ,osition #y a nucleo,rotein lattice @the synaptonemal comple!A8 $8 As the lattice of the syna,tonemal com,le/ #rea9s own at the #eginning of ana,hase 0, homologues are tem,orarily hel together #y chiasmata5 regions where the non; sister chromati s are attache ue to crossing;o2er8 (8 The homologues se,arate an are istri#ute to aughter cells8 *8 3ue to this *e"e$i& re&'+bi"a$i'"3 aughter chromosomes eri2e from sister chromati s are no longer i entical8 B8 0n e,en ent Assortment of 4omologous Chromosomes 18 3uring in e,en ent assortment5 the homologous chromosomes se,arate in e,en ently or in a ran om manner8 28 0n e,en ent assortment in a cell with only three ,airs of chromosomes is 23 or eight com#inations of maternal an ,aternal chromosomes8 C8 Significance of 1enetic Variation 18 0n humans with 23 ,airs of chromosomes5 the com#inations ,ossi#le are 223 or *53**5$.*5 an this oes not consi er the 2ariation from crossing;o2er8 28 :hen gametes fuse at 1er$ili5a$i'"3 chromosomes onate #y ,arents com#ine8 38 The chromosomally ifferent 'ygotes from same ,arents ha2e @223A2 or (.53$*5(445...5... com#inations ,ossi#le without crossing;o2er8 48 0f crossing;o2er occurs once5 then @423A2 or 45-"15($.52..5...5...5...5...5...5... genetically ifferent 'ygotes are ,ossi#le for one cou,le8 "-

"8 A successful ,arent in a ,articular en2ironment can re,ro uce ase/ually an ,ro uce offs,ring a a,te to that en2ironment8 $8 0f the en2ironment changes5 ifferences among offs,ring ,ro2i e the se/ual ,arents with much im,ro2e chances of sur2i2al8
1004 T!e P!a#e# '1 Mei'#i#

A8

B8

C8 38

&8

!8

18 Both meiosis 0 an meiosis 00 ha2e four ,hases% ,ro,hase5 meta,hase5 ana,hase5 an telo,hase8 Pr')!a#e I 18 6uclear i2ision is a#out to occur% nucleolus isa,,earsD nuclear en2elo,e fragmentsD centrosomes migrate away from each otherD an s,in le fi#ers assem#le8 28 4omologous chromosomes un ergo syna,sis to form #i2alentsD crossing;o2er may occur at this time in which case sister chromati s are no longer i entical8 38 Chromatin con enses an chromosomes #ecome microsco,ically 2isi#le8 Me$a)!a#e I 18 Bi2alents hel together #y chiasmata ha2e mo2e towar the meta,hase ,late at the e>uator of the s,in le8 28 0n meta,hase 05 there is a fully forme s,in le an alignment of the #i2alents at the meta,hase ,late8 38 Einetochores5 ,rotein com,le/es 7ust outsi e the centromeres attach to s,in le fi#ers calle inetochore spin"le fibers8 48 Bi2alents in e,en ently align themsel2es at the meta,hase ,late of the s,in le8 "8 Maternal an ,aternal homologues of each #i2alent may #e oriente towar either ,ole8 A"a)!a#e I 18 The homologues of each #i2alent se,arate an mo2e towar o,,osite ,oles8 28 &ach chromosome still has two chromati s8 Tel')!a#e I 18 0n animals5 this stage occurs at the en of meiosis 08 28 :hen it occurs5 the nuclear en2elo,e reforms an nucleoli rea,,ear8 38 This ,hase may or may not #e accom,anie #y cyto9inesis8 I"$er,i"e#i# 18 This ,erio #etween meiosis 0 an 00 is similar to the inter,hase #etween mitotic i2isionsD howe2er5 no 36A re,lication occurs @the chromosomes are alrea y u,licate A8 Mei'#i# II a"d Ga+e$e F'r+a$i'" 18 3uring +e$a)!a#e II3 the ha,loi num#er of chromosomes align at the meta,hase ,late8 28 3uring a"a)!a#e II3 the sister chromati s se,arate at the centromeresD the two "aughter chromosomes mo2e towar the ,oles8 38 3ue to crossing;o2er5 each gamete can contain chromosomes with ifferent ty,es of genes8 48 At the en of $el')!a#e II an cyto9inesis5 there are four ha,loi cells8 "8 0n animals5 the ha,loi cells mature an e2elo, into gametes8 $8 0n ,lants5 the aughter cells #ecome #)'re# an i2i e to ,ro uce a ha,loi generationD these ha,loi cells fuse to #ecome a 'ygote that e2elo,s into a i,loi generation8 (8 The ty,e of life cycle of alternating ha,loi an i,loi generations is calle $.

al$er"a$i'" '1 *e"era$i'"#0

1007 Mei'#i# C'+)ared $' Mi$'#i#

18 Meiosis re>uires two nuclear i2isionsD mitosis re>uires only one nuclear i2ision8 28 Meiosis ,ro uces four aughter nuclei an four aughter cellsD mitosis ,ro uces only two8 38 The aughter cells ,ro uce #y meiosis are ha,loi D the aughter cells ,ro uce #y mitosis are i,loi 8 48 The aughter cells ,ro uce #y meiosis are not genetically i enticalD the aughter cells ,ro uce #y mitosis are genetically i entical to each other an to the ,arental cell8 A Occurrence 18 0n humans5 meiosis occurs only in re,ro ucti2e organs to ,ro uce gametes8 28 Mitosis occurs in all tissues for growth an re,air8 B8 Meiosis 0 Com,are to Mitosis 18 36A is re,licate only once #efore #oth mitosis an meiosisD in mitosis there is only one nuclear i2isionD in meiosis there are two nuclear i2isions8 28 3uring ,ro,hase 0 of meiosis5 homologous chromosomes ,air an un ergo crossing; o2erD this oes not occur uring mitosis8 38 3uring meta,hase 0 of meiosis5 #i2alents align at the meta,hase ,lateD in mitosis in i2i ual chromosomes align8 48 3uring ana,hase 0 in meiosis5 homologous chromosomes @with centromeres intactA se,arate an mo2e to o,,osite ,olesD in mitosis at this stage5 sister chromati s se,arate an mo2e to o,,osite ,oles8 C8 Meiosis 00 Com,are to Mitosis 18 &2ents of meiosis 00 are the same stages as in mitosis8 28 4owe2er5 in meiosis 005 the nuclei contain the ha,loi num#er of chromosomes8
100? T!e H%+a" Li1e Cy&le

18 Li1e &y&le refers to all re,ro ucti2e e2ents #etween one generation an ne/t8 28 0n animals5 the a ult is always i,loi I0nstructors note% some #ees5 etc85 ha2e ha,loi male a ultsJ8 38 0n ,lants5 there are two a ult stages% one is i,loi @calle the #)'r')!y$eA an one is ha,loi @calle the *a+e$')!y$eA8 48 Mosses are ha,loi most of their cycleD the ma7ority of higher ,lants are i,loi most of their cycle8 "8 0n fungi an some algae5 only the 'ygote is i,loi 5 an it un ergoes meiosis8 $8 0n human males5 meiosis is ,art of #)er+a$'*e"e#i# @the ,ro uction of s,ermA5 an occurs in the testes8 (8 0n human females5 meiosis is ,art of ''*e"e#i# @the ,ro uction of eggsA5 an occurs in the o2aries8 *8 After #irth5 mitotic cell i2ision is in2ol2e in growth an tissue regeneration of somatic tissue8 A8 S,ermatogenesis an Oogenesis in 4umans 18 S,ermatogenesis a8 0n the testes of males5 )ri+ary #)er+a$'&y$e# with 4$ chromosomes un ergo meiosis 0 to form two #e&'"dary #)er+a$'&y$e#3 each with 23 u,licate chromosomes8 #8 Secon ary s,ermatocytes i2i e @meiosis 00A to ,ro uce four #)er+a$id#3 also $1

with 23 aughter chromosomes8 c8 S,ermati s then ifferentiate into #)er+ @#)er+a$'5'aA0 8 Meiotic cell i2ision in males always results in four cells that #ecome s,erm8 28 Oogenesis a8 0n the o2aries of human females5 )ri+ary ''&y$e# with 4$ chromosomes un ergo meiosis 0 to form two cells5 each with 23 u,licate chromosomes8 #8 One of the cells5 a #e&'"dary ''&y$e3 recei2es almost all the cyto,lasmD the other cell5 a )'lar b'dy3 isintegrates or i2i es again8 c8 The secon ary oocyte #egins meiosis 00 an then sto,s at meta,hase 008 8 At o2ulation5 the secon ary oocyte lea2es the o2ary an enters an o2i uct where it may meet a s,erm8 e8 0f a s,erm enters secon ary oocyte5 the oocyte is acti2ate to continue meiosis 00 to com,letionD the result is a mature egg an another ,olar #o y5 each with 23 aughter chromosomes8 f8 Meiosis ,ro uces one egg an three ,olar #o iesD ,olar #o ies ser2e to iscar unnecessary chromosomes an retain most of the cyto,lasm in the egg8 g8 The cyto,lasm ser2es as a source of nutrients for the e2elo,ing em#ryo8 100B C!a"*e i" C!r'+'#'+e N%+ber a"d S$r%&$%re A8 Aneu,loi y 18 C!r'+'#'+al +%$a$i'"# are &hanges in chromosome num#er or structure8 28 Mutations5 along with crossing;o2er5 recom#ination of chromosomes uring meiosis5 an gamete fusion uring fertili'ation5 increase the amount of 2ariation among offs,ring8 38 The correct num#er of chromosomes in a s,ecies is calle e%)l'idy@ changes in chromosome num#er resulting from non is7unction uring meiosis is calle a"e%)l'idy0 48 M'"'#'+y @2n = 1A occurs when an in i2i ual has only one of a ,articular ty,e of chromosome8 "8 Tri#'+y @2n O 1A occurs when an in i2i ual has three of a ,articular ty,e of chromosome8 $8 N'"di#A%"&$i'" is the failure of chromosomes to se,arate at meiosis?#oth mem#ers of the homologous ,air go into the same gamete8 a8 (rimary non"is3unction occurs uring meiosis 0 when #oth mem#ers of a homologous ,air go into the same aughter cell #8 Secon"ary non"is3unction occurs uring meiosis 00 when the sister chromati s fail to se,arate an #oth aughter chromosomes go into the same gamete8 (8 Monosomy an trisomy occur in ,lants an animalsD in autosomes of animals5 it is generally lethal8 *8 Tri#'+y 21 is the most common autosomal trisomy8 a8 Trisomy 21 @also calle Down syn"romeA occurs when three co,ies of chromosome 21 are ,resent8 #8 Gsually two co,ies of chromosome 21 are contri#ute #y the eggD in 23N of the cases5 the s,erm ha the e/tra chromosome 218 c8 A 3own syn rome chil has many characteristic signs an sym,toms5 inclu ing a ten ency for leu9emia5 cataracts5 faster aging5 mental retar ation5 an an increase chance of e2elo,ing Al'heimer isease later in life8 8 Chances of a woman ha2ing a 3own syn rome chil increase with age8 $2

e8 A ,ary'$y)e3 a 2isual is,lay of the chromosomes arrange #y sha,e5 si'e5 an #an ing ,attern5 may #e ,erforme to i entify #a#ies with 3own syn rome an other aneu,loi con itions8 -8 6on is7unction uring oogenesis can result in too few or too many Z chromosomesD non is7unction uring s,ermatogenesis can result in missing or too many L chromosomes8 1.8 T%r"er #y"dr'+e females ha2e only one se/ chromosome5 an ZD thus5 they are ZO5 with O signifying the a#sence of a secon se/ chromosome8 a8 Turner females are short5 ha2e a #roa chest an fol s of s9in on #ac9 of nec98 #8 O2aries of Turner females ne2er #ecome functionalD therefore5 females o not un ergo ,u#erty8 c8 They usually ha2e normal intelligence an can lea fairly normal li2es with hormone su,,lements8 118 Gli"e1el$er #y"dr'+e males ha2e one L chromosome an two or more Z chromosomes @e8g85 ZZLA8 a8 Affecte in i2i uals are sterile malesD the testes an ,rostate are un er e2elo,e 8 #8 0n i2i uals ha2e large han s an feet5 long arms an legs5 an lac9 facial hair8 c8 )resence of the L chromosome ri2es male formation #ut more than two Z chromosomes may result in mental retar ation8 8 A Barr bo"y5 usually only seen in the nuclei of a female<s cells5 is seen in this syn rome ue to the two Z chromosomes8 128 P'ly;K females @or superfemaleA ha2e three or more Z chromosomes an therefore e/tra Barr #o ies in the nucleus8 a8 There is no increase femininityD most lac9 any ,hysical a#normalities8 #8 ZZZ in i2i uals are not mentally retar e #ut may ha2e elaye motor an language e2elo,mentD ZZZZ females are usually tall an se2erely mentally retar e 8 c8 Some e/,erience menstrual irregularities #ut many menstruate regularly an are fertile8 138 Ea&'b# #y"dr'+e @ZLLA are males with two L chromosomes instea of one8 a8 This results from non is7unction uring s,ermatogenesis8 #8 Males are usually taller than a2erage5 suffer from ,ersistent acne5 an ten to ha2e s,eech an rea ing ,ro#lems8 c8 &arlier claims that ZLL in i2i uals were li9ely to #e aggressi2e were not correct8 B8 Li2ing with Elinefelter Syn rome @,ealth Focus #o/A 18 Stefan Schwart' is a man who has Elinefelter syn rome8 28 As a chil 5 some of his sym,toms inclu e #eing shy5 trou#le ma9ing frien s5 an emotional insta#ility8 38 Teacher an octors thought he ha Blearning isa#ilities5C an was la'y8 48 &2entually a octor teste his #loo an isco2ere he ha Elinefelter sy rome5 a genetic isor er ha2ing se/ chromosomes ZZL8 "8 )hysical treatment can inclu e testosterone in7ection8 &motional treatment can inclu e su,,ort grou,s8
C8 Changes in Chromosome Structure

18 &n2ironmental factors inclu ing ra iation5 chemicals5 an 2iruses5 can cause chromosomes to #rea9D if the #ro9en en s o not re7oin in the same ,attern5 this causes a change in chromosomal structure8 $3

ele$i'": a ty,e of mutation in which an en of a chromosome #rea9s off or when two simultaneous #rea9s lea to the loss of a segment8 38 Tra"#l'&a$i'": a chromosomal segment is remo2e from one chromosome an inserte into another nonhomologous chromosomeD in 3own syn rome5 "N of cases are ue to a translocation #etween chromosome 21 an 145 a situation that runs in the family of the father or mother8 48 %)li&a$i'": the ,resence of a chromosomal segment more than once on the same chromosome8 a8 A #ro9en segment from one chromosome can sim,ly attach to its homologue or une>ual crossing;o2er may occur8 #8 A u,lication may also in2ol2e an i"ver#i'" where a segment that has #ecome se,arate from the chromosome is reinserte at the same ,lace #ut in re2erseD the ,osition an se>uence of genes are altere 8 38 4uman Syn romes 18 3eletion Syn romes a8 4illiams syn"rome occurs when chromosome ( loses an en ,iece% chil ren loo9 li9e ,i/ies5 ha2e ,oor aca emic s9ills #ut goo 2er#al an musical s9illsD lac9 of elastin causes car io2ascular ,ro#lems an s9in aging8 #8 0ri "u chat syn"rome @Bcry of the catCA is a eletion in which an in i2i ual has a small hea 5 is mentally retar e 5 has facial a#normalities5 an an a#normal glottis an laryn/ resulting in a cry resem#ling that of a cat8 28 Translocation Syn romes a8 0f a translocation results in the normal amount of genetic material5 the ,erson will remain healthyD if a ,erson inherits only one of the translocate chromosomes5 that ,erson may ha2e only one allele or three alleles rather than the normal two8 #8 0n Alagille syn"rome5 chromosomes 2 an 2. e/change segments5 causing a small eletion on chromosome 2. that may ,ro uce some a#normalities8

28

Le&$%re E"ri&!+e"$ Idea#

E6)erie"&e Ba#e: Many stu ents will li9ely ha2e a ru imentary un erstan ing of the ,rocesses of meiosis an mitosis8 6onetheless5 2isuals @illustrations5 microsco,ic sli es5 etc8A are critical for e2elo,ing full un erstan ing of these mechanisms5 es,ecially in 9ee,ing trac9 of the chromosomeFchromati s an in contrasting the ,rocesses of meiosis an mitosis8 18 28 38 48 "8 3iscuss the ifferences in se/ual an ase/ual re,ro uction5 an e/,lain why some organisms that usually re,ro uce ase/ually may go through se/ual re,ro uction occasionally to ,ro2i e genetic recom#ination8 Consi er the a 2antages of se/ual re,ro uction in e2olution an ase/ually re,ro ucing organisms8 iscuss whether e2olution can occur in

3iscuss the a 2antages of a mainly i,loi life cycle @e8g85 animalsA an of a mainly ha,loi life cycle @e8g85 fungi an some algaeA8 Consi er why oogenesis an s,ermatogenesis woul ha2e such ifferent 9in s of cell ,ro ucts8 &/,lain why there woul #e only one functional gamete from the female an four from the male8 Consi er the ,ossi#le effects of an Z;lin9e isease on a carrier femaleD gi2en the ran om inacti2ation of one Z in each cell5 half of her cells woul #e e/,ecte to ha2e the a#normal Z acti2e8 Lea stu ents through e/am,les of color #lin ness or 3uchenne muscular ystro,hy8

$4

Cri$i&al T!i",i"*
-%e#$i'" 10 Meiosis5 or u,lication; i2ision; i2ision5 is not the only way to re uce chromosome num#ers #y half8 0t is theoretically ,ossi#le to sim,ly i2i e the original i,loi num#er of chromosomes to ,ro uce two ha,loi cells5 an there is re,orte ly a ,rimiti2e organism that oes this8 :hat woul #e a raw#ac9K A"#.er: The a#sence of a tetra an loss of crossing;o2er woul gametes8 ecrease ,otential i2ersity of

-%e#$i'" 20 Bees an ants ha2e a ha,loi ; i,loi system for etermining the se/ of offs,ring8 The >ueen can withhol s,erm in her seminal rece,tacle an the unfertili'e egg e2elo,s into a female8 One s,ecies of ant has 7ust two chromosomes in the i,loi male an one in the ha,loi female8 :hat effect woul such a low chromosome num#er ha2e on the stan ar Ba 2antagesC of se/ual re,ro uctionK A"#.er: The i2ersity that can come from in e,en ent assortment is no longer ,ossi#le in the ha,loi cell8 Another source of 2ariation5 the ,ossi#ility for crossing;o2er5 is lost on the male si e8

Te&!"'l'*y 1r'+ M&Gra.;Hill

)lease consult your C'%r#e I"$e*ra$i'" G%ide for technology correlations for this cha,ter8

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CHAPTER

11 MEN

ELIAN

PATTERNS OF INHERITANCE

This cha,ter ,resents a stu y of the science of genetics5 focusing on its history an the laws go2erning inheritance @Men elian geneticsA8 1enetic crosses are ,resente an analy'e % one; trait5 two;trait5 etc8 The conce,ts of ominant an recessi2e traits5 ,olygenic inheritance5 incom,lete ominance5 etc8 are e/,laine 8 Statistical inter,retations of genetic crosses are ,resente 8 Many human genetic iseases are iscusse 8

C!a)$er O%$li"e
1101 Gre*'r Me"del A8 The Blen ing Conce,t of 0nheritance 18 This theory state that offs,ring woul ha2e traits interme iate #etween those of the ,arents8 28 +e an white flowers ,ro uce ,in9 flowersD any return to re or white offs,ring was consi ere insta#ility in the genetic material8 38 Charles 3arwin wante to e2elo, a theory of e2olution #ase on here itary ,rinci,lesD #len ing theory was of no hel,8 a8 A #len ing theory i not account for 2ariation @ ifferencesA an coul not e/,lain s,ecies i2ersity8 B8 Men el<s )articulate Theory of 0nheritance 18 Men el was an Austrian mon98 28 Men el formulate two fun amental laws of here ity in the early 1*$.s8 38 4e ha ,re2iously stu ie science an mathematics at the Gni2ersity of Vienna8 48 At time of his research5 he was a su#stitute science teacher at a local technical high school8 "8 Because Men el ha a mathematical #ac9groun 5 he use a statistical #asis for his #ree ing e/,eriments8 $8 Men el<s ,articulate theory is #ase on the e/istence of minute ,articles?now calle genes. C8 Men el :or9e with the 1ar en )ea 18 Men el ,re,are his e/,eriments carefully an con ucte ,reliminary stu ies8 a8 4e chose the gar en ,ea5 (isum sati#um, #ecause ,eas were easy to culti2ate5 ha a short generation time5 an coul #e cross;,ollinate #y han 8 #8 !rom many 2arieties5 Men el chose 22 true;#ree ing 2arieties for his e/,eriments8 c8 /rue.bree"ing 2arieties ha all offs,ring li9e the ,arents an li9e each other8 8 Men el stu ie sim,le traits @e8g85 see sha,e an color5 flower color5 etc8A8 28 4e use his un erstan ing of mathematical ,rinci,les of ,ro#a#ility to inter,ret results8
1102 Me"delL# La.

A8 Law of Segregation 18 Men el confirme that his tall ,lants always ha tall offs,ring5 i8e85 were true. $$

bree"ing5 #efore crossing two ifferent strains that iffere in only one trait?this is calle a +'"'!ybrid &r'##0 28 A +'"'!ybrid &r'## is #etween two ,arent organisms true;#ree ing for two istinct forms of one trait8 38 Men el trac9e each trait through two generations8 a8 P *e"era$i'" is the ,arental generation in a #ree ing e/,eriment8 #8 F1 *e"era$i'" is the first;generation offs,ring in a #ree ing e/,eriment8 c8 F2 *e"era$i'" is the secon ;generation offs,ring in a #ree ing e/,eriment8 48 4e ,erforme re&i)r'&al &r'##e#3 i8e85 ,ollen of tall ,lant to stigma of short ,lant an #ice #ersa8 "8 4is results were contrary to those ,re icte #y a #len ing theory of inheritance8 $8 4e foun that the !1 ,lants resem#le only one of the ,arents8 (8 Characteristics of other ,arent rea,,eare in a#out 1F4 of !2 ,lantsD 3F4 of offs,ring resem#le the !1 ,lants8 *8 Men el saw that these 3%1 results were ,ossi#le if% a8 !1 hy#ri s containe two factors for each trait5 one #eing "ominant an the other recessi#e5 #8 factors se,arate when gametes were forme D a gamete carrie one co,y of each factorD c8 an ran om fusion of all ,ossi#le gametes occurre u,on fertili'ation8 -8 +esults of his e/,eriments le Men el to e2elo, his first law of inheritance?the la. '1 #e*re*a$i'": a8 &ach organism contains two factors for each trait8 #8 !actors segregate in the formation of gametes8 c8 &ach gamete contains one factor for each trait8 8 !ertili'ation gi2es each new in i2i ual two factors for each trait8 B8 Men el<s Cross as Viewe #y Classical 1enetics 18 The *e"e l'&%# is the s,ecific location of alleles on homologous chromosomes8 28 Alternate 2ersions of a genes are calle allele#0 38 A d'+i"a"$ allele mas9s or hi es e/,ression of a re&e##ive allele@ it is re,resente #y an u,,ercase letter8 48 A re&e##ive allele is an allele that e/erts its effect only in the homo'ygous stateD its e/,ression is mas9e #y a ominant alleleD it is re,resente #y a lowercase letter8 "8 The ,rocess of meiosis e/,lains Men el<s law of segregation8 $8 0n Men el<s cross5 the ,arents were true;#ree ingD each ,arent ha two i entical alleles for a trait=they were !'+'5y*'%#3 in icating they ,ossess two i entical alleles for a trait8 (8 H'+'5y*'%# d'+i"a"$ genoty,es ,ossess two ominant alleles for a trait8 *8 H'+'5y*'%# re&e##ive genoty,es ,ossess two recessi2e alleles for a trait8 -8 After cross;,ollination5 all in i2i uals of the !1 generation ha one of each ty,e of allele8 1.8 He$er'5y*'%# genoty,es ,ossess one of each allele for a ,articular trait8 118 The allele not e/,resse in a hetero'ygote is a recessi2e allele8 C8 1enoty,e Versus )henoty,e 18 Two organisms with ifferent allele com#inations can ha2e the same outwar a,,earance @e8g85 // an /t ,ea ,lants are #oth tallD therefore5 it is necessary to $(

istinguish #etween alleles ,resent an the a,,earance of the organismA8 28 Ge"'$y)e refers to the alleles an in i2i ual recei2es at fertili'ation @ ominant5 recessi2eA8 38 P!e"'$y)e refers to the ,hysical a,,earance of the in i2i ual @tall5 short5 etc8A8
38 Men el<s Law of 0n e,en ent Assortment

18 This two;trait @di!ybridA cross is #etween two ,arent organisms that are true; #ree ing for ifferent forms of two traitsD it ,ro uces offs,ring hetero-ygous for #oth traits8 28 Men el o#ser2e that the !1 in i2i uals were ominant in #oth traits8 38 4e further note four ,henoty,es among !2 offs,ringD he e uce secon law of here ity8 48 Me"delL# la. '1 i"de)e"de"$ a##'r$+e"$ states that mem#ers of one ,air of factors assort in e,en ently of mem#ers of another ,air5 an that all com#inations of factors occur in gametes8 "8 The law of in e,en ent assortment only a,,lies to alleles on ifferent chromosomes8 $8 A ,henoty,ic ratio of -%3%3%1 is e/,ecte when hetero'ygotes for two traits are crosse an sim,le ominance is ,resent for #oth genes8 (8 0n e,en ent assortment uring meiosis e/,lains these results8 &8 Men el<s Laws an Meiosis @Science Focus #o/A 18 Scientists now 9now that Men el<s laws hol true #ecause of meiosis8 28 !or e/am,le5 a ,arent cell will ha2e two ,airs of homologous chromosomes8 38 3uring meta,hase 05 all alignments of homologous chromosomes can occur5 following the lines of Men el<s law of in e,en ent assortment8 48 3uring meta,hase 005 there is only one mem#er of each homologous ,air5 following the lines of Men el<s law of segregation8 "8 All ,ossi#le gametes result since one aughter cell has #oth ominant alleles @ABA5 one aughter cell has #oth recessi2e alleles @abA5 an two aughter cells ha2e one ominant an one recessi2e allele @Ab an aBA5 following Men el<s two laws8 !8 Men el<s Law of )ro#a#ility 18 A P%""e$$ #<%are is use for two;trait crosses8 28 (robability is the li9ely outcome a gi2en e2ent will occur from ran om chance8 a8 !or e/am,le5 with e2ery coin fli, there is a ".N chance of hea s an ".N chance of tails8 38 The pro"uct rule of probability states that the chance of two or more in e,en ent e2ents occurring together is the ,ro uct of the ,ro#a#ility of the e2ents occurring se,arately8 a8 The chance of inheriting a s,ecific allele from one ,arent an a s,ecific allele from another is X x X or 1F48 #8 )ossi#le com#inations for the alleles &e of hetero'ygous ,arents are the following% && P X x X P 1F4 e& P X x X P 1F4 &e P X x X P 1F4 ee P X x X P [ 48 The sum law of probability calculates the ,ro#a#ility of an e2ent that occurs in two or more in e,en ent waysD it is the sum of in i2i ual ,ro#a#ilities of each way an e2ent can occurD in the a#o2e e/am,le where unattache earlo#es are ominant @&&, &e, an e&A5 the chance for unattache earlo#es is 1F4 O 1F4 O 1F4 P 3F48 18 Testcrosses $*

18 A $e#$&r'## is use to etermine if an in i2i ual with the ominant ,henoty,e is homo'ygous ominant or hetero'ygous for a ,articular trait8 28 By Men el ,erforming a testcross5 the law of segregation was su,,orte 8 38 A one.trait testcross is use #etween an in i2i ual with ominant ,henoty,e an an in i2i ual with a recessi2e ,henoty,e to see if the in i2i ual with ominant ,henoty,e is homo'ygous or hetero'ygous8 48 A two.trait testcross tests if in i2i uals showing two ominant characteristics are homo'ygous for #oth or for one trait only5 or hetero'ygous for #oth8 a8 0f an organism hetero'ygous for two traits is crosse with another recessi2e for #oth traits5 the e/,ecte ,henoty,ic ratio is 1%1%1%18 #8 0n ihy#ri genetics ,ro#lems5 the in i2i ual has four alleles5 two for each trait8 48 Men el<s Laws an 4uman 1enetic 3isor ers 18 1enetic isor ers are me ical con itions cause #y alleles inherite from ,arents8 28 An a%$'#'+e is any chromosome other than a se/ @Z or LA chromosome8 38 0n a ,e igree chart5 males are esignate #y s>uares5 females #y circlesD sha e circles an s>uares are affecte in i2i ualsD line #etween s>uare an circle re,resents a unionD 2ertical line lea s to offs,ring8 48 A &arrier is a hetero'ygous in i2i ual with no a,,arent a#normality #ut a#le to ,ass on an allele for a recessi2ely;inherite genetic isor er8 "8 Autosomal ominant an autosomal recessi2e alleles ha2e ifferent ,atterns of inheritance8 a8 Characteristics of autosomal ominant isor ers 1A Affecte chil ren usually ha2e an affecte ,arent8 2A 4etero'ygotes are affecte 8% two affecte ,arents can ,ro uce unaffecte chil D two unaffecte ,arents will not ha2e affecte chil ren8 #8 Characteristics of autosomal recessi2e isor ers 1A Most affecte chil ren ha2e normal ,arents since hetero'ygotes ha2e a normal ,henoty,e8 2A Two affecte ,arents always ,ro uce an affecte chil 8 3A Close relati2es who re,ro uce together are more li9ely to ha2e affecte chil ren8 08 Autosomal +ecessi2e 3isor ers 18 Me$!e+'*l'bi"e+ia a8 +elati2ely harmless isor er resulting from an accumulation of methemoglo#in in the #loo 8 #8 Cause an genetic lin9 still remain a mystery8 c8 Sym,toms inclu e #luish;,ur,le s9in ue to ina#ility to clear a#mornal #lue ,rotein from #loo 8 8 )eo,le with methemoglo#inemia lac9 the en'yme ia,horase5 which is co e for #y a gene on chromosome 228 28 Cy#$i& Fibr'#i# a8 This is the most common lethal genetic isease in Caucasians in the G8S8 #8 A#out 1 in 2. Caucasians is a carrier5 an a#out 1 in 35... new#orns has this isor er8 c8 An increase ,ro uction of a 2iscous form of mucus in the lungs an ,ancreatic ucts is seen8 1A The resultant accumulation of mucus in the res,iratory tract interferes with $-

gas e/change8 2A 3igesti2e en'ymes must #e mi/e with foo to su,,lant the ,ancreatic 7uices8 8 6ew treatments ha2e raise the a2erage life e/,ectancy to u, to 3" years8 e8 Chlori e ions @Cl=A fail to ,ass ,lasma mem#rane ,roteins8 f8 Since water normally follows Cl=5 lac9 of water in the lungs causes thic9 mucus8 g8 The cause is a gene on chromosome (D attem,ts to insert the gene into nasal e,ithelium has ha little success8 h8 1enetic testing for a ult carriers an fetuses is ,ossi#le8 38 Nie+a"";Pi&, i#ea#e a8 0nfant sym,toms inclu e 7aun ice5 ifficulty fee ing5 enlarge a# omen5 an ,ronounce mental retar ation8 #8 Ty,e A an B forms of 6iemann;)ic9 isease are cause #y efecti2e 2ersions of the same gene locate on chromosome 118 c8 This isease is mar9e #y the ina#ility to #rea9 own li,i s8 Li,i ro,lets accumulate in li2er5 lym,h no es5 an s,leen5 an in se2ere cases5 the #rain8 H8 Autosomal 3ominant 3isor ers 18 O#$e'*e"e#i# I+)er1e&$a a8 This is an autosomal ominant isor er that affects one in "5... new#orns an is istri#ute e>ually aroun the worl 8 #8 Affecte in i2i uals ha2e wea9ene 5 #rittle #ones8 A itional sym,toms inclu e unusual #lue tine in the sclerea of the eye5 re uce s9in elasticity5 wea9ene teeth5 an sometimes heart 2al2e a#normalities8 c8 The isease may #e treate #y long;term me icine8 28 Heredi$ary S)!er'&y$'#i# a8 This genetic #loo isor er results from a efecti2e co,y of a gene foun on chromosome *8 #8 Sym,toms inclu e% s,herical sha,e of re #loo cells5 an enlarge s,leen8 c8 4ere itary s,herocytosis affects 1 in "5... ,eo,le an is one of the most common here itary #loo isor ers8 48 Testing for 1enetic 3isor ers @Science Focus #o/A 18 Two genetic isor ers resulting from faulty genes are 4untington isease an cystic fi#rosis8 28 +esearchers are tests that can etect ,articular 36A #ase se>uencing that may #e a#le to i entify in i2i uals who may either ha2e a genetic isease or if they are carriers to a ,articular genetic isease8 a8 A &arrier is a ,erson who oes not e/hi#it traits of the isease5 #ut who has the ,otential of ,assing the recessi2e allele of a genetic isor er8 38 0n or er to e2elo, a test for a ,articular genetic isor er5 scientists must first o#tain family ,e igrees8 a8 Fa+ily )edi*ree# trace ,articular genes through many family generations8 #8 0n the e/am,le of 4untington isease5 the family ,e igree illustrate that the offs,ring of an affecte in i2i ual has a ".N of ha2ing the isease8 c8 :hen #loo testing can #e con ucte 5 36A #ase se>uencing is etermine an com,are to see if there are similarities in #ase se>uencing with ,eo,le who ha2e the isease8 8 4owe2er5 this gene is only lin9e to the isease an not the isease itself8 e8 More than one allele can occur on the same chromosome5 meaning the alleles are (.

lin9e 8 f8 Li",ed allele# are foun together on the same gamete8 4owe2er5 e2en though they are consi ere to #e lin9e 5 crossing o2er an unlin9ing can occur8 48 A##'&a$i'" #$%die# are another metho to isco2er ,otential #ase se>uencing to i entify if an in i2i ual has a genetic isor er8 a8 36A of the general ,o,ulation is teste to i entify similar #ase se>uences8 #8 The e/,loration of the human genome ,ro7ect has ma e it ,ossi#le to i entify genes that may #e lin9e to ,articular genetic isor ers8 "8 Base se>uencing i entification can #e use for ,renatal testing an carrier testing8 1104 E6$e"di"* $!e Ra"*e '1 Me"delia" Ge"e$i&# A8 Multi,le Allelic Traits 18 This occurs when a gene has many allelic forms or alternati2e e/,ressions8 28 ABO Bloo Ty,es a8 The ABO system of human #loo ty,es is a multi,le allele system8 #8 Two ominant alleles @IA an IBA co e for ,resence of A an B glyco,roteins on re #loo cells8 c8 This also inclu es a recessi2e allele @i6A co ing for no A or B glyco,roteins on re #loo cells8 8 As a result5 there are four ,ossi#le ,henoty,es @#loo ty,esA% A5 B5 AB5 an O8 e8 This is a case of &'d'+i"a"&e3 where #oth alleles are fully e/,resse 8 38 The +h factor is inherite in e,en ently from the ABO systemD the +hO allele is ominant8 B8 0ncom,lete 3ominance an 0ncom,lete )enetrance 18 I"&'+)le$e d'+i"a"&e: offs,ring show traits interme iate #etween two ,arental ,henoty,es8 a8 True;#ree ing re an white;flowere four;o<cloc9s ,ro uce ,in9;flowere offs,ring8 #8 0ncom,lete ominance has a #iochemical #asisD the le2el of gene; irecte ,rotein ,ro uction may #e #etween that of the two homo'ygotes8 c8 One allele of a hetero'ygous ,air only ,artially ominates e/,ression of its ,artner8 8 This oes not su,,ort a #len ing theoryD ,arental ,henoty,es rea,,ear in !2 generation8 28 4uman &/am,les of 0ncom,lete 3ominance a8 Curly 2ersus Straight 4air 1A A curly;haire Caucasian an a straight;haire Caucasian will ha2e wa2y; haire offs,ring8 2A Two wa2y;haire ,arents will ,ro uce a 1%2%1 ratio of curly;wa2y;straight hair chil ren8 #8 Cystic fi#rosis is consi ere an e/am,le of incom,lete ominance8 38 I"&'+)le$e )e"e$ra"&e: offs,ring oes not always show ominant allele8 a8 )oly actyly is an e/am,le of incom,lete ,enetrance8 C8 )leio,tro,ic &ffects 18 Plei'$r')y escri#es2a gene that affects more than one characteristic of an in i2i ual8 28 &/am,les inclu e Marfan syn rome5 ,or,hyria5 an sic9le;cell anemia8 38 Mar1a" #y"dr'+e (1

a8 The gene is on chromosome 1"8 #8 Sym,toms inclu e is,ro,ortionately long arms5 legs5 han s5 an feetD wea9ene aortaD ,oor eyesight8 48 P'r)!yria a8 This isease is cause #y a chemical insufficiency in the ,ro uction of hemoglo#in8 #8 Sym,toms inclu e ,hotosensiti2ity5 strong a# ominal ,ain5 ,ort;wine;colore urine5 ,aralysis in arms an legs8 "8 Si&,le;&ell a"e+ia a8 This isease is the most common inherite isor er in #lac9s5 affecting a#out 1 in ".. African Americans8 #8 The gene is on chromosome 118 c8 0n affecte in i2i uals5 the re #loo cells are sha,e li9e sic9les?an a#normal hemoglo#in molecule5 4#s5 causes the efect8 1A 6ormal hemoglo#in5 4#A5 iffers from 4#s #y one amino aci in the ,rotein globin. 8 Sic9ling of the re #loo cells occurs when the o/ygen content of the ,erson<s #loo is low5 there#y slowing own #loo flow an clogging small 2essels8 e8 Signs an sym,toms inclu e anemia5 wea9ness5 fe2er5 ,ain5 rheumatism5 low resistance to isease5 9i ney an heart failure8 f8 Treatment inclu es ,ain management5 #loo transfusions5 an #one marrow trans,lants8 g8 The isease can #e iagnose ,renatally8 h8 0n i2i uals with the sic9le cell trait @carriersA5 who normally o not ha2e any sic9le;sha,e cells unless they e/,erience ehy ration or mil o/ygen e,ri2ation5 are resistant to the isease malaria8 38 )olygenic 0nheritance 18 P'ly*e"i& i"!eri$a"&e occurs when one trait is go2erne #y two or more sets of alleles8 28 3ominant alleles ha2e a >uantitati2e effect on the ,henoty,e% each a s to the effect8 38 The more genes in2ol2e 5 the more continuous is the 2ariation in ,henoty,es5 resulting in a #ell;sha,e cur2e8 48 M%l$i1a&$'rial $rai$# are controlle #y ,olygenes su#7ect to en2ironmental influences8 a8 The coats of Siamese cats an 4imalayan ra##its ha2e ar9er ti,,e ears5 nose5 ,aws5 etc85 ue to the en'yme enco e #y an allele which is only acti2e at the e/tremities at low tem,eratures8 "8 4uman &/am,les of )olygenic 0nheritance a8 A hy#ri cross for s9in color ,ro2i es a range of interme iates8 #8 )arents with interme iate s9in color can ,ro uce chil ren with the full range of s9in colors8 c8 Other e/am,les inclu e cleft li,5 clu#foot5 congenital islocations of the hi,5 hy,ertension5 ia#etes5 schi'o,hrenia5 allergies5 an cancers8 8 Beha2ioral traits inclu ing suici e5 ,ho#ias5 alcoholism5 an homose/uality may #e associate with ,articular genes #ut are not li9ely com,letely ,re etermine 8 e8 All #eha2ioral traits are ,artly herita#le5 an genes wor9 together an are susce,ti#le to en2ironmental influences8 (2

&8 Z;Lin9e 0nheritance 18 Se/ chromosomes in the human female are ZZD those of the male are ZL8

28 Males ,ro uce Z;containing an L;containing gametesD therefore males etermine the se/ of offs,ring8 38 Besi es genes that etermine se/5 se/ chromosomes carry many genes for traits unrelate to se/8 48 An K;li",ed *e"e is any gene locate on Z chromosomeD use to escri#e genes on Z chromosome that are missing on the L chromosome8 "8 :or9 with fruit flies @DrosophilaA #y Thomas 4unt Morgan @early 1-..sA confirme genes were on chromosomes8 a8 !ruit flies are easily an ine/,ensi2ely raise in common la#oratory glassware8 #8 !emales only mate once an lay hun re s of eggs8 c8 The fruit fly generation time is short5 allowing ra,i e/,eriments8 $8 !ruit flies ha2e an ZL se/ chromosome system similar to the human systemD e/,eriments can #e correlate to the human situation8 a8 6ewly isco2ere mutant male fruit flies ha white eyes8 #8 Cross of the hy#ri s from the white;eye male crosse with a ominant re ;eye female yiel e the e/,ecte 3%1 re ;to;white ratioD howe2er5 all of the white;eye flies were males8 c8 An allele for eye color on the Z #ut not on the L chromosome su,,orts the results of this cross8 8 Beha2ior of this allele corres,on s to the #eha2ior of the chromosomeD this confirme the chromosomal theory of inheritance8 (8 Sol2ing Z;Lin9e 1enetic )ro#lems a8 Z;lin9e alleles are esignate as su,erscri,ts to the Z chromosome8 #8 4etero'ygous females are carriersD they o not show the trait #ut can transmit it8 c8 Males are ne2er carriers #ut e/,ress the one allele on the Z chromosomeD the allele coul #e ominant or recessi2e8 8 One form of color;#lin ness is Z;lin9e recessi2e8 !8 4uman Z;Lin9e 3isor ers 18 More males ha2e Z;lin9e traits #ecause recessi2e alleles on the Z chromosome in males are e/,resse in males8 28 Color Blin ness a8 Color #lin ness can #e an Z;lin9e recessi2e isor er in2ol2ing mutations of genes co ing for green or re sensiti2e cone cells5 resulting in the ina#ility to ,ercei2e green or re 5 res,ecti2elyD the ,igment for #lue;sensiti2e ,rotein is autosomal8 #8 A#out *N of Caucasian men ha2e re ;green color #lin ness8 38 Men9es Syn rome @9in9y hair syn romeA a8 Cause #y a efecti2e allele on the Z chromosome8 #8 Sym,toms inclu e% ,oor muscle tone5 sei'ures5 low #o y tem,erature5 s9eletal a#normalities5 an #rittle5 steely hair8 c8 Treatments inclu e co,,er in7ections5 #ut ,rognosis is ,oor an many in i2i uals ie within the first few years of life8 48 Muscular 3ystro,hy a8 3uchenne muscular ystro,hy is the most common form an is characteri'e #y wasting away of muscles5 e2entually lea ing to eathD it affects one out of e2ery (3

35$.. male #irths8 #8 This Z;lin9e recessi2e isease in2ol2es a mutant gene that fails to ,ro uce the ,rotein "ystrophin. c8 Signs an sym,toms @e8g85 wa ling gait5 toe wal9ing5 fre>uent falls5 ifficulty in risingA soon a,,ear8 8 Muscles wea9en until the in i2i ual is confine to a wheelchairD eath usually occurs #y age 2.8 e8 Affecte males are rarely fathersD the gene ,asses from carrier mother to carrier aughter8 f8 Lac9 of ystro,hin ,rotein causes calcium ions to lea9 into muscle cellsD this ,romotes action of an en'yme that issol2es muscle fi#ers8 g8 As the #o y attem,ts to re,air tissue5 fi#rous tissue forms an cuts off #loo su,,ly to the affecte muscles8 h8 A test now etects carriers of 3uchenne muscular ystro,hyD treatments are #eing attem,te 8 "8 A renoleu9o ystro,hy @A3LA a8 This isease is an Z;lin9e recessi2e isor er8 #8 !atty aci s are not #ro9en own an se2ere ner2ous system amage occurs8 c8 Sym,toms inclu e failure to ,ro,erly e2elo, after the age of fi2e5 loss of a renal glan function5 e/hi#it ,oor coor ination5 an show ,rogressi2e loss of hearing5 s,eech5 2ision8 $8 4emo,hilia a8 A#out one in 1.5... males is a hemo,hiliac with im,aire a#ility of #loo to clot8 #8 The two common ty,es% ,emophilia A5 ue to the a#sence of clotting factor 0ZD ,emophilia B5 ue to the a#sence of clotting factor V0008 c8 4emo,hiliacs #lee e/ternally after an in7ury an also suffer internal #lee ing aroun 7oints8 8 4emorrhages sto, with transfusions of #loo @or ,lasmaA or concentrates of clotting ,rotein8 e8 !actor V000 is now a2aila#le as a genetically;engineere ,ro uct8 f8 Of \ueen Victoria<s 2$ offs,ring5 fi2e gran sons ha hemo,hilia an four gran aughters were carriers8

Le&$%re E"ri&!+e"$ Idea#

E6)erie"&e Ba#e: :hile the ,ea ,lant traits selecte #y Men el matche a clear an sim,le mathematical mo el5 stu ents are more intereste in their own genetic traits8 4owe2er5 recent wor9 has shown most traits to #e ,olygenic or com,licate #y other com,le/ genetic factors8 0f you use tongue;rolling5 eye;color5 etc85 #e sure to >ualify that these are o2ersim,lifications use for teaching ,ur,oses8 The common genetic iseases iscusse in this te/t re2eal that it is highly li9ely that there will #e stu ents in classes who ha2e ,ersonal e/,erience with some of these isor ers @family5 frien AD they may as9 >uestions an ,ro2i e information 2is;a;2is the lecture material8 Visuals will li9ewise ,ut a face on the trage y of many of these con itions8 Stu ents< math le2el relati2e to #oth statistics an alge#ra will #e a critical factor in un erstan ing #oth ,ro#a#ility an relate u,coming conce,ts8 @The mathematics in2ol2e oes assume some wor9ing a#ility of statistics usually achie2e #y college le2el stu ents5 #ut this assum,tion shoul #e chec9e #y >uestioning stu ents uring mathematical e/am,les8A (4

18 3escri#e the BlossC of Men el<s wor9 for thirty;fi2e years an the re isco2ery of the same laws of here ity #y three scientists in 1-..8 Consi er the timeliness of research an how some fin ings can #e Bahea of their timeC an therefore una,,reciate 8 28 0f Men el<s ,ea ,lant traits ha #een cases of e,istasis5 ,olygenic inheritance5 etc85 as9 how this woul ha2e confoun e Men el<s wor9 an ,erha,s ha2e misle him8 38 Consi er ,olygenic inheritance an how it affects the e/,ression of such traits as height5 s9in color5 an intelligence8 Co2er the i ea of a normal istri#ution5 an consi er what 9in of offs,ring two 2ery tall in i2i uals woul ha2e8 Lou might tal9 a#out the regression to the mean an why two 2ery tall in i2i uals woul #e li9ely to ha2e chil ren closer to the a2erage height8 48 3iscuss how interaction #etween the en2ironment an the genoty,e ,ro uces the ,henoty,e8 Stu ents often on<t reali'e that the ,henoty,e can change o2er time5 as when hair changes from #lon e in chil hoo 5 to ar9 in the a ult5 to white in the ol er ,erson5 e2en though the genes remain #asically the same8 Also consi er that there are some changes in the genoty,e @e8g85 ,ro ucing cancerA as a ,erson ages8 "8 S,eculate what an awareness of Men el<s fin ings might ha2e one for 3arwin<s ,resentation of his theory of e2olution8 $8 3escri#e the metho s of ,renatal iagnosis an the means of recogni'ing carriers so that cou,les at ris9 for ha2ing a homo'ygous recessi2e chil will 9now to test for a ,articular isor er8

Cri$i&al T!i",i"*
-%e#$i'" 10 Consi er the ,ro,osal that han e ness is inherite with right;han e ness ominant @'', 'rA an left han e ness recessi2e @rrA. Of all the ,ossi#le com#inations of ,arents an offs,ring #y ,henoty,e5 what com#ination of ,arents an offs,ring woul cast ou#t on this sim,le hy,othesisK A"#.er: Two left;han e ,arents @rrA ha2ing a right;han e chil @'r or ''A woul contra ict this ,ro,osal since there woul #e no way for the offs,ring to inherit the ominant gene8 4owe2er5 two right;han e ,arents @coul inclu e carriersA or one left;han e an one right; han e ,arent com#ination @9nown from ,henoty,e onlyA coul result in any com#ination of han e ness in offs,ring8 -%e#$i'" 20 Corn has 1. ,airs or 2. total chromosomes8 0f Men el chose corn instea of ,ea ,lants to con uct his first e/,eriments5 what is the ma/imum num#er of traits he coul ha2e ocumente in #ree ing e/,eriments in or er to esta#lish his law of segregation @each trait is etermine #y two factorsA an in e,en ent assortment @the factors assort in e,en ent of other factorsAK A"#.er: Only ten traits will segregate or sort in e,en ently in corn8 An ele2enth trait woul ha2e to #e on the same chromosome as a ,re2iously tallie trait an woul #e lin9e in ("

occurrence to the other trait8 0n ee 5 the fact that Men el use the ma/imum num#er of traits allowe #y the ,ea ,lant chromosome num#er has le some scientists to sus,ect that Men el e/,erimente with more traits an i not get the mathematical results he e/,ecte 8 -%e#$i'" 40 Malaria has not #een a serious health ,ro#lem in the southern Gnite States this century5 #ut it remains a serious isease in Africa to ay8 0f we e/amine 7ust the African American ,o,ulation escen e from Africans #rought to the Gnite States from the malaria regions of Africa5 how woul the ,ro,ortion of sic9le;cell genes in these gene ,ools com,areK :hat woul occur to these gene fre>uencies o2er time if there was a resurgence of malaria in the Gnite StatesK A"#.er: Because the hetero'ygous carriers of the sic9le;cell trait are somewhat ,rotecte from malaria5 the gene woul #e more ,re2alent in Africa than in the Gnite States where this con2eys no a 2antage an is mo erately isa 2antageous8 0f5 howe2er5 malaria returne to the southern Gnite States at a le2el that eliminate in i2i uals in s,ite of the hygiene5 housing an the health care system5 the fre>uency of the sic9le;cell gene woul increase in the carriers who are more li9ely to sur2i2e than the normal in i2i uals8

Te&!"'l'*y 1r'+ M&Gra.;Hill

)lease consult your C'%r#e I"$e*ra$i'" G%ide for technology correlations for this cha,ter8

($

CHAPTER

12

MOLECULAR BIOLGOY OF THE GENE

This cha,ter ,resents a com,rehensi2e stu y of the chemistry5 the structure5 an the cellular functions of 36A5 with consi era#le attention gi2en to the history of 36A research8 The mechanism of semiconser2ati2e re,lication in #oth ,ro9aryotes an eu9aryotes is iscusse in e,thD etaile illustrations accom,any the te/tual material8 A #rief outline of the re,air of re,lication errors is ,resente 8 The history of the research recogni'ing an ela#orating gene action is iscusse 8 The ,rocesses of transcri,tion an translation are escri#e in etail5 an are accom,anie with etaile gra,hics8 The chemical nature of the +6As an their roles in gene e/,ression are outline 8

C!a)$er O%$li"e
1201 T!e Ge"e$i& Ma$erial
&arly researchers 9new that the genetic material must #e% a8 a#le to store information use to control #oth the e2elo,ment an the meta#olic acti2ities of cellsD #8 sta#le so it can be replicate" accurately uring cell i2ision an #e transmitte for generationsD an 5 c8 a#le to un"ergo mutations ,ro2i ing the genetic 2aria#ility re>uire for e2olution8 A8 Transformation of Bacteria 18 Bacteriologist !re eric9 1riffith @1-31A e/,erimente with Streptococcus pneumoniae @a ,neumococcus that causes ,neumonia in mammalsA8 28 Mice were in7ecte with two strains of ,neumococcus% an enca,sulate @SA strain an a non; enca,sulate @+A strain8 a8 The S strain is 2irulent @the mice ie AD it has a mucous ca,sule an forms BshinyC colonies8 #8 The + strain is not 2irulent @the mice li2e AD it has no ca,sule an forms B ullC colonies8 38 0n an effort to etermine if the ca,sule alone was res,onsi#le for the 2irulence of the S strain5 he in7ecte mice with heat;9ille S strain #acteriaD the mice li2e 8 48 !inally5 he in7ecte mice with a mi/ture of heat;9ille S strain an li2e + strain #acteria8 a8 The mice ie D li2ing S strain ,neumococcus were reco2ere from their #o ies8 #8 1riffith conclu e that some su#stance necessary for synthesis of the ca,sule ?an therefore for 2irulence?must ,ass from ea S strain #acteria to li2ing + strain #acteria so the + strain were transforme"8 c8 This change in ,henoty,e of the + strain must #e ue to a change in the #acterial genoty,e5 suggesting that the transforming su#stance ,asse from S strain to + strain8 B8 36A% The Transforming Su#stance 18 Oswal A2ery et al8 @1-44A re,orte that the transforming su#stance was 36A8 28 0n the early twentieth century5 it was shown that nucleic aci s contain four ty,es of "%&le'$ide#0 a8 36A was com,ose of re,eating units5 each of which always ha 7ust one of each of four ifferent nucleoti es @a nitrogenous #ase5 a ,hos,hate5 an a ,entoseA8 #8 0n this mo el5 36A coul not 2ary #etween s,ecies an therefore coul not #e the genetic materialD therefore some other ,rotein com,onent was e/,ecte to #e the genetic material8 38 )urifie 36A is ca,a#le of #ringing a#out the transformation8 &2i ence% a8 36A from S strain ,neumococcus causes + strain #acteria to #e transforme 8 #8 3igestion of the transforming su#stance with en'yme that igests 36A ,re2ents transformation8 c8 The molecular weight of the transforming su#stance is great enough for some genetic 2aria#ility8 8 &n'ymes that egra e ,roteins cannot ,re2ent transformation5 nor can en'ymes that igest +6A8 48 A2ery<s e/,erimental results emonstrate 36A is genetic material an 36A controls #iosynthetic ,ro,erties of a cell8 18

((

C8 Transformation of Organisms To ay 18 Transformation e/,eriments to ay are im,ortant es,ecially in #iotechnology la#s8 28 Transformation of organisms are #eing use in commercial ,ro ucts8 38 0n or er to illustrate that transferring genes was ,ossi#le from one organism to another5 scientists use a green fluorescent ,rotein from 7ellyfish an transferre it to other organisms8 The result was that these organisms glowe in the ar98 48 Mammalian genes ha2e the a#ility to function in other s,ecies% #acteria5 in2erte#rates5 ,lants8

38

The Structure of 36A 18 &rwin Chargaff @1-4.sA analy'e the #ase content of 36A8
28 0t was 9nown 36A containe four ifferent nucleoti es% a8 two with purine #ases5 ade"i"e 8A9 an *%a"i"e 8G9@ a purine is a ty,e of nitrogen;containing #ase ha2ing a ou#le;ring structure8 #8 two with pyrimi"ine #ases5 $!y+i"e 8T9 an cytosine 8C9@ a pyrimi"ine is a ty,e of nitrogen; containing #ase ha2ing a single;ring structure8 +esults% 36A oes ha2e the #ariability necessary for the genetic material8 !or a s,ecies5 36A has the constancy re>uire of genetic material8 This constancy is gi2en in C!ar*a11L# r%le#: a8 /he amount of A, /, *, an" 0 in DNA #aries from species to species. #8 In each species, the amount of A 7 / an" the amount of * 7 0 +A 8* 7 / 80). The tetranucleoti e hy,othesis @,ro,osing 36A was re,eating units of one of four #asesA was is,ro2e % each s,ecies has its own constant #ase com,osition8 The 2aria#ility is in #ase se>uences is staggeringD a human chromosome contains a#out 14. million #ase ,airs8 Since any of the four ,ossi#le nucleoti es can #e ,resent at each nucleoti e ,osition5 the total num#er of ,ossi#le nucleoti e se>uences is 414. / 1.$ P 414.5...5...8 +osalin !ran9lin ,ro uce Z;ray iffraction ,hotogra,hs8 !ran9lin<s wor9 ,ro2i e e2i ence that 36A ha the following features% a8 36A is a heli/8 #8 Some ,ortion of the heli/ is re,eate 8 American Hames :atson 7oine with !rancis 48 C8 Cric9 in &nglan to wor9 on the structure of 36A8 :atson an Cric9 recei2e the 6o#el )ri'e in 1-$2 for their mo el of 36A8 Gsing information generate #y Chargaff an !ran9lin5 :atson an Cric9 constructe a mo el of 36A as a d'%ble !eli6 with sugar;,hos,hate grou,s on the outsi e5 an ,aire #ases on the insi e8 Their mo el was consistent with #oth Chargaff<s rules an !ran9lin<s Z;ray iffraction stu ies8 C'+)le+e"$ary ba#e )airi"* is the ,aire relationshi, #etween ,urines an ,yrimi ines in 36A% A is hy rogen;#on e to T an 1 is hy rogen;#on e to C8

38 48 "8 $8 (8 *8 -8 1.8 118 128 138 148 1"8

1202 Re)li&a$i'" '1 NA

36A re,lication is the ,rocess of co,ying a 36A molecule8 +e,lication is #e+i&'"#erva$ive5 with each stran of the original ou#le heli/ @parental moleculeA ser2ing as a $e+)la$e @mol or mo elA for a new stran in a "aughter molecule8 This ,rocess consists of% a8 U".i"di"*: ol stran s of the ,arent 36A molecule are unwoun as wea9 hy rogen #on s #etween the ,aire #ases are Bun'i,,e C an #ro9en #y the en'yme helicase. #8 C'+)le+e"$ary ba#e )airi"*: free nucleoti es ,resent in the nucleus #in with com,lementary #ases on un'i,,e ,ortions of the two stran s of 36AD this ,rocess is cataly'e #y DNA polymerase8 c8 E'i"i"*: com,lementary nucleoti es #on to each other to form new stran sD each aughter 36A molecule contains an ol stran an a new stran D this ,rocess is also cataly'e #y 36A ,olymerase8 A8 As,ects of 36A +e,lication @Science Focus #o/A 18 !or com,lementary #ase ,airing to occur5 the 36A stran s nee to #e anti,arallel5 as isco2ere #y :atson an Cric98 28 One stran of 36A is "< at the to, an the other stran is 3< at the to, of the stran 8 38 3uring re,lication the 36A ,olymerase can only 7oin to the free 3< en of the ,re2ious nucleoti e8 48 36A ,olymerase cannot start the synthesis of a 36A chain5 so an +6A ,olymerase lays out an 'NA primer that is com,lementary to the re,licate stran 8 "8 6ow the 36A ,olymerase can 7oin the 36A nucleoti es to the 3< en of the new stran 8 $8 The helicase en'yme unwin s the 36A an one stran @calle the lea"ing new stran"A can #e co,ie in the 18

(*

irection of the re,lication for98 The other stran of 36A is co,ie in the irection away from the for95 an re,lication #egins again8 a8 This new lagging stran is iscontinuous an each segment is calle an 6 a-a i fragment5 after the scientist who isco2ere them8 *8 +e,lication is only com,lete when +6A ,rimers are remo2e 8 -8 3uring re,lication5 36A molecules gets smaller an smaller8 1.8 The en of eu9aryotic 36A molecules ha2e nucleoti e se>uences calle teleromers. a8 Teleromeres on<t co e for ,roteins8 They are re,eats of short nucleoti e se>uences @i8e85 TTA111A8 118 6ormal mammalian cells i2i e a,,ro/imately ". times an then sto,8 4owe2er in cancer cells the telomerase can #e turne on an cancer cells then i2i e without limit8 B8 )ro9aryotic Versus &u9aryotic +e,lication 18 )ro9aryotic 36A +e,lication a8 Bacteria ha2e a single loo, of 36A that must re,licate #efore the cell i2i es8 #8 +e,lication in ,ro9aryotes may #e #i irectional from one ,oint of origin or in only one irection8 c8 +e,lication only ,rocee s in one irection5 from "Y to 3Y8 8 +e,lication #egins at a s,ecial site on a #acterial chromosome5 calle the origin of replication8 e8 Bacterial cells can com,lete 36A re,lication in 4. minutesD eu9aryotes ta9e hours8 28 &u9aryotic 36A +e,lication a8 +e,lication in eu9aryotes starts at many ,oints of origin an s,rea s with many re,lication #u##les?,laces where the 36A stran s are se,arating an re,lication is occurring8 #8 Re)li&a$i'" 1'r,# are the V;sha,e en s of the re,lication #u##lesD the sites of 36A re,lication8 c8 &u9aryotes re,licate their 36A at a slower rate?".. to "5... #ase ,airs ,er minute8 8 &u9aryotes ta9e hours to com,lete 36A re,lication8 C8 Accuracy of +e,lication 18 A mismatche nucleoti e may occur once ,er 1..5... #ase ,airs5 causing a ,ause in re,lication8 28 Pr''1readi"* is the remo2al of a mismatche nucleoti eD NA re)air e"5y+e# ,erform this ,roofrea ing function an re uce the error rate to one ,er #illion #ase ,airs8 1204 T!e Ge"e$i& C'de '1 Li1e 18 Sir Archi#al 1arro @early 1-..sA intro uce the ,hrase inborn error of metabolism. a8 1arro ,ro,ose that inherite efects coul #e cause #y the lac9 of a ,articular en'yme8 #8 Enowing that en'ymes are ,roteins5 1arro suggeste a lin9 #etween genes an ,roteins8 28 Linus )auling an 4ar2ey 0tano @1-4-A com,are hemoglo#in in re #loo cells of ,ersons with sic9le;cell isease an normal in i2i uals8 a8 They isco2ere that the chemical ,ro,erties of a ,rotein chain of sic9le;cell hemoglo#in iffere from that of normal hemoglo#in8 #8 )auling an 0tano formulate the one gene9one polypepti"e hypothesis: each gene s,ecifies one ,oly,e,ti e of a ,rotein5 a molecule that may contain one or more ifferent ,oly,e,ti es8 A8 +6A Carries the 0nformation 18 Li9e 36A5 +6A is a ,olymer of nucleoti es8 28 Gnli9e 36A5 +6A is single;stran e 5 contains the sugar ri#ose5 an the #ase uracil instea of thymine @in a ition to cytosine5 guanine5 an a enineA8 38 There are three ma7or classes of +6A8 a8 Me##e"*er RNA @+RNAA ta9es a message from 36A in the nucleus to ri#osomes in the cyto,lasm8 #8 Rib'#'+al RNA @rRNAA an ,roteins ma9e u, ri#osomes where ,roteins are synthesi'e 8 c8 Tra"#1er RNA @$RNAA transfers a ,articular amino aci to a ri#osome8 B8 The 1enetic Co e 18 36A un ergoes $ra"#&ri)$i'" to m+6A5 which is $ra"#la$ed to a ,rotein8 28 36A is a tem,late for +6A formation uring transcri,tion8 38 Transcri,tion is the first ste, in gene e/,ressionD it is the ,rocess where#y a 36A stran ser2es as a tem,late for the formation of m+6A8 48 3uring translation5 an m+6A transcri,t irects the se>uence of amino aci s in a ,oly,e,ti e8 "8 The *e"e$i& &'de is a triplet co"e5 com,rise of three;#ase co e wor s @e8g85 AG1A8 $8 A &'d'" consists of 3 nucleoti e #ases of 36A8 (8 !our nucleoti es #ase on 3;unit co ons allows u, to $4 ifferent amino aci s to the s,ecifie 8 *8 !in ing the 1enetic Co e (8

(-

Marshall 6iren#erg an H8 4einrich Matthei @1-$1A foun that an en'yme that coul #e use to construct synthetic +6A in a cell;free systemD they showe the co on GGG co e for ,henylalanine8 #8 By translating 7ust three nucleoti es at a time5 they assigne an amino aci to each of the +6A co ons5 an isco2ere im,ortant ,ro,erties of the genetic co e8 c8 The co e is de*e"era$e% there are $4 tri,lets to co e for 2. naturally occurring amino aci sD this ,rotects against ,otentially harmful mutations8 8 The genetic co e is %"a+bi*%'%#@ each tri,let co on s,ecifies one an only one amino aci 8 e8 The co e has #$ar$ a"d #$') #i*"al#: there are one start co on an three sto, co ons8 -8 The Co e 0s Gni2ersal a8 The few e/ce,tions to uni2ersality of the genetic co e suggest the co e ates #ac9 to the 2ery first organisms an that all organisms are relate 8 #8 Once the co e was esta#lishe 5 changes woul #e isru,ti2e8 1207 Fir#$ S$e): Tra"#&ri)$i'" A8 Messenger +6A 0s !orme 18 A segment of the 36A heli/ unwin s an un'i,s8 28 Transcri,tion #egins when RNA )'ly+era#e attaches to a )r'+'$er on 36A8 A ,romoter is a region of 36A which efines the start of the gene5 the irection of transcri,tion5 an the stran to #e transcri#e 8 38 As +6A ,olymerase @an en'yme that s,ee s formation of +6A from a 36A tem,lateA mo2es along the template stran of the 36A5 com,lementary +6A nucleoti es are ,aire with 36A nucleoti es of the co"ing stran"8 The stran of 36A not #eing transcri#e is calle the nonco"ing stran"8 48 +6A ,olymerase a s nucleoti es to the 3Y;en of the ,olymer un er construction8 Thus5 +6A synthesis is in the "<;to;3< irection8 "8 The +6AF36A association is not as sta#le as the 36A ou#le heli/D therefore5 only the newest ,ortion of the +6A molecule associate with +6A ,olymerase is #oun to 36AD the rest angles off to the si e8 $8 &longation of m+6A continues until +6A ,olymerase comes to a stop se%uence8 (8 The sto, se>uence causes +6A ,olymerase to sto, transcri#ing 36A an to release the m+6A transcri,t8 *8 Many +6A ,olymerase molecules wor9 to ,ro uce m+6A from the same 36A region at the same time8 -8 Cells ,ro uce thousan s of co,ies of the same m+6A molecule an many co,ies of the same ,rotein in a shorter ,erio of time than if a single co,y of +6A were use to irect ,rotein synthesis8 B8 +6A Molecules Are )rocesse 18 6ewly forme ,re;m+6A transcri,t is ,rocesse #efore lea2ing the nucleus8 28 Pre;+RNA $ra"#&ri)$ is the imme iate ,ro uct of transcri,tionD it contains e!ons an introns8 38 The en s of the m+6A molecule are altere % a cap is ,ut on the "Y en an a poly.A tail is ,ut on the 3Y en 8 a8 The Bca,C is a mo ifie guanine @1A where a ri#osome attaches to #egin translation8 #8 The B,oly;A tailC consists of a 1".=2.. a enine @AA nucleoti e chain that facilitates trans,ort of m+6A out of the nucleus an inhi#its en'ymatic egra ation of m+6A8 48 )ortions of the ,rimary m+6A transcri,t5 calle introns5 are remo2e 8 a8 An e6'" is a ,ortion of the 36A co e in the ,rimary m+6A transcri,t e2entually e/,resse in the final ,oly,e,ti e ,ro uct8 #8 An i"$r'" is a non;co ing segment of 36A remo2e #y spliceosomes #efore the m+6A lea2es the nucleus8 "8 Rib'5y+e# are +6As with an en'ymatic function restricte to remo2ing introns from themsel2es8 a8 +6A coul ha2e ser2e as #oth genetic material an as the first en'ymes in early life forms8 $8 S)li&e'#'+e# are com,le/es that contain se2eral 9in s of ri#onucleo,roteins8 a8 S,liceosomes cut the ,rimary m+6A transcri,t an then re7oin a 7acent e/ons8 (8 Smaller nucleolar +6A @sno+6AA is ,resent in the nucleolus5 to assist in the ,rocessing of r+6A an t+6A molecules8 C8 !unction of 0ntrons 18 0ntrons gi2e a cell the a#ility to eci e which e/ons will go in a ,articular m+6A8 28 m+6A o not ha2e all of the ,ossi#le e/ons a2aila#le from a 36A se>uence8 0n one m+6A what is an

a8

*.

e/on coul #e an intron in another m+6A8 This ,rocess is terme alternati#e m'NA splicing. Some introns gi2e rise to micro+6As @mi+6AA8 mi+6A regulate m+6A translation #y #on ing with m+6A through com,lementary #ase ,airing an ,re2enting translation from occurring8 48 &/on shuffling occurs when introns encourage crossing o2er uring meiosis8 120? Se&'"d S$e): Tra"#la$i'" 18 Translation ta9es ,lace in the cyto,lasm of eu9aryotic cells8 28 Translation is the secon ste, #y which gene e/,ression lea s to ,rotein synthesis8 38 One language @nucleic aci sA is translate into another language @,roteinA8 A8 The +ole of Transfer +6A 18 Tra"#1er RNA 8$RNA9 molecules transfer amino aci s to the ri#osomes8 28 The t+6A is a single;stran e ri#onucleic aci that ou#les #ac9 on itself to create regions where com,lementary #ases are hy rogen;#on e to one another8 38 The amino aci #in s to the 3< en D the o,,osite en of the molecule contains an a"$i&'d'" that #in s to the m+6A co on in a com,lementary fashion8 48 There is at least one t+6A molecule for each of the 2. amino aci s foun in ,roteins8 "8 There are fewer t+6As than co ons #ecause some t+6As ,air with more than one co onD if an antico on contains a G in the thir ,osition5 it will ,air with either an A or 1?this is calle the .'bble !y)'$!e#i#0 $8 The $RNA #y"$!e$a#e# are amino aci ;acti2ating en'ymes that recogni'e which amino aci shoul 7oin which t+6A molecule5 an co2alently 7oins them8 This re>uires AT)8 (8 An amino aci"9t'NA comple! forms5 which then tra2els to a ri#osome to BtransferC its amino aci uring ,rotein synthesis8 B8 The +ole of +i#osomal +6A 18 +i#osomal +6A @r+6AA is ,ro uce from a 36A tem,late in the nucleolus of the nucleus8 28 The r+6A is ,ac9age with a 2ariety of ,roteins into ri#osomal su#units5 one larger than the other8 38 Su#units mo2e se,arately through nuclear en2elo,e ,ores into the cyto,lasm where they com#ine when translation #egins8 48 +i#osomes can float free in cytosol or attach to en o,lasmic reticulum8 "8 )ro9aryotic cells contain a#out 1.5... ri#osomesD eu9aryotic cells contain many times more8 $8 +i#osomes ha2e a #in ing site for m+6A an #in ing sites for two t+6A molecules8 (8 They facilitate com,lementary #ase ,airing #etween t+6A antico ons an m+6A co onsD r+6A acts as an en'yme @ribo-ymeA that 7oins amino aci s together #y means of a ,e,ti e #on 8 *8 A ri#osome mo2es own the m+6A molecule5 new t+6As arri2e5 the amino aci s 7oin5 an a ,oly,e,ti e forms8 -8 Translation terminates once the ,oly,e,ti e is forme D the ri#osome then issociates into its two su#units8 1.8 P'lyrib'#'+e# are clusters of se2eral ri#osomes synthesi'ing the same ,rotein8 118 To get from a ,oly,e,ti e to a function ,rotein re>uires correct #en ing an twistingD chaperone molecules assure that the final ,rotein e2elo,s the correct sha,e8 128 Some ,roteins contain more than one ,oly,e,ti eD they must #e 7oine to achie2e the final three; imensional sha,e8 C8 Translation +e>uires Three Ste,s 18 3uring translation5 m+6A co ons #ase;,air with t+6A antico ons carrying s,ecific amino aci s8 28 Co on or er etermines the or er of t+6A molecules an the se>uence of amino aci s in ,oly,e,ti es8 38 )rotein synthesis in2ol2es initiation5 elongation5 an termination8 48 &n'ymes are re>uire for all three ste,sD energy @AT)A is nee e for the first two ste,s8 "8 Chain 0nitiation a8 A small ri#osomal su#unit attaches to m+6A in the 2icinity of the start co"on @AG1A8 #8 !irst or initiator t+6A ,airs with this co onD then the large ri#osomal su#unit 7oins to the small su#unit8 c8 &ach ri#osome contains three #in ing sites% the P @for ,e,ti eA #i$e3 the A @for amino aci A #i$e3 an the E @for e/itA #i$e0 8 The initiator t+6A #in s to the ) site although it carries one amino aci 5 methionine8 e8 The A site is for the ne/t t+6A carrying the ne/t amino aci 8 f8 The & site is to ischarge t+6As from the ri#osome8 g8 0nitiation factor ,roteins are re>uire to #ring together the necessary translation com,onents% the 38

*1

small ri#osomal su#unit5 m+6A5 initiator t+6A5 an the large ri#osomal su#unit8 Chain &longation a8 The t+6A with attache ,oly,e,ti e is at the ) siteD a t+6A;amino aci com,le/ arri2es at the A site8 #8 )roteins calle elongation factors facilitate com,lementary #ase ,airing #etween the t+6A antico on an the m+6A co on8 c8 The ,oly,e,ti e is transferre an attache #y a ,e,ti e #on to the newly arri2e amino aci in the A site8 8 This reaction is cataly'e #y a ribo-yme5 which is ,art of the larger su#unit8 e8 The t+6A molecule in the ) site is now em,ty8 f8 Tra"#l'&a$i'" occurs with m+6A5 along with ,e,ti e;#earing t+6A5 mo2ing to the ) site an the s,ent t+6A mo2es from the ) site to the & site an e/its the ri#osome8 g8 As the ri#osome mo2es forwar three nucleoti es5 there is a new co on now locate at the em,ty A site8 h8 The com,lete cycle is ra,i ly re,eate 5 a#out 1" times ,er secon in &scherichia coli8 i8 The ri#osomes will reach a sto, co on5 termination will occur5 an the ,e,ti e will #e release 8 (8 Chain Termination a8 Ter+i"a$i'" of ,oly,e,ti e synthesis occurs at a sto, co on that oes not co e for amino aci 8 #8 The ,oly,e,ti e is en'ymatically clea2e from the last t+6A #y a release factor8 c8 The t+6A an ,oly,e,ti e lea2e the ri#osome5 which issociates into its two su#units8 8 Pr'$e'+i&# is a new fiel o# #iology that aims to un erstan ,rotein structures5 an the functions of meta#olic ,athways8 38 )rotein Synthesis an the &u9aryotic Cell 18 The first few amino aci s of a ,oly,e,ti e act as a signal ,e,ti e that in icates where the ,oly,e,ti e #elongs in the cell or if it is to #e secrete #y the cell8 28 After the ,oly,e,ti e enters the lumen of the &+5 it is fol e an further ,rocesse #y a ition of sugars5 ,hos,hates5 or li,i s8 38 Trans,ort 2esicles carry the ,roteins #etween organelles an to the ,lasma mem#rane8 120B S$r%&$%re '1 E%,ary'$i& C!r'+'#'+e# a"d Ge"e# 18 The 36A is woun aroun a core of eight ,rotein molecules @B#ea s on a stringCAD the ,roteins are calle !i#$'"e# an each B#ea C is calle a "%&le'#'+e0 a8 4istones ,lay a structural role in chromosome structure an ,ac9age the large 36A into the small nucleus8 #8 The nucleosomes also contri#ute to the shortening of 36A #y fol ing it into a B'ig'agC structure8 28 3uring inter,hase5 some chromatin is highly com,act5 ar9ly staine 5 an genetically inacti2e !e$er'&!r'+a$i"0 38 The rest is iffuse5 lightly colore e%&!r'+a$i" thought to #e genetically acti2e8 a8 E%&!r'+a$i" acti2ity is relate to the e/tent nucleosomes are coile an con ense 8 $8

#8 A nucleosome is a #ea ;li9e unit ma e of a segment of 36A woun aroun a com,le/ of histone ,roteins8

Le&$%re E"ri&!+e"$ Idea#

E6)erie"&e Ba#e: The names B:atson an Cric9C may #e ,art of our cultural recognition 2oca#ulary #ut many stu ents will #e unaware of the re2olution they #egan in #iology research8 Visuals of stringy stran s of 36A may hel, stu ents 2isuali'e the su#stance8 Gn erstan ing of the three; imensional molecular structure of ,urines an ,yrimi ines will #e #eyon most stu ents without use of ,hysical mo els8 18 +ea ,assages from #iogra,hies on the isco2ery of the structure of 36A8 There are e/cellent #iogra,hies out on +osalin !ran9lin5 Maurice :il9ins5 et al85 in a ition to :atson an Cric98 Linus )auling was also wor9ing on a mo el with three stran s8 +ea ings from this history may hel, stu ents learn of the ri2alry an ar#itrary nature of many *2

ecisions ma e in the ,rocess of oing science8 28 )ose this ,ara o/% the correct re,lication of 36A is of such im,ortance that there are ifferent means of assuring it5 yet it is im,ortant that the co,ying ,rocess not always #e e/act so there are mutations an e2olution8 38 &m,hasi'e how the structure of the 36A molecule is relate to its ifferent functions of storing information5 re,licating itself5 an un ergoing mutation8 !ocus on the #ases in the center5 the hy rogen #on ing #etween them5 an on the com,lementary nature of the #ase ,airing8 48 &m,hasi'e how the stu y of genetics has e/,an e to inclu e the science of #iochemistry% genetic ,rocesses5 the mechanism of 36A re,lication5 the transfer of information to a usa#le form in #uil ing ,roteins5 an the use of ,roteins @generally as en'ymesA to ,ro uce the ,henoty,e of the in i2i ual8 "8 &/,lain how the lin9 #etween the 36A nucleoti e se>uence an the amino aci se>uence of ,roteins has le to the current 9nowle ge of what ha,,ens in a cell an how to Bfi/ itC through genetic engineering8 This ,re,ares stu ents for the material in the ne/t few cha,ters8 $8 !ollow the ,rogression of scientific un erstan ing of this material from the one gene;one en'yme hy,othesis to the one gene=one ,oly,e,ti e hy,othesis5 an ta9e the ne/t ste, to the one gene;one gene ,ro uct hy,othesis that woul inclu e t+6A an r+6A as gene ,ro ucts8 These5 of course5 o not fit the one gene;one ,oly,e,ti e hy,othesis5 since they o not in2ol2e ,oly,e,ti es #ut yet are cellular structures efine #y 36A gene se>uences8 (8 The similarity of the wor s Btranscri,tionC an BtranslationC often confuse stu ents?much li9e centriole;centrosome5 chromosome;chromati 5 etc8 0t o#2iously is critical that stu ents can ifferentiate these ,rocesses #efore mo2ing on in their stu ies8 *8 +ecent wor9 with ,rion iseases @ma cow isease5 scra,ie5 9uru5 etc8A shows the transmission of an infectious agent that oes not contain 36A or +6A @as o 2iruses5 eu9aryotic ,arasites5 or #acteriaA8 This strange situation met with early criticism from the #iology community #ecause it a2oi s the central ogma of 36A R +6A R ,rotein for the ,romulgation of infectious agents8 4owe2er5 su#se>uent wor9 a,,ears to confirm that one ,rotein @,rionA can alter the tertiary sha,e of an a 7acent ,rotein5 this e2entually casca ing into massi2e ,rotein amage5 without any nucleic aci in2ol2e 8 6ote that this oes not o2erthrow the central ogma as much as sim,ly a e/ce,tions that can only #e un erstoo when o,erating from the central ogma5 an that nature has tremen ous com,le/ity8 -8 The isco2ery that the human genome is su#stantially smaller than ,re icte means that there may #e an a,,arent shortage of 36A to account for all the i2ersity in ,roteins8 This may in icate that the role of s,liceosomes is far greater than ,re2iously 9nown8 0f one se>uence of 36A can #e rea in ifferent ways to ,ro uce many 2arie ,ro ucts5 the efinition of a gene may also #ecome far more com,licate 8

Cri$i&al T!i",i"*
-%e#$i'" 10 com,onentsK 0n what human cells woul you fin the highest concentration of 36A com,are with other cell

*3

A"#.er% S,erm cells are mostly 36A8 Although they are ha,loi 5 they are re uce own to the 36A ,lus an acrosome ti, ,lus mitochon ria an tail8 Other cells ha2e su#stantial cyto,lasmic ,ortions8 Some early research with 36A was con ucte with fish s,erm8

-%e#$i'" 20 As >uart' crystals Bgrow5C new silicon io/i e molecules are aligne alongsi e the ,re2ious surfaces8 Li9ewise5 as aluminum silicates an other com,onents of clay are issol2e an ,reci,itate out5 they too align with ,re2ious molecules5 e2en ,er,etuating crac9s an faults8 Technically5 these are self;re,licating molecular assem#lages an yet the >uart' or clay has not risen to #ecome Blife8C :hat feature@sA of 36A ma9es it ifferent from >uart' an clayK
A"#.er% 36A ser2es as a tem,late for the ,ro uction of more 36A an stores information that s,ecifies the se>uence of amino aci s in ,roteins8 :hile the correct re,lication of 36A is of such im,ortance that there are ifferent means of assuring it5 it is also im,ortant that the co,ying ,rocess not always #e e/act so there are mutations an e2olution8 \uart' an clay cannot store information for other molecules5 nor are they ro#ust enough to mutate an e2ol2e8 -%e#$i'" 40 4ow can a cell ,ro uce the largest amount of co e ,rotein ,ro uct in the shortest timeK

A"#.er: Cells can ,ro uce thousan s of co,ies from the same m+6A molecule an many co,ies of co e ,rotein in a shorter ,erio of time than if a single co,y of 36A were use for ,rotein synthesis8 -%e#$i'" 70 0f #acteria o not ha2e introns an we ha2e many5 what is the li9ely status of sim,ler eu9aryotesK

A"#.er% 0n2estigators ha2e foun that the sim,ler the eu9aryote5 the less li9ely that introns will #e ,resent8 :hile the role of introns is still #eing in2estigate @they may allow crossing o2er uring meiosis5 or introns may i2i e a gene into regions that can #e 7oine in ifferent com#inations for ifferent ,ro uctsA5 the a 2antage a,,arently accrues to a 2ance organisms8 -%e#$i'" ?0 :hy woul e2olution not #e a#le to select for BtwinsC for co ons @instea of Btri,letsCAD that is5 only two #ase ,airs woul co e for an amino aci K A"#.er% :ith any of four #ase ,airs in the first an secon ,ositions5 there are only 4 x 4 or 1$ ,ossi#le co ons an this is not enough to co e for 2. amino aci s ,lus sto, an start co ons8 -%e#$i'" B0 The final ,ro uct of gene acti2ity is a ,rotein8 But cells are ma e of many other molecules also5 inclu ing the ,hos,holi,i #ilayer mem#rane5 car#ohy rate; eri2e structures such as cellulose5 etc8 Also the recent ela#oration of the human genome has re2eale far fewer genes than the i2ersity of ,roteins in the human #o y cells8 4ow are these a result of gene acti2ityK A"#.er% 0n some cases5 such as the ,hos,holi,i mem#rane5 the cell structure grows #y accretion8 Other non; ,rotein structures may #e ,ro ucts of meta#olic synthesis ,ro2i e #y mainly ,rotein ,athways8 An one segment of 36A can #e rea in ifferent ways #y s,liceosomes?a conce,t e/ten e #eyon what is co2ere here?thus ,ro ucing more ,roteins than genes8 An some ,roteins can #e mis;fol e 5 as in ,rions in ma cow isease5 an result in ifferent meta#olic functions although they ,ossess the same amino aci se>uence8 These new ,aths of stu y o not o2erthrow the central ogma5 #ut o ma9e the ,rocess far more com,le/ an now ,ro2i e for e/cetions8

Te&!"'l'*y 1r'+ M&Gra.;Hill

)lease consult your C'%r#e I"$e*ra$i'" G%ide for technology correlations for this cha,ter8

*4

CHAPTER

14 REGULATION OF GENE ACTIVITY

A etaile history an current un erstan ing of o,eron research is followe #y a escri,tion of the 2arious le2els of control of gene e/,ression in eu9aryotic cells8 Various forms of genetic mutation?their causes5 effects5 an their conse>uences?are escri#e 8 A stu y of cancer as a failure in genetic control is ,resente 8 A Science Focus #o/ escri#es alternati2e m+6A s,licing in isease8

C!a)$er O%$li"e
1401 Pr',ary'$i& Re*%la$i'"
18 Bacteria o not re>uire the same en'ymes all the timeD they ,ro uce 7ust those nee e at the moment8

28 !rancois Haco# an Hac>ues Mono @1-$1A ,ro,ose the ')er'" mo el to e/,lain regulation of gene e/,ression in ,ro9aryotes8 a8 0n the o,eron mo el5 se2eral genes co e for an en'yme in the same meta#olic ,athway an are locate in a se>uence on a chromosomeD e/,ression of structural genes is controlle #y the same regulatory genes8 #8 An o,eron is a grou, of structural an regulatory genes that function as a single unitD it inclu es the following% 1A A re*%la$'r *e"e3 locate outsi e the o,eron5 co es for a re,ressor ,rotein molecule that controls whether the o,eron is acti2e or not8 2A A )r'+'$'r is the se>uence of 36A where +6A ,olymerase attaches when a gene is to #e transcri#e 8 3A An ')era$'r is a short se>uence of 36A where an acti2e re,ressor #in s5 ,re2enting +6A ,olymerase from attaching to the ,romotor?transcri,tion therefore oes not occur8 4A S$r%&$%ral *e"e# are one to se2eral genes co ing for en'ymes of a meta#olic ,athway that are transcri#e as a unit8 A8 The trp O,eron 18 Some o,erons in &. coli usually e/ist in the BonC rather than the BoffC con ition8 28 &. coli ,ro uces fi2e en'ymes as ,art of the ana#olic ,athway to synthesi'e the amino aci try,to,han8 38 0f try,to,han is alrea y ,resent in me ium5 these en'ymes are not nee e an the o,eron is turne off8 a8 The regulator co es for a re,ressor that usually is una#le to attach to the o,erator8 #8 The re,ressor has a #in ing site for try,to,han @if try,to,han is ,resent5 it #in s to the re,ressorA8 c8 This changes the sha,e of the re,ressor that now #in s to the o,erator8 48 The entire unit is calle a re)re##ible ')er'"@ try,to,han is the &'re)re##'r0 "8 +e,ressi#le o,erons are in2ol2e in ana#olic ,athways that synthesi'e su#stances nee e #y cells8 B8 The lac O,eron 18 0f &. coli is enie glucose an gi2en lactose instea 5 it ma9es three en'ymes to meta#oli'e the lactose8 28 These three en'ymes are enco e #y three genes8 *"

a8 One gene co es for beta.galactosi"ase that #rea9s lactose to glucose an galactose8 #8 A secon gene co es for a permease that facilitates entry of lactose into the cell8 c8 A thir gene co es for en'yme transacetylase5 which is an accessory in lactose meta#olism8 38 The three genes are a 7acent on a chromosome an un er control of one ,romoter an one o,erator8 48 The regulator gene co es for a lac o,eron re,ressor ,rotein that #in s to the o,erator an ,re2ents transcri,tion of the three genes8 "8 :hen &. coli is switche to me ium containing an allolactose5 this lactose #in s to the re,ressor an the re,ressor un ergoes a change in sha,e that ,re2ents it from #in ing to the o,erator8 $8 Because the re,ressor is una#le to #in to the o,erator5 the ,romoter is a#le to #in to +6A ,olymerase5 which carries out transcri,tion an ,ro uces the three en'ymes8 (8 An i"d%&er is any su#stance @lactose in the case of the lac o,eronA that can #in to a ,articular re,ressor ,rotein5 ,re2enting the re,ressor from #in ing to a ,articular o,eratorD conse>uently5 +6A ,olymerase can #in to the ,romoter an transcri#e the structural genes8 C8 !urther Control of the lac O,eron 18 Since &. coli ,refers to #rea9 own glucose5 how oes &. coli 9now how to turn on when glucose is a#sentK 28 :hen glucose is a#sent5 cyclic AM) @cAM)A accumulatesD cAM) has only one ,hos,hate grou, an attaches to ri#ose at two locations8 a8 CA) is a cata#olite acti2ator ,rotein @CA)A in the cyto,lasm8 #8 :hen cAM) #in s to CA)5 the com,le/ attaches to a CA) #in ing site ne/t to the lac ,romoter8 c8 :hen CA) #in s to 36A5 36A #en s5 e/,osing the ,romoter to +6A ,olymerase8 8 Only then oes +6A ,olymerase #in to the ,romoterD this allows e/,ression of the lac o,eron structural genes8 38 :hen glucose is ,resent5 there is little cAM) in the cell8 a8 CA) is inacti2e an the lactose o,eron oes not function ma/imally8 #8 CA) affects other o,erons when glucose is a#sent8 c8 This encourages meta#olism of lactose an ,ro2i es a #ac9u, system for when glucose is a#sent8 48 Acti2e re,ressors shut own the acti2ity of an o,eron?this is negati2e control8 "8 CA) is an e/am,le of ,ositi2e controlD when the molecule is acti2e5 it ,romotes the acti2ity of the o,eron8 $8 Gse of #oth ,ositi2e an negati2e controls allows the cell to fine;tune control of its meta#olism8 (8 0f #oth glucose an lactose are ,resent5 the cell ,referentially meta#oli'es glucose8 1402 E%,ary'$i& Re*%la$i'" 18 3ifferent cells in the human #o y turn on ifferent genes that co e for ifferent ,rotein ,ro ucts8 28 &u9aryotes ha2e four le2els of regulatory mechanisms to control gene e/,ressionD two in the nucleus an two in the cyto,lasm8 38 There are se2eral le2els of control that can mo ify the amount of gene ,ro uct8 *$

a8 C!r'+a$i" #$r%&$%re: if genes are not accessi#le to +6A ,olymerase5 they cannot #e transcri#e 8 1A Chromatin structure is ,art of e)i*e"e$i& i"!eri$a"&e3 the transmission of genetic information outsi e the co ing se>uences of a gene8 #8 Tra"#&ri)$i'"al &'"$r'l in the nucleus etermines which structural genes are transcri#e an the rate of transcri,tionD it inclu es transcri,tion factors initiating transcri,tion an trans,osons @36A se>uences that mo2e #etween chromosomes an shut own genesA8 c8 P'#$$ra"#&ri)$i'"al &'"$r'l occurs in the nucleus after 36A is transcri#e an ,reliminary m+6A forms8 1A This may in2ol2e ifferential ,rocessing of m+6A #efore it lea2es the nucleus8 2A The s,ee that mature m+6A lea2es nucleus affects the ultimate amount of gene ,ro uct8 8 Tra"#la$i'"al &'"$r'l occurs in cyto,lasm after m+6A lea2es the nucleus #ut #efore there is a ,rotein ,ro uct8 1A The life e/,ectancy of m+6A molecules can 2ary5 as well as their a#ility to #in ri#osomes8 2A Some m+6As may nee a itional changes #efore they are translate at all8 e8 P'#$$ra"#la$i'"al &'"$r'l occurs in the cyto,lasm after ,rotein synthesis8 1A )oly,e,ti e ,ro ucts may un ergo a itional changes #efore they are #iologically functional8 2A A functional en'yme is su#7ect to fee #ac9 controlD #in ing of an en ,ro uct can change the sha,e of an en'yme so it no longer carries out its reaction8 A8 Chromatin Structure 48 &u9aryotic 36A is in the form of &!r'+a$i"3 a stringy material associate with ,roteins8 "8 3uring inter,hase5 some chromatin is highly com,act5 ar9ly staine 5 an genetically inacti2e !e$er'&!r'+a$i"8 $8 Barr b'die# are an e/am,le of heterochromatin8 a8 Since human males ha2e only one Z chromosome5 it might #e su,,ose that they ,ro uce half the gene ,ro uct of a female with two Z chromosomes8 #8 4owe2er5 females ha2e in each nucleate cell a ar9ly staining Barr b'dy3 a con ense 5 inacti2e Z chromosome8 c8 :hich Z chromosome is con ense in each cell is etermine #y chance8 8 Thus5 the #o y of hetero'ygous females is BmosaicCD half her cells e/,ress alleles on one Z chromosome an half of her cells e/,ress the alleles on the other Z chromosome8 e8 !emale gona s o not show Barr #o iesD #oth Z chromosomes are nee e in e2elo,ment8 f8 Only one acti2e Z chromosome in the female 'ygote means that lower Z;co e gene ,ro ucts are normal8 g8 Other e/am,les of this mosaic effect inclu e% ocular al#inism5 3uchenne muscular ystro,hy5 an female calico cat coat color8 (8 E%&!r'+a$i" acti2ity is relate to the e/tent nucleosomes are coile an con ense 8 c8 A nucleosome is a #ea ;li9e unit ma e of a segment of 36A woun aroun a com,le/ of histone ,roteins8 *(

8 :hen 36A is transcri#e 5 acti2ators calle remo"eling proteins are a#le to ,ush asi e the histone ,roteins so transcri,tion can #egin8 *8 E)i*e"e$i& i"!eri$a"&e is the term use to escri#e inheritance ,atterns that o not e,en on the genes themsel2es8 a8 4istones ,roteins ha2e ifferent chemical mo ifications in heterochromatin an euchromatin8 #8 Methylation of 36A accounts for a ,henomenon calle genomic imprinting% gene e/,ression is e,en ent on whether the chromosome carrying the gene is inherite from the mother or the father8 c8 &,igenetic inheritance e/,lains unusual inheritance ,atterns5 an may ha2e im,lications in growth5 aging5 an cancer8 B8 Transcri,tional Control 18 Tra"#&ri)$i'"al &'"$r'l is the most critical le2el of genetic control8 a8 Transcri,tion is controlle #y 36A;#in ing ,roteins calle $ra"#&ri)$i'" 1a&$'r#0 #8 &ach cell contains many ifferent ty,es of transcri,tion factors8 c8 A grou, of transcri,tion factors #in s to a ,romoter a 7acent to a geneD the com,le/ attracts an #in s +6A ,olymerase5 #ut transcri,tion may still not #egin8 8 Tra"#&ri)$i'" a&$iva$'r# are often in2ol2e in controlling transcri,tion in eu9aryotes8 1A 3ifferent com#inations may regulate ifferent genes8 2A Transcri,tion acti2ators #in to 36A regions calle e"!a"&er#0 3A &nhancers can #e >uite a istance from the ,romoter5 #ut a hair,in loo, in the 36A #rings the acti2ator attache to an enhancer into contact with the ,romotor8 4A Me iator ,roteins act as a #ri ge #etween transcri,tion factors an transcri,tion factors at the ,romotor8 e8 Transcri,tion factors are always ,resent in the cell an most li9ely they ha2e to #e acti2ate in some way @e8g85 regulatory ,athways in2ol2ing 9inases or ,hos,hatasesA #efore they #in to 36A8 C8 )osttranscri,tional Control 18 P'#$$ra"#&ri)$i'"al &'"$r'l inclu es m+6A ,rocessing an the s,ee at which m+6A lea2es the nucleus8 28 Messenger +6A molecules are ,rocesse #efore they lea2e the nucleus an enter the cyto,lasm8 38 3ifferential e/cision of introns an s,licing of m+6A can 2ary the ty,e of m+6A that lea2es nucleus8 a8 The hy,othalamus an thyroi glan s ,ro uce calcitonin #ut the m+6A that lea2es the nucleus is not the same in #oth ty,es of cells8 #8 &2i ence of ifferent ,atterns of m+6A s,licing is foun in cells that ,ro uce neurotransmitters5 muscle regulatory ,roteins5 an anti#o ies8 48 S,ee of trans,ort of m+6A from nucleus into cyto,lasm affects the amount of gene ,ro uct reali'e ,er unit time following transcri,tionD there is a ifference in the length of time it ta9es 2arious m+6A molecules to ,ass through nuclear ,ores8 38 Translational Control 18 Tra"#la$i'"al &'"$r'l #egins when the ,rocesse m+6A molecule reaches the cyto,lasm an #efore there is a ,rotein ,ro uct8 **

a8 The longer an acti2e m+6A molecule remains in the cyto,lasm5 the more ,ro uct is ,ro uce 8 #8 Mature re #loo cells e7ect their nucleus #ut synthesi'e hemoglo#in for se2eral monthsD the m+6As must ,ersist uring this time8 c8 +i#onucleases are en'ymes associate with ri#osomes that egra e m+6A8 8 Mature m+6A has non;co ing segments at 3Y ca, an "Y ,oly;A tail en sD ifferences in these segments influence how long the m+6A a2oi s #eing egra e 8 e8 Mi&r'RNA# are small5 ,rocesse ,ieces of intronD after micro+6As are egra e 5 they com#ine with ,rotein an the com,le/ #in s to m+6As5 estroying them8 &8 )osttranslational Control 18 P'#$$ra"#la$i'"al &'"$r'l #egins once a ,rotein has #een synthesi'e an has #ecome acti2e8 a8 Some ,roteins are not acti2e after synthesisD the ,oly,e,ti e ,ro uct has to un ergo a itional changes #efore it is #iologically functional8 #8 Bo2ine ,roinsulin5 for e/am,le5 is inacti2e when first ,ro uce D a single long ,oly,e,ti e fol s into a three; imensional structure5 a se>uence of 3. amino aci s is remo2e from the mi le5 an the two ,oly,e,ti e chains are #on e together #y isulfi e #on s resulting in an acti2e ,rotein8 c8 Many ,roteins are short;li2e in cells an egra e or estroye so they are no longer acti2e8 8 1iant ,rotein com,le/es calle )r'$ea#'+e# carry out this tas98 e8 One e/am,le is the &y&li"# that control the cell cycleD they are only tem,orarily ,resent8 !8 Alternati2e m+6A S,licing in 3isease @Science Focus #o/A 18 G'rli" #y"dr'+e is an autosomal ominant isease that causes an aggressi2e ty,e of s9in cancer8 a8 0t is lin9e to the tumor su,,ressor genet5 patche"5 which is foun on chromosome -8 #8 0t was ,re2iously thought that patche" mutations occurre within the gene<s e/ons5 #ut current research emonstrate these mutations occur within the gene<s introns8 c8 The mutations cause m+6A to #e incorrectly s,lice an then ma9ing the ,roteins nonfunctional8 28 S)i"al +%#&%lar dy#$r')!y 8SM 9 is also cause #y efecti2e ,re;m+6A s,licing8 a8 &/on ( of the SMN; gene is omitte from the mature m+6A in SMA ,atients5 ma9ing the ,rotein nonfunctional8 #8 SMA results in loss of s,inal cor motor neurons5 ,aralysis an s9eletal muscle atro,hy8 c8 Scientists are wor9ing with a new techni>ue5 antisense oligonucleoti"e technology5 to re2erse the effects of the isor er8 8 The results su,,ort that targeting ,re;m+6A s,licing may #e a tangi#le treatment for many of these isor ers8 38 Scientist are using ,re;m+6A s,licing to esign more ,owerful me icine with less si e effects5 as well as new thera,y that may #e more effecti2e in #attling many isor ers8 1404 Re*%la$i'" T!r'%*! Ge"e M%$a$i'"# 18 A *e"e +%$a$i'" is a ,ermanent change in the se>uence of #ases in 36AD mutations range from ha2ing no effect to total inacti2ity8 *-

A8 Causes of Mutations 18 S)'"$a"e'%# +%$a$i'"# result in a#normalities in normal #iological ,rocesses8 a8 Mutations ue to re,lication errors are 2ery rare8 #8 36A ,olymerase constantly ,roofrea s new 36A against the ol 5 an re,airs any irregularities5 there#y re ucing mista9es to one out of e2ery one #illion nucleoti e ,airs re,licate 8 28 I"d%&ed +%$a$i'"# are changes in the 36A #ase se>uencing from e/,osure to to/ic chemicals or ra iation8 a8 Car&i"'*e"# are mutagens that increase the chances of cancer8 1A The Ames test is commonly use to etermine if a chemical is carcinogenic8 2A A histi ine;re>uiring strain of #acteria is e/,ose to a chemical8 3A 0f the chemical is mutagenic5 the #acteria regain the a#ility to grow without histi ine8 c8 To#acco smo9e contains a num#er of 9nown carcinogenic chemicals8 8 Z rays an gamma rays are ioni'ing ra iation that creates free ra icals5 ioni'e atoms with un,aire electrons8 e8 Gltra2iolet @GVA ra iation is easily a#sor#e #y ,yrimi ines in 36A8 1A :here two thymine molecules are near each other5 GV may #on them together as thymine imers8 2A Gsually imers are remo2e from amage 36A #y s,ecial en'ymes calle NA re)air e"5y+e#0 B8 &ffect of Mutations on )rotein Acti2ity 18 P'i"$ +%$a$i'"# change a single nucleoti e an therefore change a single s,ecific co on8 a8 The effect of the ,oint mutation e,en s on the s,ecific #ase change in the co on8 #8 Changes to co ons that co e for the same amino aci ha2e no effectD e8g85 GAG to GAC #oth co e for tyrosine8 c8 A change from GAC to GA1 @a stop co onA results in a shorter ,rotein5 an a change from GAC to CAC incor,orates histi ine instea of tyrosine8 8 Sic9le cell isease results from a single #ase change in 36A where the #eta;chain of hemoglo#in contains 2aline instea of glutamate at one location an the resulting istorte hemoglo#in causes re #loo cells to clog 2essels an ie off sooner8 28 Fra+e#!i1$ M%$a$i'"# a8 The rea ing frame e,en s on the se>uence of co ons from the starting ,oint% T4& CAT AT& T4& +AT8 #8 0f5 for e/am,le5 C is elete 5 the rea ing frame is shifte % T4& ATA T&T 4&+ AT8 c8 !rameshift mutations occur when one or more nucleoti es are inserte or elete from 36A8 8 The result of a frameshift mutation is a new se>uence of co ons an nonfunctional ,roteins8 C8 6onfunctional )roteins 18 A single nonfunctioning ,rotein can cause ramatic effects8 28 The human trans,oson Alu is res,onsi#le for hemo,hilia when it ,laces a ,remature sto, co on in the gene for clotting factor 0Z8 38 )EG results when a ,erson cannot con2ert ,henylalanine to tyrosineD ,henylalanine -.

#uil s u, in the system5 lea ing to mental retar ation8 48 A faulty co e for an en'yme in the same ,athway results in an al#ino in i2i ual8 "8 Cystic fi#rosis is ue to inheriting a faulty co e for a chlori e trans,ort ,rotein in the ,lasma mem#rane8 $8 An rogen insensiti2ity is ue to a faulty rece,tor for male se/ hormonesD #o y cells cannot res,on to testosterone an the in i2i ual e2elo,s as a female @e2en though all of the #o y cells are ZLA8 38 Mutations Can Cause Cancer 18 The e2elo,ment of cancer in2ol2es a series of 2arious ty,es of mutations8 28 Tumor;su,,ressor genes normally act as #ra9es on cell i2ision when it #egins to occur a#normally8 38 :hen ,roto;oncogenes mutate5 they #ecome oncogenes8 48 Tumor;su,,ressor genes an ,roto;oncogenes often co e for transcri,tion factors or ,roteins that control transcri,tion factors8 "8 (125 a ma7or tumor;su,,ressor gene5 is more fre>uently mutate in human cancers than any other 9nown gene8 a8 The p12 ,rotein acts as a transcri,tion factor to turn on the e/,ression of genes whose ,ro ucts are cell cycle inhi#itors8 #8 The p12 can also stimulate a,o,tosis @,rogramme cell eathA8 $8 Other ,roto;oncogenes co e for 'as ,roteins5 which are nee e for normal cell growth an 36A synthesis8

Le&$%re E"ri&!+e"$ Idea#

E6)erie"&e Ba#e: This material is >uite com,le/D me ia 2isuals are critical an a 36A an +6A mo el are recommen e 8 Most stu ents ha2e a general conce,t of mutations an cancer that will #e highly refine #y the information in the cha,ter8 The material len s itself nicely to e/tensi2e class iscussion8 18 3escri#e why it woul #e im,ortant for a cell to ha2e multi,le le2els of control of gene e/,ression for fine;tuning the amount of ,ro uct synthesis5 an how that im,ortance might #e ifferent for a #acterial cell as o,,ose to a cell in a multicellular eu9aryote8 28 3iscuss why there o not seem to #e any o,erons in eu9aryotic cells5 while in #acterial cells there are numerous com,lete systems of structural ,roteins regulate #y the same o,erator gene an re,ressor ,rotein8 0s it more #iologically strengthening to not ha2e o,eronsK As9 stu ents to consi er why the lac o,eron is in uci#le an the trp o,eron is re,ressi#le5 with em,hasis on the 9in of ,ro uct an its use in each case8 38 3iscuss the ,resence of genetic iseases in which 36A re,air is amage an the in i2i ual has s9in amage an ,ossi#ly cancer?as a result of e/,osure to the sun<s ultra2iolet rays8 Consi er where the amage of the isease woul #e locate 5 an why cancer might result8 48 )ro,ose a scenario in which (. essential units5 e>ui2alent to the 2. essential amino aci s5 were re>uire for li2ing cells8 :al9 stu ents through the mathematics to sol2e the >uestion of whether our co on system with three #ase ,airs woul ,ro2i e the information necessary8 :oul it ta9e four or fi2eK "8 !rameshift an ,oint mutations re>uire 2isual illustrations to illustrate what is ha,,ening to the co on se>uences8 -1

$8 Com,are to infectious iseases an structural isor ers5 cancer has remaine a com,le/ an elusi2e me ical ,ro#lem with early clues ,ointing to 2iruses5 here ity5 an other agents8 Stu ents un erstan ing this content shoul un erstan why cancer has #een ifficult to con>uer5 an why5 com,are to infectious iseases cause #y one agent5 are far more com,le/8 (8 36A ,olymerase B,roofrea ingC of new stran s may lea some stu ents to again attri#ute 2italistic features to this ,rocess8 :hile the chemistry is more com,le/5 they shoul #e assure this is a com,le/ #ut un erstan a#le chemical ,rocess well within natural e/,lanation8

Cri$i&al T!i",i"*
-%e#$i'" 10 Once human re #loo cells ha2e left the #one marrow5 they ha2e lost their nucleus an with it the genetic 36A co ing for hemoglo#in8 4ow can they continue to synthesi'e hemoglo#in for se2eral months without a nucleusK A"#.er: The m+6A molecules5 that were ,ro uce #efore the nuclear 36A was e7ecte 5 ,ersist for se2eral months in the cyto,lasm an synthesi'e hemoglo#in8 4owe2er5 this is one of many factors that contri#ute to the life of the re #loo cell #eing so short8 As the ragge cells wear out from lac9 of re,air5 they are filtere from the #loo stream #y the li2er an s,leen8 -%e#$i'" 20 :or9 with retro2iruses in icates that many ty,es of animal cells ha2e a su#stantial loa of 36A that is ue not to their own genes5 #ut to 36A that is inserte into their genome #y retro2iruses in the en2ironment8 :oul the retro2iral 36A in these #o y cells en u, #eing inherite #y the host<s offs,ringK A"#.er: Only if the infecte cells are germ line cells ,ro ucing eggs or s,erm woul it #e inherite 8 0nfecte somatic cells only gi2e rise to their s,eciali'e ty,e5 such as s9in cells8

Te&!"'l'*y 1r'+ M&Gra.;Hill

)lease consult your C'%r#e I"$e*ra$i'" G%ide for technology correlations for this cha,ter8

-2

CHAPTER

17 BIOTECHNOLOGY AN

GENOMICS

This cha,ter ,resents a etaile stu y of the new areas of #iological research% #iotechnology an genomics8 A escri,tion of the ,rocess of 36A cloning @inclu ing the ,olymerase chain reactionA is followe #y societal a,,lications of this technology @genetically mo ifie organisms5 genetic ,rofiling5 etc8A8 The cha,ter conclu es with a iscussion of gene thera,y8 The im,lications of the technology are ,resente 2is a 2is its commercial a,,lication an its use in the treatment of human isease8

C!a)$er O%$li"e
1701 NA Cl'"i"*
18 Cl'"i"* is the ,ro uction of i entical co,ies of 36A through some ase/ual means8 a8 An un ergroun stem or root sen s u, new shoots that are clones of the ,arent ,lant8 #8 Mem#ers of a #acterial colony on a ,etri ish are clones #ecause they all came from i2ision of the same cell8 c8 4uman i entical twins are clonesD the original single em#ryo se,arate to #ecome two in i2i uals8 28 Ge"e &l'"i"* is ,ro uction of many i entical co,ies of the same gene8 a8 0f the inserte gene is re,licate an e/,resse 5 we can reco2er the clone gene or ,rotein ,ro uct8 #8 Clone genes ha2e many research ,ur,oses% etermining the #ase se>uence #etween normal an mutate genes5 altering the ,henoty,e5 o#taining the ,rotein co e #y a s,ecific gene5 etc8 c8 4umans can #e treate with *e"e $!era)y: alteration of the ,henoty,e in a #eneficial way8 8 Otherwise $ra"#*e"e$i& 'r*a"i#+# are use to ,ro uce ,ro ucts esire #y humans8 e8 To clone 36A5 scientists use re&'+bi"a"$ NA 8r NA9 an )'ly+era#e &!ai" rea&$i'" 8PCR90 A8 +ecom#inant 36A Technology 18 Re&'+bi"a"$ NA 8r NA9 contains 36A from two or more ifferent sources8 28 To ma9e r36A5 a technician selects a 2ector8 38 A ve&$'r is a ,lasmi or a 2irus use to transfer foreign genetic material into a cell8 48 A )la#+id is a small accessory ring of 36A in the cyto,lasm of some #acteria8 "8 )lasmi s were isco2ere in research on re,ro uction of intestinal #acteria &scherichia coli. $8 0ntro uction of foreign 36A into 2ector 36A to ,ro uce r36A re>uires two en'ymes8 a8 Re#$ri&$i'" e"5y+e is a #acterial en'yme that sto,s 2iral re,ro uction #y clea2ing 2iral 36A8 1A The restriction en'yme is use to cut 36A at s,ecific ,oints uring ,ro uction of r36A8 2A 0t is calle a restriction en'yme #ecause it restricts growth of 2iruses #ut it acts as a molecular scissors to clea2e any ,iece of 36A at a s,ecific site8 3A +estriction en'ymes clea2e 2ector @,lasmi A an foreign @humanA 36A8 4A Clea2ing 36A ma9es 36A fragments en ing in short single;stran e segments with Bstic9y en s8C "A The Bstic9y en sC allow insertion of foreign 36A into 2ector 36A8 #8 NA li*a#e seals the foreign gene into the 2ector 36A8 1A Treate cells ta9e u, ,lasmi s5 an then #acteria an ,lasmi s re,ro uce8 2A &2entually5 there are many co,ies of the ,lasmi an many co,ies of the foreign gene8 3A :hen 36A s,licing is com,lete5 an r36A @recom#inant 36AA molecule is forme 8 (8 0f the human gene is to e/,ress itself in a #acterium5 the gene must #e accom,anie #y the regulatory regions uni>ue to #acteria an meet other re>uirements8 a8 The gene cannot contain introns #ecause #acteria o not ha2e introns8 #8 An en'yme calle re2erse transcri,tase can #e use to ma9e a 36A co,y of m+6A8 c8 This 36A molecule is calle &'+)le+e"$ary NA 8& NA9 an oes not contain introns8 8 A la#oratory 36A synthesi'er can ,ro uce small ,ieces of 36A without introns8 B8 The )olymerase Chain +eaction @)C+A 18 )C+ can create millions of co,ies of a single gene or a s,ecific ,iece of 36A in a test tu#e8 28 )C+ is 2ery s,ecific?the targete 36A se>uence can #e less than one ,art in a million of the total /c36A sam,leD therefore a single gene can #e am,lifie using )C+8 38 )C+ uses the en'yme 36A ,olymerase to carry out multi,le re,lications @a chain reactionA of target

-3

48 "8

$8

36A8 )C+ automation is ,ossi#le #ecause heat;resistant 36A ,olymerase from /hermus a%uaticus, which grows in hot s,rings5 is an en'yme that withstan s the tem,erature necessary to se,arate ou#le; stran e 36A8 Analy'ing 36A a8 Mitochon ria 36A se>uences in mo ern li2ing ,o,ulations can eci,her the e2olutionary history of human ,o,ulations8 #8 S!'r$ $a"de+ re)ea$ 8STR9 )r'1ili"* is a techni>ue use to analy'e 36A8 1A A 2antages inclu e not #eing limite to using restriction en'ymes8 2A Since the chromosomal location of ST+s are 9nown5 these are the only locations that are su#7ecte to )C+ an gel electro,horesis8 3A The #an ,atterns are ifferent in each ,erson #ecause each in i2i ual has their own num#er of ST+ re,eats at ifferent locations8 c8 NA 1i"*er)ri"$i"* is a techni>ue of using 36A fragment lengths5 resulting from restriction en'yme clea2age an am,lifie #y )C+5 to i entify ,articular in i2i uals8 8 36A is treate with restriction en'ymes to cut it into ifferent si'e fragments8 e8 3uring gel electro,horesis5 fragments se,arate accor ing to length5 resulting in a ,attern of #an s8 f8 36A finger,rinting can i entify ecease in i2i uals from s9eletal remains5 ,er,etrators of crimes from #loo or semen sam,les5 an genetic ma9eu, of long; ea in i2i uals or e/tinct organisms8 )C+ am,lification an 36A analysis is use to% a8 etect 2iral infections5 genetic isor ers5 an cancerD #8 etermine the nucleoti e se>uence of human genes5 an 5 #ecause it is inherite 5 c8 associate sam,les with 36A of ,arents8

1702 Bi'$e&!"'l'*y Pr'd%&$#

18 1enetically engineere organisms can ,ro uce #iotechnology ,ro ucts8 28 Organisms that ha2e ha a foreign gene inserte into them are $ra"#*e"i&0 A8 1enetically Mo ifie Bacteria 18 Bacteria are grown in large 2ats calle #ioreactors8 a8 !oreign genes are inserte an the ,ro uct is har2este 8 #8 )ro ucts on the mar9et inclu e insulin5 he,atitis B 2accine5 t;)A5 an human growth hormone8 28 Transgenic #acteria ha2e #een ,ro uce to ,rotect an im,ro2e the health of ,lants8 a8 !rost;minus #acteria ,rotect the 2egetati2e ,arts of ,lants from frost amage8 #8 +oot;coloni'ing #acteria recei2e genes from #acteria for insect to/in5 ,rotecting the roots8 c8 Bacteria that coloni'e corn roots can #e en owe with genes for insect to/in8 38 Transgenic #acteria can egra e su#stances8 a8 Bacteria selecte for a#ility to egra e oil can #e im,ro2e #y bioengineering. #8 Bacteria can #e #io;filters to ,re2ent air#orne chemical ,ollutants from #eing 2ente into the air8 c8 Bacteria can also remo2e sulfur from coal #efore it is #urne an hel, clean u, to/ic um,s8 8 Bacteria can also #e gi2en Bsuici e genesC that cause them to ie after they ha2e one their 7o#8 48 Transgenic #acteria can ,ro uce chemical ,ro ucts8 a8 1enes co ing for en'ymes can #e mani,ulate to cataly'e synthesis of 2alua#le chemicals8 #8 )henylalanine use in artificial sweetener can #e grown #y engineere #acteria8 "8 Transgenic #acteria ,rocess minerals8 a8 Many ma7or mining com,anies alrea y use #acteria to o#tain 2arious metals8 #8 1enetically engineere B#io;leachingC #acteria e/tract co,,er5 uranium5 an gol from low;gra e ore8 B8 1enetically Mo ifie )lants 18 )lant cells that ha2e ha the cell wall remo2e are calle protoplasts8 28 &lectric current ma9es tiny holes in the ,lasma mem#rane through which genetic material enters8 38 The ,roto,lasts then e2elo, into mature ,lants8 48 !oreign genes now gi2e cotton5 corn5 an ,otato strains the a#ility to ,ro uce an insect to/in an soy#eans are now resistant to a common her#ici e8 "8 )lants are #eing engineere to ,ro uce human ,roteins inclu ing hormones5 clotting factors5 an anti#o ies in their see sD anti#o ies ma e #y corn eli2er ra ioisoto,es to tumor cells an a soy#ean engineere anti#o y can treat genital her,es8

-4

C8 1enetically Mo ifie Animals 18 Animal use re>uires metho s to insert genes into eggs of animals8 a8 0t is ,ossi#le to microin7ect foreign genes into eggs #y han 8 #8 Vorte/ mi/ing ,laces eggs in an agitator with 36A an silicon;car#i e nee les that ma9e tiny holes through which the 36A can enter8 c8 Gsing this techni>ue5 many ty,es of animal eggs ha2e #een in7ecte with #o2ine growth hormone @#14A to ,ro uce larger fishes5 cows5 ,igs5 ra##its5 an shee,8 28 Ge"e )!ar+i"* is the use of transgenic farm animals to ,ro uce ,harmaceuticalsD the ,ro uct is o#taina#le from the mil9 of females8 a8 1enes for thera,eutic ,roteins are inserte into animal<s 36AD animal<s mil9 ,ro uces ,roteins8 #8 3rugs o#taine through gene ,harming are ,lanne for the treatment of cystic fi#rosis5 cancer5 #loo iseases5 an other isor ers8 38 Cloning Transgenic Animals 18 !or many years5 it was #elie2e that a ult 2erte#rate animals coul not #e clone D the cloning of 3olly in 1--( emonstrate this can #e one8 28 Cloning of an a ult 2erte#rate woul re>uire that all genes of an a ult cell #e turne on again8 38 Cloning of mammals in2ol2es in7ecting a 2n nucleus a ult cell into an enucleate egg8 48 The clone eggs #egin e2elo,ment in 2itro an are then returne to host mothers until the clones are #orn8 &8 A,,lications of Transgenic Animals 18 Scientists are using transgenic animals to illustrate that maleness is ue to a section of 36A calle S'< @the se/ etermining region of the L chromosomeA8 28 Transgenic animals are also #eing use to in2estigate 2arious treatments for iseases #y eliminating genes from these animals8 38 Organ trans,lants from transgenic animal onors to human reci,ients is calle 6e"l$ra"#)la"$a$i'"0

1704 Ge"e T!era)y

18 Ge"e $!era)y in2ol2es ,roce ures to gi2e ,atients healthy genes to ma9e u, for a faulty gene8 28 1ene thera,y also inclu es the use of genes to treat genetic isor ers an 2arious human illnesses8 38 There are e6 viv' @outsi e #o yA an i" viv' @insi e #o yA metho s of gene thera,y8 A8 E6 Viv' 1ene Thera,y 18 Chil ren with se2ere com#ine immuno eficiency @SC03A un erwent e/ 2i2o gene thera,y8 a8 Lac9ing the en'yme A3A in2ol2e in maturation of T an B cells5 they face life;threatening infections8 #8 Bone marrow stem cells are remo2e 5 infecte with a retro2irus that carries a normal gene for the en'yme A3A5 an returne 8 c8 Gse of #one marrow stem cells allows them to i2i e an ,ro uce more cells with the same genes8 8 )atients who un ergo this ,roce ure show significant im,ro2ement8 28 1ene thera,y inclu e treatment of familial hy,ercholesterolemia where li2er cells lac9 a rece,tor for remo2ing cholesterol from #loo 8 a8 4igh le2els of #loo cholesterol ma9e the ,atient su#7ect to fatal heart attac9s when young8 #8 A small ,ortion of the li2er is surgically remo2e an infecte with retro2irus with normal gene for rece,tor8 c8 This has lowere cholesterol le2els following the ,roce ure8 B8 I" Viv' 1ene Thera,y 18 Cystic fi#rosis ,atients lac9 a gene for trans;mem#rane chlori e ion carriersD ,atients ie from res,iratory tract infections8 a8 Li,osomes5 microsco,ic 2esicles that form when li,o,roteins are in solution5 are coate with healthy cystic fi#rosis genes an s,raye into a ,atient<s nostrils8 #8 Various metho s of eli2ery are #eing teste for effecti2eness8 28 A gene for 2ascular en othelial growth factor @V&1!A can #e in7ecte alone or within a 2irus into the heart to stimulate #ranching of coronary #loo 2essels8 38 Another strategy is to ma9e cancer cells more 2ulnera#le5 an normal cells more resistant5 to chemothera,y8 48 0n7ecting a retro2irus containing a normal p"3 gene?that ,romotes a,o,tosis?into tumors may sto, the growth of tumors8

1707 Ge"'+i&# -"

A8

B8

C8

38

&8

!8

18

18 1enetics in the 21st century concerns *e"'+i&#: the stu y of genomes of humans an other organisms8 Se>uencing the 1enome 18 The H%+a" Ge"'+e Pr'Ae&$ has ,ro uce a recor of all the #ase ,airs in all our chromosomes8 28 The tas9 too9 13 years to learn the se>uence of the three #illion #ase ,airs along the length of our chromosomes8 38 Most of the 36A regions that iffere among in i2i uals are calle single nucleoti"e polymorphisms +SN(s) a8 Many S6)s ha2e no effect an others coul contri#ute to en'ymatic ifferences affecting the ,henoty,e8 48 !ollowing functional genomics5 #$r%&$%ral *e"'+i&# in2estigates #ase se>uences an the num#er of genes in humans8 1enome Com,arisons 18 There is little ifference #etween the se>uence of our #ases an other organisms whose 36A se>uences are 9nown8 28 :e share a large num#er of genes with sim,ler organisms @e8g85 #acteria5 yeast5 miceAD ,erha,s our uni>ueness is ue to regulation of these genes8 38 +esearchers foun that certain genes on chromosome 22 iffere in humans an chim,an'ees% those for s,eech e2elo,ment5 hearing5 an smell8 48 Many genes foun were res,onsi#le for human iseases8 &u9aryotic 1ene Structure 18 &u9aryotic chromosome structure is much more com,le/ than ,ro9aryotic chromosome structure8 28 1enerally s,ea9ing5 more com,le/ organisms ha2e more com,le/ genes with more an larger introns8 38 0ntrons are currently regar e as gene e/,ression regulators an etermine which genes are e/,resse an how they are s,lice 8 0ntergenic Se>uences 18 I"$er*e"i& #e<%e"&e# are 36A se>uences that occur #etween genes8 28 1enerally s,ea9ing5 as the com,le/ity of an organism increases5 so oes the ,ro,ortion of its non; ,rotein;co ing 36A se>uences8 38 Most of the human chromosomes are com,rise of intergeneic se>uences5 genes re,resent 18"N of human<s total 36A5 an the remain er re,resents B7un9 36A5C which scientists #elie2e ser2e many im,ortant functions8 48 Three ty,es of intergenic se>uences foun in the human genome are% re,etiti2e elements5 tran,osons5 an un9nown se>uences8 +e,etati2e &lements 18 Re)e$a$ive NA ele+e"$# occur when the same se>uence of two or more nucleoti es are re,eate many times along the length of one or more chromosomes8 28 They ma9e u, nearly half of the human genome an scientists #elie2e that their true significance ha2e yet to #e isco2ere 8 38 +e,etati2e 36A elements occur as $a"de+ re)ea$#?meaning the re,eate se>uences are ne/t to each other on the chromosome8 48 One ty,e of tan em re,eat se>uence5 short tan"em repeats +S/'s)5 are a stan ar metho in forensic science for i entifying one in i2i ual from another an also etermining family relationshi,s8 "8 Another ty,e of re,etiti2e 36A element is calle an i"$er#)er#ed re)ea$?meaning the re,etitions may #e ,lace intermittently along a single chromosome5 or across multi,le chromosomes8 $8 0nters,erse re,eat are common an thought to ,lay a role in the e2olution of new genes8 Trans,osons 28 Tra"#)'#'"# are s,ecific 36A se>uences that mo2e with an #etween chromosomes8 a8 Their mo2ement may increase or ecrease the e/,ression of neigh#oring genes8 #8 They are among the 4.N of the human genome consisting of the same short se>uence of 36A continuously re,eate 8 c8 They are nonco ing se>uences that ,lay regulatory functions5 an coul thus #e cansi ere ,art of e,igenetic inheritance8 Gn9nown Se>uences 18 Gn9nown 36A se>uences were once ismisse as 7un9 36A since scientists coul not i entify any function they ha2e8 28 +ecently scientists #elie2e o#ser2e that many of the un9nown se>uences is transcri#e into +6A8

-$

38 This +6A may carry out regulatory functions more easily than ,roteins at times8 48 :hat 0s a 1eneK 18 A mo ern efinition of a gene5 suggeste #y Mar9 1erstein an associates5 B]is a genomic se>uence @either 36A or +6AA irectly enco ing functional ,ro ucts5 either +6A or ,rotein8C 28 This efinition recogni'es that the genetic material in2ol2e oes not ha2e to #e 36A5 an that co ing oes not only mean 36A se>uencing5 #ut the gene ,ro uct coul #e +6A or ,rotein as well8 08 !unctional an Com,arati2e 1enomics 18 The em,hasis on genome structure is #oth on functional an com,arati2e genomics8 28 F%"&$i'"al *e"'+i&# aims to un erstan the e/act role of the genome in cells or organisms8 a8 To meet the aim of functional genomics5 NA +i&r'array# can #e use @see Science Focus #o/A8 #8 36A microarrays ra,i ly i entify a ,erson<s com,lete genoty,eD this is calle the *e"e$i& )r'1ile0 38 C'+)ara$ive *e"'+i&# aims to com,are the human genome to the genome of other organisms8 a8 This ty,e of genomics has re2eale little ifference #etween 36A se>uence of our #ases an those of many other organisms8 H8 )roteomics 18 Pr'$e'+i&# is the stu y of the structure5 function5 an interaction of cellular ,roteins8 28 The information o#taine from ,roteomic stu ies can #e use in esigning #etter rugs5 an to correlate rug treatment to the ,articular genome of the in i2i ual8 E8 Bioinformatics 18 Bi'i"1'r+a$i&# is the a,,lication of com,uter technologics to the stu y of the genome8 28 0nformation o#taine from com,uter analysis of the genome can show relationshi,s #etween genetic ,rofiles an genetic isor ers8 L8 36A Microarray Technology @Science Focus #o/A 18 36A microarray technology is #eing use to i entify genes associate with gene tissues5 an i entify lin9s #etween isease an chromosomal 2ariation8 28 36A microarray technology techni>ues #egin with la#eling the test m+6A with a fluorescent ye a e to the chi,8 38 The tagge m+6A can then #e followe #y i entifying the genes that e/hi#it the fluorescent ye8 M8 Co,y 6um#er Variations @Science Focus #o/A 18 Scientists ha2e recently isco2ere small u,lications an eletions in chromosomes5 referre to as copy number #ariations +0N=s). 28 The change in genes may arise from for9 stalling an tem,late switching8 38 Some C6Vs may #e lin9e to iseases such as 40V5 Lu,us5 an autism8 48 &2olutionarily s,ea9ing5 it may #e a 2antageous for s,ecies to ha2e multi,le co,ies of genes #ecause if one co,y of an allele oes not function ,ro,erly5 the u,licate allele may #e a#le to restore normal function8 "8 0n a ition5 ha2ing two normal alleles may free the e/tra gene co,y to accumulate mutations5 which coul ultimately lea to the formation of a new gene8

Le&$%re E"ri&!+e"$ Idea#

E6)erie"&e Ba#e: 6early all conce,ts in this section are somewhat a#stract an #uil u,on the ,re2ious cha,ters8 Visuals are critical for ela#orating the recom#inant 36A ,rocesses5 2ector mechanisms5 an genomic li#rary8 4owe2er5 new e2elo,ments are re,orte regularly in the me ia an ,ro2i e lea s into iscussion of the human genome ,ro7ect5 cloning5 an transgenic #acterial5 ,lant an animal ,ro ucts8 18 Gse current news re,orts on the ,ro uction of a giant mouse through use of human or rat growth hormone5 the ,ro uction of ,igs with leaner meat from use of #o2ine or human growth hormone5 or some of the recent clinical trials on gene transfer in cancer an other isease treatment8 1enetically;mo ifie @1MA organisms are a source of tension an tra e isagreement among many countries8 28 &/,lain why it is necessary to remo2e the introns from genes a e to #acteria8 &/,lain why it woul wor9 to use yeast to transcri#e genes containing introns that coul not #e transcri#e -(

an translate into usa#le ,roteins in #acteria8 38 The istinction #etween e! #i#o an in #i#o metho s of gene thera,y is im,ortant relati2e to the a#ility to confirm that the inoculum is transgenicD in #i#o ,roce ures are sometimes ifficult to confirm8 48 The ,olymerase chain reaction @)C+A is central to much mo ern molecular #iology wor9D note the action of the 36A ,olymerase an the use of heat to enature the 36A an release the newly synthesi'e stran s8 0nclu e the source of the heat;resistant 36A ,olymerase from /hermus a%uaticus, which grows in hot s,rings an s,eculate on whether this ,rocess coul ha2e #een in2ente without it8 "8 A eca e ago5 fa#ulous claims were #eing ma e for ma,,ing the human genome5 as if that woul ultimately re2eal a full un erstan ing of the human organism8 6ote that 9nowing the full se>uence of 36A #ase ,airs oes not automatically ,ro2i e an un erstan ing of how that cell ,hysiology wor9s or ,ro2i e us with instant cures5 #ut shifts our research to un erstan ing e2elo,mental #iology8 $8 Many stu ents will #e sur,rise at the new lower estimate of the num#er of genes in the human genome @^2"5...A5 es,ecially since te/t#oo9s often continue to ,u#lish much higher num#ers8 The e2i ence ,resente in the ,re2ious cha,ters on multi,le ,ro ucts from common ,athways5 an recent research in e2elo,mental #iology #oth in icate far fewer BgenesC than ,re2iously calculate 8

Cri$i&al T!i",i"*
-%e#$i'" 10 :hene2er anything ies5 36A an +6A are release into the en2ironment8 Ocean water is full of fragments of these molecules8 :hy are 36A an +6A not constantly see,ing into all li2ing organismsK A"#.er: !rom the te/t iscussion of the nee for ,ac9ages for 36A an +6A5 it is o#2ious that #oth molecules are easily enature in the en2ironment an must #e ,rotecte to #e eli2ere in ,lasmi s5 etc8 -%e#$i'" 20 !or a mammalian gene to #e e/,resse in a #acterium5 what two ,ro2isions must #e metK

A"#.er: The mammalian gene must inclu e all ,ro,er regulatory regions for it to function5 an the introns must #e remo2e #ecause #acteria lac9 the en'ymes to ,rocess intron m+6A8

Te&!"'l'*y 1r'+ M&Gra.;Hill

)lease consult your C'%r#e I"$e*ra$i'" G%ide for technology correlations for this cha,ter8

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PART

III

EVOLUTION

&2olution ,ro2i es the unifying conce,ts for the following cha,ters that consi er the i2ersity of organisms an the ,rogressi2e e2elo,ment of eri2e anatomy an ,hysiology8 This section iscusses the history an mechanisms of e2olution5 the history of life5 an the most recent e2elo,ments in classifying organisms8 1" 1$ 1( 1* 13arwin an &2olution 4ow )o,ulations &2ol2e S,eciation an Macroe2olution Origin an 4istory of Life Systematics an )hylogeny

CHAPTER

1?

ar.i" a"d Ev'l%$i'"

C!a)$er O%$li"e
1?01 Hi#$'ry '1 Ev'l%$i'"ary T!'%*!$ 18 0n 1*315 Charles 3arwin5 a 22;year;ol naturalist5 acce,te a ,osition a#oar the shi, 4MS Beagle that #egan a 2oyage aroun the worl D it ,ro2i e 3arwin with many o#ser2ations8 28 The ,re;3arwinian worl ;2iew was ifferent from the ,ost;3arwinian8 a8 )re;3arwinian worl ;2iew was etermine #y intracta#le theological #eliefs8 1A The earth is young8 2A &ach s,ecies was s,ecially create an i not change o2er time8 3A Variations are im,erfections 2arying from a ,erfectly;a a,te creation8 4A O#ser2ations are to su#stantiate the ,re2ailing worl 2iew8 #8 3arwin5 howe2er5 li2e uring a time of great change in scientific an social realms8 c8 3arwin<s i eas were ,art of a larger change in thought alrea y un erway among #iologistsD this conce,t woul e2entually #e 9nown as ev'l%$i'"0 A8 Mi ;&ighteenth;Century Contri#utions 18 Carolus Linnaeus an Ta/onomy a8 Ta6'"'+y is the science of classifying organismsD ta!onomy ha #een a main concern of #iology8 #8 Carolus Linnaeus @1(.(=1((*A was a Swe ish ta/onomist8 1A Linnaeus e2elo,e a #inomial system of nomenclature @two;,art names for each s,ecies Ie8g85 ,omo sapiensJA8 2A 4e e2elo,e a system of classification for all 9nown ,lants8 3A Li9e other ta/onomists of his time5 Linnaeus #elie2e in the i eas of
aA special creation?each s,ecies ha an Bi ealC structure an functionD an #A fi!ity of species>each s,ecies ha a ,lace in the scala naturae5 a se>uential la er of life8

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c8 Linnaeus thought that classification shoul escri#e the fi/e features of s,ecies an re2eal 1o <s i2ine ,lan8 8 4is i eas reflecte the i eas of )lato an Aristotle% the i eal form can #e e uce 5 an organisms can #e arrange in or er of increasing com,le/ity8 e8 4is later wor9 with hy#ri i'ation suggeste s,ecies might change with time8 28 1eorges Louis Leclerc a8 1eorges Louis Leclerc5 9nown #y his title5 Count Buffon @1(.(=1(**A5 was a !rench naturalist8 #8 4e wrote a 44;2olume natural history of all 9nown ,lants an animals8 c8 4e also ,ro2i e e2i ence of escent with mo ification8 8 4is writings s,eculate on influences of the en2ironment5 migration5 geogra,hical isolation5 an the struggle for e/istence8 e8 Buffon 2acillate on whether he #elie2e in e2olutionary escent an he ,rofesse to #elie2e in s,ecial creation an the fi/ity of s,ecies8 38 &rasmus 3arwin a8 &rasmus 3arwin @1(31=1*.2A was Charles 3arwin<s gran father8 #8 4e was a ,hysician an a naturalist whose writings on #oth #otany an 'oology containe many comments that suggeste the ,ossi#ility of common escent8 c8 4e #ase his conclusions on 1A changes un ergone #y animals uring e2elo,ment5 2A artificial selection #y humans5 an 3A the ,resence of ve#$i*ial #$r%&$%re# @structures or organs that are #elie2e to ha2e #een functional in an ancestor #ut are re uce an nonfunctional in a escen antA8 8 &rasmus 3arwin offere no mechanism #y which e2olutionary escent might occur8 B8 Late &ighteenthF&arly;6ineteenth Century Contri#utions 18 Cu2ier an Catastro,hism a8 1eorge Cu2ier @1($-=1*32A5 a !rench 2erte#rate 'oologist5 was the first to use com,arati2e anatomy to e2elo, a system of classifying animals8 #8 4e foun e the science of )ale'"$'l'*y?the stu y of fossils?an suggeste that a single fossil #one was all he nee e to e uce the entire anatomy of an animal8 c8 To e/,lain the fossil recor 5 Cu2ier ,ro,ose that a whole series of catastro,hes @e/tinctionsA an re,o,ulations from other regions ha occurre 8 8 Cu2ier was also a staunch a 2ocate of s,ecial creation an fi/ity of s,eciesD this ,resente him with a ,ro#lem when geological e2i ence of a ,articular region showe a succession of life forms in the &arth<s strata8 e8 Ca$a#$r')!i#+ is the term a,,lie to Cu2ier<s e/,lanation of fossil history% the #elief that catastro,hic e/tinctions occurre 5 after which re,o,ulation of sur2i2ing s,ecies occurre 5 gi2ing an a,,earance of change through time8 28 Lamarc9 an Ac>uire Characteristics a8 Lamarc9 @1(44=1*2-A was the first to state that escent with mo ification occurs an that organisms #ecome a a,te to their en2ironments8 #8 Lamarc95 an in2erte#rate 'oologist5 hel i eas at o s with Cu2ier<s8 c8 Lamarc9 mista9enly saw Ba esire for ,erfectionC as inherent in all li2ing things8 8 I"!eri$a"&e '1 a&<%ired &!ara&$eri#$i&# was Lamarc9<s #elief that organisms 1..

#ecome a a,te to their en2ironment uring their lifetime an ,ass these a a,tations to their offs,ring8 e8 &/,eriments fail to u,hol Lamarc9<s inheritance of ac>uire characteristicsD the molecular mechanism of inheritance shows ,henoty,ic changes o not result in genetic changes that can #e ,asse on to the ne/t generation8 1?02 ar.i"L# T!e'ry '1 Ev'l%$i'" A8 3arwin<s Bac9groun 18 4is nature was too sensiti2e to ,ursue me icineD he atten e i2inity school at Cam#ri ge8 28 4e atten e #iology an geology lectures an was tutore #y the +e2eren Hohn 4enslow8 38 4enslow arrange his fi2e;year tri, on the 4MS BeagleD 3arwin was an o#ser2ant stu ent of nature8 B8 1eology an !ossils 18 4is stu y of geology an fossils cause him to concur with Lyell that the o#ser2e massi2e geological changes were cause #y slow5 continuous ,rocesses8 a8 3arwin too9 Lyell<s #oo9 on the 2oyage of the 4MS Beagle8 #8 0n his #oo9 (rinciples of *eology5 Charles Lyell ,resente arguments to su,,ort a theory of geological change ,ro,ose #y Hames 4utton8 c8 0n contrast to catastro,hists5 4utton ,ro,ose that &arth was su#7ect to slow #ut continuous geological ,rocesses @e8g85 erosion an u,liftingA that occur at a uniform rate5 a theory calle %"i1'r+i$aria"i#+0 8 The Argentina coast ha raise #eachesD he witnesse earth>ua9es raising &arth se2eral feet8 e8 Marine shells occurre far inlan an at great heights in the An es8 f8 !ossils of huge sloths an arma illo;li9e animals suggeste mo ern forms were escen e from e/tinct forms with change o2er timeD therefore s,ecies were not fi/e 8 C8 Biogeogra,hy 18 Bi'*e'*ra)!y is the stu y of the geogra,hic istri#ution of life forms on &arth8 28 )atagonian hares re,lace ra##its in the South American grasslan s8 38 The greater rhea foun in the north was re,lace #y the lesser rhea in the south8 48 Com,arison of the animals of South America an the 1al_,agos 0slan s cause 3arwin to conclu e that a a,tation to the en2ironment can cause i2ersification5 inclu ing origin of new s,ecies8 "8 The 1al_,agos 0slan s a8 These 2olcanic islan s off the South American coast ha fewer ty,es of organisms8 #8 0slan s,ecies 2arie from the mainlan s,ecies5 an from islan ;to;islan 8 c8 &ach islan ha a 2ariation of tortoiseD long an short nec9e tortoises correlate with ifferent 2egetation8 8 3arwin<s !inches 1A !inches on the 1al_,agos 0slan s resem#le a mainlan finch #ut there were more ty,es8 2A 1al_,agos finch s,ecies 2arie #y nesting site5 #ea9 si'e5 an eating ha#its8 3A One unusual finch use a twig or thorn to ,ry out insects5 a 7o# normally one #y @missingA woo ,ec9ers @3arwin ne2er witnesse this finch #eha2iorA8 1.1

38

&8

!8

18

4A The 2ariation in finches ,ose >uestions to 3arwin% i they escen from one mainlan ancestor or i islan s allow isolate ,o,ulations to e2ol2e in e,en ently5 an coul ,resent; ay s,ecies ha2e resulte from changes occurring in each isolate ,o,ulationK 6atural Selection an A a,tation 18 3arwin eci e that a a,tations e2elo, o2er timeD he sought a mechanism #y which a a,tations might arise8 28 Na$%ral #ele&$i'" was ,ro,ose #y #oth Alfre +ussel :allace an 3arwin as a ri2ing mechanism of e2olution cause #y en2ironmental selection of organisms most fit to re,ro uce5 resulting in a"aptation8 38 Because the en2ironment is always changing5 there is no ,erfectly;a a,te organism8 48 6atural selection is a ,rocess consisting of these con itions% a8 The mem#ers of a ,o,ulation ha2e ran om #ut herita#le 2ariations8 #8 0n a ,o,ulation5 many more in i2i uals are ,ro uce each generation than the en2ironment can su,,ort8 c8 Some in i2i uals ha2e a a,ti2e characteristics that ena#le them to sur2i2e an re,ro uce #etter8 3arwin calle the a#ility to ha2e more offs,ring5 "ifferential repro"ucti#e success8 8 The result of natural selection is a ,o,ulation a a,te to its local en2ironment8 "8 6atural selection can only utili'e 2ariations that are ran omly ,ro2i e D therefore there is no irecte ness or antici,ation of future nee s8 $8 &/tinction occurs when ,re2ious a a,tations are no longer suita#le to a change en2ironment8 Organisms 4a2e 0nherita#le Variations 18 0n contrast to the ,re2ious worl 2iew where im,erfections were to #e ignore 5 2ariations were essential in natural selection8 28 3arwin sus,ecte 5 #ut i not ha2e to ay<s e2i ence5 that the occurrence of 2ariation is com,letely ran om8 38 6ew 2ariations are as li9ely to #e harmful as hel,ful8 48 Variations that ma9e a a,tation ,ossi#le are those that are ,asse on from generation to generation8 "8 3arwin coul not state the cause of 2ariations #ecause genetics was not yet esta#lishe 8 $8 6atural selection only o,erates on 2ariations that are alrea y a2aila#le in a ,o,ulation<s gene ,ool8 Organisms Com,ete for +esources 18 3arwin an :allace #oth rea an essay #y Thomas Malthus5 a socioeconomist8 28 Malthus ,ro,ose that human ,o,ulations outgrow foo su,,ly an eath an famine were ine2ita#le8 38 3arwin a,,lie this to all organismsD resources were not sufficient for all mem#ers to sur2i2e8 Organisms 3iffer in +e,ro ucti2e Success 18 Organisms whose traits ena#le them to re,ro uce to a greater egree ha2e a greater fitness8 a8 Fi$"e## is a measure of an organism<s re,ro ucti2e success8 #8 Blac9 western iamon #ac9 rattlesna9es are more li9ely to sur2i2e on la2a flowsD lighter;colore rattlesna9es are more li9ely to sur2i2e on esert soil8 1.2

48

08

H8

E8

28 3arwin note that humans carry out ar$i1i&ial #ele&$i'"0 a8 &arly humans li9ely selecte wolf 2ariantsD conse>uently5 esira#le traits increase in fre>uency in su#se>uent generations an ,ro uce the 2arieties of omestic ogs8 #8 +ussian scientists ha2e ,ro uce sil2er fo/es that allow themsel2es to #e ,ette rather than running away from humans8 c8 Many cro, ,lant 2arieties can #e trace to a single ancestor8 Organisms Become A a,te 18 An ada)$a$i'" is a trait that hel,s an organism #e more suite to its en2ironment8 28 Gnrelate organisms li2ing in the same en2ironment often is,lay similar characteristics8 38 Because of ifferential re,ro uction5 a a,ti2e traits increase in each succee ing generation8 6n the 6rigin of Species #y 3arwin 18 After the 4MS Beagle returne to &nglan in 1*3$5 3arwin waite o2er 2. years to ,u#lish8 28 4e use the time to test his hy,othesis that life forms arose #y escent from a common ancestor an that natural selection is a mechanism #y which s,ecies can change an new s,ecies arise8 38 3arwin was force to ,u#lish 6rigin of Species after rea ing a similar hy,othesis #y Alfre +ussel :allace8 Alfre +ussel :allace @Science Focus #o/A 18 Alfre +ussel :allace @1*23;1-13A was an &nglish naturalist who in e,en ently an simultaneously ,ro,ose natural selection as a mechanism for e2olution8 28 4e an the entomologist 4enry :alter Bates too9 a collecting tri, to the Ama'on5 an then to the Malay Archi,elago from 1*"4;1*$4A8 38 After stu ying the animals from his tri,s5 he i2i e the islan s into a western an eastern grou,8 This shar, line i2i ing the two islan s grou, is now 9nown as 4allace?s @ine8 48 :allace<s Line is locate near a ee, channel #etween the Oriental an Australian regions8 This area ser2es as an im,assa#le #arrier to animal is,ersal8 "8 0n 1*"" :allace wrote an essay entitle 5 BOn the Law :hich 4as +egulate the 0ntro uction of 6ew S,ecies8C At this ,oint he saw that s,ecies share a common ancestry an that s,ecies also change o2er time8 $8 0n 1*"* :allace conclu e changes in s,ecies are ue to changes in the en2ironment through natural selection8 (8 :allace wrote a manuscri,t of these fin ings an sent it to Charles 3arwin for re2iew8 3arwin was shoc9e that :allace ha the same theories that he ha 8 3arwin tol :allace to ,u#lish his manuscri,t at once8 *8 3arwin ,u#lishe 6rigin of the Species one year later while :allace was in the fiel 8 -8 Although 3arwin o2ersha ows :allace5 :allace is still referre to as B&nglan <s 1reatest Li2ing 6aturalist8C 6atural Selection Can Be :itnesse 18 3arwin forme his natural selection hy,othesis #y o#ser2ing the istri#ution of tortoises an finches on the 1al_,agos 0slan s8 28 Scientists are currently witnessing natural selection on the 1al_,agos 0slan s8 )eter an +osemary 1rant ha2e #een o#ser2ing finch #ea9 si'e change with rainfall8 1.3

3uring wet seasons5 the offs,ring ha2e smaller #ea9s to eat the small see s5 howe2er5 in rier seasons5 offs,ring ha2e larger #ea9s ca,a#le of #rea9ing har er see s that sur2i2e the ry weather8 38 Other e/am,les of natural selection can #e seen in marine snails5 an the scarlet honeycree,er5 ,lants an #acteria8 48 A common e/am,le of natural selection is in"ustrial melanism8 )rior to the in ustrial re2olution in 1reat Britain5 light;colore ,e,,ere moths were more common @-.NA than the ar9;colore ,e,,ere moths @1.NA8 a8 !ollowing the in ustrial re2olution an increase in ,ollution5 ar9;colore ,e,,ere moths reache *.N of the ,e,,ere moth ,o,ulation8 #8 Once legislation regulate ,ollution re uction5 ar9;colore ,e,,ere moths re uce to 1$N in one of the collecting sites8 1?04 Evide"&e 1'r Ev'l%$i'" A8 Common 3escent 18 The hy,othesis of common escent is su,,orte #y many lines of e2i ence8 28 The more 2arie the e2i ence5 the more certain it #ecomes8 B8 !ossils &2i ence 18 F'##il# are the remains an traces of ,ast life or any other irect e2i ence of ,ast life8 28 !ossils inclu e s9eletons5 shells5 see s5 insects tra,,e in am#er5 an im,rints of lea2es8 38 Tra"#i$i'"al 1'##il# re2eal lin9s #etween grou,s8 a8 Archeoptery! is an interme iate #etween re,tiles an #ir s8 #8 Ambulocetus natans is a whale with legs8 C8 Biogeogra,hical &2i ence 18 Bi'*e'*ra)!y stu ies the istri#ution of ,lants an animals worl wi e8 28 3istri#ution of organisms is e/,laine #y relate forms e2ol2ing in one locale an s,rea ing to other accessi#le areas8 a8 3arwin o#ser2e South America ha no ra##itsD he conclu e ra##its originate elsewhere8 #8 Biogeogra,hy e/,lains the a#un ance of finch s,ecies on the 1al_,agos 0slan s lac9ing on the mainlan 8 38 )hysical factors5 such as the location of continents5 etermine where a ,o,ulation can s,rea 8 a8 Cacti are restricte to 6orth American eserts an eu,hor#ia grow in African eserts8 #8 Marsu,ials arose when South America5 Antarctica5 an Australia were 7oine D Australia se,arate #efore ,lacental mammals arose5 so only marsu,ials i2ersifie in Australia8 38 Anatomical &2i ence 18 Organisms ha2e anatomical similarities when they are closely relate #ecause of common escent8 a8 H'+'l'*'%# #$r%&$%re# in ifferent organisms are inherite from a common ancestor8 #8 A"al'*'%# #$r%&$%re# are inherite from uni>ue ancestors an ha2e come to resem#le each other #ecause they ser2e a similar function8 c8 Verte#rate forelim#s contain the same sets of #ones organi'e in similar ways5 es,ite their issimilar functions8 1.4

28 Ve#$i*ial #$r%&$%re# are remains of a structure that was functional in some ancestors #ut is no longer functional in the organism in >uestion8 a8 Most #ir s ha2e well; e2elo,e wingsD some #ir s,ecies ha2e re uce wings an o not fly8 #8 4umans ha2e a tail#one #ut no tail8 c8 )resence of 2estigial structures is e/,laine #y the common escent hy,othesisD these are traces of an organism<s e2olutionary history8 38 &m#ryological e2elo,ment re2eals a unity of ,lan8 a8 3uring e2elo,ment5 all 2erte#rates ha2e a ,ost;anal tail an ,aire ,haryngeal ,ouches8 1A 0n fishes an am,hi#ian lar2ae5 the ,ouches #ecome gills8 2A 0n humans5 the first ,air of ,ouches #ecomes a ca2ity of mi le ear an au itory tu#eD the secon ,air #ecomes tonsils5 while the thir an fourth ,airs #ecome thymus an ,arathyroi glan s8 3A The a#o2e features are e/,laine if fishes are ancestral to other 2erte#rate grou,s8 &8 Biochemical &2i ence 18 All li2ing organisms use the same #asic #iochemical molecules5 e8g85 36A5 AT)5 an many i entical or nearly i entical en'ymes8 28 Organisms utili'e the same 36A tri,let co e an the same 2. amino aci s in their ,roteins8 38 Many organisms share the same introns an ty,es of re,eats5 which is remar9a#le since there is no o#2ious functional reason why these com,onents nee to #e so similar8 48 This is su#stantiate #y the analysis of the egree of similarity in amino aci s for cytochrome c among organisms8 "8 These similarities can #e e/,laine #y escent from a common ancestor8 $8 Life<s 2ast i2ersity has come a#out #y only a slight ifference in the same genes8 !8 Because it is su,,orte #y so many lines of e2i ence5 e2olution is no longer consi ere a hy,othesis8 18 &2olution is one of the great unifying theories of #iology5 similar in status to the germ theory of isease in me icine8 28 0n science5 $!e'ry is reser2e for those conce,tual schemes that are su,,orte #y a large num#er of o#ser2ations or a large amount of e/,erimental e2i ence an ha2e not #een foun lac9ing8

Le&$%re E"ri&!+e"$ Idea#

E6)erie"&e Ba#e: Large changes in organisms o2er time is a long term ,rocess8 This means that much of the e2i ence for e2olution5 #eyon microe2olutionary shifts in #acterial cultures5 etc85 must #e illustrate #y reasoning8 Li9ewise a su#stantial num#er of stu ents will a,,roach this to,ic with s,eculation or animosity ue to ,articular religious #eliefs or ,rior misconce,tions8 18 Clarify the fact that Lamarc9 was the first to try to e2elo, a ,ossi#le mechanism for e2olution an shoul #e consi ere among the great #iologists of history5 rather than the one who got e2olution wrong8 28 S,eculate how 3arwin woul ha2e reacte to Men el<s wor9 if he ha rea it8 @3arwin ha a 1."

co,y of the ,u#lication of Men el<s ,a,ers5 #ut the ,ages ha ne2er #een cut so that it coul #e rea 8A 3arwin i not ha2e a mechanism to e/,lain the ,assage of traits from ,arents to offs,ring5 which seriously trou#le him8 38 Consi er why 3arwin waite o2er twenty years from his seminal tri, on the 4MS Beagle to ,u#lish his theory8 One of the to,ics to consi er is 3arwin<s feelings for his wife5 who was a 2ery religious woman5 an the im,act that the theory of natural selection an e2olution ha on those who consi ere the theory of s,ecial creation to #e a#solute truth8 48 6ote that #oth 3arwin an :allace ha e/tensi2e tra2el e/,eriences5 where they saw a wi e range of organisms5 #efore they formulate their theory of e2olution #y natural selection8

Cri$i&al T!i",i"*
-%e#$i'" 10 0f there is no 2ariation in a ,o,ulation5 or if the only 2ariation is ac>uire an not inherite 5 or if all of the ,rogeny sur2i2e an e>ually re,ro uce5 will e2olution occurK A"#.er: 6o8 -%e#$i'" 20 :hy are an insect wing an a #ir wing not consi ere e2i ence of relate nessK

A"#.er: :hile #oth #ear the name BwingC #ecause they hel, each to fly5 these wings are not homologous structures8 The #ir wing is a forearm5 similar in origin to the forearm of a frog5 li'ar 5 or human8 The insect wing is a com,letely ifferent structure with no origin in common with 2erte#rate wings or forearms5 an in e,en ent e2en from insect legs8 -%e#$i'" 40 0f you ha2e a cut on your finger that lea2es a ,ermanent scar5 this rea ily shows in finger,rinting an oes istinguish you from the rest of the human ,o,ulation8 :ill such a 2ariation #ecome ,art of the e2olutionary fate of your lineage through natural selectionK A"#.er: 6o5 #ecause the trait was ac>uire an will not e/hi#it itself in offs,ring8 -%e#$i'" 70 0f a wolf loses a leg in a tra, an this cri,,les its a#ility to hunt5 it has far less chance of lea2ing offs,ring8 :ill that 2ariation #ecome ,art of the e2olutionary fate of its lineage through natural selectionK A"#.er: 6o5 again #ecause the trait was ac>uire an will not e/hi#it itself in the offs,ring8 Certainly ac>uire characteristics can change sur2i2al an offs,ring ,otential #ut only for the ,resent generation8 Since the traits will not #e e/hi#ite in any offs,ring that o sur2i2e5 the ac>uire trait is still inconse>uential to the e2olutionary fate of the lineage8 Because it is not inherite 5 it is Bhistory8C

Te&!"'l'*y 1r'+ M&Gra.;Hill

)lease consult your C'%r#e I"$e*ra$i'" G%ide for technology correlations for this cha,ter8

1.$

CHAPTER

1B

HO/ POPULATIONS EVOLVE

This cha,ter ,resents sections on ,o,ulation genetics5 microe2olution5 natural selection5 an the ,rocesses which go2ern each8 The 4ar y;:ein#erg ,rinci,le an its a,,lications are escri#e in etail8 Much terminology an many efinitions use in the stu y of e2olutionary ,rocesses are ,resente 8

C!a)$er O%$li"e
1B01 P')%la$i'" Ge"e$i&# 18 A )')%la$i'" is all of the mem#ers of a single s,ecies occu,ying a certain area at the same time8 28 P')%la$i'" *e"e$i&# stu ies the 2ariation in alleles in a gene ,ool8 A8 1enetic Variation 18 )o,ulations can ha2e many ,henoty,ic5 an therefore genoty,ic5 ifferences8 28 0n2estigators stu y 36A se>uencing to isco2er the amount of genetic 2ariation in a ,o,ulation8 38 36A se>uencing has allowe scientists to isco2er 2arious loci that e/hi#it #i"*le "%&le'$ide )'ly+'r)!i#+# 8SNP#90 a8 S6)s are 36A se>uences in an organism<s genome that iffer #y a single nucleoti e8 #8 S6)s can cause changes in amino aci se>uences or other regulatory ifferences5 an are therefore thought to #e an im,ortant source of genetic 2ariations in ,o,ulations of all organisms8 48 6ew research isco2ere that humans inherit ,atterns of #ase;,air ifferences calle haplotypes @from the terms ha,loi an genoty,eA8 a8 The 4a,Ma, )ro7ect catalogs se>uence ifferences5 calle ha,loty,es5 in humans8 #8 +esearchers want to lin9 ha,loty,es to the ris9 of s,ecific illnesses5 in the ho,e it will lea to new metho s of ,re2enting5 iagnosing5 an treating isease8 B8 Microe2olution 18 0t was not until the 1-3.s that ,o,ulation geneticists were a#le to a,,ly the ,rinci,les of genetics to ,o,ulations an thus to recogni'e when e2olution ha occurre 8 28 &2olution that occurs within a ,o,ulation is calle +i&r'ev'l%$i'"0 38 The *e"e )''l is the total of all the alleles in a ,o,ulationD it is escri#e in terms of gene fre>uencies8 48 6either ominance nor se/ual re,ro uction changes allele fre>uencies8 ?0 T!e Hardy;/ei"ber* )ri"&i)le a8 This ,rinci,le states an e>uili#rium of allele fre>uencies in a gene ,ool @using a formula p2 O 2p% O %2A remains in effect in each succee ing generation of a se/ually re,ro ucing ,o,ulation if fi2e con itions are met8 1A 6o mutation% no allelic changes occur5 or changes in one irection are 1.(

#alance #y changes in the other irection8 2A 6o gene flow% migration of alleles into or out of the ,o,ulation oes not occur8 3A +an om mating% in i2i uals ,air #y chance an not accor ing to their genoty,es or ,henoty,es8 4A 6o genetic rift% the ,o,ulation is large so changes in allele fre>uencies ue to chance are insignificant8 "A 6o selection% no selecti2e force fa2ors one genoty,e o2er another8 #8 0n real life5 con itions of the 4ar y;:ein#erg law are rarely if e2er met5 an allele fre>uencies in the gene ,ool of a ,o,ulation o change from one generation to the ne/t5 resulting in e2olution8 c8 Any change of allele fre>uencies in a gene ,ool of a ,o,ulation signifies that e2olution has occurre 8 8 The 4ar y;:ein#erg law tells us what factors cause e2olution?those that 2iolate the con itions liste 8 e8 A ,ar"y.4einberg e%uilibrium ,ro2i es a #aseline #y which to 7u ge whether e2olution has occurre 8 f8 4ar y;:ein#erg e>uili#rium is a constancy of gene ,ool fre>uencies that remains across generations8 $8 0n ustrial Melanism a8 The case of the ,e,,ere moths ,ro2i es a case stu y in a shift in ,henoty,e fre>uencies un er selection8 #8 Before trees #ecame coate with soot from air ,ollution5 the ,ercentage of ar9; colore moths was 1.N8 c8 :ith #ir s acting as a selecti2e agent5 the light colore moths were re uce while ar9;colore moths were #etter a a,te to sur2i2e on the ar9ene trees8 8 The last generation o#ser2e has *.N ar9;colore moths8 C8 Causes of Microe2olution 18 Mutations a8 M%$a$i'"# are ,ermanent genetic changes8 #8 :ithout mutations5 there coul #e no inherita#le ,henoty,ic 2ariations among mem#ers of a ,o,ulation8 c8 Mutations are the ,rimary source of genetic ifferences among ,ro9aryotes that ,ro uce ase/ually8 8 0n se/ual re,ro ucing organisms5 #oth mutations an se/ual recom#ination are im,ortant in generating ,henoty,ic ifferences8 28 6onran om Mating an 1ene !low a8 +an om mating in2ol2es in i2i uals ,airing #y chance5 not accor ing to genoty,e or ,henoty,e8 #8 N'"ra"d'+ +a$i"* occurs when certain genoty,es or ,henoty,es mate with one another8 c8 A##'r$ive +a$i"* is a ty,e of nonran om mating that occurs when in i2i uals ten to mate with those ha2ing the same ,henoty,e with res,ect to a certain characteristic8 8 Assortati2e mating i2i es a ,o,ulation into two ,henoty,ic classes with re uce gene e/change8 e8 4omo'ygotes for gene loci that control a trait increase5 an hetero'ygotes for 1.*

these loci ecrease8 f8 Ge"e 1l'. @gene migrationA is the mo2ement of alleles among ,o,ulations #y migration of #ree ing in i2i uals8 g8 1ene flow can increase 2ariation within a ,o,ulation #y intro ucing no2el alleles ,ro uce #y mutation in another ,o,ulation8 h8 Continue gene flow ecreases i2ersity among ,o,ulations5 causing gene ,ools to #ecome similar8 i8 1ene flow among ,o,ulations can ,re2ent s,eciation from occurring8 38 1enetic 3rift a8 Ge"e$i& dri1$ refers to changes in allele fre>uencies of a gene ,ool ue to chance rather than selection #y the en2ironment8 #8 1enetic rift occurs in #oth large an small ,o,ulationsD small ,o,ulations are more li9ely to show the effects of rift8 c8 1enetic rift occurs when foun ers start a new ,o,ulation5 or after a genetic #ottlenec9 with inter#ree ing8 8 The b'$$le"e&, e11e&$ ,re2ents most genoty,es from ,artici,ating in ,ro uction of the ne/t generation8 1A The #ottlenec9 effect is cause #y a se2ere re uction in ,o,ulation si'e ue to a natural isaster5 ,re ation5 or ha#itat re uction8 2A The #ottlenec9 effect causes a se2ere re uction in the total genetic i2ersity of the original gene ,ool8 3A The cheetah #ottlenec9 causes relati2e infertility #ecause alleles were lost ue to intense in#ree ing when ,o,ulations were re uce in earlier times8 e8 The 1'%"der e11e&$ is an e/am,le of genetic rift where rare alleles or com#inations occur in higher fre>uency in a ,o,ulation isolate from the general ,o,ulation8 1A This is ue to foun ing in i2i uals containing a fraction of total genetic i2ersity of the original ,o,ulation8 2A :hich ,articular alleles are carrie #y the foun ers is ictate #y chance alone8 3A As an e/am,le5 warfism is much higher in a )ennsyl2ania Amish community ue to a few 1erman foun ers8 1B02 Na$%ral Sele&$i'" 18 6atural selection fa2ores the ,henoty,e that is the most a a,ti2e un er the ,resent en2ironmental circumstances8 0n this conte/t5 there are three ty,es of natural selection% sta#ili'ing5 irectional5 or isru,ti2e8 28 S$abili5i"* #ele&$i'" occurs when e/treme ,henoty,es are eliminate an the interme iate ,henoty,e is fa2ore 8 a8 The a2erage num#er of eggs lai #y Swiss starlings is four or fi2e8 #8 0f the female lays more or less than this num#er5 fewer sur2i2e8 c8 1enes etermining the ,hysiology of yol9 ,ro uction an #eha2ior are in2ol2e in clutch si'e8 38 ire&$i'"al #ele&$i'" occurs when an e/treme ,henoty,e is fa2ore D the istri#ution cur2e shifts that irection8 a8 A shift to more colorful5 later maturing male gu,,ies with e/,osure to no ,re ators com,are to ra# colore 5 early maturing male gu,,ies8 48 i#r%)$ive #ele&$i'" occurs when e/treme ,henoty,es are fa2ore an can lea to 1.-

more than one istinct form8 a8 British snails @0epaea nemoralisA 2ary #ecause a wi e range causes natural selection to 2ary8 #8 0n forest areas5 thrushes fee on snails with light #an s8 c8 0n low;2egetation areas5 thrushes fee on snails with ar9 shells that lac9 light #an s8 "8 Se/ual Selection
a8 Se6%al #ele&$i'" refers to a a,ti2e changes in males an females that lea to an increase a#ility to secure a mate8

1A 0n males5 this may result in an increase a#ility to com,ete with other males for a mate8 2A !emales may select a mate with the #est 1i$"e## @a#ility to ,ro uce sur2i2ing offs,ringA5 there#y increasing her own fitness8 $8 !emale Choice
a8 Two hy,othesis regar ing a female<s choice of a mate are%

1A The goo" genes hypothesis conten s that females choose mates #ase on traits for im,ro2ing the sur2i2al of offs,ring8 2A The runaway hypothesis states that females chose mates on the #asis of traits that attract them to femalesD the trait can then #ecome e/aggerate until it is a han ica,8 #8 The +aggiana Bir of )ara ise is "imorphic @males an females iffer in si'e an other traitsA 1A The ornateness of the male is a factor in selection #y a female8 2A More feathery +aggiana are ,arasite;free5 an their selection #y females woul increase the chance for sur2i2al8 (8 Male Com,etition a8 A &'#$;be"e1i$ a"aly#i# can #e a,,lie to etermine if the benefit of access to mating is worth the cost of com,etition among males8 #8 Ba#oons ha2e a ominance hierarchy8 1A A d'+i"a"&e !ierar&!y is a ran9ing within a grou, where the higher ran9ing in i2i uals ac>uire more resources8 2A 3ominance is etermine #y confrontation where one animal gi2es way to the other8 3A Ba#oons are imor,hic% males are larger an ha2e large canine teethD they eci e when the troo, mo2es5 an they efen it8 4A !emales mate with ominant males when o2ulation is nearD the ominant males then ,rotect all young8 "A The raw#ac9s to #eing large an in anger are outweighe #y the chance of fathering young8 $A The su#or inate males ha2e less chance to mate #ut they o ha2e a2enues to ha2e some offs,ring8 c8 +e eer sta9e out a $erri$'ry5 an area that is efen e against com,etitors8 1A Terri$'riali$y in2ol2es the ty,e of #eha2ior nee e to efen a ,articular territory8 2A A stag com,etes for females that form a harem that mate only with him8 3A A stag remains at ,ea9 fighting a#ility for only a short timeD one stag can only father a#out two o'en offs,ring8 *8 Se/ual Selection in 4umans @Science Focus #o/A 11.

a8 4uman males com,ete8 #8 4umans5 li9e many other mammals5 are imor,hic8 c8 Males are larger an more aggressi2e5 ,erha,s ue to ,ast se/ual selection #y females8 1A !emales choose8 2A Male mating success correlates #est with income?wealthy males attracte mates #etter than nonwealthy males8 3A A,,arently5 females ,refer to mate with a male who is wealthy an has a successful career?this will ensure that the chil ren will li2e to re,ro uce8 18 Men Also 4a2e a Choice a8 Men ,refer women who will ,resent them with chil ren% health5 age5 Bfigure5C faithfulness are all factors in a male<s choice of a mate8 1B04 Mai"$e"a"&e '1 Varia$i'"# 18 )o,ulations always show some genoty,ic 2ariationD ,o,ulations that lac9 2ariation may not #e a#le to a a,t to new con itions8 A8 6atural Selection 18 0m,erfections are common #ecause com,romises ha2e ha to #e ma e8 !or e/am,le5 the success of humans is attri#uta#le to their e/terous han s5 #ut the s,ine is su#7ect to in7ury #ecause the 2erte#rate s,ine was not originally esigne to stan erect8 28 0f a feature has successfully e2ol2e 5 then the #enefit outweighs the cost8 38 The en2ironment also ,lays a role in maintaining 2ariations8 !or e/am,le5 isru,ti2e selection ,romostes ,olymor,hisms in a ,o,ulation8 48 The en2ironment also inclu es s,ecific selecting agents that hel, maintain 2ariations8 B8 4etero'ygote A 2antage 18 He$er'5y*'$e adva"$a*e occurs when the hetero'ygote is fa2ore o2er the two homo'ygotes8 28 Sic9le;Cell 3isease a8 0n sic9le;cell isease5 hetero'ygotes are more fit in malaria areas #ecause the sic9le;cell trait oes not e/,ress unless the o/ygen content of the en2ironment is lowD #ut the malaria agent causes re #loo cells to ie when it infects them @loss of ,otassiumA8 #8 Some homo'ygous ominants are maintaine in the ,o,ulation #ut they ie at an early age from sic9le;cell isease8 c8 Some homo'ygotes are maintaine in the ,o,ulation for normal re #loo cells5 #ut they are 2ulnera#le to malaria8 C8 Cystic !i#rosis a8 0n cystic fi#rosis the recessi2e allele causes the ,erson to ha2e a efecti2e ,lasma mem#rane ,rotein8 #8 The agent that causes ty,hoi fe2er can use the normal 2ersion of this ,rotein5 #ut not the efecti2e one5 to enter cells8 c8 4etero'ygote su,eriority cause the recessi2e allele to #e maintaine in the ,o,ulation8

Le&$%re E"ri&!+e"$ Idea#

E6)erie"&e Ba#e: Basic alge#ra s9ills are necessary for stu ents to un erstan the 4ar y; :ein#erg formula an high school math re>uirements will 2ary #y state8 6onetheless5 college 111

#iology ma7ors shoul ha2e a e>uate math #ac9groun 8 18 3escri#e how each of the con itions of the 4ar y;:ein#erg e>uili#rium retar s e2olution8
28 )ro2i e e/am,les of irectional selection5 sta#ili'ing selection5 an isru,ti2e selection?consi er 2ery tall an 2ery short humans5 ifferent #ree s of ogs5 etc8 :hen e/amining human traits an e2olution5 consi er the ,re; ci2ili'ation selecti2e ,ressures8 :hat is ha,,ening when Bci2ili'ationC ,re2ents ,oorly a a,te @in terms of sur2i2al in ,re;historic timesA humans from #eing eliminate from the gene ,ool an in i2i uals with this trait can now re,ro uce an ,ass the trait along8 6ote how easy it is to sli e into eugenics8

38 Consi er why ,re;mating isolating mechanisms are more efficient than ,ost;mating isolating mechanisms in re,ro ucti2e isolation lea ing to s,eciation5 an why Mayr ,re icte that ,ost;mating isolation woul occur #efore ,re;mating isolation in geogra,hic isolation an s,eciation8 48 Although malaria was ,resent an continue to #e a selecti2e force in the South in the 1*..s5 there was no longer an a 2antage to the hetero'ygous con ition in the 2.th century8 As9 for reasone s,eculation on the change in fre>uencies of the sic9le;cell geneD why is the sic9le; cell allele unli9ely to totally isa,,earK

Cri$i&al T!i",i"*
-%e#$i'" 10 Most organisms ha2e a sur,rising amount of genetic i2ersity5 or ,otential for 2ariation5 within their gene ,ool8 Only some of them are #est a a,te for the e/act en2ironmental con itions in your local area this year8 :hy oes the ,o,ulation ,ossess all of this genetic 2ariationK A"#.er% Con itions change% early an late s,rings5 harsh an mil winters5 etc8 One year one grou, is fa2ore 5 the ne/t year another is fa2ore 8 This 9ee,s a rich stoc9,ile of genetic 2ariation a2aila#le for future changes8 An organism that #ecomes too narrow in its gene ,ool ris9s ha2ing no in i2i uals a#le to sur2i2e a ,articular 2ariation in climate or other con itions8 -%e#$i'" 20 Consi er a time ,erio of continual 2ariation in en2ironmental con itions that is then followe #y a time ,erio of relati2e sta#ility an lac9 of 2ariation8 Com,are this to the o,,osite5 a time ,erio of sta#ility followe #y a time ,erio of continual en2ironmental fluctuation8 0n which case woul you e/,ect to see more s,ecies go e/tinctK A"#.er% More e/tinctions woul li9ely occur when organisms li2e a long time in a sta#le en2ironment5 an alleles for sur2i2al in a ifferent en2ironment ha #een selecte out5 an then the en2ironment #ecame highly 2aria#le8 0n the case of original high 2aria#ility5 the onset of a sta#le en2ironment ,oses no ,ro#lem to a ,o,ulation that continually reinforce first one allele5 then another8 -%e#$i'" 40 Consi er the ,ro,osal that left;han e ness is inherite as a recessi2e gene @rrA an right;han e ness is ominant @'', 'rA8 0f 1$N of this class is left;han e 5 what ,ro,ortion of the right;han e stu ents are li9ely to #e carriers of a left;han e ness gene an what is the fre>uency of the hy,othetical left;han e geneK A"#.er% The 4ar y;:ein#erg formula is ,2 O 2 p% O %2 P 1 where p P ' an % P r8 Thus %2 P 81$ an % P 84 or the left;han e ness gene has a fre>uency of 4.N8 The right;han e ness gene 112

therefore has a fre>uency of $.N8 An the carriers @'r P 2 p%A e>ual 2 x .84 x .8$ P .84*D so 4*N of the class is li9ely carriers lea2ing 3$N of the class homo'ygous ominant for the hy,othetical right;han e ness gene8

Te&!"'l'*y 1r'+ M&Gra.;Hill

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113

0,A(/&'

1( S)&C0AT0O6 A63 MAC+O&VOLGT0O6

This cha,ter ,resents sections on se,aration of the s,ecies5 mo es of s,eciation5 an macroe2olution8 Mo es of s,eciation are escri#e in etail8 Much terminology an many efinitions use in the stu y of e2olutionary ,rocesses are ,resente 8 A Science Focus #o/ entitle 5 B/he Burgess Shale ,osts a Di#ersity of @ife,A is ,resente 8

C!a)$er O%$li"e
1C01 Se)ara$i'" '1 $!e S)e&ie# A8 :hat is a S,eciesK 18 The ev'l%$i'"ary #)e&ie# &'"&e)$ states that mem#ers of a s,ecies share the same istinct e2olutionary ,athway an that s,ecies can #e recogni'e #y mor,hological trait ifferences8 a8 An a 2antage of efining s,ecies accor ing to this conce,t is that it a,,lies to #oth se/ually an ase/ually re,ro ucing organisms8 #8 4owe2er5 a isa 2antage to this s,ecies conce,t is using mor,hological traits to istinguish s,ecies8 The ,resence of 2ariation #etween in i2i uals may categori'e them as two ifferent s,ecies rather than one s,ecies8 28 The bi'l'*i&al #)e&ie# &'"&e)$ says that the mem#ers of one s,ecies inter#ree an ha2e a share gene ,ool5 an each s,ecies is re,ro ucti2ely isolate from e2ery other s,ecies8 a8 An a 2antage to this s,ecies conce,t is that it can esignate s,ecies e2en when trait ifferences may #e ifficult to fin 8 #8 A isa 2antage is that this conce,t cannot #e a,,lie to ase/ually re,ro ucing organisms5 organisms only 9nown #y the fossil recor 5 or s,ecies that coul ,ossi#ly inter#ree if they li2e near one another8 38 36A #ase se>uence ata an ,rotein ifferences can now #e use to in2estigate how closely s,ecies are relate to one another8 B8 +e,ro ucti2e 0solating Mechanisms 18 !or two s,ecies to #e se,arate5 gene flow must not occur #etween them8 28 A repro"ucti#e isolating mechanism is any structural5 functional5 or #eha2ioral characteristic that ,re2ents successful re,ro uction from occurring8 38 Pre5y*'$i& @B#efore formation of a 'ygoteCA i#'la$i"* +e&!a"i#+# are anatomical or #eha2ioral ifferences #etween the mem#ers of two s,ecies that ,re2ent mating or ma9e it unli9ely fertili'ation will ta9e ,lace if mating occurs8 a8 Habi$a$ i#'la$i'" occurs when two s,ecies occu,y ifferent ha#itats5 e2en within the same geogra,hic range5 so that they are less li9ely to meet an to attem,t to re,ro uce8 #8 Te+)'ral i#'la$i'" occurs when two s,ecies li2e in the same location5 #ut each re,ro uces at a ifferent time of year5 an so they o not attem,t to mate8 c8 Be!avi'ral i#'la$i'" results from ifferences in mating #eha2ior #etween two s,ecies8 8 Me&!a"i&al i#'la$i'" is the result of ifferences #etween two s,ecies in re,ro ucti2e structures or other #o y ,arts5 so that mating is ,re2ente 8 114

e8 Ga+e$e i#'la$i'" inclu es incom,ati#ility of gametes of two ifferent s,ecies so they cannot fuse to form a 'ygoteD an egg may ha2e rece,tors only for the s,erm of its own s,ecies or a ,lant stigma ,re2ents com,letion of ,ollination8 48 P'#$5y*'$i& @Bafter formation of a 'ygoteCA i#'la$i"* +e&!a"i#+# ,re2ent e2elo,ment of a hy#ri after mating has ta9en ,lace8 a8 Fy*'$e +'r$ali$y is when !ybrid# @offs,ring of ,arents of two ifferent s,eciesA o not li2e to re,ro uce8 #8 Hybrid #$erili$y occurs when the hy#ri offs,ring are sterile @e8g85 mulesA8 c8 0n F2 1i$"e##3 the offs,ring are fertile #ut the !2 generation is sterile8 1C02 M'de# '1 S)e&ia$i'" 18 S)e&ia$i'" is the s,litting of one s,ecies into two more s,ecies or the transformation of one s,ecies into a new s,ecies o2er time8 a8 +esearchers recogni'e two mo es of s,eciation% geogra,hic isolation an re,ro ucti2e isolation8 A8 Allo,atric s,eciation 18 Allo,atric s,eciation occurs when new s,ecies result from ,o,ulations #eing se,arate #y a geogra,hical #arrier that ,re2ents their mem#ers from re,ro ucing with each other8 28 !irst ,ro,ose #y &rnst Mayr of 4ar2ar Gni2ersity8 38 :hile geogra,hically isolate 5 2ariations accumulate until the ,o,ulations are re,ro ucti2ely isolate 8 48 &/am,les of Allo,atric S,eciation a8 An ancestral ,o,ulation of &nsatina salaman ers migrate from northern California to southern California8 The Central Valley ,re2ente gene flow #etween the eastern an western ,o,ulations of these salaman ers8 1enetic ifferences increase resulting in two istinct forms of &nsatina salaman ers8 #8 1reen iguana of South America is #elie2e to #e the common ancestor for the marine iguana on the 1al_,agos 0slan s @to the westA an the rhinoceros iguana on 4is,aniola @to the northA8 A few of these iguanas may ha2e swam to the islan s an o2er time forme ,o,ulations se,arate from each other an from the ,arent ,o,ulation of South America8 c8 Many soc9eye salmon in :ashington State were intro uce into La9e :ashington when some coloni'e an area of the la9e near )leasure )oint Beach an others migrate into the Ce ar +i2er8 Because of the ifference in water current5 o2er time5 the salmon iffere in sha,e an si'e ue to the eman s of re,ro ucing in the ifferent water currents8 "8 +einforcement of +e,ro ucti2e 0solation a8 A si e effect to a a,ti2e changes in2ol2ing mating is re,ro ucti2e isolation8 #8 As ,o,ulations #ecome re,ro ucti2ely isolate 5 ,ost'ygotic isolating mechanisms may arise #efore ,re'ygotic isolating mechanisms8 c8 An e/am,le is a horse re,ro ucting with a mule5 a sterile on9ey is ,ro uce 8 8 6atural selection woul fa2or any 2ariation in ,o,ulations that ,re2ents the occurrence of hy#ri s when they o not ha2e offs,ring8 e8 'einforcement refers to the ,rocess of natural selection fa2oring 2ariations that lea to re,ro ucti2e isolation8 B8 A a,ti2e +a iation 18 Ada)$ive radia$i'" is a ty,e of allo,atric s,eciation an occurs when a single 11"

ancestral s,ecies gi2es rise to a 2ariety of s,ecies5 each a a,te to a s,ecific en2ironment8 28 An ecological niche is where a s,ecies li2es an how it interacts with other s,ecies8 38 The case of 3arwin<s finches illustrates the a a,ti2e ra iation of 13 s,ecies from one foun er mainlan finch8 48 On the 4awaiian 0slan s5 a wi e 2ariety of honeycree,ers escen e from one gol finch;li9e ancestorD 4awaii is also the home of the sil2erswor ,lants that ra iate from ancestral tarwee s8 C8 Sym,atric S,eciation 18 Sy+)a$ri& #)e&ia$i'" woul occur when mem#ers of a single ,o,ulation e2elo, a genetic ifference @e8g85 chromosome num#erA that ,re2ents them from re,ro ucing with the ,arent ty,e8 28 A )'ly)l'id is a eu9aryote with three or more com,lete sets of chromosomes8 a8 )oly,loi y is ,re ominantly seen in ,lants an ma9es a significant contri#ution to the e2olution of new ,lants8 #8 A ,oly,loi ,lant can re,ro uce with itself5 #ut cannot re,ro uce with the 2n ,o,ulation8 c8 The two ty,es of ,oly,loi y are aneu,loi y an allo,loi y8 38 A"e%)l'idy is the con ition in which an organism gains or loses one or more chromosomes8 a8 M'"'#'+y @2n = 1A occurs when an in i2i ual has only one of a ,articular ty,e of chromosome8 #8 Tri#'+y @2n O 1A occurs when an in i2i ual has three of a ,articular ty,e of chromosome8 c8 !armers may use ,ro uce sterile ,lants #ecause their fruits o not ha2e see s an ten to #e more fa2ora#le for the consumer8 48 All')l'idy re>uires two ifferent #ut relate s,ecies of ,lants to hy#ri i'e8 a8 :hen hy#ri i'ation occurs5 it is followe #y chromosome ou#ling8 #8 4owe2er the offs,ring that has ,arents with ifferent num#ere ,airs of chromosomes will #e sterile8 c8 An e/am,le of allo,loi y can #e seen in the wheat ,lant use to ,ro uce #rea 8 The ,arents of the ,resent ay #rea wheat ha 2* an 14 chromosomes8 The hy#ri with 21 chromosomes is sterile5 #ut #rea wheat with 43 chromosomes is fertile since the chromosomes can ,air uring meiosis8 38 The Burgess Shale 4osts a 3i2ersity of Life @Science Focus #o/A 18 The Burgess Shale is a roc9 outcro,,ing in Loho 6ational )ar95 British Colum#ia isco2ere #y Charles 3oolittle :alcott in 1-.-8 28 0n this area there is a large >uantity of fossils8 38 At the #eginning of the e/ca2ation5 it was ifficult to e/tract the fossils from their matri/5 #ut now new metho s that in2ol2e GV light an ilute acetic aci ma9e it easy to free the fossils8 48 These marine fossils are thought to ha2e li2e aroun "4. million years ago @MLAA5 uring the )recam#rian ,erio 8 "8 Many fossils foun in the Burgess Shale are soft;#o ie in2erte#rates5 which is unusual since soft;#o ie animals rarely fossili'e 8 $8 :hen these organisms were ali2e5 they all li2e in the sea5 an this area was su#7ecte to mu sli es8 The mu entere the sea5 #urie the animals8 Later the mu 11$

turne into shale an o2er time the shale was raise 8 Mu ,articles fille the s,aces aroun the organisms5 so the soft tissue was ,reser2e an fossils #ecame somewhat three; imensional8 (8 Organisms that ha2e #een ,reser2e at the Burgess Shale are 2erte#rates5 in2erte#rates5 an unicellular organisms8 *8 There is much is,ute regar ing the e2olution of these s,ecies8 Some scientists #elie2e that e2olution of these s,ecies ha,,ene slowly5 while others #elie2e it ha,,ene >uic9ly an su enly8 1C04 Pri"&i)le# '1 Ma&r'ev'l%$i'" A8 Ma&r'ev'l%$i'" is e2olution of new s,ecies an higher le2els of classification8 B8 Some e2olutionists su,,ort a gra"ualistic mo"el of macroe2olution5 meaning that s,eciation occurs after ,o,ulations #ecome isolate 5 with each grou, continuing slowly on its own e2olutionary ,athway8 18 Accor ing to this mo el5 ancestral s,ecies gra ually gi2es rise to two se,arate s,ecies8 28 This mo el suggests that it is ifficult to in icate when s,eciation occurre #ecause there woul #e so many transitional lin9s8 C8 Other e2olutionists su,,ort a punctuate" e%uilibrium mo"el to e/,lain the ,ace of e2olution8 a8 Accor ing to this mo el5 ,erio s of e>uili#rium @no changeA are ,unctuate @or interru,te A #y s,eciation8 #8 This mo el suggests that transitional lin9s are less li9ely to #ecome fossils an less li9ely to #e foun 8 c8 S,eciation is more li9ely to in2ol2e only an isolate ,o,ulation at one locate5 #ecause a fa2ora#le genoty,e coul s,rea more ra,i ly within such a ,o,ulation8 38 These two mo els coul #oth assist in inter,retation of the fossil recor 8 !or e/am,le5 some s,ecies may fit into one mo el5 an other s,ecies fit into the other mo el8 18 3e2elo,mental 1enes an Macroe2olution a8 1enes can #ring a#out ra ical changes in #o y sha,es an organs8 #8 The (a!B gene is in2ol2e in eye formation in all organisms8 c8 4omeotic @,o!A genes etermine the location of re,eate structures in all 2erte#rates8 28 1ene &/,ression Can 0nfluence 3e2elo,ment a8 1ene e/,ression influences organisms< e2elo,mental ,rocesses8 #8 These genes can #ring a#out changes in #o y sha,es an organs8 c8 3es,ite millions of years of i2ergent e2olution5 all animals share the same control switches for e2elo,ment 38 3e2elo,ment of the &ye a8 &yes of s,ecies 2ary in si'e5 com,oun or sim,le5 etc8 #8 3es,ite these ifferences5 there is one gene5 (a!B, re>uire for eye formation8 c8 The gene (a!B was isco2ere #y :alter 1ehrig an colleagues in 1--48 8 0nterestingly5 the mouse (a!B gene can cause an eye to e2elo, in the leg of a fruit fly8 48 3e2elo,ment of Lim#s a8 The /b!1 gene hel,s in the e2elo,ment of lim#s in humans an wings in #ir s8 #8 /b!1 triggers ifferent genes in #ir s an humans5 which may e/,lain why the same ,rotein is use in e2elo,ing lim#s in humans an wings in #ir s8 "8 3e2elo,ment of O2erall Sha,e 11(

a8 ,o! genes control the num#er an a,,earances of re,eate structures along the main #o y a/es of 2erte#rates8 #8 Shifts when the ,o! gene is e/,resse can e/,lain why some 2erte#rates5 li9e the sna9e5 ha2e hun re s of 2erte#rae5 an others5 li9e the chic9 only ha2e se2en8 $8 )el2ic;!in 1enes a8 An altere e/,ression of a ,articular gene can re uce the ,el2ic;fin #u in the em#ryo8 #8 6atural selection can lea to ma7or s9eletal changes in a relati2ely short ,erio of time8 (8 4uman &2olution a8 4uman 36A #ase se>uencing is similar to that of chim,an'ees5 mice5 an all 2erte#rates8 #8 Scientists ,re ict that ifferential gene e/,ression an For new functions for Bol C genes will e/,lain how humans e2ol2e 8 &8 Macroe2olution 0s 6ot 1oal;Oriente 18 The e2olution of the horse5 &%uus5 re,resents a gra ual5 straight;line e2olution until its goal5 the mo ern horse5 has #een achie2e 8 a8 The tren s seen in the e2olution of the horse are% o2erall si'e5 toe re uction5 an change in tooth si'e an sha,e8 28 4owe2er5 #ase on fossils5 it is easier to see that the horse lineage is not a straight; line e2olution5 #ut rather forming a thic9 #ush of many e>uine s,ecies8 38 One may ha2e e ucte that since the only genus that remains is &%uus an the other genera ha2e #ecome e/tinct5 that e2olution was irecte towar s ,ro ucing &%uus. 4owe2er5 each of the ancestral s,ecies was a a,te to its en2ironment8 48 A a,tation occurs #ecause the mem#ers of a ,o,ulation with an a 2antage are a#le to ha2e more offs,ring than other mem#ers8 "8 6atural selection is not goal;oriente 5 #ut rather o,,ortunistic8

Le&$%re E"ri&!+e"$ Idea#

"8 3iscuss why a a,ti2e ra iation shoul #e ,re2alent when there is a win ow of no com,etition for an en2ironmental ha#itat5 such as after the eath of the inosaurs or when finches arri2e on the 1al_,agos 0slan s8 $8 Consi er why ,re;mating isolating mechanisms are more efficient than ,ost;mating isolating mechanisms in re,ro ucti2e isolation lea ing to s,eciation5 an why Mayr ,re icte that ,ost;mating isolation woul occur #efore ,re;mating isolation in geogra,hic isolation an s,eciation8 (8 3iscuss why allo,atric s,eciation woul #e more li9ely than sym,atric s,eciation for animals8 Also note that in the case of ,oly,loi ,lants5 the e2olution of a new Bs,eciesC is imme iate8

Cri$i&al T!i",i"*
-%e#$i'" 10 Most organisms ha2e a sur,rising amount of genetic i2ersity5 or ,otential for 11*

2ariation5 within their gene ,ool8 Only some of them are #est a a,te for the e/act en2ironmental con itions in your local area this year8 :hy oes the ,o,ulation ,ossess all of this genetic 2ariationK A"#.er% Con itions change% early an late s,rings5 harsh an mil winters5 etc8 One year one grou, is fa2ore 5 the ne/t year another is fa2ore 8 This 9ee,s a rich stoc9,ile of genetic 2ariation a2aila#le for future changes8 An organism that #ecomes too narrow in its gene ,ool ris9s ha2ing no in i2i uals a#le to sur2i2e a ,articular 2ariation in climate or other con itions8 -%e#$i'" 20 Consi er a time ,erio of continual 2ariation in en2ironmental con itions that is then followe #y a time ,erio of relati2e sta#ility an lac9 of 2ariation8 Com,are this to the o,,osite5 a time ,erio of sta#ility followe #y a time ,erio of continual en2ironmental fluctuation8 0n which case woul you e/,ect to see more s,ecies go e/tinctK A"#.er% More e/tinctions woul li9ely occur when organisms li2e a long time in a sta#le en2ironment5 an alleles for sur2i2al in a ifferent en2ironment ha #een selecte out5 an then the en2ironment #ecame highly 2aria#le8 0n the case of original high 2aria#ility5 the onset of a sta#le en2ironment ,oses no ,ro#lem to a ,o,ulation that continually reinforce first one allele5 then another8

Te&!"'l'*y 1r'+ M&Gra.;Hill

)lease consult your C'%r#e I"$e*ra$i'" G%ide for technology correlations for this cha,ter8

11-

0hapter

1*

Origin an 4istory of Life

This cha,ter loo9s at the origin of life8 Beginning with the e2elo,ment of organic molecules from the early atmost,here5 the 2arious eras an the #iological e2ents occurring in them are outline in etail8

C!a)$er O%$li"e
1D01 Ori*i" '1 Li1e 18 C!e+i&al ev'l%$i'" is the increase in com,le/ity of chemicals that le to the first cells8 a8 To ay5 we say that Blife only comes from life8C #8 4owe2er5 the first cells ha to arise from an increase com,le/ity of chemicals8 A8 The &arly &arth 18 The &arth came into #eing a#out 48$ BLA8 28 4eat from gra2itation an ra ioacti2ity forme the &arth in se2eral layers with iron an nic9el in a li>ui core5 silicate minerals in a semi;li>ui mantle5 an u,wellings of 2olcanic la2a forming the first crust8 38 The &arth<s mass ,ro2i es a gra2itational fiel strong enough to hol an atmos,here8 48 &arly &arth<s atmos,here iffere from the current atmos,here5 consisting of% a8 water 2a,orD #8 nitrogenD c8 car#on io/i eD an 8 small amounts of hy rogen5 methane5 ammonia5 hy rogen sulfi e5 an car#on mono/i e8 "8 The early atmos,here was forme #y 2olcanic out;gassing characteristic of the young &arth8 $8 The early atmos,here containe little free o/ygen @O2A an was ,ro#a#ly a re ucing atmos,here with little free o/ygenD a re ucing atmos,here lac9s free O2 an allows formation of com,le/ organic molecules8 (8 The early &arth was so hot that 42O only e/iste as a 2a,or in ense5 thic9 clou s8 *8 As the &arth coole 5 42O 2a,or con ense to form li>ui 42O5 an rain collecte in oceans8 -8 The &arth<s istance from the sun allows 42O to e/ist in all ,hases% soli 5 li>ui 5 an gas8 1.8 6ASA ,hotos seem to confirm that &arth is #om#ar e #y comets a ing su#stantial water 2a,or8 B8 Monomers &2ol2e 18 There are three hy,otheses that e/,lain how organic monomers coul ha2e e2ol2e 8 28 4y,othesis one% monomers came from outer s,ace8 a8 Comets an meteorites5 ,erha,s carrying organic chemicals5 ha2e ,elte the &arth throughout history8 #8 A meteorite from Mars @AL4*4..1A that lan e on &arth 135... years ago5 may ha2e fossili'e #acteria8 38 4y,othesis two% monomers came from reactions in the atmos,here8 a8 O,arinF4al ane in e,en ently suggeste organic molecules coul #e forme in the ,resence of outsi e energy sources using atmos,heric gases8 #8 &/,eriments ,erforme #y Miller an Grey @1-"3A showe e/,erimentally that 12.

these gases @methane5 ammonia5 hy rogen5 waterA reacte with one another to ,ro uce small organic molecules @amino aci s5 organic aci sA8 c8 Lac9 of o/i ation an ecay allowe organic molecules to form a thic95 warm organic sou,8 48 4y,othesis three% monomers came from reactions at hy rothermal 2ents8 a8 Ammonia may ha2e #een scarce in the early atmos,hereD un ersea thermal 2ents5 which line '&ea" rid*e#3 might ha2e #een res,onsi#le for con2erting nitrogen to ammonia8 C8 )olymers &2ol2e 18 6ewly forme organic molecules ,olymeri'e to ,ro uce larger molecules8 a8 :achtershauser an 4u#er forme ,e,ti es using iron;nic9el sulfi es un er 2entli9e con itions8 #8 Such minerals ha2e a charge surface that attracts amino aci s an ,ro2i es electrons so they #on together8 28 )rotein;first 4y,othesis a8 Si ney !o/ emonstrate amino aci s ,olymeri'e a#iotically if e/,ose to ry heat8 #8 Amino aci s collecte in shallow ,u les along the roc9y shoreD heat of the sun cause them to form )r'$ei"'id# @i8e85 small ,oly,e,ti es that ha2e some catalytic ,ro,ertiesA8 c8 :hen ,roteinoi s are returne to water5 they form cell;li9e +i&r'#)!ere# com,ose of ,rotein8 8 This assumes 36A genes came after ,rotein en'ymesD 36A re,lication nee s ,rotein en'ymes8 38 The Clay 4y,othesis a8 1raham Cairns;Smith suggests that amino aci s ,olymeri'e in clay5 with ra ioacti2ity ,ro2i ing energy8 #8 Clay attracts small organic molecules an contains iron an 'inc atoms ser2ing as inorganic catalysts for ,oly,e,ti e formation8 c8 Clay collects energy from ra ioacti2e ecay an ischarges it if tem,erature or humi ity changes8 8 0f +6A nucleoti es an amino aci s #ecame associate so ,oly,e,ti es were or ere #y an hel,e synthesi'e +6A5 then ,oly,e,ti es an +6A arose at the same time8 48 +6A;first 4y,othesis a8 Only the macromolecule +6A was nee e at the #eginning to lea to the first cell8 #8 Thomas Cech an Si ney Altman isco2ere that +6A can #e #oth a su#strate an an en'yme8 c8 +6A woul carry out ,rocesses of life associate with 36A @in genesA an ,rotein en'ymes8 8 Su,,orters of this hy,othesis la#el this an B+6A worl C 4 BLA8 38 A )rotocell &2ol2es 18 Before the first true cell arose5 there woul ha2e #een a )r'$'&ell or )r'$'bi'"$0 28 A ,rotocell woul ha2e a li,i ;,rotein mem#rane an carry on energy meta#olism8 38 Si ney !o/ showe that if li,i s are ma e a2aila#le to micros,heres5 li,i s #ecome associate with micros,heres ,ro ucing a li,i ;,rotein mem#rane8 121

48 O,arin emonstrate a ,rotocell coul ha2e e2elo,e from coacer#ate "roplets. a8 C'a&erva$e dr')le$# are com,le/ s,herical units that s,ontaneously form when concentrate mi/tures of macromolecules are hel in the right tem,erature5 ionic com,osition5 an ,48 #8 Coacer2ate ro,lets a#sor# an incor,orate 2arious su#stances from the surroun ing solution8 c8 0n a li>ui en2ironment5 ,hos,holi,i molecules s,ontaneously form li)'#'+e#3 s,heres surroun e #y a layer of ,hos,holi,i sD this is calle the Bmem#rane; firstC hy,othesis8 8 A ,rotocell coul ha2e containe only +6A to function as #oth genetic material an en'ymes8 "8 0f a ,rotocell was a heterotro,hic fermenter li2ing on the organic molecules in the organic sou, that was its en2ironment5 this woul in icate heterotrophs ,rece e autotrophs8 a8 A heterotro,h is an organism that cannot synthesi'e organic com,oun s from inorganic su#stances an therefore must ta9e in ,reforme organic com,oun s8 #8 An autotro,h is an organism that ma9es organic molecules from inorganic nutrients8 $8 0f the ,rotocell e2ol2e at hy rothermal 2ents5 it woul #e chemosynthetic an autotro,hs woul ha2e ,rece e heterotro,hs8 (8 The first ,rotocells may ha2e use ,reforme AT)5 #ut as su,,lies win le 5 natural selection woul fa2or cells that coul e/tract energy from car#ohy rates to transform A3) to AT)8 *8 Since glycolysis is a common meta#olic ,athway in li2ing things5 it e2ol2e early in the history of life8 -8 As there was no free O25 it is assume that ,rotocells carrie on a form of fermentation8 1.8 The first ,rotocells ha a limite a#ility to #rea9 own organic moleculesD it too9 millions of years for glycolysis to e2ol2e com,letely8 118 !o/ has shown that a micros,here has some catalytic a#ilityD O,arin foun that coacer2ates incor,orate en'ymes if they are a2aila#le in the me ium8 &8 A Self;+e,lication System &2ol2es 18 0n li2ing systems5 information flows from 36A R +6A R ,roteinD it is ,ossi#le that this se>uence e2elo,e in stages8 28 The +6A;first hy,othesis suggests that the first genes an en'ymes were +6A molecules8 a8 These genes woul ha2e irecte an carrie out ,rotein synthesis8 #8 +i#o'ymes are +6A that acts as en'ymes8 c8 Some 2iruses contain +6A genes with a ,rotein en'yme calle re2erse transcri,tase that uses +6A as a tem,late to form 36AD this coul ha2e gi2en rise to the first 36A8 38 The ,rotein;first hy,othesis conten s that ,roteins or at least ,oly,e,ti es were the first to arise8 a8 Only after the ,rotocell e2elo,s com,le/ en'ymes coul it form nucleic aci s from small molecules8 #8 Because a nucleic aci is com,licate 5 the chance that it arose on its own is minimal8 122

c8 Therefore5 en'ymes are nee e to gui e the synthesis of nucleoti es an then nucleic aci s8 48 Cairns;Smith suggests that ,oly,e,ti es an +6A e2ol2e simultaneously8 a8 The first true cell woul contain +6A genes that re,licate #ecause of the ,resence of ,roteinsD they #ecome associate in clay in such a way that the ,oly,e,ti es cataly'e +6A formation8 #8 This eliminates the chic9en;an ;egg ,ara o/D #oth e2ents ha,,en at the same time8 "8 Once the ,rotocell was ca,a#le of re,ro uction5 it #ecame a true cell an #iological e2olution #egan8 a8 After 36A forme 5 the genetic co e still ha to e2ol2e to store information8 #8 Because the current co e is su#7ect to fewer errors than other ,ossi#le co es5 an #ecause it minimi'es mutations5 it li9ely un erwent a natural selection ,rocess8 !8 A +eca, of the Ste,s 18 Most #iologists sus,ect life e2ol2e in #asic ste,s8 a8 A#iotic synthesis of organic molecules such as amino aci s occurre in the atmos,here or at hy rothermal 2ents8 #8 Monomers 7oine together to form ,olymers at seasi e roc9s or clay5 or at 2entsD the first ,olymers coul ha2e #een ,roteins or +6A or #oth8 c8 )olymers aggregate insi e a ,lasma mem#rane to ma9e a ,rotocell that ha limite a#ility to growD if it e2elo,e in the ocean it was a heterotro,h5 if at a hy rothermal 2ent5 a chemoautotro,h8 8 Once the ,rotocell containe 36A genes or +6A molecules5 it was a true cell8 1D02 Hi#$'ry '1 Li1e A8 !ossils Tell a Story 18 A 1'##il is the remains or traces of ,ast life5 usually ,reser2e in se imentary roc98 28 Most ea organisms are consume #y sca2engers or ecom,ose8 38 Pale'"$'l'*y is the stu y of fossils an the history of life5 ancient climates5 an en2ironments8 48 Sedi+e"$a$i'" has #een going on since the &arth was forme D it is an accumulation of ,articles forming a #$ra$%+3 a recogni'a#le layer in a stratigra,hic se>uence lai own on lan or in water8 "8 The se>uence in icates the age of fossilsD a stratum is ol er than the one a#o2e it an younger than the one #elow it8 B8 +elati2e 3ating of !ossils 18 Strata of the same age in &nglan an +ussia may ha2e ifferent se iments8 28 4owe2er5 geologists isco2ere that strata of the same age contain the same fossils5 terme i"de6 1'##il#0 38 Therefore5 fossils can #e use for the rela$ive da$i"* of strata8 48 A ,articular s,ecies of fossil ammonite is foun o2er a wi e range an for a limite time ,erio D therefore5 all strata in the worl that contain this ammonite are of the same age8 "8 4owe2er5 relati2e ating oes not esta#lish the a#solute age of fossils in years8 C8 A#solute 3ating of !ossils 18 Ab#'l%$e da$i"* relies on ra ioacti2e ating to etermine the actual age of fossils8 28 +a ioacti2e isoto,es ha2e a half;life5 the time it ta9es for half of a ra ioacti2e isoto,e to change into a sta#le element8 123

38 Car#on 14 @14CA is a ra ioacti2e isoto,e containe within organic matter8 a8 4alf of the car#on 14 @14CA will change to nitrogen 14 @146A e2ery "5(3. years8 #8 Com,aring 14C ra ioacti2ity of a fossil to mo ern organic matter calculates the age of the fossil8 c8 After ".5... years5 the 14C ra ioacti2ity is so low it cannot #e use to measure age accurately8 48 0t is ,ossi#le to etermine the ratio of ,otassium 4. @4.EA an argon 4. to ate roc9s an infer the age of a fossil8 38 The )recam#rian Time 18 1eologists ha2e e2ise the *e'l'*i&al $i+e#&ale3 which i2i es the history of &arth into eras5 an then ,erio s an e,ochs8 28 Life arose in the )recam#rian &ra8 a8 The )recam#rian encom,asses *(N of the geologic time scale8 #8 &arly #acteria ,ro#a#ly resem#le the archaea that li2e in hot s,rings to ay8 c8 38* BLA5 the first chemical finger,rints of com,le/ cells occurD at 384$ BLA5 ,hotosynthetic ,ro9aryotic cells a,,ear8 8 Boul ers calle #$r'+a$'li$e# from this early time resem#le li2ing stromatolites with cyano#acteria in the outer surface8 e8 O/ygen;releasing ,hotosynthesis #y cyano#acteria in stromatolites cause the atmos,here to #ecome o/i i'ing rather than re ucing8 f8 By 2 BLA5 o/ygen le2els were high enough that anaero#ic ,ro9aryotes were eclining8 g8 Accumulation of O2 cause e/tinction of anaero#ic organisms an the rise of aero#ic organisms8 h8 O2 forms o'one or O3 in the u,,er atmos,here5 contri#uting to the '5'"e #!ield an #loc9ing ultra2iolet ra iation from reaching the &arth<s surfaceD this allowe organisms to li2e on lan 8 38 &u9aryotic Cells Arise a8 The eu9aryotic cell5 which arose 281 BLA5 is always aero#ic an contains a nucleus an organelles8 #8 The &n osym#iotic 4y,othesis states that a nucleate cell engulfe ,ro9aryotes5 which then #ecame organelles8 &2i ence inclu es% 1A )resent; ay mitochon ria an chloro,lasts ha2e a si'e that lies within the range of that for #acteria8 2A Mitochon ria an chloro,lasts ha2e their own 36A an ma9e some of their own ,roteins8 3A Mitochon ria an chloro,lasts i2i e #y #inary fission similar to #acteria8 4A The outer mem#rane of mitochon ria an chloro,lasts iffer8 48 Multicellularity Arises a8 0t is not 9nown e/actly when multicellular organisms a,,eare D they woul ha2e #een microsco,ic8 #8 Se,arating germ cells from somatic cells may ha2e contri#ute to the i2ersity of organisms8 c8 !ossils of the & iacara 4ills of South Australia5 from a#out $..;"4" MLA5 were soft;#o ie early in2erte#rates8 1A These #i'arre animals li2e on mu flats in shallow marine waters8 2A They lac9e internal organs an coul ha2e a#sor#e nutrients from the sea8 124

&8 The )aleo'oic &ra 18 The )aleo'oic &ra laste o2er 3.. million years an was a 2ery acti2e ,erio with three ma7or mass e/tinctions8 a8 An e6$i"&$i'" is the total isa,,earance of a s,ecies or higher ta/onomic grou,8 #8 Ma## e6$i"&$i'" is the isa,,earance of a large num#ers of s,ecies or higher grou,s in a short geological time5 7ust a few million years8 28 Cam#rian Animals a8 The Cam#rian )erio saw in2erte#rates flourishD in2erte#rates lac9 a 2erte#ral column8 #8 To ay<s in2erte#rates all trace their ancestry to the Cam#rian )erio 5 an ,ossi#ly earlier8 c8 A +'le&%lar &l'&,3 #ase on a fi/e rate of changes in #ase ,air se>uences5 allows us to trace #ac9war how long current s,ecies ha2e e2ol2e se,arately8 8 :hy fossils are easy to fin in the Cam#rian #ut not #efore is a com,le/ >uestionD most li9ely the animals e2ol2e earlier #ut without outer s9eletons8 e8 Cam#rian seafloors were ominate #y trilo#ites5 now e/tinct5 that ha armore e/os9eletons8 f8 )erha,s the e2olution of e/os9eletons was ue to the ,resence of ,lentiful O2 in the atmos,here8 g8 A s9eleton may ha2e #een ue to the increase ,ressures of ,re ation8 38 0n2asion of Lan a8 &arly in the Or o2ician )erio 5 marine algae e/,an e to freshwater8 #8 0n the Silurian )erio 5 2ascular ,lants in2a e lan an later flourishe in warm swam,s in the Car#oniferous )erio 8 c8 S,i ers5 centi,e es5 mites an milli,e es all ,rece e the a,,earance of insects on lan 8 8 The a,,earance of wings on insects in the Car#oniferous )erio allowe insects to ra iate into a i2erse grou,8 e8 The 2erte#rate line of escent #egan in the early Or o2ician )erio 8 f8 The 3e2onian )erio is calle the Age of !ishes an saw 7awless an then 7awe fishes5 inclu ing #oth cartilaginous an ray;finne fishes8 g8 The Car#oniferous )erio was an age of coal;forming forests with an a#un ance of clu# mosses5 horsetails5 an ferns8 1A 0t is calle the BAge of the Am,hi#iansC #ecause am,hi#ians i2ersifie at this time8 2A &arly 2ascular ,lants an am,hi#ians were larger an more a#un ant uring the Car#oniferous )erio D a climate change to col er an rier #egan the ,rocess that ,ro uce coal8 !8 The Meso'oic &ra 18 Although there was a mass e/tinction at the en of the )aleo'oic5 e2olution of some ,lants an animals continue into the Triassic5 the first ,erio of the Meso'oic &ra8 28 The Triassic ,erio a8 1ymnos,erms flourishe 5 es,ecially cyca sD the Triassic an Hurassic are calle the BAge of Cyca s8C #8 One grou, of re,tiles5 the thera,si s5 ha the first mammal features8 c8 +e,tiles5 originating in the )ermian5 un erwent a a,ti2e ra iation8 38 The Hurassic )erio 12"

a8 Many inosaurs flourishe in the sea5 on lan 5 an in air8 #8 Contro2ersy surroun s inosaurs #eing ectothermic or en othermic8 48 The Cretaceous )erio a8 A new Chinese fossil5 Ceholo"ens5 re2eals an early mammal with a long snout #ut s,rawling re,tile;li9e hin lim#s8 #8 The era of inosaurs en e in a mass e/tinction in which inosaurs5 most re,tiles5 an many marine organisms ,erishe 8 18 The Ceno'oic &ra 18 The Ceno'oic &ra is i2i e into the Tertiary an the \uaternary )erio s8 28 3uring the Ceno'oic &ra5 mammals with hair an mammary glan s i2ersifie an human e2olution #egan8 38 Mammalian 3i2ersification a8 3uring the )aleocene &,och5 mammals were small an resem#le rats8 #8 0n the &ocene &,och5 all of the mo ern or ers of mammals ha e2elo,e 8 c8 Many of the ty,es of her#i2ores an carni2ores of the Oligocene &,och are e/tinct to ay8 48 &2olution of )rimates a8 !lowering ,lants were i2erse an ,lentiful #y the Ceno'oic &raD ,rimates were a a,te to li2ing in flowering trees8 #8 The first ,rimates were small s>uirrel;li9e animalsD from them e2ol2e the first mon9eys an a,es8 c8 A,es i2ersifie uring the Miocene an )liocene &,ochsD this inclu es the first homini s5 the grou, that inclu es humans8 8 3uring the Tertiary )erio 5 the worl <s climate coole with the last two e,ochs 9nown as the 0ce Age8 e8 The )leistocene &,och saw many large sloths5 #ea2ers5 wol2es5 #ison5 woolly rhinoceroses5 masto ons5 an mammothsD mo ern humans arose an may ha2e contri#ute to e/tinction8 1D04 Fa&$'r# T!a$ I"1l%e"&e Ev'l%$i'" A8 Continental 3rift 18 &arth<s crust is ynamic5 not immo#ile as was once thought8 28 0n 1-2.5 1erman meteorologist Alfre :egener ,resente ata from across isci,lines su,,orting continental rift8 38 C'"$i"e"$al dri1$ was confirme in the 1-$.sD the continents mo2e with res,ect to one another8 48 3uring the )ermean )erio 5 the continents were 7oine to form one su,ercontinent calle )angaea which later i2i e into 1on wana an Laurasia an then s,lit to form to ay<s configuration8 "8 Continental rift e/,lains why the coastlines of se2eral continents @e8g85 the outline of the west coast of Africa an that of the east coast of South AmericaA are mirror images of each other8 $8 The same geological structures @e8g85 mountain rangesA are foun in many areas where continents once touche 8 (8 Continental rift e/,lains uni>ue istri#ution ,atterns of se2eral fossils @e8g85 s,ecies of the see fern *lossopterisA8 *8 Continental rift also e/,lains why some fossils @e8g85 re,tiles 0ynognathus an @ystrosaurusA are foun on ifferent continents8 12$

-8 Continental rift e/,lains why Australia5 South America5 an Africa ha2e istincti2e mammalsD current mammalian #iological i2ersity is the result of isolate e2olution on se,arate continents8 B8 )late Tectonics 18 )late tectonics is the stu y of the #eha2ior of the &arth<s crust in terms of mo2ing ,lates that are forme at ocean ri ges an estroye at su# uction 'ones8 28 Ocean ri ges are ri ges on ocean floors where oceanic crust formsD regions in oceanic crust where molten roc9 rises an material is a e to the ocean floor result in seafloor s,rea ing. 38 Seafloor s,rea ing is the lateral mo2ement of oceanic crust away from ocean ri ges ue to material a e to the ocean floor8 48 Sub"uction -ones are regions where oceanic crust colli es with the continental crust5 causing the oceanic crust to escen into the mantle where it is melte 8 "8 :here the ocean floor is at the lea ing e ge of a ,late5 a ee, trench forms #or ere #y 2olcanoes or 2olcanic islan chains8 $8 Two continents colli ing form a mountain range @e8g85 the 4imalayas are the result of the collision of 0n ia an &urasiaA8 (8 /ransform boun"aries are regions where two crustal ,lates meet an scra,e ,ast one another resulting in relati2ely fre>uent earth>ua9es8 C8 Mass &/tinctions 18 !i2e mass e/tinctions occurre at the en s of the Or o2ician5 3e2onian5 )ermian5 Triassic5 an Cretaceous ,erio s8 28 Mass e/tinctions ha2e #een attri#ute to tectonic5 oceanic5 an climatic changes8 38 :alter an Louis Al2are' ,ro,ose that the Cretaceous e/tinction was ue to a #oli e @an asteroi that e/,lo es ,ro ucing meteoritesA stri9ing the &arth8 a8 A layer of iri ium soot has #een i entifie in the Cretaceous clay5 the correct strata8 #8 A huge crater near the Lucatan is the im,act site8 c8 The effect woul ha2e resem#le a worl wi e atomic e/,losion8 48 Continental rift contri#ute to Or o2ician e/tinctionD 1on wanalan arri2e at the south ,ole an glaciers chille oceans an lan until 1on wanalan rifte away from the ,ole8 "8 The 3e2onian e/tinction may ha2e #een a #oli e e2entD this saw an en to (.N of the marine in2erte#ratesD other ,ossi#ilities inclu e rifting #ac9 towar the south ,ole8 $8 The )ermian e/tinction was 2ery se2ereD -.N of ocean s,ecies an (.N of lan s,ecies isa,,eare ,erha,s ue to an e/cess of car#on io/i e ue to a change in ocean circulation ue to a lac9 of ,olar ice ca,s8 (8 The Triassic e/tinction has #een attri#ute to meteorite collision with &arthD a crater in Central \ue#ec may ha2e #een the im,act site8

Le&$%re E"ri&!+e"$ Idea#

E6)erie"&e Ba#e: 3inosaurs are a to,ic now co2ere hea2ily in E12 science curricula #ut new e2elo,ments ha2e ma e many recent te/t#oo9 conce,ts o#soleteD therefore the college instructor will ha2e to eal with many misconce,tions8 The comet an meteorite im,act theories ha2e gone from s,eculati2e to fairly well acce,te in the last eca e an the instructor will ,ro#a#ly face stu ents who were taught the ,re2ious uncertainties8 Brea9ing news on recent 12(

ma7or fossil fin s in China an Africa will5 howe2er5 ma9e this a timely to,ic to co2er8
18 +e2iew the ifferences #etween re uction an o/i ation as chemical ,rocesses8 &/amine why the re ucing atmos,here woul su,,ort e2elo,ment of larger organic molecules5 while an o/i i'ing atmos,here woul #rea9 own large molecules8

28 3iscuss the ,resence of organic su#units such as amino aci s @inclu ing some not ,ro uce #y organismsA in meteorites suggesting that these molecules ,ro#a#ly arose in s,ace @or at least somewhere other than &arthA8 4ow woul this information affect your i eas a#out chemical e2olutionK Coul some of these molecules ha2e #een #rought to &arth this wayK 38 The early iscussion of B:hat is LifeC from Cha,ter 1 can #e re2iewe here with hin sight on the com,le/ity of meta#olism8 48 &/amine the relati2ely new i eas concerning re2erse transcri,tase an ri#o'ymes5 as o,,ose to the central ogma of molecular genetics as ,ro,ose #y Cric98 :hy i it ta9e so long to fin these e/ce,tions to the central ogma5 an what effect oes their ,resence ha2e on our un erstan ing of how life might ha2e arisen an e2elo,e on &arthK "8 3iscuss why it woul #e li9ely that a mem#rane woul #e necessary #efore a cell woul e2elo,8 $8 3escri#e the e2olutionary significance of continental rift in the e2elo,ment of monotremes5 marsu,ials5 an ,lacental mammals8 3iscuss the fact that South America was inha#ite #y marsu,ials until relati2ely recently @within the last 2.5... years or soA5 when the lan #ri ge forme #etween 6orth an South America5 which allowe ,lacental mammals to reach South America an le to the e/tinction of many marsu,ials8 Consi er whether the same ,rocess is ha,,ening in Australia now5 since humans ha2e intro uce ogs5 rats5 ra##its5 etc8

Cri$i&al T!i",i"*
-%e#$i'" 10 &2olutionary scientists conten that life cannot arise again as it first i 8 :hyK A"#.er: )hotosynthetic life was itself res,onsi#le for #uil ing u, the current atmos,here with its ,rotecti2e o'one shiel 8 The earliest life e2elo,e in a harsh un,rotecte atmos,here with intense ra iation an without a 2ance life forms alrea y ,resent an com,eting for nutrient resources8 To ay any unluc9y ,rotocell that arose un er these mo ern con itions woul #e ra,i ly go##le u, #y a 2ance life forms8 -%e#$i'" 20 There is a ten ency to conce,tuali'e the e2olutionary recor as% Ball `lower< organisms e2ol2e early an all `higher< organisms e2ol2e recently8C :hen i the flowering ,lants e2ol2e @an along with them the ,ollinating #eesA com,are to the Age of !ishK +ewor the a#o2e >uotation correctly8 A"#.er: The Age of !ish5 a 2erte#rate5 was the 3e2onian8 This is much earlier than the rise of ,ollinating insects that are BlowlyC in2erte#rates8 B+ecent organisms are eri2e from earlier early organismsC #ut all generally continue to e2ol2e through time8

12*

Te&!"'l'*y 1r'+ M&Gra.;Hill

)lease consult your C'%r#e I"$e*ra$i'" G%ide for technology correlations for this cha,ter8

12-

CHAPTER

1J

SYSTEMATICS AN PHYLOGENY

A sur2ey of the history of the isci,line of ta/onomy ,rece es a escri,tion of ta/onomic classification8 )hylogenetic trees an systematics are escri#e in etail8 The BnewC classification system @three omainsA is outline 5 as is a escri,tion of the omains8 A Science Focus #o/ e/amines B36A Bar Co ing of Life8C

C!a)$er O%$li"e
1J01 Sy#$e+a$i&# 18 Sy#$e+a$i&# is a fiel of #iology e icate to un erstan ing the e2olutionary history of life on &arth 28 Ta6'"'+y is the #ranch of #iology concerne with i entifying5 naming5 an classifying organisms8 A8 Linnean Systematics 18 A natural system of classification reflects the e2olutionary history of organisms8 28 6aming an i entifying organisms #egan with the 1ree9s an +omans8 38 0n the Mi le Ages5 organisms were escri#e using long Latin escri,tions8 48 Hohn +ay @1$2(=1(."A5 a British naturalist5 argue that each organism shoul ha2e a set name8 B8 The Binomial System 18 The num#er of 9nown organisms e/,an e greatly in mi ;eighteenth century ue to &uro,ean tra2el8 28 Carolus Linnaeus @1(.(=1((*A e2elo,e the bi"'+ial #y#$e+ to name s,ecies8 38 The #inomial system of nomenclature names organisms using a two;,art Latin name8 a8 !irst ,art is the genusD closely relate s,ecies are assigne to the same genus8 #8 Secon ,art is the specific epithetD it usually ,ro2i es something escri,ti2e a#out an organism8 c8 A scientific name consists of #oth genus an s,ecific e,ithet @e8g85 @ilium buibiferum an @ilium cana"enseA8 8 Both names are italici'e or un erline D the first letter of the genus name is ca,itali'e 8 e8 The genus can #e a##re2iate when use with a s,ecific e,ithet if the full name was gi2en #efore8 48 Common names 2ary with ifferent languages5 lum, many s,ecies un er one name or ha2e 2arious names for the same s,ecies5 an the same name may refer to ifferent organisms in ifferent regions8 "8 The 7o# of naming all s,ecies is far from finishe 8 a8 There are estimate to #e #etween 3 an 3. million s,ecies li2ing on &arth8 #8 Currently5 one million s,ecies of animals an a half million ,lant an microorganismic s,ecies ha2e #een name 8 c8 Some grou,s5 such as #ir s5 are nearly all 9nownD some insect grou,s are mostly un9nown8 13.

C8 Linnean Classification Categories 18 Aristotle classifie life into 14 grou,s @e8g85 mammals5 #ir s5 etc8A5 an su# i2i e them #y si'e8 28 +ay grou,e animals an ,lants accor ing to how he thought they were relate 8 38 Linnaeus grou,e ,lants #y flower ,artsD his categories were ,u#lishe in Systema Naturae in 1(3" 48 To ay5 ta/onomists use se2en categories of classification% #)e&ie#3 *e"%#3 1a+ily3 'rder3 &la##3 )!yl%+5 an ,i"*d'+0 a8 A higher category5 the d'+ai"3 has recently #een a e to these se2en categories8 #8 The higher the category5 the more inclusi2e it is8 c8 Mem#ers of a 9ing om share general charactersD mem#ers of a s,ecies share >uite s,ecific characters8 8 Since one ta/onomic grou, e/ists insi e another grou,5 these categories are also terme "e#$ed8 A character is any structural5 chromosomal5 or molecular feature that istinguishes one grou, from another8 e8 A itional le2els of classification can #e a e #y a ing super;5 sub;5 or infra; @e8g85 su#or erAD thus5 there are more than 3. categories of classification8 1J02 P!yl'*e"e$i& Tree# 18 Classification reflects )!yl'*e"y@ one goal of systematics is to create ,hylogenetic trees8 28 )hylogeny is the e2olutionary history of a grou, of organisms8 38 A )!yl'*e"e$i& $ree in icates common ancestors an lines of escent or lineages8 48 A )ri+i$ive &!ara&$er is a trait that is ,resent in a &'++'" a"&e#$'r an all mem#ers of a grou,8 "8 A derived &!ara&$er is ,resent only in a s,ecific line of escent8 $8 3ifferent lineages i2erging from a common ancestor ha2e a"&e#$ral &!ara&$eri#$i&# ?traits share #y the ancestor an the s,ecies in its lines of escent8 (8 Because classification is hierarchical5 it is ,ossi#le to use classification categories to construct a ,hylogenetic tree8 *8 :hen we say that two s,ecies are relate 5 we mean that they share a common ancestor8 A8 Cla istic )hylogenetic Trees 18 Cladi#$i& #y#$e+a$i&# is #ase on the wor9 of :illi 4ennig8 28 Cladi#$i&# analy'e ,rimiti2e an eri2e characters an constructs &lad'*ra+# on the #asis of share eri2e characters8 38 A &lad'*ra+ is a iagram showing relationshi,s among s,ecies #ase on share 5 eri2e charactersD a cla ogram thus traces the e2olutionary history of the grou, #eing stu ie 8 48 Constructing a Cla ogram a8 !irst ste,% construct a ta#le of characters of the ta/a #eing com,are 8 #8 Any character foun in the '%$*r'%) as well as the i"*r'%) is a share ,rimiti2e character8 c8 4omologies share #y certain lineages are share eri2e characters5 or #y"a)'+'r)!ie#0 8 A &lade is an e2olutionary #ranch that inclu es a common ancestor an all its escen ent s,ecies8 "8 4ow to Hu ge a Cla ogram 131

a8 Cla ists are gui e #y the ,rinci,le of parsimony?the minimum num#er of assum,tions is most logical8 #8 The #est cla ogram is one in which the fewest num#er of share eri2e characters are left une/,laine or that minimi'es the num#er of assume e2olutionary changes8 c8 This a,,roach is 2ulnera#le if con2ergent e2olution ,ro uces what a,,ears to #e common ancestry8 8 S$a$i#$i&al )!yl'*e"e$i& is a new #ranch of systematics that uses statistical tools an not ,arisomy to hel, construct ,hylogenetic trees8 e8 +elia#ility of cla ograms is e,en ent on the 9nowle ge an s9ill of a ,articular in2estigator gathering ata8 $8 4ow to Hu ge a Cla e a8 A M'"')!yle$i& *r'%) is a grou,ing of s,ecies that inclu es a common ancestor an all the escen ents of that ancestor8 #8 A ,ara,hyletic grou, contains a common ancestor an oes not inclu e all the escen ents8 c8 A ,oly,hyletic grou, contains some of the escen ants of more than one common ancestor an not all the common ancestors8 B8 Tracing )hylogeny 18 !ossil +ecor 3ata a8 Because fossils can #e ate 5 fossils can esta#lish the age of a s,ecies8 #8 0t can #e ifficult to associate fossils with currently li2ing grou,sD e8g85 a new 2iew of turtle fossils coul ,lace them closer to croco iles8 c8 The fossil recor is often incom,lete #ecause soft;#o ie organisms o not fossili'e well8 8 Most organisms ecay an the chances of #ecoming a fossil are low8 28 Mor,hological 3ata a8 H'+'l'*y is character similarity that stems from ha2ing a common ancestorD homology hel,s in icate when s,ecies #elong to a relate grou,8 #8 H'+'l'*'%# #$r%&$%re# are relate to each other through common escent #ut may iffer in structure an function @e8g85 the forelim#s of a horse an the wings of a #atA8 c8 C'"ver*e"$ ev'l%$i'" is ac>uisition of similar traits in istantly relate lines of escent as a result of a a,tation to similar en2ironmental con itionsD con2ergent e2olution may ma9e it ifficult to istinguish homologous from analogous structures8 8 A"al'*'%# #$r%&$%re# ha2e the same function #ut are not eri2e from the same organ in a common ancestor @e8g85 the wings of an insect an the wings of a #atA8 C8 Beha2ioral 3ata 18 Since many ifferent s,ecies may is,lay some common #eha2iors5 this may su#stantiate the mor,hological ata that some s,ecies are relate through e2olution8 38 Molecular 3ata 18 S,eciation occurs when mutations #ring a#out changes in #ase ,air se>uences of 36A8 28 &ach istinct lineage accumulates changes in 36A #ase ,air se>uences an amino aci se>uences in ,roteins o2er time8 38 A 2ances in analy'ing nucleoti e an amino aci se>uences ma9e a#un ant ata 132

a2aila#le to researchers8 48 )rotein Com,arisons a8 &arlier stu ies use immunological reactions to anti#o ies5 ma e #y in7ecting a ra##it with cells of one s,ecies5 to etermine the relate ness of two s,ecies8 #8 Amino aci se>uences are now use to etermine the ifferences in ,roteins #etween two s,ecies8 1A Cytochrome c is a ,rotein foun in all aero#ic organismsD the amino aci ifferences in cytochrome c #etween chic9ens an humans is 13 #ut #etween chic9ens an uc9s is only 38 c8 Since the num#er of uni2ersal ,roteins is limite 5 most new stu ies use +6A an 36A8 "8 36A an +6A Com,arisons a8 36A ifferences can su#stantiate ata5 hel, trace the course of macroe2olution5 an fill in the ga,s of the fossil recor 8 e8 Mitochon ria 36A @mt36AA mutates ten times faster than nuclear 36AD mt36A is often use for closely relate s,eciesD 6orth American song#ir s were foun to ha2e i2erge well #efore retreating glaciation 2".5...=1..5... years ago8 $8 Molecular Cloc9s a8 6ucleic aci changes are not tie to a a,tationD the fairly constant changes ,ro2i e a +'le&%lar &l'&,0 #8 Com,arison of mt36A se>uences e>uate a "81N nucleic aci ifference among song#ir s,ecies to 28" million years8 c8 The fossil recor can then #e use to cali#rate the cloc9 an confirm the hy,othesis rawn from molecular ata8 &8 36A Bar Co ing of Life @Science Focus #o/A 18 The Consortium for the Barco e of Life @CBOLA #elie2es that any scientist will #e a#le to i entify a s,ecies using a han hel scanner8 28 Accor ing to this Consortium5 there will #e a ata#ase of 36A se>uences5 an this scanner woul ta, into the ata#ase an i entify an organism8 38 )aul 4e#ert an colleagues at the Gni2ersity of 1uel,h in Cana a #elie2e that it is ,ossi#le to use the #ase se>uence in 36A to e2elo, a #ar co e for each li2ing thing8 48 Accor ing to 4er#ert5 the gene% a8 Shoul contain no more than $". nucleoti es so se>uencing is easy an with no mista9es8 #8 Shoul #e easy to e/tract from an organism<s com,lete genome8 c8 Shoul ha2e mutate to the egree that each s,ecies has its own se>uence of #ases8 "8 4er#ert<s team uses a mitochon rial gene5 cytochrome c o/i ase su#unit 0 @CO0A5 for a target gene in animals8 $8 Hohn Eress from the Smithsonian 0nstitute in :ashington5 38C8 e2elo,e a ,otential metho for #ar co ing ,lant s,ecies8 1J04 T!e T!ree; '+ai" Sy#$e+ 18 +ecent research suggests one grou, of ,ro9aryotes is so istantly relate it shoul #e in a se,arate omain8 28 Se>uencing of r+6A suggests all organisms e2ol2e along three istinct lineages% omains Ba&$eria3 Ar&!aea3 an E%,arya0 133

38 3omain Bacteria a8 The #acteria are ,ro9aryotic unicellular organisms that re,ro uce ase/ually8 #8 Cyano#acteria are large ,hotosynthetic ,ro9aryotes8 c8 Most #acteria are heterotro,hic8 8 Bacteria are im,ortant in ecosystems #ecause they #rea9 own organic remains5 there#y 9ee,ing chemical cycling going8 e8 Some #acteria are ,arasitic an cause isease8 48 3omain Archaea a8 Li9e #acteria5 archaea are ,ro9aryotic unicellular organisms that re,ro uce ase/ually8 #8 The archaea li2e in e/treme en2ironments% methanogens in anaero#ic swam,s5 halo,hiles in salt la9es5 an thermoaci o,hiles in hot aci ic en2ironments8 c8 The archaea cell wall is i2erse #ut not the same as the #acterial cell wall8 "8 3omain &u9arya a8 &u9arytes are unicellular to multicellular organisms5 always with a mem#rane; #oun nucleus8 #8 Se/ual re,ro uction is commonD 2arious ty,es of life cycles are seen8 c8 )rotists an fungi are eu9arytes5 as are ,lants an animals @these 9ing oms will #e stu ie in etail in later cha,ters in the te/t an in this instructor<s manualA8

Le&$%re E"ri&!+e"$ Idea#

E6)erie"&e Ba#e: As much as BclassifyingC is a natural intellectual acti2ity that all ,eo,le engage in throughout their li2es5 the #iological a,,lication of classification often a,,ears to #e merely a matter of memori'ing science con2entions8 To the contrary5 grou,ing #ase on similarity re>uires a full comman of the full range of #iological characteristics of organisms as well as an un erstan ing of genetic5 re,ro ucti2e5 an ecological ,rocesses in or er to e uce ,ast e2olutionary ,atterns8 The li9ely only effecti2e metho to un erstan cla istics is to wor9 through one sim,le set of animals or ,lants #y e2elo,ing a ta#le of traits an a similarity matri/8 18 3escri#e the ifference #etween BnamingC @only one scientist gets to BnameC a s,eciesAD Bi entifyingC @anyone can Bi entifyC with a 9eyA5 an BclassifyingC @grou,ing a s,ecies with its closest relati2esA8 0n e2ery ay life5 these are use almost interchangea#ly #ut they ha2e ifferent meanings in #iology8 0t is im,ortant for #iology ma7ors to correctly use these terms8 28 Stu ents may as9 how we can B9nowC there are many more s,ecies yet to #e escri#e an name 8 !rom time to time5 sur2eys of systematists are ma e as9ing how many s,ecies they estimate are yet to #e escri#e #ase on their current rate of wor9 an collecting8 :hy can<t scientists arri2e at one sta#le classification system where the ta/a names no longer changeK 38 3iscussing the ,ro#lems with Aristotle<s lan ;air;sea classification gi2es some i ea of the limitations of e2en mo ern classification schemes8 48 3escri#e how new research is constantly refining our un erstan ing of the e2er more com,le/ relationshi,s as new techni>ues @such as r+6A analysis an 36A hy#ri i'ation5 etc8A #ecome a2aila#le8 "8 As9 stu ents how rug research ,rocee sD why o they first test rats5 then mon9eys5 #efore mo2ing to human trialsK 3escri#e the ,re icti2e ,ower of a ,hylogeny that is closer to e2olutionary similarity8 134

Cri$i&al T!i",i"*
-%e#$i'" 10 0n many states5 you must ha2e a fishing license to hunt frogs8 Many stores ,ost a sign that says B6o animals allowe 8C These regulations are often written into state laws8 :hy can<t #iology use such common &nglish names rather than scientific namesK A"#.er: Technically5 a human is an animal an therefore coul not enter the store8 Li9ewise5 a frog is not a fish8 Such efinitions5 al#eit legal5 2ary from state to state an reflect local historical usage8 The northern Bmu ,u,,yC is the southern Bwater og8C 0n contrast to common terms5 scientific terminology is not am#iguous5 an the Latini'e scientific name can #e recogni'e in the mi st of a research article written in any language8 -%e#$i'" 20 Australia an the Gnite States #oth ha2e mouse;li9e5 cat;li9e5 an mole;li9e animals8 Let the Australian 2ersions of these mammals all ha2e ,ouches @they are marsu,ialsA while the G8S8 animals are mostly ,lacental8 The other features are 2ery similar #etween continents8 :hich of the three schools of classification might grou, the Australian an G8S8 loo9;ali9es togetherK :hy o they a,,ear similarK A"#.er: The animals from two ifferent continents un erwent con2ergent e2olution as they a a,te to the same niches8 This woul not #e a ,ro#lem for the cla ist who woul se,arate the ,rimiti2e marsu,ials from the eri2e ,lacentals5 nor for the tra itional ,hylogeneticist who woul weigh in this #iogeogra,hyD howe2er5 the ,heneticist woul count similar characters an li9ely grou, them together8

Te&!"'l'*y 1r'+ M&Gra.;Hill

)lease consult your C'%r#e I"$e*ra$i'" G%ide for technology correlations for this cha,ter8

13"

PART

IV

MICROBIOLOGY AN EVOLUTION

The following three cha,ters escri#e micro#iological organisms an e2olution8 Micro#es ha2e e/iste on &arth for 38"=38* #illion years8 Most are unicellular5 an from these single cells came multicellular forms such an ,lants an animals8 2. Viruses5 Bacteria5 an Archaea 21 )rotist &2olution an 3i2ersity 22 &2olution an 3i2ersity of !ungi

CHAPTER

20

VIRUSES3 BACTERIA AN ARCHAEA

This cha,ter ,resents a stu y of the micro#es #acteria an archaea5 an the nonli2ing;yet; infectious 2iruses8 The metho s of classification of these micro#es is iscusse 5 as is their structure5 an #iological acti2ities8 Much terminology is ,resente in the cha,ter8 Many iseases are escri#e 8 A ,ealth Focus #o/ iscusses B!lu )an emic8C

C!a)$er O%$li"e
2001 Vir%#e#3 Vir'id#3 a"d Pri'"# A8 Viruses 18 are associate with a num#er of ,lant5 animal5 an human iseasesD 28 can only re,ro uce #y using the meta#olic machinery of the host cellD 38 are noncellularD 48 may ha2e a 36A or +6A genome8 "8 0n 1**45 )asteur sus,ecte something smaller than #acteria cause ra#iesD he chose a Latin term for B,oison8C $8 0n 1*-25 +ussian #iologist 3imitri 02anows9y5 wor9ing with the to#acco mosaic 2irus5 confirme )asteur<s hy,othesis that an infectious agent smaller than a #acterium e/iste 8 (8 :ith the in2ention of the electron microsco,e5 these infectious agents coul #e seen for the first time8 B8 Viral Structure 18 A 2irus is similar in si'e to a large ,rotein5 generally smaller than 2.. nm in iameter8
28 38 Many 2iruses can #e ,urifie an crystalli'e 5 an the crystals store for long ,erio s of time8 Viral crystals #ecome infectious when the 2iral ,articles they contain in2a e host cells8

The classification of 2iruses is #ase on

a8 their ty,e of nucleic aci 5 inclu ing whether they are single;stran e or ou#le;stran e D #8 their si'e an sha,eD an c8 the ,resence or a#sence of an outer en2elo,e8 All 2iruses ha2e at least two ,arts%

"8

13$

a8 An outer &a)#id is com,ose of ,rotein su#units8

#8 An inner core contains either 36A @ eo/yri#onucleic aci A or +6A @ri#onucleic aci A5 #ut not #oth8

1A The 2iral genome at most has se2eral hun re genesD a human cell5 in com,arison5 contains thousan s of genes8
2A The 2iral en2elo,e is usually ,artly host ,lasma mem#rane with 2iral glyco,rotein s,i9es8 3A Viral ,articles ha2e ,roteins5 es,ecially en'ymes @e8g85 ,olymerasesA5 to ,ro uce 2iral 36A or +6A8 4A 6ot all 2iruses ha2e an en2elo,eD such 2iruses are calle na9e 2iruses8

C8 )arasitic 6ature
18 Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites that cannot multi,ly outsi e a li2ing cellD they must infect a li2ing cell in or er to re,ro uce8 a8 Animal 2iruses in la#oratories are raise in li2e chic9 em#ryos or in cell tissue culture8 #8 Viruses infect all sorts of cells5 from #acteria to human cells5 #ut they are !'#$ #)e&i1i&0 1A The to#acco mosaic 2irus only infects certain ,lants8 2A The ra#ies 2irus infects only mammals8 3A The A03S 2irus5 40V5 infects only certain human #loo cells8 4A The 4e,atitis 2irus in2a es only li2er tissues8 "A The )olio 2irus only re,ro uces in s,inal ner2e cells8 Virus &2olution a8 Some #elie2e that 2iruses originate from the 2ery cells that they infect8 #8 !or e/am,le5 2iral nucleic aci s originate from the host cell genome8 c8 Therefore5 2iruses e2ol2e after cells came into e/istenceD new 2iruses are ,ro#a#ly e2ol2ing now8 8 Others suggest that 2iruses arose #efore the three omains8 Viruses often mutateD therefore5 it is correct to say that they e2ol2e8 a8 Those that mutate are trou#lesomeD a 2accine effecti2e to ay may not #e effecti2e tomorrow8 #8 0nfluen'a @fluA 2iruses mutate regularly8 Viruses gain entry into an are s,ecific to a ,articular host cell #ecause ,ortions of the ca,si @or s,i9es of the en2elo,eA a here to s,ecific rece,tor sites on the host cell surface8 Viral nucleic aci then enters a cell5 where 2iral genome co es for ,ro uction of ,rotein units in the ca,si 8 A 2irus may ha2e genes for a few s,ecial en'ymes nee e for the 2irus to re,ro uce an e/it from a host cell8 A 2irus relies on host cell en'ymes5 ri#osomes5 transfer +6A @t+6AA5 an AT) for its own re,lication8 Ba&$eri')!a*e# @,hagesA are 2iruses that ,arasiti'e #acteria8 The ly$i& &y&le is a #acterio,hage<s BlifeC cycle consisting of fi2e stages% a8 3uring a$$a&!+e"$3 ,ortions of the ca,si #in with rece,tors on the #acterial cell wall8 #8 3uring )e"e$ra$i'"3 a 2iral en'yme igests ,art of cell wallD the 2iral 36A is in7ecte into a #acterial cell8 c8 Bi'#y"$!e#i# in2ol2es synthesis of 2iral com,onents an #egins after the 2irus #rings a#out inacti2ation of host genes not necessary to 2iral re,lication8 8 3uring +a$%ra$i'", 2iral 36A an ca,si s are assem#le to ,ro uce se2eral hun re 2iral ,articles an lyso'yme5 co e #y the 2irus5 is ,ro uce 8 e8 :hen lyso'yme isru,ts the cell wall5 relea#e of the 2iral ,articles occurs an the #acterial cell ies8 :ith the ly#'*e"i& &y&le3 the 2irus incor,orates its 36A into the #acterium #ut only later is ,hage ,ro uce 8 a8 !ollowing attachment an ,enetration5 2iral 36A #ecomes integrate into #acterial 36A with no estruction of the host 36A8 #8 At this ,oint5 the ,hage is la$e"$ an the 2iral 36A is calle a )r')!a*e0 c8 The ,ro,hage is re,licate along with host 36AD all su#se>uent cells @lysogenic cellsA carry a co,y8

28

38

38 Viral +e,ro uction

18 28 38 48 18 28

&8 +e,ro uction of Bacterio,hages

38

13(

Certain en2ironmental factors @e8g85 ultra2iolet ra iationA in uce ,ro,hage to enter the #iosynthesis stage of the lytic cycle5 followe #y maturation an release8

!8 +e,ro uction of Animal Viruses

18 Animal 2iruses re,licate similarly to #acterio,hages5 #ut there are mo ifications8 a8 0f the 2irus has an en2elo,e5 glyco,rotein s,i9es allow it to a here to ,lasma mem#rane rece,tors8 #8 The 2irus genome co2ere #y the ca,si ,enetrates the host cell8 c8 Once insi e5 the 2irus is uncoate as the en2elo,e an ca,si are remo2e 8 8 !ree of its co2ering5 the 2iral genome @36A or +6AA ,rocee s with #iosynthesis8 e8 6ewly assem#le 2iral ,articles are release #y #u ing8 f8 Com,onents of 2iral en2elo,es @i8e85 li,i s5 ,roteins5 an car#ohy ratesA are o#taine from the ,lasma or nuclear mem#rane of the host cell as the 2iruses lea2e8 Re$r'vir%#e# are +6A animal 2iruses that ha2e a 36A stage8 a8 +etro2iruses contain the en'yme rever#e $ra"#&ri)$a#e that uses +6A as a tem,late to ,ro uce c36AD c36A is a co,y of the 2iral genome8 #8 Viral c36A is integrate into host 36A an is re,licate as host 36A re,licates8 c8 Viral 36A is transcri#e D new 2iruses are ,ro uce #y #iosynthesis an maturationD release is #y #u ing8 Viruses cause infectious iseases in ,lants an animals5 inclu ing humans8 Some animal 2iruses are s,ecific to human cells% ,a,illoma 2irus5 her,es 2irus5 he,atitis 2irus5 an a eno2iruses5 which can cause s,ecific cancers8 +etro2iruses inclu e the A03S 2iruses @e8g85 40VA an also cause certain forms of cancer8 &merging Viruses 40V is an e/am,le of an e+er*i"* vir%#: the causati2e agent of a isease that has only recently arisen an infecte ,eo,le8 0n some cases of emerging iseases5 the 2irus is sim,ly trans,orte from one location to anotherD e8g85 :est 6ile 2irus an se2ere acute res,iratory syn rome @SA+SA8 The high mutation rate of 2iruses also causes infectious 2iruses to emergeD e8g85 A03S an &#ola fe2er8 A change in the mo e of transmission is yet another way infectious 2iruses coul emerge8

28

18 Viral 0nfections of S,ecial Concern

18 28 38 48 "8 $8 (8 *8

48 Viroi 18 28 38

s an )rions Vir'id# are na9e stran s of +6A5 a o'en of which cause cro, iseases8 Li9e 2iruses5 2iroi s irect the cell to ,ro uce more 2iroi s8 Pri'"# @,roteinaceous infectious ,articlesA are newly isco2ere isease agents that iffer from 2iruses an #acteria8 08 !lu )an emic @,ealth Focus #o/A 18 !lu Viruses a8 A flu 2irus has an 4 @hemagglutininA s,i9e5 which allows the 2irus to #in to its rece,tor8 There are 1$ 9nown ty,es of 4 s,i9es8 #8 The 6 @neuramini aseA s,i9e attaches host ,lasma mem#ranes so the mature 2iruses can e/it the cell8 There are nine 9nown ty,es of 6 s,i9es8 c8 These 2iral s,i9es can occur in ifferent 2arieties calle subtypes8 8 Many flu 2iruses are assigne s,ecific co es #ase on the ty,e of s,i9e8 1A 4"61 @#ir fluA 2irus gets its name from its 2ariety of 4" s,i9es an its 2ariety of 61 s,i9es8 e8 Our immune system only recogni'es a ,articular 2ariety of 4 an 6 s,i9es it has #een e/,ose to8 f8 :hen a new flu 2irus arises an there is little or no immunity in the human ,o,ulation5 a flu ,an emic may occur8 28 )ossi#le Bir !lu )an emic of the !uture a8 The 4"61 su#ty,e of the #ir flu 2irus is of concern #ecause it has the ,otential to reach ,an emic ,ro,ortions8 #8 4"61 first infecte waterfowl5 then chic9ens5 an now humans8 13*

c8 This 2irus can attach to #oth a #ir flu rece,tor an a human flu rece,tor8 8 The 2irus can transfer from ,oultry to human5 #ut has rarely #een transmitte from human to human8 e8 4owe2er5 with a itional mutations5 human to human transmission coul #e more common5 an s,rea aroun the worl 8 38 4ow to Be )re,are a8 One of the easiest ,ractices to ,re2ent the s,rea of a flu 2irus is cleaning han s thoroughly an often using soa, an water or alcohol;#ase saniti'er8 #8 Eee,ing your han s away from your eyes5 nose5 an mouth can hel, ,re2ent the 2irus from entering your #o y8 c8 & ucation will hel, ,re,are for a ,an emic8 8 !or more information5 2isit www8,an emicflu8go28 2002 T!e Pr',ary'$e# A8 )ro9aryotes inclu e the #acteria an archaea8
18 28 38 48 18 28 38 48 "8 $8 Bacteria were isco2ere in the se2enteenth century when Antonie 2an Leeuwenhoe9 e/amine scra,ings from his teeth8 The Blittle animalsC Leeuwenhoe9 o#ser2e were thought #y him an others to arise s,ontaneously from inanimate matter8 Aroun 1*".5 )asteur e2ise an e/,eriment showing that the #acteria ,resent in air contaminate the me ia8 A single s,oonful of soil contains 1.1. ,ro9aryotesD these are the most numerous life forms8 )ro9aryotes range in si'e from 1=1. m in length an from .8(=18" Dm in wi th8 B)ro9aryoteC means B#efore a nucleusC?their cells lac9 a eu9aryotic nucleus8 )ro9aryotic fossils ate #ac9 as far as 38"=38* #illion years ago8 !ossils in icate ,ro9aryotes were alone on earth for 2 #illion yearsD they e2ol2e 2ery i2erse meta#olic ca,a#ilities8 )ro9aryotes a a,te to most en2ironments #ecause they iffer in the many ways they ac>uire an utili'e energy8 Outsi e the ,lasma mem#rane of most cells is a rigi cell wall that 9ee,s the cell from #ursting or colla,sing ue to osmotic changes #y )e)$id'*ly&a"3 a com,le/ molecule containing a uni>ue amino isacchari e an ,e,ti e fragments8 a8 The cell wall may #e surroun e #y an organi'e ca,sule calle a glycocaly/ an For #y a loose gelatinous sheath calle a slime layer8 #8 0n ,arasitic forms5 these outer co2erings ,rotect the cell from host efenses8 Some ,ro9aryotes mo2e #y means of 1la*ella0 a8 The flagellum has a filament com,ose of three stran s of the ,rotein flagellin woun in a heli/ an inserte into a hoo9 that is anchore #y a #asal #o y8 #8 The flagellum is ca,a#le of 3$.o rotation which causes the cell to s,in an mo2e forwar 8 Many ,ro9aryotes a here to surfaces #y means of 1i+briae. a8 !im#riae are short hairli9e filaments e/ten ing from the surface8 #8 The fim#riae of Neisseria gonorrhoeae allow it to attach to host cells an cause gonorrhea8 )ro9aryotic cells lac9 the mem#ranous organelles of eu9aryotic cells8 Various meta#olic ,athways are locate on the ,lasma mem#rane8 A "%&le'id is a ense area in ,ro9aryotes where the chromosome is locate D it is a single circular stran of 36A8 Pla#+id# are accessory rings of 36A foun in some ,ro9aryotesD they can #e e/tracte an use as 2ectors to carry foreign 36A into #acteria uring genetic engineering ,roce ures8 )rotein synthesis in ,ro9aryotic cells is carrie out #y thousan s of ri#osomes5 which are smaller than eu9aryotic ri#osomes8 Bi"ary 1i##i'" is the s,litting of a ,arent cell into two aughter cellsD it is ase/ual re,ro uction in ,ro9aryotes8

B8 Structure of )ro9aryotes

(8

*8 -8 1.8 118 128 138

C8 +e,ro uction in )ro9aryotes

18

13-

a8 #8 c8 8 28

A single circular chromosome re,licatesD the two co,ies se,arate as the cell enlarges8 6ewly forme ,lasma mem#rane an the cell wall se,arate the cell into two cells8 Mitosis5 which in2ol2es formation of a s,in le a,,aratus5 oes not occur in ,ro9aryotes8 Because ,ro9aryotes ha2e a short generation time5 mutations are generate an istri#ute through a ,o,ulation more ra,i ly8 e8 )ro9aryotes are ha,loi D mutations are therefore imme iately su#7ecte to natural selection8 0n #acteria5 genetic recom#ination can occur in three ways8 a8 C'"A%*a$i'" occurs when a #acterium ,asses 36A to a secon #acterium through a tu#e @se/ ,ilusA that tem,orarily 7oins two cellsD this occurs only #etween #acteria in the same or closely relate s,ecies8 #8 Tra"#1'r+a$i'" in2ol2es #acteria ta9ing u, free ,ieces of 36A secrete #y li2e #acteria or release #y ea #acteria8 c8 0n $ra"#d%&$i'"5 #acterio,hages transfer ,ortions of #acterial 36A from one cell to another8 8 )lasmi s can carry genes for resistance to anti#iotics an transfer them #etween #acteria #y any of these ,rocesses8

2004 T!e Ba&$eria A8 Characteristics of Bacterial Cells 18 Ba&$eria are the more common ty,e of ,ro9aryote 28 Bacterial cell walls are ,rotecte #y )e)$id'*ly&a"3 a com,le/ of ,olysacchari es lin9e #y amino aci s8
The 1ram stain ,roce ure @ e2elo,e in the late 1**.s #y 4ans Christian 1ramA ifferentiates #acteria8 a8 1ram;,ositi2e #acteria stain ,ur,le5 whereas 1ram;negati2e #acteria stain ,in98 #8 This ifference is e,en ent on the thic9 or thin @res,ecti2elyA ,e,ti oglycan cell wall8 48 Bacteria an archaea ha2e three #asic sha,es8 a8 A #)irill%+ is s,iral;sha,e 8 #8 A ba&ill%# is an elongate or ro ;sha,e #acteria8 c8 C'&&%# #acteria are s,herical8 8 Cocci an #acilli ten to form clusters an chains of a length ty,ical of the ,articular s,ecies8 B8 Bacterial Meta#olism 18 Bacteria iffer in their nee for5 an tolerance of5 o/ygen @O2A8 a8 Obli*a$e a"aer'be# are una#le to grow in the ,resence of O2D this inclu es anaero#ic #acteria that cause #otulism5 gas gangrene5 an tetanus8 #8 Fa&%l$a$ive a"aer'be# are a#le to grow in either the ,resence or a#sence of gaseous O28 c8 Aero#ic organisms @inclu ing animals an most ,ro9aryotesA re>uire a constant su,,ly of O2 to carry out cellular res,iration8 28 Autotro,hic Bacteria a8 P!'$'a%$'$r')!# are ,hotosynthetic an use light energy to assem#le the organic molecules they re>uire8 1A )rimiti2e ,hotosynthesi'ing #acteria @e8g85 green sulfur #acteria an ,ur,le sulfur #acteriaA use only ,hotosystem 0 that contains ba&$eri'&!l'r')!yll@ they o not gi2e off O2 #ecause hy rogen sulfi e @42SA is use as an electron an 4O onor instea of 42O8 2A A 2ance ,hotosynthesi'ing #acteria @e8g85 cyano#acteriaA use #oth ,hotosystem 0 an 00 that contain the same ty,es of chloro,hylls foun in ,lantsD they o gi2e off O2 #ecause 42O is use as an electron an 4O onor8 #8 C!e+'a%$'$r')!# ma9e organic molecules #y using energy eri2e from the o/i ation of inorganic com,oun s in the en2ironment8 1A 3ee, ocean hy rothermal 2ents ,ro2i e 42S to form chemosynthetic #acteria8 2A The methanogens are chemosynthetic #acteria that ,ro uce methane @C44A from hy rogen gas an CO2D AT) synthesis an CO2 re uction are lin9e to this reaction an methanogens can ecom,ose animal wastes to ,ro uce electricity as an ecological frien ly energy source8 3A 6itrifying #acteria o/i i'e ammonia @643A to nitrites @6O2A an nitrites to nitrates @6O3A8 38 4eterotro,hic Bacteria a8 Most free;li2ing #acteria are &!e+'!e$er'$r')!# that ta9e in ,re;forme organic nutrients8 #8 As aero#ic #a)r'$r')!#5 there is ,ro#a#ly no natural organic molecule that cannot #e #ro9en 38

14.

own #y some ,ro9aryotic s,ecies8 c8 Bacteria ,ro uce chemicals inclu ing ethyl alcohol5 acetic aci 5 #utyl alcohol5 an acetones8 8 Bacteria action ,ro uces #utter5 cheese5 sauer9raut5 ru##er5 cotton5 sil95 coffee5 an cocoa8 e8 Anti#iotics are ,ro uce #y some #acteria8 C8 Sym#iotic +elationshi,s 18 Bacteria an archaea form #y+bi'$i& rela$i'"#!i)#5 forming relationshi,s with mem#ers of other s,eciesD forms of sym#iosis inclu e mutualistic5 commensalistic5 an ,arasitic relationshi,s8 C'++e"#ali#+ occurs when one ,o,ulation mo ifies the en2ironment in such a way that a secon ,o,ulation #enefits8 Commensalistic #acteria li2e in or on organisms of other s,ecies an cause them no harm8 Mutualistic #acteria that li2e in the intestines of humans #enefit from un igeste material an release 2itamins E an B125 which we use to ,ro uce #loo com,onents8 )arasitic #acteria are res,onsi#le for a wi e 2ariety of infectious ,lant5 animal an human iseases8 )arasitic #acteria that cause isease are calle )a$!'*e"#0 Some #acteria form resistant e"d'#)'re# in res,onse to unfa2ora#le en2ironmental con itions8 1A Some cyto,lasm an the chromosome ehy rate an are encase #y three hea2y5 ,rotecti2e s,ore coats8 2A The rest of the #acterial cell eteriorates an the en os,ore is release 8 3A &n os,ores sur2i2e in the harshest of en2ironments% esert heat an ehy ration5 #oiling tem,eratures5 ,olar ice5 an e/treme ultra2iolet ra iation8 4A &n os,ores also sur2i2e 2ery long ,erio s of timeD anthra/ s,ores 153.. years ol can cause isease8 "A :hen en2ironmental con itions are again suita#le5 the en os,ore a#sor#s water an grows out of its s,ore coat8 $A 0n a few hours5 newly emerge cells #ecome ty,ical #acteria ca,a#le of re,ro ucing #y #inary fission8 (A &n os,ore formation is not re,ro uction;;it is a means of sur2i2al an is,ersal to new locations8

)athogens may #e a#le to ,ro uce a to/in5 an or a here to surfaces an sometimes in2a e organs or cells8
1A To/ins are small organic molecules5 or small ,ieces of ,rotein or ,arts of the #acterial cell wall5 that are release when #acteria ie8 2A 0n almost all cases5 the growth of the #acteria oes not cause isease #ut instea the to/ins they release cause the isease8 &/am,le% 0lostri"ium tetani5 the causati2e agent of tetanus8 3A A hesion factors allow a ,athogen to #in to certain cells5 which etermines which tissue in the #o y will #e the host8 &/am,le% Shigella "ysentariae releases a to/in an also stic9s to the intestinal wall5 ma9ing it a life;threatening form of ysentary8 4A Anti#acterial com,oun s either inhi#it cell wall synthesis or ,rotein #iosynthesisD increasingly5 many ,athogenic #acteria are #ecoming resistant to #acteria8

38 Cyano#acteria
1. 28 Cya"'ba&$eria are 1ram;negati2e #acteria with a num#er of unusual traits8 They ,hotosynthesi'e in the same manner as ,lants5 an thus are res,onsi#le for intro ucing O2 into the ,rimiti2e atmos,here8 38 They were formerly mista9en for eu9aryotes an classifie with algae8 48 Cyano#acteria ha2e ,igments that mas9 chloro,hyllD they are not only #lue;green #ut also re 5 yellow5 #rown5 or #lac98 "8 They are relati2ely large @1=". m in wi thA8 $8 They can #e unicellular5 colonial5 or filamentous8 (8 Some mo2e #y gli ing or oscillating8 *8 Some ,ossess heterocysts5 thic9;walle cells without a nucleoi 5 where nitrogen fi/ation occurs8 -8 Cyano#acteria are common in fresh water5 soil5 on moist surfaces5 an in harsh ha#itats @e8g85 hot s,ringsA8 1.8 Some s,ecies are sym#iotic with other organisms @e8g85 li2erworts5 ferns5 an coralsA8 118 Li&!e"# are a sym#iotic relationshi, where the cyano#acteria ,ro2i e organic nutrients to the fungus an the fungus ,rotects an su,,lies inorganic nutrients8 128 Cyano#acteria were ,ro#a#ly the first coloni'ers of lan uring e2olution8

141

138 Cyano#acteria B#loomC when nitrates an ,hos,hates are release as wastes into waterD when they ie off5 ecom,osing #acteria use u, the o/ygen an cause fish 9ills8

2007 T!e Ar&!aea

18 28 38 Ar&!aea are ,ro9aryotes with molecular characteristics that istinguish them from #acteria an eu9aryotesD their r+6A #ase se>uence is ifferent from that in #acteria8 Because archaea an some #acteria are #oth foun in e/treme en2ironments @hot s,rings5 thermal 2ents5 salt #asinsA5 they may ha2e i2erge from a common ancestor8 Later5 the eu9arya s,lit from the archaeaD archaea an eu9arya share some ri#osomal ,roteins not foun in #acteriaD initiate transcri,tion in the same manner5 an ha2e similar ty,es of t+6As8

A8 Structure of Archaea
Archaea ha2e unusual li,i s in their ,lasma mem#ranes that allow them to function at high tem,eratures% glycerol lin9e to hy rocar#ons rather than fatty aci s8 28 Cell walls of archaea o not contain the ,e,ti oglycan foun in #acterial cell walls8 B8 Ty,es of Archaea 1. Me$!a"'*e"# li2e un er anaero#ic en2ironments @e8g85 marshesA where they ,ro uce methane8 a8 Methane is ,ro uce from hy rogen gas an car#on io/i e an is cou,le to formation of AT)8 #8 Methane release to the atmos,here contri#utes to the greenhouse effect8 c8 A#out $"N of the methane foun in our atmos,here is ,ro uce #y methanogenic archaea8 28 Hal')!ile# re>uire high salt concentrations @e8g85 1reat Salt La9eA8 a8 Their ,roteins ha2e uni>ue chlori e ,um,s that use halorho o,sin to synthesi'e AT) in the ,resence of light8 #8 They usually re>uire 12=1"N salt concentrationsD the ocean is only 38"N salt8 38 T!er+'a&id')!ile# li2e un er hot5 aci ic en2ironments @e8g85 geysersA8 a8 They sur2i2e #est at tem,eratures a#o2e *.oCD some sur2i2e a#o2e #oiling tem,eratures8 #8 Meta#olism of sulfi es forms aci ic sulfatesD these #acteria grow #est at ,4 of 1 to 28 18

Le&$%re E"ri&!+e"$ Idea#

E6)erie"&e Ba#e: Most stu ents ha2e grown u, with social e/,ectations of hygiene% Bwash your han s #efore coming to su,,er5C B on<t eat irectly from the ser2ing #owl5C etc8 Some ,ractices5 though5 such as ,ressure coo9ing5 surgical instrument sterili'ation5 etc85 are less un erstoo outsi e of the sciences8 +elating these ,ractices to the information in this cha,ter will ma9e this material more rele2ant to many stu ents8 College is also a time for stu ents to iscar the term BgermC e/ce,t in the historical as,ect of Bgerm theoryC for more e/act terms that esignate the isease agent8 18 The si'e ifference #etween 2iruses an ,ro9aryotes an eu9aryotic cells can #e illustrate % 0f a eu9aryotic cell were the si'e of a large lecture room5 a #acterium woul a,,ro/imate the si'e of a chair or es95 an a 2irus woul #e smaller than a ,encil8 28 3iagrams of the entry5 re,lication5 an release of 36A an +6A 2iruses in host cells are #est illustrate #y rawing the se>uences an ,ro2i ing line iagrams8 3iscuss the ,ossi#le origins of 2iruses5 with em,hasis on the fact that #acterial5 ,lant5 an animal 2iruses ha2e genes that are more li9e the genes of their host cells than li9e other 9in s of 2iruses8 The most logical e/,lanation is that 2iruses re,resent ,arts of the host cell genome that #ecame semi;in e,en ent8 &/,lore whether or not this woul wor9 for +6A 2iruses8
38 &/amine the ,ro ucts that a ,ro2irus @integrate 2irusA ma9es that cause human iseases when the human is infecte #y a lysogenic #acterium5 such as i,htheria to/in or the factor in Streptococcus that ,ro uces scarlet fe2er or rheumatic fe2er8 3iscuss the re,ro ucti2e ,athway for the A03S 2irus5 ,ointing out the areas in its re,lication that might #e attac9e #y anti2iral rugs8

48

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"8

Biogra,hical rea ings from #oo9s such as /he =irus ,unters or /he Microbe ,unters ,ro2i e the conte/t for early wor9 #y Eoch an )asteur8 Such rea ing e/cer,ts re2eal a 2ery human set of researchers who 9new their wor9 meant life or eath for thousan s8 3escri#e why the ,ro uction of en os,ores is im,ortant in the sur2i2al of some forms of #acteria8 As9 where a stu ent coul ,oint out a sterile location in a house8 @The o2en is ,ro#a#ly the closest to sterile8A :hat can we o to maintain a sterile fiel in an o,erating room where not all o#7ects can #e #oile K The recent isco2ery of ,rions as infectious agents was highly contro2ersial8 3iscuss why a isease agent that was not a li2ing cell or acti2e 2irus5 an lac9e any +6A or 36A5 woul #e sus,ect an re>uire efiniti2e ,roof for the science community to acce,t it8 Bo2ine s,ongiform ence,halo,athy @BS&A remains a BhotC news to,ic an has im,lications for international tra e an worl community ,olitics8

$8

(8

Cri$i&al T!i",i"*
-%e#$i'" 10 :hy o we refer to 2iruses as Bacti2ate C or Binacti2ate C rather than Bli2ingC or B ea CK A"#.er: BLi2ingC organisms shoul ha2e the a#ility to in e,en ently grow5 re,ro uce5 meta#oli'e an res,ire5 etc8 Virus are re,ro uce only when ta9en into other cells8 Outsi e of host cells5 they emonstrate no life ,ro,erties8 Their a#ility to #e ,ro,agate an to re,licate mutations is e,en ent u,on the machinery of the host cell8 They cannot #e ,roclaime B ea C #ecause alone5 they were ne2er ali2e8 -%e#$i'" 20 :hy is a chemical agent5 such as sulfa or ,henol5 not consi ere an Banti#ioticCK A"#.er: Anti#iotics are su#stances that were originally eri2e from li2ing organisms5 such as mol s5 etc85 an inclu e ,enicillin5 stre,tomycin5 tetracycline5 an erythromycin8 They either #loc9 synthesis of #acterial cell walls or #loc9 ,rotein synthesis8 Chemical agents came from the chemistry la# rather than from organisms8 -%e#$i'" 40 :hy are #acterial 1$S ri#osomal +6A se>uences use rather than the circular chromosome loo, in research that attem,ts to wor9 out the ,hylogenetic relationshi,s of ,ro9aryotesK A"#.er: Because of the lac9 of a nucleus5 there is a su#stantial amount of gene transfer among ,ro9aryotes for traits that affect 2aria#le meta#olism5 anti#iotic resistance5 etc8 By selecting se>uences that are #oun to a #asic function5 any changes are li9ely to a2oi the continuous e/tracellular flow of genes5 an ,ro2i e a more relia#le Bcloc98C

Te&!"'l'*y 1r'+ M&Gra.;Hill

)lease consult your C'%r#e I"$e*ra$i'" G%ide for technology correlations for this cha,ter8

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CHAPTER

21

PROTIST EVOLUTION AN

IVERSITY

The many ifferent ty,es of ,rotists are escri#e in this cha,ter8 &m,hasis is ,lace on their classification5 organi'ational form5 an re,ro ucti2e mechanisms8 The commercial uses of 2arious ,rotists are iscusse 5 as are their im,ortance to the ecosystem8 The in2ol2ement of certain ,rotists in human isease is outline 8 A Science Focus #o/ escri#es the 2arious life cycles foun among the ifferent s,ecies of algae8

C!a)$er O%$li"e
2101 Ge"eral Bi'l'*y '1 Pr'$i#$# A8 )rotists are classifie in the omain &u9arya @they ha2e eu9aryotic cellsA an the 9ing om )rotista8
The en osym#iotic hy,othesis suggests how the eu9aryotic cells arose8 a8 0t ,ro,oses that aero#ic #acteria #ecame mitochon ria8 #8 Cyano#acteria #ecame chloro,lasts after #eing ta9en u, #y eu9aryotic cells8 c8 *iar"ia lamblia has two nuclei #ut no mitochon ria5 suggesting that a nucleate cell ,rece e the ac>uisition of mitochon ria8 28 Although many ,rotists are unicellular5 they are highly com,le/8 a8 Amoe#oi s an ciliates ,ossess uni>ue organelles5 such as contractile 2acuoles8 38 Most ,rotists are free;li2ingD some are ,arasitic5 some @e8g85 slime mol sA are sa,ro,hytic @fee on ecaying ,lant materialA5 an some are +i6'$r')!i& @com#ining autotro,hic an heterotro,hic nutrition mo esA8 48 Some ,rotists are ,hotoautotro,hicD some are heterotro,hic8 "8 Most ,rotists use ase/ual re,ro uction5 #ut se/ual re,ro uction occurs in some s,ecies8 a8 !ormation of #)'re# allows free;li2ing an ,arasitic ,rotists to sur2i2e hostile en2ironments8 #8 A &y#$ is a ormant cell with a resistant outer co2eringD the cyst allows a free;li2ing s,ecies to o2erwinter an hel,s certain ,arasitic s,ecies sur2i2e the host<s igesti2e 7uices8 $8 Some ,rotists are of great me ical im,ortance #ecause they cause iseaseD others are ecologically im,ortant8 (8 A>uatic )la",$'" ser2e as foo for heterotro,hic ,rotists an animals8 *8 )hotosynthetic ,lan9ton ,ro uce much of the o/ygen in the atmos,here8 -8 Many ,rotists enter sym#iotic relationshi,sD coral reefs rely on sym#iotic ,hotosynthetic ,rotists8 B8 &2olution an 3i2ersity of )rotists 18 Classification of ,rotests has #een #ase on mo es of nutrition8 a8 Algae are autotro,hic5 similar to lan ,lants #8 )roto'oans an slime mol s are heterotro,hic #y ingestion5 similar to animals c8 :ater mol s are heterotro,hic #y a#sor,tion5 similar to fungi8 28 Pr'$'5'a"# inclu e ,hotosynthetic5 heterotro,hic5 an mi/otro,hic organisms an ha2e some form of locomotion @flagella5 ,seu o,o s5 ciliaA8 38 Currently5 the most wi ely acce,te metho of categori'ing ,rotests is #y assigning them to #%)er*r'%)#5 which is a ma7or eu9arotic grou,8 There are si/ ,rotist su,ergrou,s8 18

2202 iver#i$y '1 Pr'$i#$# A8 Su,ergrou, Archae,lasti s 18 Ar&!ae')la#$# inclu e lan ,lants5 green an re algae8 28 1reen Algae
a8 #8 c8 1reen algae contain #oth chloro,hyll a an b8 They li2e in the ocean5 in fresh water ha#itats5 snow#an9s5 an on moist lan 8 The ma7ority of green algae are unicellular5 #ut filamentous @SpirogyraA5 colonial @=ol#o!A5 an

144

multicellular forms e/ist @El#aA8 8 1reen algae are not always greenD some ha2e ,igments that gi2e them an orange5 re 5 or rust color8 e8 )lants are consi ere to #e most closely relate to the green algae8 f8 1reen algae are i2i e into chloro,hytes an charo,hytes8 B8 Chloro,hytes 18 0hlamy"omonas is a minute5 unicellular green alga less than 2" m long8 28 0t has a cell wall an a single5 large5 cu,;sha,e chloro,last with a pyrenoi" for starch synthesis8 38 The chloro,last contains a light;sensiti2e eyes,ot @stigmaA that irects the cell to light for ,hotosynthesis8 48 Two long whi,li9e flagella ,ro7ect from the anterior en to ,ro,el the cell towar light8 "8 :hen growth con itions are fa2ora#le5 0hlamy"omonas re,ro uces ase/ually with flagellate s,ores calle 5''#)'re#0 $8 :hen growth con itions are unfa2ora#le5 0hlamy"omonas re,ro uces se/ually8 a8 1ametes from two ifferent mating ty,es 7oin to form a 'ygote8 #8 A hea2y wall forms aroun the 'ygoteD a resistant 'ygos,ore sur2i2es until con itions are fa2ora#le8 (8 =ol#o! a8 =ol#o! is a Colonial 1reen Algae8 A &'l'"y is a loose association of in e,en ent cells8 #8 =ol#o! is a hollow s,here with thousan s of cells arrange in a single layer8 c8 =ol#o! cells resem#le 0hlamy"omonas cellsD a colony arises if the aughter cells fail to se,arate8 8 =ol#o! cells coo,erate when flagella #eat in a coor inate fashion8 e8 Some cells are s,eciali'e forming a new aughter colony within the ,arental colony8 f8 3aughter colonies are insi e a ,arent colony until an en'yme issol2es ,art of a wall so they can esca,e8 *8 El#a5 a Multicellulr Chloro,hyte a8 The multicellular El#a is calle sea lettuce #ecause of its leafy a,,earance8 #8 The thallus @#o yA is two cells thic9 #ut can #e a meter long8 c8 El#a has an alternation of generations life cycle5 as o ,lants5 #ut the generations loo9 ali9e8 8 The gametes loo9 ali9e @isogametesA an the s,ores are flagellate 8 -8 Charo,hytes a8 Cell i2ision in one ,lane ,ro uces en ;to;en chains of cells or 1ila+e"$#0 #8 Spirogyra is a filamentous algae foun on surfaces of ,on s an streams8 1A 0t has ri##onli9e s,iral chloro,lasts8 2A Two stran s may unite in &'"A%*a$i'" an e/change genetic material5 forming a i,loi 'ygote8 3A The 'ygotes withstan winterD in s,ring they un ergo meiosis to ,ro uce ha,loi filaments8 c8 0hara @stonewortsA are green algae that li2e in freshwater la9es an ,on s8 8 The stonewort 0hara forms a cell ,late uring cell i2ision an has multicellular se/ organs ma9ing ,lants most closely relate to this grou,8 e8 0hara also has a stemli9e #o y with no es an interno esD the cells of the #o y originate from a,ical meristem features that are homologous with ,lants8 1.8 The +e Algae a8 +e algae are chiefly marine multicellular algae that li2e in warmer seawater8 #8 +e algae ,osses a re an a #lue ,igment in a ition to chloro,hyll8 c8 They are generally much smaller an more elicate than #rown algae8 8 Some are filamentous5 #ut most are #ranche 5 ha2ing a feathery5 flat5 or ri##onli9e a,,earance8 e8 Coralline algae are re algae with cell walls with calcium car#onateD they contri#ute to coral reefs8 f8 +e algae are economically im,ortant8 1A Mucilaginous material in cell walls of *eli"ium an *racilaria is the source of agar use in rug ca,sules5 ental im,ressions5 an cosmetics8 2A 0n the la#oratory5 agar is a ma7or micro#iological me ia5 an when ,urifie 5 is a gel for electro,horesis8 3A Agar is use in foo ,re,aration to 9ee, #a9e goo s from rying an to set 7ellies an esserts8 4A Carrageen5 an emulsifying agent e/tracte from 0hon"rus crispus5 is use in ,ro uction of

14"

chocolate an cosmetics8 C8 Life Cycles Among the Algae @Science Focus #o/A 18 3e,en ing on the s,ecies an en2ironmental con itions5 ase/ual an se/ual re,ro uction occur in algae8 28 Ase/ual +e,ro uction a8 Ase/ual re,ro uction occurs fre>uently when the en2ironment is fa2ora#le to growth8 #8 Ase/ual re,ro uction only re>uires one ,arent8 c8 The offs,ring are genetically i entical to ,arent8 38 Se/ual +e,ro uction a8 Se/ual re,ro uction occurs when the en2ironment is changing an unfa2ora#le to growth8 #8 1enetic recom#inations may ,ro uce in i2i uals that are more li9ely to sur2i2e en2ironmental e/tremes such as high or low tem,erature5 aci ic or #asic ,48 38 Su,ergrou, Chromaleolates 18 This su,ergrou, inclu es the #rown algae5 iatoms5 gol en #rown algae5 an watermol s a8 The Brown Algae 1A Brown algae are #$ra+e"')ile# @ha2ing either a flagella or escen e from an ancestor that ha flagellaA8 2A Brown algae ha2e chloro,hylls a an c an fuco!anthin that gi2e them their color8 3A Their reser2e foo is a car#ohy rate calle laminarin8 4A Sea.eed refers to any large5 com,le/ alga8 "A Their cell walls contain a mucilaginous water;retaining material that inhi#its esiccation8 $A @aminaria is an interti al 9el, that is uni>ue among ,rotistsD this genus shows tissue ifferentiation8 (A Nereocystis an Macrocystis are giant 9el,s foun in ee,er water anchore to the #ottom #y their hol fasts8 *A 0n i2i uals of the genus Sargassum sometimes #rea9 off from their hol fasts an form floating masses8 -A Brown algae ,ro2i e foo an ha#itat for marine organisms5 an they are also im,ortant to humans8 a8 Brown algae are har2este for human foo an for fertili'er in se2eral ,arts of the worl 8 #8 Macrocystis is a source of al*i"5 a ,ectinli9e su#stance a e to gi2e foo s a sta#le5 smooth consistency8 1.A Most ha2e an alternation of generations life cycle8 11A Fucus is an interti al roc9wee D meiotic cell i2ision ,ro uces gametes an the a ult is always i,loi 8 3iatoms a8 ia$'+# are strameno,iles that ha2e cell walls consisting of two silica;im,regnate hal2es or 2al2es8 #8 :hen iatoms re,ro uce ase/ually5 each recei2e one ol 2al2e8 c8 The new 2al2e fits insi e the ol oneD therefore5 the new iatom is smaller than the 8 This continues until they are a#out 3.N of their original si'e8 Then they re,ro uce se/uallyD a 'ygote grows an i2i es mitotically to form iatoms of normal si'e8 f8 They are yellow;orange in color #ecause they contain a carotenoi ,igment in a ition to chloro,hyll8 g8 3iatoms are an im,ortant ,art of the )!y$')la",$'"3 ,hotosynthetic organisms that are a source of foo an o/ygen for heterotro,hs8 h8 The cell wall has an outer layer of silica @glassA with a 2ariety of mar9ings forme #y ,ores8 i8 3iatom remains accumulate on the ocean floor an are mine as dia$'+a&e'%# ear$! for use as filters5 a#rasi2es5 etc8 1ol en Brown Algae a8 G'lde" br'." al*ae eri2e their color from yellow;#rown carotenoi ,igments8 #8 They are unicellular or colonial ,rotists5 with two flagella8 c8 The cells of gol en #rown algae may #e na9e 5 co2ere with organic or silica scales5 or enclose e8

28

original one8

38

14$

in a secrete cageli9e structure calle a lorica8 8 6chromonas is ca,a#le of ,hotosynthesis as well as ,hagocytosis8 e8 1ol en #rown algae contri#ute to freshwater an marine ,hyto,lan9ton8 48 The :ater Mol s a8 /a$er +'ld# usually li2e in water5 form furry growths5 an ,arasiti'e fish or insects an ecom,ose remains8 #8 Terrestrial water mol s ,arasiti'e insects an ,lantsD a water mol cause the 1*4.s 0rish ,otato famine8 c8 Most water mol s are sa,rotro,hic5 li2ing off ea organic matter8 8 :ater mol s ha2e a filamentous #o y #ut cell walls are com,ose largely of cellulose8 e8 3uring ase/ual re,ro uction5 they ,ro uce i,loi motile s,ores @2n 'oos,oresA with flagella8 f8 Gnli9e fungi5 the a ult is i,loi D gametes are ,ro uce #y meiosis8 g8 &ggs are ,ro uce in enlarge ti,s calle oogonia8 &8 Al#eolates The al2eolates ha2e al2eoli @small sacsA 7ust #eneath the ,lasma mem#rane8 The function of the al2eoli may #e to su,,ort the cell surfaces8 Al2eolates are unicellular ,rotists8 18 The 3inoflagellates a8 The unicellular di"'1la*ella$e# are usually #oun e #y ,rotecti2e cellulose ,lates8 #8 Most ha2e two flagella8 1A One lies in a longitu inal groo2e an acts as a ru er8 2A The other is locate within a trans2erse groo2eD #eating causes the cell to s,in as it mo2es forwar 8 c8 Some s,ecies of inoflagellates are heterotro,hicD some are ,arasitic8 8 They are e/tremely numerous @3.5... ,er mlA an an im,ortant source of foo in the ecosystem8 e8 Gn er certain con itions5 *ymno"inium an *onyaula! increase in num#er enormously an cause a Bred $ideCD they ,ro uce a ,owerful neuroto/in 9illing fish an causing ,aralytic shellfish ,oisoning8 f8 They usually re,ro uce ase/ually #y using mitosis an longitu inal cell i2ision8 28 The Ciliates a8 Ciliates are unicellular ,rotists that mo2e #y coor inate stro9es of hun re s of cilia ,ro7ecting through holes in a semirigi ,ellicle8 #8 They ischarge long5 #ar#e $ri&!'&y#$# for efense an for ca,turing ,reyD $'6i&y#$# release a ,oison8 c8 Most are holo'oic an ingest foo through a gullet an eliminate wastes through an anal ,ore8 8 3uring ase/ual re,ro uction5 ciliates i2i e #y trans2erse #inary fission8 e8 Ciliates ,ossess two ty,es of nuclei?a large +a&r'"%&le%# an one or more small +i&r'"%&lei0 f8 The macronucleus controls the normal meta#olism of the cell8 g8 The micronucleus is in2ol2e in se/ual re,ro uction8 1A The macronucleus isintegrates an the micronucleus un ergoes meiosis8 2A Two ciliates then e/change a ha,loi micronucleus8 3A The micronuclei gi2e rise to a new macronucleus containing only house9ee,ing genes8 h8 Ciliates are i2erse with o2er *5... 9nown s,ecies8 1A Mem#ers of the genus (aramecium are com,le/8 2A The #arrel;sha,e i iniums e/,an to consume ,aramecia much larger than themsel2es8 3A Suctoria rest on a stal9 an ,araly'e 2ictims5 suc9ing them ry8 4A Stentor resem#les a giant #lue 2ase with stri,es8 38 A,icom,le/ans a8 A)i&'+)le6a"# are also 9nown as sporo-oans8 #8 All a,ilcom,le/ans are ,arasites c8 (lasmo"ium #i#a! causes one ty,e of malariaD it is the most wi es,rea human ,arasite8 1A After the #ite of an infecte female Anopheles mos>uito5 the ,arasite e2entually in2a es re #loo cells8 2A Chills an fe2er a,,ear as re #loo cells #urst an release to/in into the #loo 8 8 Malaria remains a ma7or worl isease ue to insectici e;resistant strains of mos>uitoes an rug; resistant strains of (lasmo"ium8

14(

(neumocystis carinii causes the ,neumonia seen ,rimarily in A03S ,atients8 1A 3uring se/ual re,ro uction5 thic9;walle cysts form in the lining of ,ulmonary air sacs8 2A Cysts contain s,ores that successi2ely i2i e until the cyst #ursts an the s,ores are release 8 3A &ach s,ore #ecomes a new organism5 re,ro uces ase/ually an can enter an encyste se/ual stage8 !8 Su,ergrou, &/ca2ates The e6&ava$e# inclu e 5''1la*ella$e#8 aooflagellates ha2e aty,ical or a#sent mitochon ria5 an istincti2e flagella an For ee, oral gro2es8 18 &ugleni"s a8 E%*le"id# are small @1.=".. DmA freshwater unicellular organisms8 #8 One;thir of all genera ha2e chloro,lastsD those that lac9 chloro,lasts ingest or a#sor# their foo 8 c8 Their chloro,lasts are surroun e #y three5 rather than two5 mem#ranes8 1A Their chloro,lasts resem#le those of green algae8 2A They are ,ro#a#ly eri2e from a green algae through en osym#iosis8 8 The ,yrenoi outsi e the chloro,last ,ro uces an unusual ty,e of car#ohy rate ,olymer @,aramylonA not seen in green algae8 e8 They ,ossess two flagella5 one of which ty,ically is much longer than the other an ,ro7ects out of a 2ase;sha,e in2aginationD it is calle a tinsel flagellum #ecause it has hairs on it8 f8 6ear the #ase of the longer flagellum is a re eyes,ot that sha es a ,hotorece,tor for etecting light8 g8 They lac9 cell walls5 #ut instea are #oun e #y a fle/i#le pellicle com,ose of ,rotein #an s si e;#y; si e8 h8 A contractile 2acuole5 similar to certain ,roto'oa5 eliminates e/cess water8 i8 &uglenoi s re,ro uce #y longitu inal cell i2isionD se/ual re,ro uction is not 9nown to occur8 28 (arabasali"s an" Diplomona"s Both ,ara#asali s an i,lomona s are single;celle 5 flagellate ,roto'oans that can sur2i2e in low o/ygen en2ironments8 a8 Paraba#alid# ha2e a fi#rous connection #etween the 1olgi a,,aratus an flagella8 1A /richonomas #aginalis is a se/ually transmitte organism that infects the 2agina an urethra of women an ,rostate5 seminal 2esicles an urethra of men8 #8 A di)l'+'"ad cell has two nuclei an two sets of flagella8 1A *iar"ia lamblia cysts are transmitte through contaminate waterD they cause se2ere iarrhea8 38 Eineto,lasti s a8 The ,i"e$')la#$id# are single;celle 5 flagellate ,roto'oans name for their inetoplasts5 which are large masses of 36A foun in their mitochon ria8 1A /rypanosoma bruce, are ,arasitic 9ineto,lasti s transmitte #y the #ite of a tsetse fly5 is the cause of African slee,ing sic9ness8 18 Su,ergrou, Amoe#o'oans The a+'eb'5'a"# are com,rise of ,roto'oans that mo2e #y )#e%d')'d#8 Amoe#o'oans li2e in a>uatic en2ironments5 oceans an freshwater la9es an ,on s5 an often times ,art of the ,lan9ton8 18 Amoeboi"s a8 Amoe#oi s engulf ,rey with ,seu o,o s5 cyto,lasmic e/tensions forme as cyto,lasm streams in one irection8 #8 Amoeba proteus is a commonly stu ie mem#er8 c8 Amoe#oi s )!a*'&y$i5e their foo D ,seu o,o s surroun an engulf ,rey8 8 !oo is igeste insi e foo 2acuoles8 e8 !reshwater amoe#oi s ha2e contractile 2acuoles to eliminate e/cess water8 f8 &ntamoeba histolytica is an amoe#ic ,arasite that in2a es the human intestinal lining8 28 Slime Mol"s a8 These organisms resem#le fungi #ut all ha2e flagellate cells that fungi ne2er ha2e8 #8 The )la#+'dial #li+e +'ld# e/ist as a ,lasmo ium8 1A This i,loi multinucleate cyto,lasmic mass cree,s along5 ,hagocyti'ing ecaying ,lant material8 2A !an;sha,e ,lasmo ium contains tu#ules of concentrate cyto,lasm in which li>uefie cyto,lasm streams8

e8

14*

3A Gn er unfa2ora#le en2ironmental con itions @e8g85 roughtA5 the ,lasmo ium e2elo,s many #)'ra"*ia3 calle a fruiting #o y5 that ,ro uce s,ores #y meiosis8 4A Mature s,ores are release an sur2i2e until more fa2ora#le en2ironmental con itions returnD then each releases a ha,loi flagellate cell or an amoe#oi cell8 "A Two flagellate or amoe#oi cells fuse to form a i,loi 'ygote that ,ro uces a multinucleate ,lasmo ium again8 c8 The &ell%lar #li+e +'ld# e/ist as in i2i ual amoe#oi cells8 1A They li2e in soil an fee on #acteria an yeast8 2A As foo runs out5 amoe#oi cells release a chemical that causes them to aggregate into a ,seu o,lasmo ium0 3A The ,seu o,lasmo ium stage is tem,oraryD it gi2es rise to s,orangia that ,ro uce s,ores8 4A S,ores sur2i2e until more fa2ora#le en2ironmental con itions return5 at which time they germinate8 "A S,ores germinate to release ha,loi amoe#oi cells5 which is again the #eginning of the ase/ual cycle8 48 Su,ergrou, +hi'arians 18 The r!i5aria"# is com,rise of the 1'ra+i"i1era"# an the radi'laria"#5 organi'e with a fine5 threa ;li9e ,seu o,o s8 28 They were ,re2iously classifie with Amoe#o'oans5 #ut are now assigne to a ifferent su#grou, ue molecular ata in icating the two grou,s are not closely relate 8 38 !oraminiferans an ra iolarians ha2e a s9eleton calle a $e#$0 a8 !oraminiferans ha2e a multi;cham#ere CaCO3 shellD thin ,seu o,o s e/ten through holes8 #8 +a iolaria ha2e a test com,ose of silica or strontium sulfate8 1A Most ha2e a ra ial arrangement of s,ines8 2A )seu o,o s @actino,o sA ,ro7ect from an e/ternal layer of cyto,lasm an are su,,orte #y rows of microtu#ules8 8 c8 Tests of ea foraminiferans an ra iolarians form ee, layers of ocean floor se iment8 8 3ating #ac9 to the )recam#rian5 each layer has istincti2e foraminiferans which hel,s ate roc9s8 e8 O2er hun re s of millions of years5 the CaCO3 shells ha2e contri#ute to the formation of chal9 e,osits @i8e85 :hite Cliffs of 3o2er5 limestone of the great &gy,tian ,yrami sA8 08 Su,ergrou, O,istho9onts 18 Animals an fungi are inclu e in the su,ergrou, ')i#$!','"$# in a ition to se2eral unicellular an multicellular ,rotists8 28 The &!'a"'1la*ella$e# are animal;li9e ,roto'oans that are near relati2es to s,onges8 a8 They inclu e unicellular an colonial forms5 an are filter fee ers8 38 N%&leariid# are o,istho9onts with a roun e or slightly flattene cell #o y an threa li9e ,seu o,o s calle filo,o ia8 a8 Most fee on algae or cyano#acteria8 #8 They a,,ear to #e close fungal relati2es ue to molecular similarities8

Le&$%re E"ri&!+e"$ Idea#

E6)erie"&e Ba#e: Gnfortunately5 stu ents< woo lan e/,eriences are #ecoming more an more limite 8 Li9ely5 relati2ely few stu ents will ha2e o#ser2e mol s on rotten logs8 More may ha2e maintaine a home a>uarium an seen water mol on fish8 Therefore5 2isuals will #e im,ortant to illustrate most grou,s8 Li9ewise5 the com,le/ i2ersity an 2ariation in cycles will re>uire iagrams8 18 BAlgaeC an B,roto'oaC are soli e/am,les of how common terms that a,,ear to grou, similar organisms o not match u, with our un erstan ing of their actual ,hylogeny8 6e2ertheless5 it remains use as a general term in the a#sence of other common terms referring to one;celle eu9aryotes8 28 )lasmo ium is easily an safely grown an ,asse aroun in a )etri ish8 Time;la,se 2i eo can show the 2ery slow mo2ement that is usually unnotice in nature8 Me ia are necessary to 14-

show stu ents what ,rotists loo9 li9e an how they mo2e an re,ro uce5 if actual culture s,ecimens are not a2aila#le8 38 Since many of the ,arasitic forms of 9ing om )rotista are tro,ical an su#tro,ical5 Americans are often unfamiliar with the ra2ages of malaria5 ysentery5 etc8 3escri,tions an 2isuals can em,hasi'e the seriousness of such ma7or iseases8 48 Eee, stu ents aware that all the organisms ,lace in the 9ing om )rotista are not really closely relate to each other8 Some ha2e suggeste that it woul #e more Breasona#leC to ha2e as many as nineteen 9ing oms8 "8 &m,hasi'e the im,ortance of the algae as the #ase of the foo chain in #oth freshwater an marine en2ironments8 $8 )oint out that lichens can #e ma e u, of fungi an either green algae or cyano#acteria5 an e/amine how they coul #e sym#iotic or how the fungus coul #e ,arasitic on the alga or the #acterium8 :hat e/,eriments woul istinguish thisK (8 3escri#e in ustrial an commercial uses of ,rotists @mainly algaeA8

Cri$i&al T!i",i"*
-%e#$i'" 10 &uglena are ,ositione #etween animalli9e an ,lantli9e organisms8 0f they ha2e chloro,lasts5 why aren<t they soli ly algaeli9e5 or grou,e with green algaeK
A"#.er: Two;thir s of euglenoi genera lac9 chloro,lasts5 an some can lose chloro,lasts if grown in the a#sence of light8 An the chloro,last5 when ,resent5 has a three;layer mem#rane5 suggesting it was eri2e from engulfing of green algae through en osym#iosis8 -%e#$i'" 28 :ater mol s are filamentous an sa,rotro,hic8 &2en in fairly recent #iology te/t#oo9s5 they were classifie with the fungi8 :hy are they no longer classifie with fungi when their ,re ominant features are fungusli9eK A"#.er: 3uring ase/ual re,ro uction5 they ,ro uce motile 2n 'oos,ores8 A ults are i,loi 5 not ha,loi as is the fungi5 an meiosis ,ro uces the gametes8 This is a com,le/ form of re,ro uction that is not li9ely to #e in e,en ently e2ol2e #y a fungus5 while the fungusli9e features coul #e e2ol2e #y a ,rotist8

Te&!"'l'*y 1r'+ M&Gra.;Hill

)lease consult your C'%r#e I"$e*ra$i'" G%ide for technology correlations for this cha,ter8

1".

CHAPTER

22

EVOLUTION AN

IVERSITY OF

FUNGI

This cha,ter stu ies the Eing om !ungi8 The mor,hology of fungi is escri#e 5 an the mo es of re,ro uction8 Much terminology is ,resente in this cha,ter8 &m,hasis is ,lace on the sac fungi @formerly calle im,erfect fungi?this section has #een rewritten from the ,re2ious e ition of the te/tA8 The commercial an foo uses of fungi are iscusse 5 as are many fungal iseases of humans8 A ,ealth Focus #o/ iscusses B3ea ly !ungi8C

C!a)$er O%$li"e
2201 Ev'l%a$i'" a"d C!ara&$eri#$i&# '1 F%"*i
The *.5... s,ecies of the Gi"*d'+ F%"*i are mostly multicellular eu9aryotes that share a common mo e of nutrition8 28 Li9e animals5 1%"*i are heterotro,hic an consume ,reforme organic matter8 38 Animals5 howe2er5 are heterotro,hic #y ingestion while fungi are heterotro,hic #y a#sor,tion8 48 !ungal cells secrete igesti2e en'ymesD following #rea9 own of molecules5 the nutrients are a#sor#e 8 "8 Most fungi are #a)r'$r')!i& ecom,osers5 #rea9ing own wastes or remains of ,lants an animals8 A8 &2olution of !ungi 18 !ungi inclu e clu# fungi5 sac fungi5 AM fungi5 'ygos,ore fungi5 an chytri s8 28 Chytri s are unli9e all the other fungi #ecause they are a>uatic an they ha2e flagellate s,ores an gamets8 38 The AM fungi only e/ist as mycchori'ae in association with ,lant roots8 48 Molecular ata shows that animals an fungi share a common ancestor after ,lants e2ol2e 8 "8 The earliest fossil of fungi is ate 4". MLA8 B8 Structure of !ungi 18 !ungi can #e unicellular @e8g85 yeastsA8 28 Most fungi are multicellular in structure8 a8 The thallus @#o yA of most fungi is calle a +y&eli%+0 #8 A mycelium is a networ9 of !y)!ae com,rising the 2egetati2e #o y of a fungus8 c8 4y,hae are filaments that ,ro2i e a large surface area an ai a#sor,tion of nutrients8 8 :hen a fungus re,ro uces5 a ,ortion of the mycelium #ecomes a re,ro ucti2e structure8 38 !ungal cells lac9 chloro,lasts an ha2e a cell wall ma e of &!i$i"3 not cellulose8 a8 Chitin3 li9e cellulose5 is a ,olymer of glucose molecules organi'e into microfi#rils8 #8 0n chitin5 unli9e cellulose5 each glucose has an attache nitrogen containing amino grou,8 48 The energy reser2e of fungi is not starch5 #ut glycogen5 as in animals8 "8 &/ce,t for a>uatic chytri s5 fungi are nonmotileD their cells lac9 #asal #o ies an o not ha2e flagella at any stage in their life8 $8 !ungi mo2e to a foo source #y growing towar itD hy,hae can grow u, to a 9ilometer a ay8 (8 N'"#e)$a$e fungi lac9 se,ta5 or cross walls5 in their hy,haeD nonse,tate hy,hae are multinucleate 8 *8 Se)$a$e fungi ha2e cross walls in their hy,haeD ,ores allow cyto,lasm an organelles to ,ass freely8 -8 The se,ta that se,arate re,ro ucti2e cells5 howe2er5 are com,lete in all fungal grou,s8 C8 +e,ro uction of !ungi 18 0n general5 fungal se/ual re,ro uction in2ol2es the following% ha,loi hy,hae R i9aryotic stage R i,loi 'ygote b;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; meiosis;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;c 28 3uring se/ual re,ro uction5 ha,loi hy,hae from two ifferent mating ty,es fuse8 38 0f nuclei o not fuse imme iately5 the resulting hy,ha is di,ary'$i& @contains ,aire ha,loi nuclei5 n O nA8 a8 0n some s,ecies5 nuclei ,air #ut o not fuse for ays5 months5 or e2en years8 18

1"1

48 "8 $8

(8

#8 The nuclei continue to i2i e in such a way that e2ery cell has at least one of each ty,e of nucleus8 :hen the nuclei fuse5 the resulting 'ygote un ergoes meiotic cell i2ision lea ing to s,ore formation8 !ungal s,ores germinate irectly into ha,loi hy,hae without em#ryological e2elo,ment8 !ungal S,ore !ormation a8 S,ores are an a a,tation to life on lan an ensure that the s,ecies will #e is,erse to new locations8 #8 A #)'re is a re,ro ucti2e cell that can grow irectly into a new organism8 c8 !ungi ,ro uce s,ores #oth uring se/ual an ase/ual re,ro uction8 8 Although nonmotile5 the s,ores are rea ily is,erse #y win 8 Ase/ual re,ro uction can occur #y three mechanisms% a8 )ro uction of s,ores #y a single mycelium is the most common mechanism8 #8 !ragmentation is when a ,ortion of a mycelium #ecomes se,arate an #egins a life of its own8 c8 B%ddi"* is ty,ical of yeastsD a small cell forms an gets ,inche off as it grows to full si'e8 0n 1-$-5 +8 48 :hitta9er argue for their own 9ing om #ase on their multicellular nature an mo e of nutrition8 6ot 9nowing ,hylogeny5 fungal grou,s are classifie accor ing to ifferences in life cycles an the ty,es of structure that ,ro uces s,ores8

2202

iver#i$y '1 F%"*i

18 $8

A8 Chytri s 18 The &!y$rid# @chytri iomycotaA inclu e (-. s,ecies of the sim,lest fungi that may resem#le the first fungi to ha2e e2ol2e 8 28 Some chytri s are single cells while others forme #ranche nonse,tate hy,hae8 38 They are the only fungi who ha2e flagellate s,erm5 eggs5 an s,ores8 48 The 5''#)'re# lin9s fungi to choanoflagellates an other animals an hel,s ,lace fungi in the su,ergrou, O,istho9onta8 "8 Ase/ual re,ro uction is common through the ,ro uction of 'oos,ores within a single cell that grow into new chytri s8 $8 Some chytri s re,ro uce se/ually an un ergo alternation of generations5 li9e green ,lants an certain algae8 (8 Chytri s ,lay a role in the ecay an igestion of ea a>uatic organisms5 some chytri s are ,arasitic on ,lants5 animals5 an ,rotists8 a8 The ,arasitic chytri 5 Batrachochytrium "en"robati"is has recently ecimate ,o,ulations of harle>uin frogs in central an South America8 #8 The ,arasitic chytri grows insi e the frog<s s9in cells an isru,t the a#ility of frogs to a>uire o/ygen though their s9in8 B8 aygos,ore !ungi 18 )hylum aygomycota contains a#out 15.". s,ecies of 5y*'#)'re 1%"*i0 28 Most are sa,rotro,hs li2ing off ,lant an animal remains in the soil or #a9ery goo s in a ,antry8 38 Some are ,arasites of small soil ,rotists5 worms5 or insects8 48 The #lac9 #rea mol 5 'hi-opus stolonifer, is a common e/am,le8 a8 :ith little cellular ifferentiation among fungi5 hy,hae s,eciali'e for 2arious functions8 #8 Stolons are hori'ontal hy,hae that e/ist on the surface of the #rea 8 c8 +hi'oi s are hy,hae that grow into the #rea 5 anchor the mycelium5 an carry out igestion8 8 S,orangio,hores are stal9s that #ear s,orangia8 e8 A #)'ra"*i%+ is a ca,sule that ,ro uces s,ores calle s,orangios,ores8 f8 3uring ase/ual re,ro uction5 all structures are ha,loi 8 "8 The ,hylum name refers to the 'ygos,ore seen uring se/ual re,ro uction8 a8 4y,hae of ifferent mating ty,es @O an =A are chemically attracte an grow towar each other8 #8 &n s of hy,hae swell as nuclei enterD cross walls e2elo, #ehin each en 5 forming *a+e$a"*ia0 c8 1ametangia merge into a large multinucleate cell in which nuclei of two mating ty,es ,air an fuse8 8 A thic9 wall e2elo,s aroun the cell5 forming a 5y*'#)'re0 e8 The 'ygos,ore un ergoes a ,erio of ormancy #efore meiosis an germination ta9es ,lace8 f8 1ermination in2ol2es the e2elo,ment of one or more s,orangio,hores3 with s,orangia at their ti,s8 g8 The s,ores are is,erse #y air currents an gi2e rise to new ha,loi mycelia8

1"2

C8 AM !ungi 18 The AM 1%"*i @ar#uscular mycorrhi'alA in )hylum glomeromycota consists of 1$. s,ecies8 28 Ar#uscules are #ranching in2aginations that the fungus ma9es when it in2a es ,lant roots8 38 Mycchori'ae are a mutualistic association that #enefits #oth the fungus an the ,lant8 48 AM fungi were classifie as 'oogos,ore fungi5 #ut are now classifie as a se,arate grou, #ase on molecular ata8 38 Sac !ungi 18 )hylum Ascomycota contains a#out $.5... s,ecies of #a& 1%"*i0 28 Two main grou,s are recogni'e % the se/ual ascomycetes @se/ual re,ro uctionA an ase/ual ascomycetes @se/ual re,ro uction not yet o#ser2e A8 38 Se/ual ascomycetes inclu e the yea#$#3 the unicellular fungi5 red bread +'ld#3 +'rel#3 an $r%11le#0 a8 Many se/ual ascomycetes are ,lant ,arasites an inclu e the ,ow ery mil ews that grow on lea2es5 leaf curl fungi5 chestnut #light5 an 3utch elm isease8 #8 &rgot is a ,arasitic fungus on ryeD it ,ro uces a to/in that can cause hysteria an eath8 48 Ase/ual ascomycetes use to #e in the ,hylum 3euteromycota @im,erfect fungiA5 #ut are now recogni'e as sac fungi8 a8 The +'ld# Aspergillus an (enicillium @rename /alaromycesA an yeast 0an"i"a are in this grou,8 "8 Biology of the Sac !ungi a8 The #o y of the ascomycetes can #e a single cell @e8g85 yeastsA5 #ut more often it is a mycelium com,ose of se,tate hy,hae8 #8 They are istinguishe #y the structures they form when they re,ro uce ase/ually an se/ually8 $8 Ase/ual +e,ro uction a8 Ase/ual re,ro uction is the norm among ascomycetes8 1A There are no s,orangia in ascomycetes8 2A C'"idi'#)'re# @coni iaA e2elo, irectly on ti,s of coni io,hores5 mo ifie aerial hy,hae5 an are win #lown when release 8 3A Leasts re,ro uce ase/ually #y #u ing8 (8 Se/ual +e,ro uction a8 The a#&%#5 containe within sacli9e a#&'&ar)5is a fingerli9e sac that e2elo,s uring se/ual re,ro uctionD the asci are ,rotecte #y sterile hy,hae within a fruiting #o y calle the ascocarp8 1A &ach ascus contains eight ha,loi nuclei an ,ro uces eight ascos,ores8 2A 0n most ascomycetes5 the asci #ecome swollen an #urst5 e/,elling the ascos,ores8 3A 0f release into the air5 the s,ores are win #lown8 *8 The Benefits an 3raw#ac9s of Sac !ungi a8 Sac fungi igest resistant materials containing cellulose5 lignin5 or collagen8 #8 Some s,ecies can consume 7et fuel an wall ,aint8 c8 Others form sym#iotic relationshi,s with algae5 forming lichens5 an ,lant roots5 forming mycorrhi'ae8 8 Sac fungi accounts for most of the 9nown fungal ,athogens causing ,lant iseases% ,ow ery mil ew5 leaf curl fungus5 chestnut #light5 3utch elm isease5 an &rgot8 e8 Many sac fungi ,ro uce su#stances inclu ing ,enicillin5 cyclos,orin5 steroi s8 f8 Some cause iseases @mycosesA5 e8g85 ringworm8 -8 Leasts a8 Saccharomyces cere#isiae is #rewer<s yeastD #ecause it ,ro uces CO25 yeast fermentation is im,ortant in the ,ro uction of #rea 8 #8 Leasts are also use in genetic engineering e/,eriments re>uiring a eu9aryote8 c8 0an"i"a albicans is the yeast which causes the wi est 2ariety of fungal infections5 e8g85 2aginal infections5 oral thrush5 or5 in immunocom,romise in i2i uals5 systemic infections8 1.8 Mol s a8 Aspergillus is a grou, of green mol s that is sometimes ,athogenic to humans8 #8 0t is use to ,ro uce soy sauce #y fermentation of soy#eansD it is use in the ,ro uction of many other foo an cosmetic a iti2es8 c8 Aspergillus fla#us secretes a ,otent carcinogen5 an it also causes isease of the res,iratory tract8 8 Other mol s grow in #uil ing materials5 causing the Bsic9;#uil ingC syn rome8 e8 (enicillium ,ro uces the im,ortant anti#iotic ,enicillin8

1"3

Mol li9e fungi in the genus /inea cause iseases of the s9in calle tineasD e/am,les are athlete<s foot an ringworm8 g8 ,istoplasma capsulatum5 which grows in #oth mol form an yeast form5 causes the mil Bfungal fluCD the fungus grows within cells of the immune system an causes systemic isease8 118 Control of !ungal 0nfections a8 Because fungal cells are similar to human cells5 antifungal me ications are ifficult to esign8 #8 Some fungici es are irecte against steroi #iosynthesis in the fungusD some are #ase on hea2y metals8 &8 3ea ly !ungi @,ealth Focus #o/A 18 +e an yello Amanita a8 )oisinous re an yellow mushroom also 9nown as fly agaric8 #8 To/ins inclu e muscarin an muscari ine5 which ,ro uce sym,toms similar to those of acute alcoholic into/ication8 c8 Sym,toms #egin at one to si/ hours an inclu e staggering5 losing consciousness5 #ecoming elirious5 suffering from hallucinations5 manic con itions5 an stu,or8 8 Another sym,tom5 2omiting5 is #eneficial since the ,oisoning may #e ri en from the system8 e8 3eal occurs in less than 1N of cases8 28 Amanita phalloi""es a8 Also 9nown as eath angel mushroom5 eath occurs in -.N of 2ictims8 #8 Sym,toms #egin 1.;12 hours after consum,tion an inclu e a# ominal ,ain5 2omiting5 elirium5 an hallucinations8 c8 The ,oison also interferes with +6A transcri,tion #y inhi#iting +6A ,olymerase5 an 2ictim ies from 9i ney an li2er amage8 38 (silocybe me!icana a8 This mushroom is a hallucinogenic mushroom use in religious ceremonies5 ,articularly among Me/ican 0n ians8 #8 This s,ecies of mushroom contains a chemical calle ,silocy#in that is a structural analogue of LS3 with mescaline 48 0la#iceps purpurea a8 This s,ecies of sac fungus is calle the ergot fungus that infects rye an re,laces the grain with ergot8 #8 &rgots are har 5 ,ur,le;#lac9 #o ies consisting of tightly cemente hy,hae8 c8 After the ergot is groun with the rye to ma9e #rea 5 the fungus releases to/ic al9aloi s that cause the isease ergotism8 8 Sym,toms of ergotism inclu e 2omiting5 feelings of intense heat or col 5 muscle ,ain5 a yellow face5 an lesions on han s an feet5 an accom,anie #y hysteria an hallucinations8 e8 &rgotism was common in &uro,e uring the Mi le Ages8 &rgotism may ha2e #een the cause of the in i2i uals who were accuse of witchcraft in Salem Massachusetts in the 1(th century8 A recent e,iso e occurre in 1-"1 in )ont;Saint;&s,rit5 !rance8 O2er 1". ,eo,le #ecame hysterical an four ie 8 f8 Since the al9aloi s that cause ergotism stimulate smooth muscle an selecti2ely #loc9 the sym,athetic ner2ous system5 they can #e use in me icine to cause uterine contractions an to treat certain circulatory isor ers8 !8 Clu# !ungi 18 Cl%b 1%"*i are in the ,hylum #asi iomycota an inclu e o2er 225... s,ecies8 28 They ha2e se,tate hy,hae an inclu e mushrooms5 #rac9et fungi5 ,uff#alls5 #ir <s nest fungi5 an stin9horns8 38 Biology of Clu# !ungi a8 Se/ual re,ro uction in2ol2es ,ro uction of #asi ios,ores within fruiting #o ies in the ba#idi%+0 1A Se/ual re,ro uction #egins when mono9aryotic hy,hae of two ifferent mating ty,es meet an fuse to form a i9aryotic @n O nA mycelium8 2A The i9aryotic mycelium continues its e/istence for years @,erha,s e2en hun re s of yearsA8 3A A #asi ium contains four ,ro7ectionsD cyto,lasm an a ha,loi nucleus enter to form four #asi ios,ores0 4A +elease #asi ios,ores are win #lownD when they germinate5 a new ha,loi mycelium forms8 "A 0n a ,uff#all5 s,ores insi e ,archmentli9e mem#ranes are release through a ,ore or when the

f8

1"4

,archment #rea9s own8 $A 0n #ir <s nest fungi5 rain ro,s s,latter #asi ios,ore;containing BeggsC through the air8 (A Stin9horns ha2e a slimy ca, an attract flies #y their #a o or to ,ic9 u, an istri#ute s,ores8 48 Smuts an +usts a8 Smuts an rusts are clu# fungi that ,arasiti'e cereal cro,s @e8g85 corn5 wheat5 oats5 an ryeA an cause great economic cro, losses e2ery year8 #8 +usts an smuts o not form #asi iocar,sD their s,ores are small an numerous5 resem#ling soot8 c8 Some smuts enter see s an e/ist insi e the ,lant5 #ecoming 2isi#le only at maturity8 8 Corn smut mycelia grow #etween the corn 9ernels an secrete su#stances to cause tumors on ears8 e8 +usts ha2e a com,le/ life cycle that may in2ol2e more than one hostD thus5 control measures may center on era icating the alternate hosts8

2204 Sy+bi'$i& Rela$i'"#!i)# '1 F%"*i

A8 Lichens 18 Li&!e"# are a sym#iotic association #etween a fungus an a cyano#acterium or a green alga8 28 The #o y of a lichen is com,ose of three layers% a8 a thin5 tough u,,er layer an a loosely ,ac9e lower layer that shiel the ,hotosynthetic cells in the mi le layer8 38 S,ecial fungal hy,hae ,enetrate or en2elo,e the ,hotosynthetic cells an transfer nutrients irectly to the rest of the fungus8 48 Lichens can re,ro uce ase/ually #y releasing fragments that contain hy,hae an an algal cell8 "8 This association was consi ere mutualistic5 #ut e/,erimentation suggests a controlle ,arasitism #y the fungus of the alga8 a8 The algae grow faster when they are alone rather than when they are ,art of a lichen8 #8 On the other han 5 it is ifficult to culti2ate the fungus5 which oes not grow naturally alone8 c8 3ifferent lichen s,ecies are i entifie #ase on the fungal ,artner8 $8 Three ty,es of lichens are recogni'e 8 a8 Com,act crustose lichens are often seen on #are roc9s or tree #ar98 #8 !oliose lichens are leafli9e8 c8 !ruticose lichens are shru#li9e8 (8 Lichens are efficient at ac>uiring nutrientsD they sur2i2e with low moisture5 tem,erature5 or ,oor soil8 *8 Lichens may li2e in e/treme en2ironments an on #are roc9sD they hel, form soil8 -8 Lichens also ta9e u, ,ollutants an cannot sur2i2e where the air is ,ollute 8 B8 Mycorrhi'ae 18 My&'rr!i5ae are mutualistic relationshi,s #etween soil fungi an roots of most ,lants8 28 The fungus enters the corte/ of roots #ut oes not enter the cyto,lasm of ,lant cells8 38 &ctomycorrhi'ae5 such as AM fungi5 form a mantle that is e/terior to the root5 growing #etween cell walls8 48 0t hel,s the roots a#sor# more mineralsD in turn5 the ,lant ,asses on car#ohy rates to the fungus8 "8 The truffle li2es in association with oa9 an #eech tree rootsD it can #e inoculate with the fungus8 $8 The fossil recor in icates that the earliest ,lants ha mycorrhi'ae associate with themD mycorrhi'ae hel,e ,lants a a,t to an flourish on lan 8

Le&$%re E"ri&!+e"$ Idea#

E6)erie"&e Ba#e: Most stu ents will #e familiar with Bfront yar C mushrooms5 an certainly most will ha2e eaten mushrooms8 These e/,eriences ,ro2i e a limite #asis for e/ten ing the lesson #ac9 from the se/ual stages to the ,er2asi2e mycelial stages8 The use of yeast in #eer;5 wine;5 an #rea ;ma9ing will ,ro2i e more rele2ant e/am,les8 18 Gse local s,ecimens5 or films or sli es to e/amine what fungal organisms loo9 li9e an how they re,ro uce8 28 3iscuss how the ,arasitic forms of 9ing om !ungi ha2e a a,te to their lifestyle8 1""

38 Clarify the similarities an

istinctions among slime mol s5 water mol s5 an fungi8

48 3iscuss the in ustrial an commercial uses of fungi8 "8 Mil ews5 rusts5 an smuts may #e familiar to stu ents who are aroun Mi west farms5 etc8 $8 3escri#e the sym,toms an mo e of action of the human iseases cause #y fungi8 Many stu ents will ha2e ha e/,eriences with these isease @ringworm5 athlete<s foot5 etc8A8 (8 Clarify that lichens can #e ma e u, of fungi an either green algae or cyano#acteriaD etail the e/,eriments that ,ro#e how they coul #e sym#iotic or how the fungus coul #e ,arasitic on the alga or the #acterium8

Cri$i&al T!i",i"*
-%e#$i'" 10 Some e2olutionary #otanists ,ro,ose that eci uous trees o not lose their lea2es as a natural conse>uence of winter an water free'ing5 #ut in or er for the tree to iscar a season of fungus;infecte lea2es8 0s this a reasona#le hy,othesis an what e2i ence might su,,ort itK A"#.er% Many s,ecies of fungi ha2e the a#ility to grow mycelia into lea2es through the stomates5 an this fungal loa certainly #uil s u, as the lea2es age8 The fact that many trees in tro,ical an su#tro,ical forests still she their lea2es5 usually uring the riest season5 uring a continuous growing year is e2i ence for this hy,othesis5 an e2ergreen trees ha2e the a#ility to sur2i2e winters without she ing their lea2es8 -%e#$i'" 20 Stin9horns ha2e a resem#lance to morel mushrooms5 although the stin9horns soon #ecome slimy8 :hy are they not in the same i2ision if they loo9 so much ali9e mor,hologicallyK A"#.er: Morels are sac fungi that form eight ascos,ores ,er ascus8 Stin9horns are a #asi ios,ore ,ro ucer8 The re,ro ucti2e metho is more im,ortant in classifying fungi an is consi ere less li9ely to ha2e arisen in e,en ently than the similar mor,hology8

1"$

PART

PLANT EVOLUTION AN BIOLOGY

!i2e cha,ters are e2ote to flowering ,lant anatomy an ,hysiology8 The first cha,ter ,ro2i es a foun ation for the others on nutrition an trans,ort5 growth an e2elo,ment5 an re,ro uction8
23 24 2" 2$ 2( )lant &2olution an 3i2ersity !lowering )lants% Structure an Organi'ation !lowering )lants% 6utrition an Trans,ort !lowering )lants% Control of 1rowth an +es,onses !lowering )lants% +e,ro uction

CHAPTER

24

PLANT EVOLUTION AN

IVERSITY

This cha,ter ,resents a stu y of the e2olution an i2ersity of ,lants8 Beginning with the e2olutionary history of ,lants5 the cha,ter mo2es into a iscussion of alternation of generations5 2ascular ,lants5 see ,lants5 gymnos,erms5 an angios,erms8 Two &cology Focus #o/es iscuss BCar#oniferous !orests5C an B)lants% Coul :e 3o :ithout ThemKC8

C!a)$er O%$li"e
2401 T!e Gree" Al*al A"&e#$'r '1 Pla"$#
Pla"$# are multicellular ,hotosynthetic eu9aryotes5 whose e2olution is mar9e #y a a,tations to a lan e/istence8 28 Li2ing on lan re>uires a a,tations5 ,rimarily ealing with the threat of esiccation8 38 The most successful lan ,lants are those that ,rotect all ,hases of re,ro uction from rying out an ha2e an efficient means of is,ersing offs,ring on lan 8 48 To conser2e water5 the lan ,lant #o y is co2ere #y a wa/y cuticle that is im,er2ious to water while still allowing car#on io/i e to enter so ,hotosynthesis can continue8 "8 0n many ,lants5 roots a#sor# water from the soil5 an 2ascular system trans,orts water in the #o y of the lan ,lant8 $8 !lowering ,lants ha2e e2ol2e in a way that em,loys animals to assist with re,ro uction an see is,ersal8 A8 The Ancestry of )lants 18 )lants are #elie2e to ha2e e2ol2e from a freshwater green algal ancestor o2er 4". million years ago8 a8 Both utili'e chloro,hylls a an b an 2arious accessory ,igments8 #8 0n #oth5 the foo reser2e is starch8 c8 The cell walls of #oth contain cellulose. 8 36A #ase co es for r+6A suggest ,lants are most closely relate to green algae 9nown as &!ar')!y$e#0 28 The two grou, of charo,hytes @Carales an 0oleochateA ha2e se2eral features that woul ha2e ,romote the e2olution of multicellular lan ,lants% a8 Cellulose cell walls of charo,hytes an lan ,lant lineage are lai own #y the same uni>ue ty,e of cellulose synthesi'ing com,le/es8 The cell walls of #oth ty,es of organisms are similar8 #8 0n charo,hytes5 a,ical cells ,ro uce cells that allow their filaments to increase in length8 At the 18

1"(

no es5 other cells can i2i e asymmetrically to ,ro uce re,ro ucti2e structures8 Lan ,lants ha2e a,ical tissue that ,ro uces s,eciali'e tissues that a to or e2elo, into new organs8 c8 )lasmo esmata #etween cells ,ro2i e a means of communication #etween neigh#oring cells an may ha2e ,laye a role in the e2olution of s,eciali'e tissues in lan ,lants8 8 A ,lacenta @ esigne cellsA transfers nutrients from ha,loi cells of the ,re2ious generation to the i,loi 'ygote8 Both charo,hytes an lan ,lants retain an care for the 'ygote8 B8 Alternation of 1enerations Life Cycle 18 Lan ,lants ha2e a two;generation life cycle calle al$er"a$i'" '1 *e"era$i'"#0 a8 E+bry')!y$a is an alternate name for the lan ,lant cla e since the 2n em#ryo are retaine an ,rotect the em#ryo from rying out8 #8 The #)'r')!y$e is a i,loi @2nA generation ,ro ucing ha,loi #)'re# #y meiotic cell i2ision8 S,ores ha2e a wall that contains #)'r')'lle"i"3 a molecule that ,re2ents rying out8 c8 The *a+e$')!y$e is a ha,loi @nA generation ,ro ucing ha,loi *a+e$e# #y mitotic i2ision8 A male gametangium is calle an a"$!eridi%+3 an a female gametangium is calle an ar&!e*'"i%+0 8 0n the ,lant life cycle5 a s,ore un ergoes mitosis an #ecomes a gameto,hyte8 8 6ote that meiosis ,ro uces ha,loi s,ores8 e8 Mitosis occurs as a s,ore #ecomes a gameto,hyte5 an also as a 'ygote #ecomes a s,oro,hyte8 f8 The charo,hytes ha2e a ha,loi life cycle8 The 'ygote un ergoes meiosis5 an only four 'oos,ores are ,ro uce ,er 'ygote8 28 )lants iffer in which generation?gameto,hyte or s,oro,hyte?is ominant8 a8 0n non2ascular ,lants5 the gameto,hyte is ominant8 #8 0n the 2ascular grou,s5 the s,oro,hyte is ominant8 c8 The shift to s,oro,hyte ominance is an a a,tation to life on lan 8 8 As the s,oro,hyte gains ominance5 the gameto,hyte #ecomes microsco,ic an e,en ent on the s,oro,hyte8 C8 Other 3eri2e Traits of Lan )lants 18 Lea2es an stems are co2ere #y a wa/y &%$i&le that hol s in water #ut limits gas e/changeD the thic9ness of the cuticle 2aries among ifferent s,ecies of ,lants8 28 Lea2es an some other tissues ha2e o,enings @#$'+a$aA that regulate gas an water e/change8 38 A,ical tissue has the a#ility to ,ro uce com,le/ tissues an organs8

2402 Ev'l%$i'" '1 Bry')!y$e#: C'l'"i5a$i'" '1 La"d

18 28 38 48 "8 $8 The bry')!y$e# @li2erworts5 hornworts5 mossesA are the first ,lants to coloni'e lan 8 Bryo,hytes are "'"va#&%lar )la"$# #ecause they lac9 true roots5 stems5 an lea2es5 although they ha2e rootli9e5 stemli9e5 or leafli9e structures8 The #ryo,hytes e2ol2e uring the Or o2ician ,erio 8 Molecular ata suggests that these ,lants ha2e in i2i ual lines of escent an they o not form a nono,hyletic grou,8 Mosses may #e more closely relate to 2ascular ,lants than hornworts an li2erworts8 Bryo,hytes an 2ascular ,lants share traits inclu ing% a8 Alternation of generation life cycle8 #8 A,ical tissue that ,ro uces com,le/ tissues8 c8 Bo ies are co2ere #y a cuticle8 8 4ornwarts an mosses ha2e stomata8 The gameto,hyte is the ominant generation we recogni'e in #ryo,hytes8 a8 !lagellate s,erm swim to the 2icinity of the egg in a continuous film of water8 #8 The gameto,hyte ,ro uces eggs in the archegonia5 flagellate s,erm in the antheri ia8 c8 The s,erm swim to the egg in a continuous film of water8 8 The s,oro,hyte is attache to an eri2es nourishment from the ,hotosynthetic gameto,hyte8 6on2ascular ,lants are >uite small #ecause of lac9 of 2ascular tissue an the nee for s,erm to swim to the archegonia in water8 a8 Because se/ual re,ro uction in2ol2es flagellate s,erm5 they are usually foun in moist ha#itats8 #8 Bryo,hytes com,ete well in harsh en2ironments #ecause the gameto,hyte can re,ro uce

(8

*8

1"*

ase/ually8 A8 Li2erworts 18 There are two grou,s% the thallose li2erworts with flattene #o ies 9nown as a thallus5 an the leafy li2erworts5 which su,erficially resem#le mosses8 28 Marchantia is an e/am,le of a li2erwort8 a8 0t has a flat5 lo#e thallus a#out a centimeter in length8 #8 The u,,er surface of thallus is smoothD the lower surface #ears numerous r!i5'id# ,ro7ecting into the soil8 c8 0t re,ro uces ase/ually an se/ually8 38 R!i5'id# are the hairli9e e/tensions that anchor it an a#sor# water an minerals from the soil8 48 Ase/ual re,ro uction in2ol2es *e++ae in gemmae cu,s on the u,,er surface of the thallusD gemmae can start a new ,lant8 "8 Se/ual re,ro uction e,en s on antheri ia an archegonia8 a8 A"$!eridia are on is9;hea e stal9s an ,ro uce flagellate s,erm8 #8 Ar&!e*'"ia are on um#rella;hea e stal9s an ,ro uce eggs8 c8 The 'ygote e2elo,s into a tiny s,oro,hyte com,ose of a foot5 short stal95 an ca,sule8 8 S,ores ,ro uce within the ca,sule of the gameto,hyte are isseminate #y win 8 B8 4ornworts 18 H'r".'r$# are ,hotosynthetic5 #ut also ha2e a sym#iotic relationshi, with cyano#acteria5 which can fi/ atmos,heric nitrogen8 28 The small s,oro,hytes of a hornwort loo9 li9e tiny green #room han les an are attache to a filmy gameto,hyte that is less than two cm in iameter8 C8 Mosses 18 M'##e# are the largest ,hyla of non2ascular ,lants with o2er 1"5... s,ecies are 9nown8 a8 Three istinct classes e/ist% ,eat mosses5 true mosses5 an roc9 mosses8 28 They ,refer am,5 sha e localities #ut some sur2i2e in esertsD others in #ogs an streams8 38 Mosses store much waterD when they ry out5 they #ecome ormantD when it rains5 they #ecome green8 48 The moss life cycle #egins with algali9e protonema e2elo,ing from the germination of a ha,loi s,ore8 a8 Three ays of fa2ora#le growing con itions ,ro uce u,right shoots co2ere with leafy structures8 1A R!i5'id# @rootli9e filamentsA anchor the ,rotonema5 to which the shoots are attache 8 2A The shoots #ear antheri ia an archegonia at their ti,s8 3A The antheri ia ,ro uce flagellate s,erm which nee e/ternal water to reach eggs in the archegonia8 4A The archegonium loo9s li9e a 2ase with a long nec9D it has an outer layer of sterile cells with a single egg at the #ase8 "A !ertili'ation results in a i,loi 'ygote that un ergoes mitotic i2ision to e2elo, a s,oro,hyte8 #8 The s,oro,hyte consists of a foot @which grows own into the gameto,hyte tissue starting at the former archegoniumA5 a stal93 an an u,,er ca,sule @#)'ra"*i%+A where s,ores are ,ro uce 8 1A At first the s,oro,hyte is green an ,hotosynthetic8 2A At maturity it is #rown an non,hotosynthetic8 "8 The Gses of Bryo,hytes a8 Sphagnum @#og or ,eat mossA has tremen ous a#ility to a#sor# water an is im,ortant in gar ening8 #8 Sphagnum oes not ecay in some aci ic #ogsD the accumulate rie )ea$ can #e use as fuel8

2404 Ev'l%$i'" '1 Ly&')!y$e#: Va#&%lar Ti##%e

Vascular Tissue 18 Kyle+ is 2ascular tissue that con ucts water an minerals u,war from the roots8 28 P!l'e+ is 2ascular tissue that trans,orts sucrose an hormones throughout the ,lant8 38 Li*"i" strengthens the walls of con ucting cells in /ylem8 &2olutionary 4istory 18 +hynio,hytes @,hylum +hynio,hytaA were ominant from mi ;Silurian )erio of the )aleo'oic &ra to the mi ;3e2onian8 28 0oo sonia may ha2e #een the first 2ascular ,lant an coloni'er of lan 8 38 The ,hotosynthetic stems5 not true lea2es or roots5 ha2e s,orangia at their ti,sD they are attache to a

1"-

rhi'ome8 48 Similar to #ryo,hytes5 these ,lants were homos,orous5 ,ro ucing one ty,e of s,ore8 "8 Since they were not a see ,lant5 they were calle a #eedle## va#&%lar )la"$3 li9e the lyco,hytes8 A8 Lyco,hytes 18 The first ly&')!y$e# ha the stem of early 2ascular ,lants5 roots5 an lea2es calle +i&r')!yll#3 so calle #ecause they ha only one stran of 2ascular tissue8 28 Micro,hylls e2ol2e as sim,le si e e/tensions of the stemD roots e2ol2e as lower e/tensions of the stemD the 2ascular tissue is centrally ,lace 5 as it is with to ay<s lyco,hytes8 38 To ay<s lyco,hytes are also calle clu# mosses an inclu e the groun ,ines @@ycopo"iumA5 s,i9e mosses @SelaginellaA5 an >uillworts @IsoetesA8 48 There are a,,ro/imately 151". s,ecies of lyco,hytes8 "8 +oots come off a #ranching5 un ergroun stem calle a r!i5'+e0 $8 S)'r')!yll# are micro,hylls that #ear s,orangia8 (8 S,oro,hylls are grou,e into clu#;sha,e #$'b'li0 *8 Similar to all 2ascular ,lants5 the s,oro,hyte generation is the ominant generation in lyco,hytes8 -8 1roun ,ines are homos,orous?the s,ores germinate into incons,icuous an in e,en ent gameto,ytes5 li9e in ferns8 1.8 The s,erm are flagellate in #ryo,hytes5 lyco,hytes5 an ferns8

2407 Ev'l%$i'" '1 P$erid')!y$e#: Me*a)!yll#

P$erid')!y$e# @ferns an their allies5 horsetails5 whis9fernsA are see less 2ascular ,lants8 )teri o,hytes an see ,lants #oth ha2e +e*a)!yll#3 which are #roa lea2es with se2eral stran s of 2ascular tissue8 38 Mega,hylls e2ol2e a#out 3(. MLA8 48 Their function is to allow ,lants to efficiently collect solar energy5 which lea s to the ,ro uction of more foo an the ,ossi#ility of ,ro ucing more offs,ring than ,lants without mega,hylls8 "8 The ,teri o,hytes were ominant from the late 3e2onian ,erio through the Car#oniferous ,erio 8 $8 Clu# mosses @3" mA5 horsetails @1* mA5 an ferns @* mA were larger than to ay<s s,ecimens an forme great swam,s8 A8 4orsetails 18 H'r#e$ail# consist of one genus5 &%uisetum5 an 2" s,ecies8 28 A rhi'ome ,ro uces aerial stems that stan a#out 183 meters tall8 38 :horls of slen er si e #ranches encircle no es of a stem5 resem#ling a horse<s tail8 48 Small scaleli9e lea2es also form whorls at each no e8 "8 Many horsetails ha2e stro#ili at the ti, of all stemsD others sen u, s,ecial #uff;colore stems that #ear stro#oli8 $8 The s,ores germinate into incons,icuous an in e,en ent gameto,hytes8 (8 The tough5 rigi stems ha2e silica in the cell wallsD early Americans use them as Bscouring #rushes8C B8 :his9 !erns 18 /!i#, 1er"# are re,resente #y two genera% (silotum an /mesipteris8 28 :his9 ferns occur in the southern Gnite States an in the tro,ics as e,i,hytes or on the groun 8 38 :his9 ferns ha2e no lea2es or roots8 48 A #ranche rhi-ome with rhi'oi s an a mycorrhi'al fungus hel,s gather nutrients8 "8 Two or three s,ecies of the genus /mesipteris ha2e a,,en ages that some maintain an re uce mega,hylls C8 !erns 18 Fer"# consist of a#out 115... s,ecies8 28 !erns are wi es,rea an es,ecially a#un ant in warm5 moist tro,ical regions8 38 !erns range in si'e from low?growing mossli9e forms to tall trees8 48 Fr'"d# are mega,hylls that are 2aria#le in si'e an sha,e8 "8 The life cycle of ferns a,,lies to the life cycle of other ty,es of 2ascular see less ,lants8 a8 The ominant s,oro,hyte ,ro uces win #lown s,ores #y meiosis within s,orangia8 #8 0n ferns5 the s,orangia can #e locate within sori on the un ersi e of the leaflets8 c8 :in #lown s,ores is,erse the gameto,hyte8 8 !lagellate s,erm are release #y antheri ia an swim to the archegonia in a film of water8 e8 Many ferns can re,ro uce ase/ually #y fragmentation of the fern rhi'ome8 $8 The Gses of !erns 18 28

1$.

a8 #8 c8 8 e8 18 28

Ostrich fern is the only e i#le fern to #e tra e as a foo ?eaten as fi lehea s8 The fern A-olla har#ors the nitrogen fi/ing cyano#acteria Anabaena8 A-olla con2erts more atmos,heric nitrogen into a form a2aila#le for ,lant growth than all the legumes8 !erns an their allies can also #e use as me icines to treat #oils an ulcers5 whoo,ing cough5 an ysentery8 !erns are use hea2ily as ornamental ,lants #y florists an as home ecorations8

240? Ev'l%$i'" '1 Seed Pla"$#: F%ll Ada)$a$i'" $' La"d

See ,lants are 2ascular ,lants that use see s as the is,ersal stage8 Seed# are mature o2ules containing em#ryonic s,oro,hyte an store foo enclose in a ,rotecti2e see coat8 38 See s are resistant to a 2erse con itions such as ryness an tem,erature e/tremes8 48 A foo reser2e su,,orts the emerging see ling until it can e/ist on its own8 "8 The sur2i2al 2alue of see s contri#utes greatly to the success of see ,lants an to their ,resent ominance8 $8 See ,lants are !e$er'#)'r'%#3 meaning they ha2e micros,ores an megas,ores8 (8 Mi&r'#)'re# #ecome male gameto,hytes5 calle )'lle" *rai"#0 *8 P'lli"a$i'" is the transfer of ,ollen to the 2icinity of the female gameto,hyte8 -8 S,erm is eli2ere to an egg through a )'lle" $%be@ no e/ternal water is re>uire for fertili'ation8 1.8 A +e*a#)'re e2elo,s into a female gameto,hyte within an 'v%le3 which #ecomes a see following fertili'ation8 118 0n *y+"'#)er+#3 the o2ules are not com,letely enclose #y s,oro,hyte tissue at ,ollination8 128 0n a"*i'#)er+#3 the o2ules are com,letely enclose within i,loi s,oro,hyte tissues which #ecome a fruit8

A8 1ymnos,erms
18 1ymnos,erms inclu e the conifers5 cyca s5 gin9go5 an gneto,hytesD they are classifie into (*. s,ecies8 a8 All ha2e o2ules e/,ose on the surface of s,oro,hylls or similar structures8 #8 Ancient gymnos,erms were ,resent in swam, forests of the Car#oniferous )erio 8 Conifers a8 There are a#out "(" s,ecies of &'"i1er#0 #8 Conifers are cone;#earing trees an shru#s such as ,ines5 hemloc9s5 an s,ruces8 c8 Conifers usually ha2e e2ergreen nee leli9e lea2es well a a,te to withstan e/tremes in climate8 8 The ol est an largest trees in e/istence are conifers% 1A The coastal re woo @Se%uoia semperi#irensA is the tallest li2ing 2ascular ,lant an grows to nearly 1.. meters high8 2A Bristlecone ,ines grow in the :hite Mountains of California an 6e2a a mountainsD one is 45-.. years ol 8 e8 Conifer forests co2er 2ast areas of northern tem,erate regions8 f8 )ine nee les ha2e thic9 cuticle an recesse stomata8 g8 Conifers are +'"'e&i'%# since they ,ro uce #oth ,ollen an see cones8 h8 The Gses of )ines 1A )ines ,ro2i e woo for construction8 2A )ines ma9e attracti2e a itions to ,ar9s an gar ens8 3A )ine nee les are rich in 2itamins A an C an can #e #oile to ma9e tea to ease col sym,toms8 4A 0nner #ar9 of white ,ines can #e use in woun ressing or ,ro2i e me icine for col s an coughs8 "A )ine oil is use to scent room s,rays an masculine ,erfumes8 $A +esin is har2este commercially for a eri2e ,ro uct calle tur,entine8 Cyca s a8 Cy&ad# inclu e 1. genera an a#out 14. s,ecies8 #8 The trun9 is stout an un#ranche D the large lea2es are com,oun gi2ing a ,almli9e a,,earance8 c8 Cyca s ha2e ,ollen an see cones on se,arate ,lants8 8 The cyca life cycle is similar to that of ,ine trees e/ce,t they are ,ollinate #y insects8

28

38

1$1

B8

The ,ollen tu#e #ursts in the 2icinity of the archegonium an multiflagellate s,erm swim to reach an egg8 f8 Cyca s flourishe uring the Meso'oic &ra an ,ro#a#ly were foo for her#i2orous inosaurs8 g8 To ay5 cyca s are en angere #ecause of their 2ery slow growth8 48 1in9goes a8 Only one s,ecies of *i",*' @*in go bilobaA sur2i2es to ay8 #8 0t is calle the mai enhair trees #ecause its for9e ;2eine 5 fan;sha,e lea2es resem#le the mai enhair fern8 c8 1in9goes are di'e&i'%#?some trees ,ro uce see s8 8 *in go o2ules are at the en of short5 ,aire stal9sD female trees ,ro uce see s with a fleshy co2ering an foul o or8 e8 Similar to cyca s5 the ,ollen tu#e of 1ing9oes #ursts to release multiflagellate s,erm that swim to the egg ,ro uce #y the female gameto,hyte in an o2ule8 "8 1neto,hytes a8 G"e$')!y$e# are re,resente #y three li2ing genera an (. s,ecies8 #8 *netum consists of trees an clim#ing 2ines with #roa lea2esD they li2e mainly in the tro,ics8 c8 &phe"ra is foun in G8S8 esert regions5 an is a many;#ranche shru# with small5 scaleli9e lea2es8 8 4elwitschia is foun in eserts in southwest AfricaD most of it e/ists un ergroun an it has two enormous lea2es8 e8 The /ylem an stro#oli are uniform across all three genera5 an all lac9 archegonia8 f8 Angios,erms also lac9 archegonia5 suggesting that gneto,hytes are the gymnos,erms most closely relate to angios,erms8 g8 Some gneto,hytes ,ro uce nectar in their re,ro ucti2e structures5 recruiting insects in ,ollination8 Car#oniferous !orests @&cology Focus #o/A 18 C'al is a fossil fuel that our in ustrial society runs on8 28 Fossil fuel refers to the remains of organic materials from ancient times8 38 3uring the Car#oniferous ,erio 5 more than 3.. million years ago5 a great swam, forest encom,asse northern &uro,e5 G9raine5 an the A,,alacian Mountains8 48 The forest consiste of giant lyco,hytes5 horsetails5 an ferns8 "8 O2er time5 water rose an trees fell8 Se iment co2ere the ecaye remains of the ,lants an sometimes change to se imentary roc98 $8 Since se imentary roc9 a,,lie ,ressure5 the organic material then #ecame coal8 (8 The change in climate #rought u,on the e/tinction of these trees5 an only their her#aceous relati2es sur2i2e time8

e8

C8 Angios,erms
18 There are 24.5... 9nown s,ecies of a"*i'#)er+# @flowering ,lantsA8 28 This grou, contains si/ times the num#er of s,ecies of all other ,lant grou,s com#ine 8 38 Angios,erms li2e in all ha#itats from freshwater to esert an from tro,ics to su#,olar regions8 48 !lowering ,lant si'e ranges from microsco,ic uc9wee to &ucalyptus e/cee ing 1.. m tall8 "8 They are im,ortant in e2ery ay human life% clothing5 foo 5 me icine5 an commercial ,ro ucts8 $8 Gnli9e gymnos,erms5 angios,erms enclose their o2ules within i,loi tissues8 38 Origin an +a iation of Angios,erms 18 !lowering ,lants #ecame the ominant ,lants in the late Cretaceous an early Tertiary )erio s8 28 Although the first fossils are no ol er than 13" million years5 angios,erms ,ro#a#ly arose much earlier5 ,erha,s 2.. million years ago8 38 1ene se>uencing ata in icates Amborella trichopo"a5 a small shru# from 6ew Cale onia in the South )acific may #e the most ,rimiti2e sur2i2or8 &8 Monocots an &u icots 18 Most flowering ,lants #elong to one of two classes% M'"'&'$yled'"e# @$"5... s,eciesA5 calle +'"'&'$#3 or the E%di&'$yled'"e# @1("5... s,eciesA5 calle e%di&'$#0 28 The term eu icots is ,referre to the earlier icotsD some former icots are now 9nown to ha2e s,lit off #efore the rise of these two ma7or classes8 38 Monocots ,ro uce one cotyle on @see leafA at germination an ha2e flower ,arts mostly in threes or multi,les of threes8 48 3icots ,ro uce two cotyle ons @see lea2esA at germination an ha2e flower ,arts mostly in fours or

1$2

fi2es5 or multi,les of these num#ers8 !8 The !lower 18 The )ed%"&le3 a flower stal95 e/,an s slightly at the ti, into a re&e)$a&le0 28 The re&e)$a&le is a mo ifie stem ti, to which flower ,arts are attache 8 38 Se)al# are outer ring of mo ifie lea2es of flowersD usually green5 they enclose the flower #efore it o,ens8 48 Pe$al# @collecti2ely a corollaA are a ring of mo ifie lea2es insi e of se,alsD large an colorful5 they hel, attract ,ollinators8 "8 S$a+e"# consist of two ,arts% each slen er 1ila+e"$ has an a"$!er at its ti,8 $8 The a"$!er ,ro uces ,ollen8 (8 At the center of the flower is the &ar)el@ it consists of a #$i*+a3 #$yle3 an 'vary0 a8 Car)el# are mo ifie s,oro,hylls that contain o2ules in which megas,orangia are locate 8 #8 A #$i*+a is a lan ing ,latform for ,ollen an the site where the ,ollen tu#e enters the #$yle0 c8 The #$yle is a slen er column that hol s u, the stigma to recei2e ,ollen8 8 )ollen grains e2elo, a ,ollen tu#e that ta9es s,erm to the female gameto,hyte in the o2ule8 e8 1lan s locate in the region of the o2ary ,ro uce nectar5 a nutrient gathere #y ,ollinators as they go flower to flower8 18 !lowering )lant Life Cycle 18 A +e*a#)'re locate in an o2ule within an o2ary of a car,al e2elo,s into an egg;#earing female gameto,hyte calle the em#ryo sac8 28 Gsually5 the em#ryo sac has se2en cellsD one is an egg an one contains two ,olar nuclei8 38 Mi&r'#)'re# ,ro uce in anthers #ecome ,ollen grains which mature into s,erm;#earing male gameto,hytes8 48 The mature male gameto,hyte consists of three cellsD the tu#e cell an two s,erm cells8 "8 )ollination #rings the male gameto,hyte to the stigma where it germinates8 $8 3uring germination5 the tu#e cell ,ro uces a )'lle" $%be that carries the two s,erm to the micro,yle o,ening of an o2ule8 (8 0n ou#le fertili'ation5 one s,erm fertili'es an egg an one s,erm unites with ,olar nuclei to form the tri,loi en os,erm8 *8 The o2ule #ecomes the see an contains the em#ryo @the s,oro,hyte of the ne/t generationA an store foo enclose within a see coat8 -8 A 1r%i$ is eri2e from an o2ary an ,ossi#ly accessory ,arts of the flowerD some fruits are fleshy an some are ry8 48 !lowers an 3i2ersification 18 !lower 2ariety is relate to the numerous means #y which flowers are ,ollinate an fruits are is,erse 8 28 0ncons,icuous flowers is,erse ,ollen #y win D colorful flowers attract s,ecific ,ollinators @e8g85 #ees5 was,s5 flies5 #utterflies5 moths5 an e2en #atsA which carry only a ,articular ,ollen8 38 !lowers ,romote efficient cross ,ollinationD they also ai in is,ersal through ,ro uction of fruits8 48 There are fruits that utili'e win 5 gra2ity5 water5 an animals for is,ersal8 "8 Since animals li2e in certain ha#itats or ha2e ,articular migration ,atterns5 they can eli2er a fruit;enclose see to a suita#le location for germination an e2elo,ment8 08 )lants% Coul :e 3o :ithout ThemK @&cology Focus #o/A 18 )lants are the ,ro ucers in most ecosystems8 28 4umans eri2e most of their sustenance from three flowering ,lants% wheat5 corn5 an rice8 38 :heat a8 :heat was first culti2ate in the 6ear &ast at a#out *... B8C8 #8 :heat was #rought to 6orth America in 1"2. #y early settlers8 c8 The Gnite States is one of the worl <s largest ,ro ucers of wheat8 48 Corn @Mai'eA a8 Mai'e was first culti2ate in Central America a#out (5... years ago8 #8 Mai'e e2elo,e from a ,lant calle teosinte5 nati2e to central Me/ico8 c8 :e grow si/ ma7or 2arieties of corn% sweet5 ,o,5 flour5 ent5 ,o 5 an flint8 "8 +ice a8 +ice originate in southeastern Asia se2eral thousan years ago5 an now is grown throughout the tro,ics an su#tro,ics5 where water is a#un ant8

1$3

#8 :e are familiar with white an #rown rice8 c8 Brown rice results when the see s are threshe to remo2e the hulls8 8 :hite rice results when the see coat an em#ryo are also remo2e 8 e8 The see coat an em#ryo are rich in 2itamin B an fat;solu#le 2itamins8 $8 Sugarcane an sugar #eets ,ro2i e almost 1..N of the worl <s sugar8 (8 S,ices were the result of many e/,lorations in search for #etter an chea,er routes for s,ice im,ortation8 *8 Coffee5 tea5 an cola also come from flowering ,lants8 a8 Coffee originate in &thio,ia an it was first use with animal fat on long 7ourneys8 #8 Coffee as a rin9 was not e2elo,e until the 13th century in Ara#ia an Tur9ey8 c8 Tea is thought to ha2e #een e2elo,e in central Asia8 8 Tea was e/clusi2ely use for me icinal ,ur,oses8 e8 Cola is a common ingre ient in tro,ical rin9s an was use in the original Coca;Cola8 -8 4ousehol ,ro ucts a8 Lum#er is use as a ma7or structural ,ortion in #uil ings8 #8 0n certain ,arts of the worl ,alm lea2es are use as roof materials8 c8 0n the 6ear &ast5 houses are ma e of ree s8 1.8 +u##er a8 +u##er ha its origin in Bra'il from the late/ of the ru##er tree8 #8 Stronger ru##er5 such as the ru##er in tires5 was ma e #y a ing sulfur an heating in a ,rocess calle 2ulcani'ation8 c8 To ay much of the ru##er is ,ro uce synthetically8 118 Cotton an natural fi#ers a8 Cotton fi#ers come from filaments that grow on the cotton see 8 #8 O2er 3. s,ecies of nati2e cotton now grow aroun the worl 8 128 Me icinal ,lants a8 Currently a#out ".N of all ,harmaceutical rugs ha2e their origins from ,lants8 #8 The cinchona tree contains the chemical >uinine5 which is use to treat malaria8 138 4allucinogenic effects8 a8 Coca is use for cocaine an crac98 #8 O,ium ,o,,y is use for mor,hine8 c8 Larn is use for steroi s8 148 Other uses8 a8 )lants are use in lan sca,ing5 ,ro2i ing sha e or win #rea98 #8 )lants also ,ro uce o/ygen5 which is necessary for all ,lants an animals8

Le&$%re E"ri&!+e"$ Idea#

E6)erie"&e Ba#e: There has #een a stea y ecrease in the num#er of flowers an American stu ent can name5 reflecting far less irect e/,osure to ,lants in gar ening5 farming5 etc8 Therefore it is li9ely that an instructor will o2erestimate the stu ents< e/,erience with ,lantsD as9ing for fee #ac9 can ,ermit a ra,i a,,raisal of the fiel ;9nowle ge of stu ents an engaging in class iscussions can allow some stu ents to relate e/,eriences that other stu ents will more rea ily com,rehen 8 !ew assum,tions can now #e ma e concerning stu ents< com,rehension of wheat5 corn5 etc85 #efore it #ecomes a mille ,ro uct8 The hea2y loa of technical terms an ,lant anatomy will also ma9e use of me ia ,articularly critical8 Mo ern terminology e2ol2es an it is im,ortant to #e consistent in the use of the correct wor such as Bmale gameto,hyte5C etc8? note the changes that ha2e occurre since the last e ition8 There will also #e an u,hill #attle against the common 2ernacular5 since society calls tomatoes an ,e,,ers B2egeta#lesC rather than Bfruits8C 18 3iagram the e2olution of the ifferent 9in s of lan ,lants5 ,ointing out how each ste, is an a a,tation to the lan an how the ,lants might ha2e mo2e in stages from green algae to 1$4

,lants li2ing on ry lan 8 28 Many regions n the G8S8 ha2e some sam,les of horsetails or groun ,ine in local ,ar9s or rural areas8 Gse s,ecimens or sli es in class to ac>uaint stu ents with organisms they may ha2e seen #ut not recogni'e as a sur2i2ing e/am,le of a ,rimiti2e ,lant grou,8 38 3iscuss why the see ,lants ha2e a re,ro ucti2e a 2antage o2er ,lants that re,ro uce #y releasing s,ores5 with em,hasis on the multicellular em#ryo5 store foo 5 an see coat as o,,ose to the single cell of the s,ore8 On the other han 5 if this is always an a 2antage5 why o the ,lants that use s,ores still sur2i2eK 48 3escri#e the effects of the e2elo,ment of ,ollen on the e2olutionary success of the see ,lants5 with em,hasis on the a 2antage gaine in ha2ing animals is,erse ,ollen rather than the win 8 3iscuss the allergies many ,eo,le ha2e to ,ollen an how much energy must go into ,ro ucing this ,ollen8 "8 4a2e stu ents sto, to e/amine the ,ro ucts they are using in the classroom that are ma e from angios,erms% woo en es9s5 ,a,er5 etc8 They will soon go to lunch or inner an ingest more angios,erms8 $8 Much has #een ma e recently of singing to ,lants5 etc8 )oint out the lac9 of ner2es an muscles5 an the ina#ility of ,lants to res,on to the en2ironment e/ce,t #y growth5 changes in turgor ,ressure5 etc8

Cri$i&al T!i",i"*
-%e#$i'" 10 :hat e2olutionary tren o we see in ,lants concerning the s,oro,hyte an gameto,hyte stages an what has ,ro#a#ly selecte for this tren K A"#.er: There has #een a re uction in the si'e of the gameto,hyte an an increase in the si'e of the s,oro,hyte8 The gameto,hytes are e,en ent u,on the i,loi s,oro,hyte an the s,oro,hyte can e2ol2e into many i2erse forms without any corres,on ing changes in the gameto,hyte8 -%e#$i'" 20 :hile woo y an her#aceous5 an annual an ,erennial are use as escri,ti2e terms5 they are not use to classify organisms in the manner that icots an eu icots an flowering an na9e see characteristics are use 8 :hyK A"#.er: The a#ility to generate a woo y stem or shift from annual to ,erennial a,,ears in many grou,s5 #ut the features of monocot an eu icot lea2es or flowers hol together the ,lant grou,s with their relati2es an their associate features8 0n more technical terms5 woo y an her#aceous5 an annual an ,erennial5 a,,ear many times as in e,en ently eri2e features8

Te&!"'l'*y 1r'+ M&Gra.;Hill

)lease consult your C'%r#e I"$e*ra$i'" G%ide for technology correlations for this cha,ter8

1$"

CHAPTER

27

FLO/RING PLANTS: STRUCTURE AN ORGANIFATION

This cha,ter stu ies the structure of ,lants8 After a iscussion of ,lant organs5 monocot an eu icot ,lants are com,are an contraste 8 This is followe #y a escri,tion of ,lant tissues5 an the organi'ation of roots5 stems5 an lea2es8 An &cology Focus #o/ B)a,er Comes from )lantsC is ,resente 5 as is a Science Focus #o/ B3efense Strategies of Trees8C An a#un ance of terminology ,ermeates the cha,ter8

C!a)$er O%$li"e
2701 Or*a"# '1 Fl'.eri"* Pla"$#
18 28 38 A8 +oots 18 28 38 48 Structures of flowering ,lants are well a a,te to 2arie en2ironments5 inclu ing water8 !lowering ,lants usually ha2e a r''$ #y#$e+ @the rootsA an a #!''$ #y#$e+ @the stems an lea2esA8 +oots5 stems5 an lea2es are the ve*e$a$ive 'r*a"# of ,lantsD flowers5 see s5 an fruits are re,ro ucti2e structures8 A ,lant<s root system is un ergroun 8 The root system is the ,rimary root ,lus the #ranch roots0 0t is generally e>ual in si'e to the shoot system5 the ,art a#o2e groun 8 +oot systems ha2e the following functions% a8 +oots anchor a ,lant in soil an gi2e su,,ort8 #8 +oots a#sor# water an minerals from soilD root hairs are central to this ,rocess8 1A +oot hair cells are in a 'one near the root ti,8 2A +oot hairs are numerous to increase the a#sor,ti2e surface of a root8 3A Trans,lanting ,lants amages a ,lant when the root hairs are torn off8 4A :ater an nutrients a#sor#e are istri#ute to the rest of the ,lant8 "A +oots ,ro uce hormones that must #e istri#ute to the ,lant c8 Pere""ial# B ie #ac9C to regrow the ne/t seasonD roots of her#aceous ,erennials store foo @e8g85 carrots5 sweet ,otatoesA8 The shoot system of a ,lant consists of the stem5 the #ranches5 an the lea2es8 The #$e+ forms the main a/is of the ,lant5 along with lateral #ranches8 G,right stems ,ro uce lea2es an array them to #e e/,ose to as much sun as ,ossi#le8 A "'de occurs where a leaf attaches to the stem an an i"$er"'de is the region #etween no esD no es an interno es i entify a stem e2en if it is un ergroun 8 A6illary b%d# are locate at a no e in the u,,er angle #etween the leaf an the stem an can ,ro uce new #ranches of the stem or flower8 The stem has 2ascular tissue to trans,ort water an minerals from roots an sugar from lea2es8 6onli2ing cells form a continuous ,i,eline through 2ascular tissue8 A cylin rical stem e/,an s in girth an lengthD trees use woo y tissue to strengthen stems8 Stems may function in storage% cactus stems store water an tu#ers are hori'ontal stems that store nutrients8 A lea1 is the ma7or organ of ,hotosynthesis in most ,lants8 Lea2es recei2e water from roots #y way of the stem8 Broa 5 thin lea2es ha2e a ma/imum surface area to a#sor# CO2 an collect solar energy8 A blade is the wi e ,ortion of a leaf with most ,hotosynthetic tissue8 The )e$i'le is a stal9 that attaches a leaf #la e to the stem8 The leaf a/il is the u,,er acute angle #etween ,etiole an stem where an a/illary @lateralA #u originates8 Some lea2es ,rotect #u s5 attach to o#7ects @ten rilsA5 store foo @#ul#sA5 or ca,ture insects8

B8 Stems 18 28 38 48 "8 $8 (8 *8 -8 C8 Lea2es 18 28 38 48 "8 $8 (8

1$$

38 Monocot Versus &u icot )lants

Criteria for Monocots an &u icots 18 C'$yled'"# are em#ryonic see lea2es ,ro2i ing nutrition from the en os,erm #efore the mature lea2es #egin ,hotosynthesis8 28 !lowering ,lants are i2i e into +'"'&'$# an e%di&'$# #ase on these traits8

M'"'&'$#
a8 #8

E%di&'$#

38 48

6um#er of &'$yled'"# in see one two 3istri#ution of root /ylem an root /ylem an ,hloem in root ,hloem #etween )!l'e+ a ring of /ylem c8 3istri#ution of 2ascular #un les scattere in stem arrange in a istinct ring 8 )attern of leaf 2eins form a ,arallel ,attern form a net ,attern e8 6um#er of flower ,arts in threes an multi,les of in fours an fi2es an three multi,les of four or fi2e f8 6um#er of a,ertures in ,ollen usually one usually three grains +e,resentati2e mem#ers% grasses5 lilies5 orchi s5 an elions to oa9 rice5 wheat5 corn trees an ,alm trees The istinction #etween monocots an eu icots re,resents an im,ortant e2olutionary i2ision that relates to many structures8

2702 Ti##%e# '1 Fl'.eri"* Pla"$#

!lowering ,lants continually grow ue to +eri#$e+a$i& @em#ryonicA $i##%e in the stem an root ti,s @a,e/esA8 28 A,ical meristems are locate near the ti,s of stems an roots5 where they increase the si'e of these structuresD this is calle ,rimary growth8 38 Monocots also ha2e intercalary meristem5 which allows them to regrow lost ,arts8 48 A,ical meristem ,ro uces three ty,es of meristem5 which e2elo, into the three ty,es of s,eciali'e ,rimary tissues in the #o y of the ,lant8 a8 )roto erm is the outermost ,rimary meristem gi2ing rise to e,i ermis8 #8 1roun meristem is the inner meristem ,ro ucing groun tissue8 c8 )rocam#ium ,ro uces 2ascular tissue8 "8 Three s,eciali'e tissues inclu e% a8 E)ider+al $i##%e forms the outer ,rotecti2e co2ering8 #8 Gr'%"d $i##%e fills the interior of the ,lant8 c8 Va#&%lar $i##%e trans,orts water an nutrients an ,ro2i es su,,ort8 A8 &,i ermal Tissue 18 E)ider+i# is an outer ,rotecti2e co2ering tissue of ,lant roots5 lea2es5 an stems of nonwoo y ,lants8 28 0t contains closely ,ac9e e,i ermal cells8 38 :a/y &%$i&le co2ers the walls of e,i ermal cells5 minimi'ing water loss an ,rotecting against #acteria8 48 0n roots5 certain e,i ermal cells are mo ifie into r''$ !air# that increase the surface area of the root for a#sor,tion of water an minerals an hel, to anchor ,lants in the soil8 "8 )rotecti2e hairs calle $ri&!'+e# are ,ro uce #y e,i ermal cells of stems5 lea2es5 an re,ro ucti2e organs8 $8 Trichomes may hel, ,rotect a ,lant from her#i2ores #y ,ro ucing a to/ic su#stance8 (8 On the lower e,i ermis of eu icot lea2es5 an #oth surfaces of monocot lea2es5 s,ecial guar cells form microsco,ic ,ores @#$'+a$aA an regulate gas e/change an water loss8 *8 0n ol er woo y ,lants5 the e,i ermis of the stem is re,lace #y )erider+3 the ma7ority com,onent of which is cor9 cells8 a8 At maturity5 ea cor9 cells may #e sloughe off8 #8 Cor9 cam#ium is meristem that ,ro uces new cor9 cells8 c8 As cor9 cells mature5 they encrust with the li,i su#erin that ren ers them water,roof an inert8 8 Cor9 ,rotects a ,lant an ma9es it resistant to attac9 #y fungi5 #acteria5 an animals8 e8 :hen the cor9 cam#ium o2er,ro uces cor9 in certain areas of the stem surface5 ri ges an crac9s5 calle le"$i&el#3 a,,earD lenticels are im,ortant in gas e/change #etween the interior of the stem an the air8 18

1$(

B8 1roun Tissue 18 1roun tissue forms the #ul9 of the ,lantD it contains ,arenchyma5 collenchyma an sclerenchyma cells8 28 Pare"&!y+a is the least s,eciali'e of all ,lant cell ty,es8 a8 Cells of this ty,e contain ,lasti s @e8g85 chloro,lasts or colorless storage ,lasti sA8 #8 They are foun in all organs of a ,lant8 c8 They i2i e to form more s,eciali'e cells @e8g85 roots e2elo, from stem cuttings in waterA8 38 C'lle"&!y+a resem#le ,arenchyma #ut has thic9er ,rimary cell walls8 a8 Collenchyma cells are une2en in the corners8 #8 They usually occur as #un les of cells 7ust #eneath the e,i ermis8 c8 They gi2e fle/i#le su,,ort to immature regions of ,lants @e8g85 a celery stal9 is mostly collenchymaA8 48 S&lere"&!y+a cells ha2e thic9 secon ary cell walls8 a8 They are im,regnate with li*"i" that ma9es the walls tough an har 8 #8 They ,ro2i e strong su,,ort to mature regions of ,lants8 c8 Most cells of this ty,e are nonli2ing8 8 Sclerenchyma cells form fi#ers @use in linen an ro,eA an shorter sclerei s @foun in see coats5 nut shells5 an gritty ,earsA8 C8 Vascular Tissue 18 Kyle+ con ucts water an mineral solutes u,war through a ,lant from roots to lea2es8 a8 Zylem contains $ra&!eid# an ve##el ele+e"$#0 #8 Trachei s 1A Trachei s are smaller5 hollow5 thin5 long nonli2ing cells with ta,ere o2erla,,ing en s8 2A :ater mo2es across en an si ewalls #ecause of )i$# or e,ressions in the secon ary cell wall8 c8 Vessel &lements 1A Vessel elements are hollow non;li2ing cells lac9ing ta,ere en s8 2A They are larger than trachei s8 3A They lac9 trans2erse en walls8 4A They form a continuous ,i,eline for water an mineral trans,ort8 8 Zylem also contains sclerenchyma cells to a su,,ort8 e8 Vascular rays are flat ri##ons of ,arenchyma cells #etween rows of trachei sD they con uct water an minerals across the wi th of the ,lant8 28 P!l'e+ is 2ascular tissue that con ucts the organic solutes in ,lants5 from the lea2es to the rootsD it contains #ieve;$%be +e+ber# an &'+)a"i'" &ell#0 a8 Sie2e;tu#e Mem#ers 1A Sie2e;tu#e cells contain cyto,lasm #ut no nucleus8 2A They are arrange en to en 8 3A They ha2e channels in their en walls @thus5 the name Bsie2e;tu#eCA5 through which ,lasmo esmata e/ten from one cell to another8 #8 Com,anion Cells 1A Com,anion cells are closely connecte to sie2e;tu#e cells #y numerous ,lasmo esmata8 2A They are smaller an more generali'e than sie2e;tu#e cells8 3A They ha2e a nucleus which may control an maintain the function of #oth cells8 4A They are also thought to #e in2ol2e in the trans,ort function of ,hloem8 38 Vascular tissue e/ten s from root to lea2es as va#&%lar &yli"der @rootsA5 va#&%lar b%"dle# @stemA an lea1 vei"#0

2704 Or*a"i5a$i'" a"d iver#i$y '1 R''$# 18 The eu icot root has 2arious 'ones where cells are in 2arious stages of ifferentiation an where ,rimary growth occurs8 28 The root a)i&al +eri#$e+ is the region ,rotecte #y the r''$ &a)5 a ,rotecti2e co2erD its cells are re,lace constantly #ecause they are soon groun off8 38 The ,rimary meristems are in the 'one of cell i2ision5 which continuously ,ro2i es cells to the 'one of elongation #y mitosis8
48 The 'one of elongation is a#o2e the 'one of cell i2ision where cells #ecome longer an more

1$*

s,eciali'e 8

"8 The 'one of cell i2ision contains meristematic tissue an a s cells to the root ti, an the 'one of elongation8 $8 The 'one of maturation is a#o2e the 'one of elongationD cells are mature an ifferentiate an it has root hairs8
A8 Tissues of a &u icot +oot 18 E)ider+i# is a single layer of thin;walle 5 rectangular cells8 a8 The e,i ermis forms the ,rotecti2e outer layer of the root8 #8 0n the region of maturation5 there are many root hairs8 c8 +oot hairs ,ro7ect as far as "=* mm into the soil8 28 C'r$e6 is a layer of large5 thin;walle 5 irregularly sha,e ,arenchyma cells8 a8 These cells contain starch granulesD the corte/ functions in foo storage8 #8 The cells are loosely ,ac9e D water an minerals can iffuse through the corte/ without entering cells8 38 E"d'der+i# is single layer of rectangular cells that forms the #oun ary #etween the corte/ an inner 2ascular cylin er8 a8 0ts cells fit closely together an are #or ere on four si es #y the Ca#)aria" #$ri)0 #8 0t regulates the entrance of minerals into the 2ascular cylin er8 c8 The Cas,arian stri, is an im,ermea#le lignin an su#erin layer that e/clu es water an mineral ions8 8 The only access to the 2ascular #un le is through en o ermal cells8 48 Va#&%lar $i##%e a8 The )eri&y&le is the first layer of cells within the 2ascular cylin er8 1A 0ts cells ha2e retaine the ca,acity to i2i e8 2A 0t can start the e2elo,ment of #ranch or secon ary roots8 #8 The main ,ortion of the 2ascular cylin er is com,ose of 1A /ylem5 whose cells are arrange in a star;sha,e ,atternD an 2A ,hloem5 whose cells are locate in regions #etween arms of /ylem8 B8 Organi'ation of Monocot +oots 18 Monocot roots ha2e the same 'ones as a eu icot root #ut o not un ergo secon ary growth8 28 The monocot root has a ring of 2ascular tissue where alternating #un les of /ylem an ,hloem surroun )i$!0 38 Monocot roots also ha2e ,ericycle5 en o ermis5 corte/5 an e,i ermis8 C8 +oot 3i2ersity 18 +oots ha2e a a,tations to hel, anchor ,lants5 a#sor# water an minerals5 an store car#ohy rates8 28 There are three general root ty,es8 a8 A $a)r''$ is common in eu icotsD this first or )ri+ary r''$ grows straight own an remains the ominant root of a ,lantD it is often fleshy an a a,te to store foo @e8g85 carrots5 #eetsA8 #8 The 1ibr'%# r''$ #y#$e+ of monocots is a mass of slen er roots an lateral #ranches that hol the ,lant secure in the soil8

38 Adve"$i$i'%# r''$# e2elo, from un ergroun stems or from the #ase of a#o2e groun stems8 48 A ,ro, root<s main function is to anchor a ,lant @e8g85 corn an mangro2e ,lantsA8
"8 (8 )neumato,hores of mangro2e ,lants ,ro7ect a#o2e the water from roots to ac>uire o/ygen8 4austoria are rootli9e ,ro7ections from stems on ,arasitic ,lants @e8g85 o ers an #roomra,esA8

$8 02y has hol fast roots to anchor aerial shoots8 a8 4austoria grow into the host ,lant8 #8 They contact 2ascular tissue from which they e/tract water an nutrients8 *8 My&'rr!i5ae are an association #etween fungus an roots8 a8 0n this mutualism5 the fungus recei2es sugars an amino aci s from the ,lant8 #8 The ,lant recei2es water an minerals from the fungus8 -8 Legumes @e8g85 ,eas an #eansA ha2e r''$ "'d%le# containing nitrogen;fi/ing #acteria8 1$-

Bacteria e/tract nitrogen from air an re uce it to a form that can #e use #y ,lant tissues8 #8 Legumes are often ,lante to #olster the nitrogen su,,ly in the soil8 38 )a,er Comes from )lants @&cology Focus #o/A 18 &gy,tians ma e the first form of ,a,er 28 The ,a,er ma9ing ,rocess in2ol2es grin ing ,lant material to form a ,ul, that contains Bfi#ers5C or 2ascular tissue8 38 The fi#ers form a sheet when they are screene from the ,ul,8 48 )ul, must #e chemically treate to remo2e lignin8 "8 0f a small amount of lignin is remo2e 5 then the ,a,er is #rown5 li9e ,a,er #ags8 $8 0f more lignin is remo2e 5 the ,a,er is white5 #ut not 2ery ura#le8 (8 More ura#le ,a,er is ma e from cotton or linen #ecause the fi#ers are lignin;free8 *8 &ucaly,tus trees are #eing use to ma9e ,a,er5 es,ecially in Bra'il8 -8 Tem,erate har woo trees are culti2ate in Cana a an tro,ical har woo s are culti2ate in Southeast Asia8 1.8 Softwoo trees in the G8S8 ha2e #een genetically im,ro2e to ha2e a higher woo ensity an to #e har2esta#le fi2e years earlier than or inary ,ines8 118 Bam#oo har2esting oes not estroy the roots5 an the growing cycle is fa2ora#le so it is e/,ecte to #e a significant source of ,a,er ,ul, es,ite high ,rocessing costs to remo2e im,urities8 128 !la/ an cotton rags are use to ma9e legal ocuments5 high;gra e #on ,a,er5 an high;gra e stationary8 138 &ach ,erson in the G8S8 uses a#out 31* 9g of ,a,er ,ro ucts ,er year5 com,are to 283 9g ,er ,erson in 0n ia8 148 0f Sun ay news,a,ers were recycle 5 it woul sa2e a,,ro/imately "..5... trees ,er wee98 2707 Or*a"i5a$i'" a"d iver#i$y '1 S$e+# 18 The $er+i"al b%d contains the shoot ti, ,rotecte #y #u scales5 which are mo ifie lea2es8 28 3ormant au/illary #u s that can gi2e rise to #ranches or flowers are here also8 38 Bu scales are scaleli9e co2erings ,rotecting terminal #u s uring winters when #u growth sto,s8
The stem ti, is the site of ,rimary growth where cell i2ision e/ten s the length of stems or roots8 The a,ical meristem ,ro uces new cells that elongate an increase the height of the stem8 The #!''$ a)i&al +eri#$e+ is ,rotecte within a terminal #u of leaf ,rimor ia @immature lea2esA8 Three s,eciali'e ty,es of ,rimary meristem e2elo, from shoot a,ical meristem8 a8 )roto erm is the outermost ,rimary meristem that gi2es rise to e,i ermis8 #8 1roun meristem ,ro uces two tissues com,ose of ,arenchyma cells% the ,ith an the corte/8 c8 )rocam#ium is the inner meristem that ,ro uces ,rimary /ylem an ,rimary ,hloem8 *8 3ifferentiation continuesD cells #ecome the first trachei s or 2essel elements within the 2ascular #un le8 -8 !irst sie2e;tu#e cells are short;li2e an o not ha2e com,anion cells8 1.8 Mature ,hloem e2elo,s later after all surroun ing cells ha2e sto,,e e/,an ing an a lateral meristem5 calle va#&%lar &a+bi%+5 has e2elo,e 8 A8 4er#aceous Stems 18 Herba&e'%# #$e+# are mature nonwoo y stems that e/hi#it only ,rimary growth8 28 The outermost tissue of her#aceous stems is e,i ermis co2ere #y a wa/y cuticle to ,re2ent water loss8 38 Zylem an ,hloem are in istincti2e va#&%lar b%"dle#0 a8 0n each #un le5 /ylem is foun to the insi e of the stemD ,hloem is foun to the outsi e8 #8 0n the eu icot her#aceous stem5 2ascular #un les are arrange in a ring towar s the outsi e of the 48 "8 $8 (8

a8

1(.

stem an se,arating the corte/ from the central ,ith8 0n a monocot stem5 2ascular #un les are scattere throughout the stemD there is no well; efine corte/ or ,ith8 48 The corte/ sometimes carries on ,hotosynthesisD ,ith may function as a storage site8 B8 :oo y Stems 18 :oo y ,lants ha2e #oth ,rimary an secon ary tissues8 28 )rimary tissues are new an form each year from ,rimary meristem right #ehin the a,ical meristem8 38 Secon ary tissues e2elo, from secon year onwar from growth of lateral meristem8 48 )rimary growth increases the length of a ,lantD secon ary growth increases its girth8 "8 As secon ary growth continues5 it is not ,ossi#le to istinguish in i2i ual 2ascular #un les8 $8 The woo y eu icot stem has a ifferent organi'ation with three istinct areas% #ar95 woo 5 an ,ith8 (8 Bar9 a8 The bar, of a tree contains cor95 cor9 cam#ium5 an ,hloem8 #8 Secon ary ,hloem is ,ro uce each year #y 2ascular cam#ium #ut oes not #uil u,8 c8 This ,hloem tissue is softD therefore it is easy to remo2e the #ar9 of a tree8 8 C'r, &a+bi%+ is meristem #eneath the e,i ermis that ,ro uces new cor9 cells when nee e 8 e8 Cor9 cam#ium #egins to i2i e5 ,ro ucing cor9 that isru,ts e,i ermis re,lacing it with cor9 cells8 f8 Cor9 cells #ecome im,regnate with su#erin5 causing them to ie #ut ma9ing them water,roof8 g8 Conse>uently5 cor9 forms an im,er2ious #arrier5 e2en to gas e/change5 e/ce,t at lenticels8 *8 :oo a8 :oo is a secon ary /ylem which #uil s u, each yearD the 2ascular cam#ium is ormant uring the winter8 #8 Spring woo" is com,ose of wi e /ylem 2essel elements with thin walls5 necessary to con uct sufficient water an nutrients to su,,ly a#un ant growth that occurs uring s,ring8 c8 Summer woo" forms when moisture is scarceD com,ose of a lower ,ro,ortion of 2essels5 it contains thic9;walle trachei s an numerous fi#ers8 8 An a""%al ri"* is one ring of s,ring woo followe #y a ring of summer woo D this e>uals one year<s growth8 e8 Sa,woo is the outer annual rings where trans,ort occurs8 f8 4eartwoo is the inner annual rings of ol er trees8 1A Vessels no longer function in trans,ortD they #ecome ,lugge with resins an gums that inhi#it growth of #acteria an fungi8 2A 4eartwoo may hel, to su,,ort a tree8 -8 :oo y )lants a8 0t is a 2antageous to #e woo y when there is a e>uate rainfallD woo y ,lants can grow taller an ha2e a e>uate tissue to su,,ort an ser2ice lea2es8 #8 0t ta9es energy to su,,ort secon ary growth an ,re,are the ,lant for winter in tem,erate 'ones8 c8 Long;lasting ,lants nee more efense mechanisms against attac9 #y her#i2ores an ,arasites8 8 Trees nee years to mature #efore re,ro ucingD they are more 2ulnera#le to acci ent or isease8 C8 Stem 3i2ersity 18 S$'l'"# are stems that grow along the groun D new ,lants grow where the no es contact the soil8 28 The succulent stems of cacti are mo ifie for water storage8 38 Ten rils of gra,es an morning glories are stems a a,te for wra,,ing aroun su,,ort structures8 48 R!i5'+e# are un ergroun hori'ontal stems8 a8 +hi'omes are long an thin in grasses an thic9 an fleshy in irises8 #8 +hi'omes sur2i2e winter an contri#ute to ase/ual re,ro uction #ecause each no e #ears a #u 8 c8 Some rhi'omes ha2e tu#ers that function in foo storage @e8g85 ,otatoesA8 "8 Corms are #ul#ous un ergroun stems that lie ormant uring winter5 li9e rhi'omes8 $8 4umans use stems% sugarcane is ,rimary source of ta#le sugar5 cinnamon an >uinine are from #ar95 ,a,er is from woo 5 etc8 38 3efence Strategies of Trees @Science Focus #o/A 18 3efence strategy one a8 :hen a tree is in7ure 5 the trachei s an 2essel elements of the /ylem ,lug u, with chemicals that #loc9 them off a#o2e an #elow the site of in7ury8 #8 0f the tree cannot close off the 2essel elements5 then long columns of rot run u, an own the c8

1(1

28 38 48

trun9 an into #ranches5 which e2entually #ecome hollow8 3efence strategy two a8 The construction of annual rings ma9es it ifficult for isease organisms to mo2e towar s the ,ith of the tree8 3efence strategy three a8 The ,resence of rays5 which i2i e the trun9 of the tree5 also ma9e it ifficult for isease organisms to mo2e com,letely aroun the trun98 3efence strategy four a8 The reaction 'one e2elo,s in the region of tree in7ury along the inner ,ortion of the cam#ium ne/t to the youngest annual ring8 #8 The reaction 'one walls off any annual rings that were ,resent #efore the in7ury occurre 8 c8 A isa 2antage to this strategy is that ra ial crac9s can occur to an through the #ar95 which wea9en a tree an ma9e it more susce,ti#le to #rea9ing8

270? Or*a"i5a$i'" a"d iver#i$y '1 Leave#

Lea2es are organs of ,hotosynthesis in ,lantsD they are ma e of a flattene #la e an a ,etiole8 The leaf 2eins re2eal the ,resence of 2ascular tissue within the lea2es8 The 2ascular tissues of lea2es trans,ort water an nutrients8 Leaf 2eins ha2e a net ,attern in eu icot lea2es an a ,arallel ,attern in monocot lea2es8 A ,etiole is a stal9 that attaches a leaf #la e to the ,lant stem8 &,i ermis is the layer of cells that co2ers the to, an #ottom si es of a leaf8 a8 The e,i ermis often #ears ,rotecti2e hairs or glan sD e,i ermal glan s ,ro uce irritating su#stances8 #8 The e,i ermis is co2ere #y a wa/y cuticle that 9ee,s the leaf from rying out8 c8 The e,i ermis5 ,articularly lower e,i ermis5 contains stomata that allow gases to mo2e into an out of the leaf8 (8 Me#')!yll is the #o y of a leaf an the site of most ,hotosynthesis8 a8 Pali#ade +e#')!yll is the layer of meso,hyll containing elongate ,arenchyma cells with many chloro,lasts8 #8 S)'"*y +e#')!yll contains loosely ,ac9e ,arenchyma cells that increase the surface area for gas e/change8 A8 Leaf 3i2ersity 18 Sim,le lea2es ha2e margins not ee,ly lo#e or i2i e into smaller leaflets8 2 Com,oun lea2es are i2i e into smaller leaflets5 an each leaflet may ha2e its own stal98 38 Lea2es are 2ariously mo ifie 8 18 28 38 48 "8 $8

a8 #8 c8 8 e8 f8 g8

)innately com,oun lea2es ha2e the leaflets occurring in ,airs8 )almately com,oun lea2es ha2e all of the leaflets attache to a single ,oint8 Lea2es can #e arrange in one of three ways% alternate5 o,,osite5 or whorle 8 Cactus s,ines are mo ifie lea2es an are attache to a succulent stem8 Onion #ul#s ha2e lea2es surroun ing a short stem8 The ten rils of ,eas an cucum#ers are lea2es8 The Venus flytra, has lea2es to tra, an igest insects8

Le&$%re E"ri&!+e"$ Idea#

E6)erie"&e Ba#e: &/,erience with ,lants is ra,i ly #ecoming limite an teachers are re,orting a noticea#le ro, in the num#er of flowers a stu ent can name5 etc8 An instructor can e/,ect fewer stu ents to ha2e irect e/,eriences with cutting firewoo 5 using raw lum#er5 or o#ser2ing tree stum,s an rings8 Actual emonstration ,lants an woo sam,les5 as well as 2isuals5 are more necessary than #efore8 18 Less than 2N of stu ents are now from rural farmsD therefore 2isual illustrations of most cro, ,lants an 2egeta#le structures will greatly increase un erstan ing of most of the ,lant 1(2

structures8 28 3etail why the root or the shoot of some ,lants can #e use as the source of all other tissues in the ,lant5 as in ta9ing a cutting of a stem an rooting it or ta9ing a root cutting an growing a com,lete ,lant8 3escri#e the 2arious ifferences #etween monocots an eu icots5 with em,hasis on roots5 stems5 an lea2es5 #ut also mentioning see s an flowers8 0n grasses5 the meristem is at the #ase which allows us to mow lawns an #urn ,rairies without 9illing the grass8 This is also the mechanism that allows fire to #e use to 9ee, a grasslan from un ergoing succession to shru#lan ?the fire estroys the meristem in the ti,s of shru# shoots8 38 &/,lain how a monocot can form a tree5 such as a ,alm tree5 if there is no true secon ary tissue5 #y enlargement an stiffening of the corte/ of the stem8 48 3iscuss the ifference in growth #etween her#aceous an woo y ,lants5 with em,hasis on the meristematic tissues an their locations8 "8 0t is intuiti2e5 #ut wrong5 for stu ents to assume that small her#aceous ,lants e2ol2e #efore woo y ,lants5 or that monocots e2ol2e #efore eu icots8 The te/t clarifies the woo y;#efore; her#aceous scenarioD it is also li9ely that the ,arallel;2eine monocots e2ol2e from stems of eu icot ancestors8

Cri$i&al T!i",i"*
-%e#$i'" 10 A farmer is #uil ing a fence #etween his fiel an a roa 8 There are some young trees in the fence line5 so he s,aces the e/,ensi2e fence ,osts so that tree trun9s also ser2e as fence ,osts8 4e sta,les the to, line of the fence to the tree at fi2e feet a#o2e the groun 8 The tree grows in height fi2e feet each year8 :here will the to, stran of the fence #e in ten yearsK
A"#.er: The to, stran of the fence will still #e fi2e feet a#o2e the groun since the cam#ium grows outwar 5 not u,war 8 The height of the tree is etermine #y a,ical meristem in the ti,s of stems5 unrelate to the outwar ly e/,an ing cam#ium where the wire was sta,le 8 -%e#$i'" 20 :hich season of the year shoul lum#er #e cut so the woo will #e riestK :hy o the cut off trun9s then B#oil o2erC with sugary sa, as s,ring a,,roachesK A"#.er: Tim#er shoul #e cut uring the winter when the sa, has mo2e own into the rootsD the woo in the stem will then #e ry an will not war, as #a ly8 0f trees are cut when sa, is in the roots5 the sa, mo2es u,war in the s,ring an oo'es out of the stum,5 since the rest of the tree is missing8

Te&!"'l'*y 1r'+ M&Gra.;Hill

)lease consult your C'%r#e I"$e*ra$i'" G%ide for technology correlations for this cha,ter8

1(3

CHAPTER

2?

FLO/ERING PLANTS: NUTRITION AN TRANSPORT

This cha,ter stu ies the nutritional com,onents essential for ,lants8 Soil an its im,ortance to ,lants is iscusse as are the mechanisms in2ol2e in water an mineral u,ta9e an trans,ort8 A Science Focus #o/ e/amines BThe Conce,t of :ater )otential5Can an &cology Focus #o/ iscusses B)lants Can Clean u, To/ic Messes8C

C!a)$er O%$li"e
2?01 Pla"$ N%$ri$i'" a"d S'il 18 The ancient 1ree9s consi ere ,lants Bsoil;eatersC that con2erte soil into ,lant tissue8 28 The 1(th Century 3utchman Hean;Ba,tiste Van 4elmont con ucte an e/,eriment8 a8 4e ,lante a fi2e ,oun young willow tree in a ,ot with 2.. ,oun s of soil8 #8 After fi2e years of watering5 the tree weighe 1(. ,oun s #ut only a few ounces of soil were missing8 c8 4e conclu e the increase in tree weight came from waterD he was unaware of su#stances in air8 A8 &ssential 0norganic 6utrients 18 A,,ro/imately -"N of a ,lant<s ry weight is car#on5 hy rogen5 an o/ygen8 a8 Car#on io/i e is the source of car#on for a ,lant8 #8 :ater is the source of hy rogen8 c8 O/ygen can come from either atmos,heric o/ygen5 car#on io/i e5 or water8 28 A +i"eral is an organic su#stance usually containing two or more elements8 38 To #e classifie as an e##e"$ial "%$rie"$3 the following criteria must #e fulfille 8 a8 0t must ha2e an i entifia#le nutritional role8 #8 6o other element can su#stitute an fulfill the same role8 c8 A eficiency of the element causes the ,lant to ie8 48 These elements are i2i e into +a&r'"%$rie"$# an +i&r'"%$rie"$#3 accor ing to their relati2e concentrations in ,lant tissue8 "8 Be"e1i&ial "%$rie"$# are elements re>uire for or to im,ro2e growth of a ,articular ,lant8 a8 4orsetails re>uire silicon as a mineral nutrient8 #8 Sugar #eets show #etter growth in the ,resence of so ium8 c8 Soy#eans use nic9el when root no ules are ,resent8 B8 3etermination of &ssential 6utrients 18 :hen a ,lant is #urne 5 most mineral elements @e/ce,t for nitrogenA remain in the ash8 28 Hydr')'"i&# @water cultureA is the ,referre metho for etermining ,lant mineral re>uirements8 a8 4y ro,onics is culti2ation of ,lants in water8 #8 6utrient re>uirements of ,lants are etermine #y omitting a mineral an o#ser2ing the effects8 c8 0f ,lant growth suffers5 it can #e conclu e that the omitte mineral is a re>uire nutrient8 8 This wor9s for macronutrients #ut im,urities ma9e micronutrient measurement ifficult8 C8 4y ro,onics 18 Some of the #enefits of hy ro,onics are the elimation of ,lant ,ests5 iseases5 an wee s8 28 Since water is use through a ,i,line system5 there is little water lost through runoff5 com,are with tra itional irrigation metho s8 38 Soil 18 Soil !ormation a8 Soil formation #egins with weathering of roc9 #y free'ing5 glacier flow5 stream flow5 an chemicals8 #8 Lichens an mosses grow on #arren roc9 an tra, ,articles an lea2e ecaying tissues8 c8 3ecaye organic matter @!%+%#A ta9es time to accumulateD its aci ity leaches minerals from roc9s8

1(4

28

8 3e,en ing on ,arent material an weathering5 a centimeter of soil may e2elo, within 1" years8 The 6utritional !unction of Soil a8 S'il consists of mineral ,articles5 ecaying organic matter5 li2ing organisms5 air5 an water8 #8 The #est soil inclu es ,articles of ifferent si'esD this ,ro2i es critical air s,aces8 c8 Mineral )articles 1A Mineral ,articles 2ary in si'e8

aA San ,articles are largest% .8."=28. mm in iameter8 #A San ,articles are me ium si'e % .8..2=.8." mm in iameter8 cA Clay ,articles are smallest% #elow .8..2 mm in iameter8
2A San y soils lose water too rea ilyD clay ,ac9s tightly to hol water8 3A Clay ,articles are negati2ely charge an attract ,ositi2ely charge ions @e8g85 calcium ICa 2OJ an ,otassium IEOJA8 4A 0n aci ic soils5 hy rogen ions re,lace ,ositi2ely charge nutrients an the nutrient ions float free an are leache D this is why aci rain 9ills trees8 "A Clay cannot retain negati2ely charge 6O35 an the nitrogen content of clay soil is low8 $A Loam @a mi/ture of the three mineral ,articlesA retains water an nutrientsD roots ta9e u, o/ygen in the air s,aces8 8 4umus 1A A mi/ture of 1.=2.N humus mi/e with a to, layer of soil ,articles is #est for ,lants8 2A 4umus 9ee,s soil loose an crum#ly5 ecreases runoff an aerates soil8 3A 4umus is aci ic an retains ,ositi2ely charge minerals for ,lants to use later8 4A Bacteria an fungi #rea9 own organic matter in humus an return inorganic nutrients to ,lants8 e8 Li2ing Organisms 1A Small ,lants ,lay a ma7or role in the formation of soil from roc9 an in succession8 2A +oots of larger ,lants ,enetrate the soil an weather roc9s8 3A Larger moles an #a gers an smaller earthworms hel, turn o2er the soil8 4A Soil animals5 from mites to milli,e es5 hel, #rea9 own lea2es an other ,lant remains8 "A !ungi5 ,roto'oa5 algae an #acteria com,lete ecom,osition8 $A Soil #acteria ma9e nitrate a2aila#le to ,lants8 (A Some soil organisms @i8e8 some roun wormsA are cro, ,ests that fee on roots8 Soil )rofiles a8 A #'il )r'1ile is a 2ertical section from the groun surface to the unaltere roc9 #elowD usually5 a soil ,rofile has ,arallel layers calle !'ri5'"#0 1A The A hori'on is the u,,ermost to,soil layer that contains litter an humus8 2A The B hori'on lac9s organic matter #ut contains inorganic nutrients leache from the A hori'on8 3A The C hori'on is weathere an shattere #e roc98 4A Soil ,rofiles 2ary #y ,arent material5 climate5 an ecosystem8 "A 1rasslan soils ha2e ee, A hori'ons from turno2er of ecaying grasses an lac9 of leaching8 $A !orest soils ha2e thinner A hori'ons #ut enough inorganic nutrients for tree root growth8 (A Tro,ical rain forest A hori'ons are shallow ue to ra,i ecom,ositionD the B hori'on is ee,er ue to e/tensi2e leaching8 Soil &rosion a8 S'il er'#i'" is cause #y water or win carrying away soil8 #8 &rosion remo2es 2" #illion tons of to,soil worl wi e annually8 c8 3eforestation an esertification contri#ute to erosion8 8 G8S8 farmlan s lose soil faster than it is forme on one;thir of cro,lan 8 e8 The coastal wetlan s are also losing soil at a high rate8 Minerals follow the ,ath of water u,ta9e8 a8 Some mineral ions iffuse in #etween the cellsD this is calle apoplastic transport8 #8 Because of the im,ermea#le Ca#)aria" #$ri) @a #an of su#erin an lignin #or ering four si es of root en o ermal cellsA5 water must e2entually enter the cyto,lasm of en o ermal cells8 c8 :ater can enter e,i ermal cells at their r''$ !air#3 an ,rogress across the corte/ an en o ermis

38

48

2?02 /a$er a"d Mi"eral U)$a,e

18

1("

of a root8 A8 Mineral G,ta9e 18 0n contrast to water5 minerals are acti2ely ta9en u, #y ,lant cells8 a8 Mineral nutrient concentration in roots may #e 1.5... times more than in surroun ing soil8 #8 3uring trans,ort throughout a ,lant5 minerals can e/it /ylem an enter cells that re>uire them8 28 Mineral ions cross ,lasma mem#ranes #y a chemiosmotic mechanism8 a8 )lants a#sor# minerals in ionic form% nitrate @6O3 A5 ,hos,hate @4)O4P A5 an ,otassium ions @EOAD all ha2e ifficulty crossing a charge ,lasma mem#rane8 #8 0t has long #een 9nown ,lants e/,en energy to acti2ely ta9e u, an concentrate mineral ions8 c8 A ,lasma mem#rane ,um,5 calle a ,roton ,um,5 hy roly'es AT) to trans,ort 4O ions out of the cellD this sets u, an electrochemical gra ient that causes ,ositi2e ions to flow into cells8 8 6egati2e ions are carrie across the ,lasma mem#rane in con7unction with 4O ions as 4O ions iffuse own their concentration gra ient8 B8 A a,tations of +oots for Mineral G,ta9e 18 Two sym#iotic relationshi,s are 9nown to assist roots in ac>uiring nutrients8 28 Legumes ha2e roots coloni'e #y the #acterium 'hi-obium. a8 )lants cannot use atmos,heric nitrogen #ecause they lac9 en'ymes to #rea9 the 6 6 #on 8 #8 'hi-obium ma9es nitrogen com,oun s a2aila#le to ,lants in e/change for car#ohy rates8 c8 Bacteria li2e in r''$ "'d%le#Mstructures on ,lant roots that contain nitrogen;fi/ing #acteria8 8 +hi'o#ial #acteria re uce atmos,heric nitrogen @62A to ammonium @644OA @"i$r'*e" 1i6a$i'"A8 e8 Other ,lants ha2e a relationshi, with free;li2ing5 nitrogen;fi/ing microorganisms in soil8 38 Most ,lants ha2e +y&'rr!i5aeD those lac9ing mycorrhi'ae are limite in where they can grow8 a8 Mycorrhi'ae are a mutualistic sym#iotic relationshi, #etween soil fungi an ,lant roots8 #8 The fungal hy,hae may enter the corte/ of roots #ut o not enter ,lant cells8 c8 &ctomycorrhi'ae form a mantle e/terior to the root5 an they grow #etween cell walls8 8 !ungus increases the surface area for mineral an water u,ta9e an #rea9s own organic matter8 e8 0n return the root furnishes the fungus with sugars an amino aci s8 f8 Orchi see s are small with limite nutrientsD they germinate only when in2a e #y mycorrhi'ae8 g8 6on,hotosynthetic ,lants @e8g85 0n ian ,i,eA use mycorrhi'ae to e/tract nutrients from near#y trees8 48 Some ,lants ha2e ,oorly e2elo,e roots or no rootsD other mechanisms su,,ly minerals an water8 a8 )arasitic ,lants @e8g85 o ers5 #roomra,es5 ,ine ro,sA sen out haustoria @rootli9e ,ro7ectionsA that grow into the host an ta, into the /ylem an ,hloem of the host8 #8 Venus flytra, an sun ew o#tain nitrogen an minerals as lea2es ca,ture an igest insects8

2?04 Tra"#)'r$ Me&!a"i#+# i" Pla"$#

18 !lowering ,lants ha2e trans,ort tissues as an a a,tation to li2ing on lan % /ylem an ,hloem8 A8 +e2iewing Zylem an )hloem Structure 28 Kyle+ trans,ort tissue con ucts water an mineral solutes from roots to lea2esD it contains two ty,es of con ucting cells% $ra&!eid# an ve##el ele+e"$#0 a8 Trachei s: 1A are hollow5 nonli2ing cells with ta,ere o2erla,,ing en sD 2A are thinner an longer than 2essel elementsD an 3A water crosses the en an si ewalls #ecause of ,its in secon ary cell wall8 #8 Vessel elements: 1A are hollow5 nonli2ing cells that lac9 ta,ere en sD 2A are wi er an shorter than trachei sD 3A lac9 trans2erse en wallsD an 4A form a continuous ,i,eline for water an mineral trans,ort8 38 P!l'e+ is 2ascular tissue that con ucts organic nutrients to all ,arts of the ,lantD it contains #ieve;$%be +e+ber# an &'+)a"i'" &ell#. a8 Sie2e;tu#e mem#ers lac9 a nucleus5 are arrange en to en an ha2e channels in en walls @thus5 the name Bsie2e;tu#eCA through which ,lasmo esmata e/ten from one cell to another8 #8 Com,anion cells connect to sie2e;tu#e cells #y numerous ,lasmo esmata5 an are smaller an more generali'e than sie2e;tu#e cellsD they ha2e a nucleus8 B8 3etermining Zylem an )hloem !unction

1($

The trans,ort systems of /ylem an ,hloem rely on the mechanical ,ro,erties of water8 a8 3iffusion mo2es molecules from higher to lower concentrations8 #8 :ater ,otential consi ers #oth water ,ressure an osmotic ,ressure8 28 They also rely on the chemical ,ro,erties of water% ,olarity of water an hy rogen #on ing8 C8 The Conce,t of :ater )otential @Science Focus #o/A 18 /a$er )'$e"$ial is the ,otential energy of water8 a8 !or e/am,le5 water at the to, of a waterfall has a higher water ,otential than water at the #ottom of the waterfall8 28 0n cells5 two things etermine water ,otential% a8 :ater ,ressure across a mem#rane8 1A :ithin water ,ressure5 pressure potential is the effect that ,ressure has on water ,otential8 2A :ater mo2es from an area of higher ,ressure to an area of lower ,ressure8 3A The higher the water ,ressure5 the higher the water ,otential8 4A )ressure ,otential is the conce,t that #est e/,lains the mo2ement of sa, in /ylem an ,hloem #8 Solute concentration across a mem#rane8 1A 6smotic potential ta9es into account the effects of solutes on the mo2ement of water8 2A :ater ten s to mo2e across a mem#rane from the area of lower solute concentration to the area of higher solute concentration8 3A The lower the concentration of solutes @osmotic ,otentialA5 the higher the water ,otential8 38 /urgor pressure is the ,ressure ,otential that increases ue to the ,rocess of osmosis8 a8 :ater sto,s entering a cell when the ,ressure ,otential insi e the cell increases an #alances the osmotic ,otential outsi e the cell8 #8 )lants e,en on turgor ,ressure to maintain the turgi ity of their #o ies8 c8 :hen ,lants o not ha2e sufficient turgor ,ressure5 the ,lant roo,s as a result8 38 :ater Trans,ort 18 Mo2ement of water an minerals in a ,lant in2ol2es entry into roots5 /ylem5 an lea2es8 28 :ater an minerals enter root cells #efore they reach /ylem #y the two routes alrea y escri#e 8 38 :ater entering root cells creates a ,ositi2e ,ressure calle r''$ )re##%re0 a8 +oot ,ressure @which occurs ,rimarily at nightA ten s to ,ush /ylem sa, u,war in a ,lant8 #8 G%$$a$i'" is the a,,earance of ro,s of water along the e ges of lea2es5 as a result of water #eing force out of leaf 2ein en ingsD it is the result of root ,ressure8 c8 +oot ,ressure is not a sufficient mechanism for water to rise to the to,s of trees8 48 Cohesion;Tension Mo el of Zylem Trans,ort a8 :ater an issol2e minerals must #e trans,orte u,war from roots to /ylem5 ,erha,s as high as -. meters8 #8 The &'!e#i'";$e"#i'" +'del states that trans,iration creates a tension @i8e85 a negati2e ,ressureA that ,ulls water u,war in /ylem without e/,en ing any energy of the ,lant8 c8 :ater molecules are cohesi#e with one another5 a"hesi#e with /ylem walls8 8 :ater molecules interact with one another an form a continuous .a$er &'l%+" in the /ylem5 from the lea2es to the roots that is ifficult to #rea98 e8 Tra"#)ira$i'" is a ,lant<s loss of water to the atmos,here through e2a,oration at leaf stomata8 f8 C'!e#i'" is the ten ency of water molecules to cling together ue to their forming hy rogen #on s8 g8 Ad!e#i'" is the a#ility of water @a ,olar moleculeA to interact with molecules com,rising the walls of /ylem 2esselsD a hesion gi2es a water column e/tra strength an ,re2ents it from sli,,ing #ac9 own8 h8 0n aytime5 the negati2e water ,otential create #y trans,iration e/ten s from lea2es to rootsD the water column must #e continuous8 i8 0f a water column within /ylem is #ro9en #y cutting a stem5 the water column will ro, #ac9 own the /ylem 2essel away from the site of #rea9age5 ma9ing it more ifficult for con uction to occur8 78 At least -.N of the water ta9en u, #y roots is lost through stomata #y trans,iration8 98 :ith ,lenty of water5 stomata will remain o,en5 allowing CO2 to enter the leaf an ,hotosynthesis to occur8 l8 Trans,iration e/erts a pulling force or tension that raws the water column u, in 2essels8 m8 Gn er water stress5 more water is lost through a leaf than can #e #rought u, an the stomata closeD

18

1((

the lea2es are then ,rotecte from water loss #y the wa/y &%$i&le of the u,,er an lower e,i ermis8 n8 )hotosynthesis re>uires CO2 to enter the leafD there must #e sufficient water so stomata can remain o,en an allow CO2 to enter8 o8 0n the root5 water enters the /ylem ,assi2ely #y osmosis8 ,8 The water column in the /ylem e/ten s from lea2es to the root8 >8 :ater is ,ulle u,war from the roots ue to the tension in the /ylem create #y the e2a,oration of water at the lea2es8 &8 O,ening an Closing of Stomata 18 &ach #$'+a3 a small ,ore in the leaf e,i ermis5 has two *%ard &ell#0 28 Stomata o,en from turgor ,ressure when guar cells ta9e u, waterD when they lose water5 turgor ,ressure ecreases an stomata close8 38 1uar cells are attache to each other at their en sD the inner walls are thic9er than outer walls8 48 +a ial e/,ansion is ,re2ente #y cellulose microfi#rils in the walls #ut outer walls can e/,an lengthwise8 "8 As they ta9e u, water5 they #uc9le out5 there#y creating an o,ening #etween cells8 $8 Since 1-$*5 it has #een 9nown that when stomata o,en5 there is accumulation of EO ions in guar cells8 (8 A ,roton ,um, run #y #rea9 own of AT) to A3) an P trans,orts 4O outsi e the cellD this esta#lishes an electrochemical gra ient allowing EO to enter #y way of a channel ,rotein8 *8 The #lue;light com,onent of sunlight is a signal that can cause stomata to o,en8 a8 There is e2i ence that fla2in ,igments a#sor# #lue light8 #8 This ,igment sets in motion a cyto,lasmic res,onse acti2ating the ,roton ,um, that causes EO ions to accumulate in guar cells8 -8 &2i ence suggests a rece,tor in the ,lasma mem#rane of guar cells #rings a#out inacti2ation of the ,roton ,um, when CO2 concentration rises5 as ha,,ens when ,hotosynthesis ceases8 1.8 A#scisic aci @ABAA ,ro uce #y cells in wilting lea2es5 also causes stomata to closeD ,hotosynthesis cannot occur5 #ut water is conser2e 8 118 0n ,lants 9e,t in the ar95 stomata o,en an close on a 24;hour #asis as if res,on ing to sunlight in the aytime an the a#sence of sunlight at nightD some sort of internal bi'l'*i&al &l'&, must 9ee, time8 !8 )lant Can Clean G, To/ic Messes @&cology Focus #o/A 18 P!y$'re+edia$i'" uses ,lants to a#sor#5 store5 egra e5 or transform ,ollutants that woul otherwise harm the en2ironment8 28 )lants can clean u, contaminate sites in one of two ways% a8 0f the su#stance is an organic contaminant @i8e85 s,ille oilA5 the ,lants #rea9 own the su#stances an the remain ers can either #e a#sor#e #y the ,lant or left in the soil or water8 #8 0f the su#stance is an inorganic contaminant @i8e85 ca mium5 'incA5 the ,lants a#sor# the su#stances5 tra, the contaminants5 an the ,lants are har2este an is,ose of8 38 )o,lars Ta9e G, &/cessi2e 6itrates a8 A farmer in Amana5 0owa ,lante a mile long section of ,o,lars to a#sor# nitrate runoff from a fertili'e cornfiel 8 #8 Before the trees were ,lante 5 nitrate le2els were as much as ten times the amount consi ere safe8 c8 !ollowing the tree ,lanting5 the #roo9<s nitrate le2els ro,,e more than -.N5 an the trees ha2e thri2e 8 48 Canola )lants Ta9e G, Selenium a8 Canola ,lants were ,lante in farms in California<s San Hoa>uin Valley to a#sor# e/cess selenium in the soil8 #8 0rrigation can cause naturally occurring selenium to rise to the soil surface an the selenium woul flow off into rainage itches an e2entually in wil life areas8 Selenium can eform an 9ill waterfowl8 c8 By a ing selenium;accumulating canola ,lants to farmers< cro, rotations5 selenium le2els in runoff are #eing manage in the area8 "8 Mustar )lants Ta9e G, Granium a8 0n a Su,erfun site in A#er enn5 Marylan 5 mustar ,lants were use to remo2e uranium from the Army<s firing range5 for as little as 1.N of the cost of tra itional clean u, metho s8 $8 Limitations of )hytoreme iation a8 One limitation of ,hytoreme iation is the slow ,ace at which trees grow an therefore5 how much

1(*

,ollutants the trees can a#sor# each growing season8 A secon limitation is that ,hytoreme iation is only effecti2e at e,ths that ,lant roots can reach5 ma9ing it useless against ee,;lying contamination unless the contaminate soils are e/ca2ate 8 c8 Another limitation is that ,hytoreme iation is not successful at cleaning u, lea or other metal contaminatate areas without a ing chemicals to the soil8 8 0n a ition5 there is the ris9 that animals may ingest the ,ollutants #y eating the lea2es of ,lants that are #eing use in ,hytoreme iation8 18 Organic 6utrient Trans,ort 18 Marcello Mal,ighi @1$(-A suggeste #ar9 transferre sugars from lea2es to roots8 a8 4e o#ser2e the results of remo2ing a stri, of #ar9 from a tree @*irdli"*A8 #8 Bar9 swells 7ust a#o2e the cut an sugar accumulates in the swollen tissue8 c8 To ay5 we 9now ,hloem was remo2e #ut /ylem remaine D therefore5 ,hloem oes trans,ort sugars8 28 +a ioacti2e tracer stu ies using 14C confirme ,hloem trans,orts organic nutrients8 a8 :hen 14C;la#ele car#on is su,,lie to mature lea2es5 ra ioacti2ely la#ele sugar mo2es to roots8 #8 Similar stu ies confirm ,hloem trans,orts amino aci s5 hormones5 an mineral ions8 38 A,hi s Gse in Stu y a8 0t is ifficult to ta9e sam,les of sa, from 7ust the ,hloem cells without in7uring the ,hloem8 #8 A,hi s @small insectsA ri2e their mouth stylets into a sie2e;tu#e cellD then sam,les are easily ta9en8 c8 The a,hi #o y is cut offD the stylet #ecomes a small nee le from which ,hloem is collecte 8 8 Such research in icates that sa, can mo2e through ,hloem from $.=1.. cm ,er hour or more8 48 )ressure;!low Mo el of )hloem Trans,ort a8 The )re##%re;1l'. +'del e/,lains the trans,ort of sa, through sie2e tu#es #y a ,ositi2e ,ressure ,otential8 #8 The #uil u, of water creates a ,ositi2e ,ressure ,otential within the sie2e tu#es that mo2es water an sucrose to a sin9 @e8g85 at the rootsA8 c8 )ressure e/ists from the lea2es to the rootsD at the roots5 sucrose is trans,orte out an water also flows through ue to the ,ressure8 8 Conse>uently5 this ,ressure gra ient causes a flow of water from lea2es to roots8 e8 The con ucting cells of ,hloem are sie2e tu#es line en to en 8 f8 Cyto,lasm e/ten s through the sie2e ,lates of a 7oining cells to form a continuous tu#e system8 g8 3uring the growing season5 lea2es ,ro uce sugar8 h8 Sucrose is acti2ely trans,orte into ,hloem #y an electrochemical gra ient esta#lishe #y a 4 O ,um,8 i8 :ater flows ,assi2ely into sie2e tu#es #y osmosis8 78 A sin9 can #e at the roots or any other ,art of the ,lant that re>uires nutrients8 98 Because ,hloem sa, flows from source to sin95 sa, can mo2e any irection along ,hloem8 #8

Le&$%re E"ri&!+e"$ Idea#

E6)erie"&e Ba#e: The irect rural e/,eriences with ma,le syru,5 cro,s5 an woo ?the central to,ics of this cha,ter?are 2ery limite among to ay<s stu ents8 4eartwoo can #e relate to woo ,anel ,atterns8
18 :estern science was late to stu y soil #ecause B irtC was not consi ere worthy of serious stu yD as a result much of our #asic un erstan ing of soil @soil names5 leaching ,rocessesA came from early +ussian research5 an soil still recei2es less aca emic attention in the G8S8 than other countries8

28 3escri#e the use of ,otting soil5 which is often com,letely organic matter5 an how this is ifferent from the soil of our yar s8 Stu ents can now also relate this information to the 2aria#le erosion of san @win ero e A an clay @water ero e A5 an the reason the interme iate silt is left in houses after floo ing8 The term BloamC can now #e seen in a scientific conte/t an stu ents can #egin to ma9e the connections as to why many ,lants grow #etter in certain soil en2ironments8 1(-

38 1i2e an e/am,le of the cohesion;tension mo el that stu ents 9now a#out from their own e/,erience such as ha2ing #loo rawn at the octor<s office5 where the #loo fills the ca,illary tu#e without suction8 3iscuss how the same thing is going on in a ,lant<s /ylem5 #ut that there is also a ,ull e/erte #y the e2a,oration of water from the stomates as water mo2es out from the s,ongy meso,hyll air ,oc9ets8
48 6ote that Marcello Mal,ighi is also the same in i2i ual after whom Mal,ighian tu#ules are name D some early #iologists were ama'ingly eclectic an Mal,ighi was ,articularly o#ser2ant of etail8

"8 3escri#e the #enefits to the ,lant an its sym#iont in the relationshi,s #etween legumes an nitrogen;fi/ing #acteria or #etween many forest trees an their mycorrhi'ae8 Mention the relationshi, #etween the eath angel mushroom or the e i#le truffles an oa9 or a,,le trees5 for e/am,le5 an their mycorrhi'ae8 $8 Actual s,ecimens of woo 5 sli es of tree cross;sections5 ma,le syru, ta,,ing5 etc85 will hel, illustrate some of these conce,ts for stu ents5 inclu ing some who ha2e ne2er 2enture into the woo s8

Cri$i&al T!i",i"*
-%e#$i'" 10 There are two hy,otheses for what triggers stomates to o,en an close8 One states fla2in ,igments a#sor# #lue light an this ,igment then acti2ates the ,roton ,um,8 The secon res,on s to CO2D as its concentration rises5 a mem#rane rece,tor inacti2ates the ,roton ,um,8 :hich5 if either5 o the following o#ser2ations su,,ortK aA The clear guar cells of a la ysli,,er orchi lac9 chloro,lasts5 yet the guar cells regularly o,en an close8 #A Stomates o not res,on when e/,ose to a narrow #an of green light8 cA The cells of wilting lea2es ,ro uce a#scisic aci D a#scisic aci causes guar cells to close8 A"#.er: The lac9 of ,igments in la ysli,,er orchi s @aA rules out su,,ort of the #lue light hy,othesis8 Since green light is reflecte rather than a#sor#e 5 the lac9 of a res,onse to green light @#A oes not su,,ort any hy,othesis8 The res,onse to a#scisic aci is e2olutionarily logical #ut not connecte to either hy,othetical mechanism8 -%e#$i'" 20 6early all eci uous tree lea2es ha2e all stomates on the #ottom si eD none on the to,8 On the other han 5 corn5 oats5 lilies5 wheat5 etc85 ha2e as many5 if not more5 stomates on the to, si e of the leaf8 :hyK A"#.er: :hile a tree has its lea2es high in the air to recei2e the most intense sunlight5 it also has its lea2es e/,ose to e/tensi2e win that can ry out a leaf if the hot u,,er surface is full of holes8 The lea2es of the grass cro,s are more sheltere with stagnant air aroun much of their lengthD in a ition5 their lea2es are u,right an not oriente with one si e to the sun an the other always sha e 5 as with hori'ontal tree lea2es8

Te&!"'l'*y 1r'+ M&Gra.;Hill

)lease consult your C'%r#e I"$e*ra$i'" G%ide for technology correlations for this cha,ter8

CHAPTER

2B

FLO/ERING PLANTS: CONTROL OF GRO/TH RESPONSES

1*.

The mechanisms un erlying ,lant growth an res,onse are iscusse in this cha,ter8 The 2arious ,lant hormones an their acti2ities are escri#e 5 as is the ,henomenon of ,hoto,erio ism8 )lants< efense mechanisms are also iscusse 8 A Science Focus #o/ ,resents BArabi"opsis is a Mo el Organism8C

C!a)$er O%$li"e
2B01 Pla"$ H'r+'"e#
18 28 38 48 One efining characteristic of life is an a#ility to res,on to stimuli8 A a,ti2e organisms res,on to en2ironmental stimuli #ecause it lea s to longe2ity an sur2i2al of the s,ecies8 )lant cells utili'e signal trans uction when they res,on to stimuli8 Signal trans uction in2ol2es% a8 +ece,tors 1A )lant cells ha2e ,roteins that are acti2ate #y a s,ecific signal8 #8 Trans uction ,athway 1A There are a series of relay ,roteins or en'ymes that transform the signal to a signal that is un erstoo #y the cell<s machinery8 2A The stimulate rece,tor can either communicate imme iately with the trans uction ,athway5 or use a secon messenger to initate a res,onse8 c8 Cellular res,onse 1A The res,onse is the result of the trans uction ,athway8 2A The res,onse #rings a#out the o#ser2e microsco,ic res,onse5 i8e85 closing stomata8 !or ,lants to res,on to stimuli5 acti2ities of ,lant cells an structures ha2e to #e coor inate 8 Almost all ,lant communication is one #y !'r+'"e#0 4ormones are chemical messengers5 ,ro uce in 2ery low concentrations that are acti2e in another ,art of the organism8 4ormones are synthesi'e in one ,art of a ,lantD they tra2el in the ,hloem after a ,lant recei2es an a,,ro,riate stimulus8

"8 $8 (8 *8

A8 Au/ins 18 A,ically ,ro uce au/in ,re2ents the growth of a/illary #u s5 a ,henomenon calle a)i&al d'+i"a"&e0 a8 :hen a terminal #u is remo2e 5 the nearest #u s #egin to grow an the ,lant #ranches8 #8 A,,lication of a wea9 solution of au/in causes roots to e2elo, from the en s of cuttings8 c8 Au/in ,ro uction #y see s ,romotes growth of fruit8 8 As long as au/in is concentrate in lea2es an fruits rather than stem5 they o not fall off8 28 Au/in;controlle cell elongation is in2ol2e in gra2itro,ism an ,hototro,ism8 a8 :hen gra2ity is ,ercei2e 5 au/in mo2es to the lower surface of roots an stems8 #8 The 3arwins isco2ere with oat see lings5 ,hototro,ism woul not occur if the ti, of a see ling is cut off or co2ere #y a ca,D they conclu e the cause of cur2ature mo2e from the &'le')$ile @the ,rotecti2e sheath for the lea2es of a see lingA ti, to the rest of the shoot8 38 !rits :8 :ent @1-2$A e/,erimente with coleo,tiles8 a8 4e cut off ti,s an ,lace them on agar8 #8 :hen an agar #loc9 was ,lace to one si e5 the coleo,tile woul cur2e away from that si e regar less of the light8 c8 4e e uce a chemical cause the cur2e growth5 an he name it au/in after the 1ree9 wor for B,romoting growth8C B8 4ow Au/ins Cause Stems to Cur2e 18 0n a ,lant e/,ose to uni irectional light5 au/in mo2es from the #right si e to the sha y si e of a stem8 28 Au/in #in s to rece,tors an acti2ates the AT); ri2en ,roton @4OA ,um,8 38 As hy rogen ions are ,um,e out of the cell5 the cell wall #ecomes aci ic5 #rea9ing hy rogen #on s8 48 Cellulose fi#rils are wea9ene an acti2ate en'ymes further egra e the cell wall8 "8 The electrochemical gra ient esta#lishe causes of u,ta9e of solutes an water follows #y osmosis8 $8 The result is elongation of the stem on the sha y si e so that it #en s towar the light8 C8 1i##erellins 18 1i##erellins are a grou, of some (. ,lant hormones that chemically iffer only slightly8

1*1

1A3 is the most common of the natural gi##erellins8 1i##erellins are growth ,romoters that elongate cells8 1i##erellins were isco2ere in 1-2$ #y &witi Eurosawa5 a Ha,anese scientist in2estigating a fungal isease of rice ,lants calle Bfoolish see ling isease8C a8 4is fungus;infecte ,lants ,ro uce an e/cess chemical gi##erellin5 name after the fungus8 #8 By 1-"$5 gi##erellic aci was finally isolate from a flowering ,lant rather than fungus8 "8 The d'r+a"&y of see s an #u s can #e #ro9en #y a,,lying gi##erellins8 $8 After the em#ryo ,ro uces gi##erellins5 amylase a,,ears8 So it seems that gi##erellins lea to acti2ation of the gene that co es for amylase8 38 Cyto9inins 18 Cy$',i"i"# are a class of ,lant hormones that ,romote cell i2ision8 28 Cyto9inins are eri2ati2es of the ,urine #ase a enine8 38 A natural cyto9inin 'eatin is foun in corn 9ernelsD 9inetin is a synthetic cyto9inin8 48 +esearchers isco2ere cyto9inins in wor9 on growing ,lant tissues in culture8 "8 Oligosaccharins5 chemical fragments release from the cell wall5 also irect ifferentiation8 $8 +esearchers hy,othesi'e that au/in an cyto9inins are ,art of a rece,tion;trans uction res,onse ,athway that acti2ates en'ymes that release these fragments from the cell wall8

28 38 48

&8 Senescence
Aging ,rocesses are #e"e#&e"&eD large molecules #rea9 own an are trans,orte elsewhere in the ,lant8 28 Cyto9inins ,re2ent senescence of lea2esD they also initiate e2elo,ment of leaf growth8 38 Cyto9inins initiate growth of lateral #u s es,ite a,ical ominance8 !8 A#scisic Aci 18 Ab#&i#i& a&id 8ABA9 is ,ro uce #y any tissue that contains chloro,lasts5 monocot stems5 an roots8 28 ABA is sometimes calle the Bstress hormoneCD it maintains see an #u ormancy an causes closure of stomata8 38 0t was once thought that ABA functione in ab#&i##i'"3 #ut now the hormone is no longer #elie2e to function naturally in this ,rocess8 48 3ormancy occurs when a ,lant organ rea ies itself for a 2erse con itions #y sto,,ing growth8 a8 ABA mo2es from lea2es to 2egetati2e #u s in the fallD thereafter these #u s are con2erte to winter #u s which are co2ere #y thic95 har ene scales8 #8 +e uction in ABA an increase in gi##erellins #rea9 see an #u ormancyD see s germinate an #u s sen forth lea2es8 "8 A#scisic aci #rings a#out the closing of stomata when a ,lant is un er water stress8 a8 By some un9nown mechanism5 ABA causes EO ions to lea2e guar cells8 #8 As a result5 guar cells lose water an the stomata close8 18 &thylene 18 E$!yle"e is a gas in2ol2e in a#scission an ri,ening of fruits8 28 Au/in an ,erha,s gi##erellin initiates a#scission5 #ut once a#scission has #egun5 ethylene stimulates ,ro uction of en'ymes such as cellulase that cause leaf5 fruit5 or flower ro,8 38 0t was an early ,ractice to ,re,are citrus fruit for mar9et #y storage in a room with a 9erosene sto2e8 48 Later wor9 re2eale incom,lete com#ustion of 9erosene ,ro uce ethylene which ri,ens fruit8 "8 &thylene stimulates ,ro uction of cellulase5 an en'yme that hy roly'es cellulose in ,lant cell walls8 $8 A #arrel of ri,ening a,,les can in uce ri,ening of a #unch of #ananas some istance away8 (8 &thylene releases from the site of a ,hysical woun D therefore one rotten a,,le s,oils the whole #unch8 *8 The ,resence of ethylene in air inhi#its the growth of ,lants in general8 48 Arabi"opsis 0s a Mo el Organism @Science Focus #o/A 18 To stu y the actions of genes5 inclu ing those that control growth an e2elo,ment5 scientists ha2e chosen the wee9 Arabi"opsis thaliana as a stu y ,lant #ecause% a8 The ,lant is small so many hun re s of ,lants can grow in a small amount of s,ace8 #8 The ,lant has a short generation time @"=$ wee9sA5 an can ,ro uct a#out 1.5... see s8 c8 The ,lant ty,ically self ,ollinates5 #ut can cross ,ollinate5 which is hel,ful for gene ma,,ing an ,ro uction of strains with multi,le mutations8 8 The num#er of 36A #ase ,airs is relati2ely small8 28 Since the Arabi"opsis genome has #een se>uence 5 genes can #e clones an use as ,ro#es for the isolation of the homologous genes from ,lants of economic 2alue8 18

1*2

Mutant ,lants are create to isco2er what each of its genes o8 a8 !or e/am,le5 one of the mutant genes that alters the e2elo,ment of flowers has #een clone an reintro uce into to#acco ,lants5 where it cause se,als an stamens to a,,ear where ,etals woul or inarily #e8 48 Enowle ge a#out the e2elo,ment of the flowers in Arabi"opsis can ha2e far;ranging a,,lications5 inclu ing lea ing to more ,ro ucti2e cro,s8 "8 0n a ition5 the stu y of the Arabi"opsis genome may ,romote ,lant molecular genetics5 in general8 2B02 Pla"$ Re#)'"#e# A8 Tro,isms 18 A $r')i#+ is ,lant growth towar or away from a uni irectional stimulus8 a8 The stimulus comes from only one irection instea of many8 #8 1rowth towar a stimulus is a ,ositi2e tro,ismD growth away from a stimulus is a negati2e tro,ism8 c8 By ifferential growth5 one si e elongates fasterD the result is a cur2ing towar or away from a stimulus8 28 Three well;9nown tro,isms are name for the stimulus that causes the res,onse8 a8 *ra#itropism is res,onse to &arth<s gra2ityD roots emonstrate ,ositi2e gra2itro,ism an stems emonstrate negati2e gra2itro,ism8 #8 (hototropism is growth of ,lants in res,onse to lightD stems show ,ositi2e ,hototro,ism8 c8 /higmotropism is une>ual growth ue to touch @e8g85 coiling of ten rils aroun a ,oleA8 38 +es,onse to a stimulus first in2ol2es reception of the stimulus8 48 The ne/t ste, is trans"uction of the stimulus into a form meaningful to the organism8 "8 !inally5 there is a response #y the organism8 B8 1ra2itro,ism 18 An u,right ,lant ,lace on its si e is,lays "e*a$ive *ravi$r')i#+@ it grows u,war o,,osite gra2ity8 28 Charles 3arwin an his son were the first to show that roots is,lay )'#i$ive *ravi$r')i#+0 a8 0f the root ca, is remo2e 5 roots no longer res,on to gra2ity8 #8 Later researchers showe root ca, cells contain #$a$'li$!#3 starch grains within amylo,lasts8 c8 3ue to gra2ity5 amylo,lasts settle to the lowest ,art of the cell8 38 The connection #etween amylo,lasts is uncertain8 a8 Amylo,lasts coul cause stems an roots to res,on ifferently than au/in8 #8 The u,,er surface of a root elongates so that the root cur2es ownwar an the lower surface of a stem elongates5 so that the stem cur2es u,war s8 C8 )hototro,ism 18 P!'$'$r')i#+ occurs #ecause cells on sha y si e of stems elongate ue to the ,resence of au/in8 28 Negati#e tropism occurs when a ,lant cur2es away from light8 38 0t is now 9nown that ,hototro,ism occurs #ecause ,lants res,on to #lue light8 a8 :hen the #lue light is forme 5 the ,hoto,ro,in un ergoes a conformation change8 #8 The change occurs from a transfer of a ,hos,hate grou, from AT)5 to a ,rotein ,ortion of the ,hotorece,tor8 c8 The ,hotorece,tor then triggers a trans uction ,athway that lea s to the entry of au/in into the cell8 38 Thigmotro,ism 18 Gne>ual growth ue to contact with soli o#7ects is $!i*+'$r')i#+0 28 The coiling of morning glory or ,ea ten rils aroun ,osts5 etc85 is a common e/am,le8 38 Cells in contact with an o#7ect grow less while those on the o,,osite si e elongate8 48 This ,rocess is >uite ra,i D ten rils ha2e #een o#ser2e to encircle an o#7ect in ten minutes8 "8 A cou,le of minutes of touching can #ring a#out a res,onse that lasts for se2eral ays8 $8 The res,onse can #e elaye D ten rils touche in the ar9 will res,on when illuminate 8 a8 AT) rather than light can cause the res,onseD the nee for light is sim,ly a nee for AT)8 #8 The hormones au/in an ethylene are in2ol2e D they in uce cur2ature of ten rils in the a#sence of touch8 (8 Thigmomor,hogenesis is a touch res,onse in2ol2ing the whole ,lant8 a8 An entire ,lant res,on s to the ,resence of win or rain8 #8 A ,lant growing in a win y location has a shorter5 thic9er trun98 c8 Sim,le ru##ing of a ,lant inhi#its cellular elongation an ,ro uces a shorter5 stur ier ,lant8

38

1*3

&8 6astic Mo2ements 18 T%r*'r +'ve+e"$# are e,en ent on turgor ,ressure changes in ,lant cells8 28 0n contrast to tro,isms5 turgor mo2ements o not in2ol2e growth an are not relate to the source of the stimulus8 38 Turgor mo2ements result from touch5 sha9ing5 or thermal stimulation8 48 :hen a Mimosa pu"ica leaf is touche 5 the leaflets fol #ecause the ,etiole roo,s8 a8 This res,onse ta9es only a secon or two an is ue to a loss of turgor ,ressure within cells8 #8 A ,ul2inus is a thic9ening at the #ase of such leaflets where turgor ,ressure can ra,i ly ro,8 c8 )otassium ions mo2e out of the cell an water follows #y osmosis8 8 A single stimulus5 such as a hot nee le5 can cause all of the lea2es to res,on D this re>uires a ner2e im,ulse;li9e stimulus for communication8 "8 Venus flytra, a8 This ,lant has three sensiti2e hairs at the #ase of the tra,8 #8 :hen touche #y an insect5 an im,ulse;ty,e stimulus triggers the tra, to close8 c8 Two i eas as to what causes the electrical charge are% 1A The cells locate near the outer region of the lo#es ra,i ly secrete hy rogen ions @4OA into their cell walls5 loosening them5 an allowing the walls to swell ra,i ly #y osmosisD or 2A The cells in the inner ,ortion of the lo#es an the mi ri# ra,i ly lose ions5 lea ing to a loss of water #y osmosis an colla,se of these cells8 3A :hate2er the mechanism5 turgor mo2ements are in2ol2e 8 !8 Slee, Mo2ements 18 Cir&adia" r!y$!+# are slee, mo2ements that occur regularly in a 24;hours cycle8 28 A common e/am,le of circa ian rhythms is in the ,rayer ,lant @Maranta leuconeuraA8 a8 At night5 the lea2es of the ,rayer ,lant fol u,war into a sha,e resem#ling han s of ,rayer8 #8 This mo2ement is also ue to changes in the turgor ,ressure of motor cells in the ,ul2inus locate at the #ase of each leaf8 38 Other e/am,le of circa ium rhythms are% a8 Morning glories @Ipomoea leptophyllaA o,en its flowers uring the early ,art of the ay an close them at night8 #8 0n most ,lants the stomata o,en in the morning an close at night8 c8 0n some ,lants necture is secrete at the same time of the ay or night8 48 To >ualify as a circa ium rhythm5 the acti2ity must% a8 Occur e2ery 24;hours8 #8 Ta9e ,lace in the a#sence of e/ternal stimuli8 c8 Be a#le to #e reset if e/ternal cues are ,ro2i e 8 "8 A bi'l'*i&al &l'&, is an internal mechanism maintaining #iological rhythms in the a#sence of stimuli8 $8 Biological cloc9s are synchroni'e #y e/ternal stimuli to 24;hour rhythms8 (8 )hoto,erio is more relia#le an in icator of seasonal changes than tem,erature change8 *8 The #iological cloc9 may in2ol2e the transcri,tion of a num#er of Bcloc9 genes8C a8 One mo el ,ro,oses that the information;transfer system from 36A to +6A to en'yme to meta#olite5 with all its fee #ac9 controls5 is intrinsically cyclical an coul #e the #asis for #iological cloc9s8 #8 These genes control slee, mo2ements5 o,ening an closing of stomata5 the ischarge of floral fragrances5 an meta#olic acti2ities associate with ,hotosynthesis8 -8 The #iological cloc9 also influences seasonal cycles that e,en on ay;night length8

18 )hoto,erio ism
Many ,hysiological changes in ,lants @e8g85 see germination5 the #rea9ing of #u ormancy5 an the onset of senescenceA are relate to a seasonal change in ay length8 28 P!'$')eri'di#+ is a ,hysiological res,onse ,rom,te #y changes in the length of a ay or night in a 24;hour aily cycle8 48 )hytochrome 18 P!y$'&!r'+e is a #lue;green leaf ,igment that is ,resent in the cyto,lasm of ,lant cells8 28 )r @,hytochrome re A a#sor#s re light @wa2elength of $$. nmAD it is con2erte to )fr8 38 )fr is ,hytochrome far;re an a#sor#s far;re light @wa2elength of (3. nmAD it is con2erte to )r8 48 3uring a 24;hour ,erio 5 there is a shift in ratio of these two ,igments8 a8 3irect sunlight contains more re than far;re lightD )fr is ,resent in ,lant lea2es uring the ay8 18

1*4

08

H8

#8 Sha e an sunsets ha2e more far;re than re lightD )fr is con2erte to )r as night a,,roaches8 c8 There is a slow meta#olic re,lacement of )fr #y )r uring night8 !unctions of )hytochrome 18 The )r )fr con2ersion cycle controls other growth functions in ,lants8 28 0n a ition to #eing in2ol2e in flowering5 )fr ,romotes see germination an inhi#its stem elongation8 38 !ollowing germination5 the ,resence of )r ominatesD the stem elongates an grows towar sunlight while the lea2es remain small8 48 Once a ,lant is e/,ose to sunlight an )r is con2erte to )fr5 the ,lant #egins to grow normally? lea2es e/,an an the stem #ranches8 "8 !lowering ,lants can #e i2i e into three grou,s5 #ase their flowering status% a8 S!'r$;day Pla"$# 1A These ,lants flower when ay length is shorter than a critical length8 2A &/am,les inclu e coc9le#ur5 ,oinsettia5 an chrysanthemum8 3A 0n effect5 they re>uire a ,erio of ar9ness that is longer than a critical length to flower8 #8 L'"*;day Pla"$# 1A These ,lants flower when the ay length is longer than a critical length8 2A &/am,les inclu e wheat5 #arley5 clo2er5 an s,inach8 3A 0n effect5 they re>uire a ,erio of ar9ness that is shorter than a critical length to flower8 c8 ay;"e%$ral Pla"$# 1A These are ,lants for which flowering is not e,en ent on ay length8 2A &/am,les inclu e tomato an cucum#er8 $8 A long; ay an a short; ay ,lant can ha2e the same critical length8 a8 These ,lants iffer in s,ecific se>uence of ay lengths as a season ,rogresses8 #8 S,inach is a long; ay ,lant that flowers in summer when ay length increases to 14 hours8 c8 +agwee is a short; ay ,lant that flowers in fall when ay length shortens to 14 hours or less8 (8 Scientists e/,erimente with artificial lengths of ar9 an light ,erio s8 a8 Coc9le#ur5 a short; ay ,lant5 flowers as long as the ar9 ,erio lasts o2er *8" hours8 #8 0f the ar9 ,erio is interru,te #y a flash5 it oes not flowerD #ut ar9ness ami st a ay cycle has no effect8 c8 Long; ay ,lants re>uire a ar9 ,erio shorter than a critical length regar less of the length of the light ,erio 8 8 Therefore5 length of the ar9 ,erio controls flowering5 not length of the light ,erio 8 !lowering )lants +es,on to the Biotic &n2ironment 18 )lant ha2e many efense mechanisms to ,rotect themsel2es from her#i2ore an ,arasite attac9s8 28 )lants ha2e ,hysical efenses such as cuticle;co2ere e,i ermis an #ar98 38 3es,ite the ,hysical efenses5 her#i2ores can still attac9 the ,lant5 so ,lants nee se2eral other ty,es of efenses8 48 )lants ,ro uce #e&'"dary +e$ab'li$e# are efense mechanisms8 a8 Tannins5 in or on the leaf e,i ermis5 are efensi2e com,oun s that interfere with the outer ,roteins of #acteria an fungi8 #8 Tannins also eter ,re ators #ecause of the astringent effect on the mouth an interference with igestion8 c8 Al,al'id# @e8g85 mor,hine5 nicotine5 caffeineA are also secon ary meta#olites8 1A Coffee ,lant see lings ha2e a high concentration of caffeine5 which can 9ill insects an fungi #y #loc9ing 36A an +6A synthesis8 8 Cya"'*e"i& *ly&'#ide# #rea9 own to cyani e an inhi#it cellular res,iration8 1A !o/glo2e @Digitalis purpureaA ,ro uces ea ly car iac an steroi glycosi es5 which cause nausea5 hallucinations5 an eath in animals that ingest them8 "8 )lants also res,on when they ha2e #een woun e or attac9e 8 a8 After a leaf has #een chewe or in7ure 5 the ,lant ,ro uces proteinase inhibitors5 #y#$e+i"3 which is a chemical that estroy the igesti2e en'ymes of a ,re ator fee ing on them8 $8 Sometimes ,lants ,ro uce a s,ecific gene ,ro uct that #in s to either a 2iral5 #acterial5 or fungal gene ,ro uct ma e within the cell5 so the ,lant can Brecogni'eC a ,articular ,athogen8 a8 !ollowing gene ,ro uction5 a trans uction ,athway ensues5 an the final result is a !y)er#e"#i$ive re#)'"#e 8HR9 that seals off the infecte area an will also initiate a woun res,onse8

1*"

(8

*8

Some ,lant efense mechanisms are in irect efense mechanisms8 a8 Since female #utterflies are less li9ely to lay their eggs on ,lants that alrea y ha2e #utterfly eggs5 the lea2es of some ,assion flowers @genus (assifloraA is,lay ,hysical structures resem#ling the eggs5 so the #utterflies o not lay eggs on those ,lants8 #8 Lima #eans ,ro uce 2olatiles that attract carni2ore mites only when they are #eing amage #y a s,i er mite8 c8 Corn an cotton ,lants release 2olatiles that attract was,s5 which then in7ect their eggs into cater,illars eating their lea2es8 Some ,lants ha2e mutualistic relationshi,s with other animals to ,rotect them from her#i2ores8 a8 A s,ecies of acacia5 (seu"omyrme! ferruginea5 has swollen thorns with a hollow interior an ants will li2e an fee @without harmingA off the acacia8 0n turn5 the ants ,rotect the ,lant #y attac9ing an stinging her#i2ores8

Le&$%re E"ri&!+e"$ Idea#

E6)erie"&e Ba#e: Many stu ents ha2e not irectly e/,erience farming or gar ening an therefore ha2e not seen many of the ,henomena iscusse here8 Su#stantial actual e/am,les can #e #rought to class an me ia will #e necessary to ,icture the 2arious ,lant B#eha2iors8C 18 Care shoul #e ta9en not to confuse stu ents with the ,seu oscience surroun ing ,lants #eing a#le to hear music5 etc8D only animals ha2e ner2ous systems an muscles5 an the mechanisms escri#e from ,lants o not in2ol2e a central ner2ous system an are 2ery istant from animal systems for #eha2ior8 28 4y ro,onics is an im,ortant regime for sim,lifying e/,erimental esigns an e/clu ing the un9nown elements in soil8 &/,lain how it is im,ortant to isolate ,lants from other effects in or er to ascertain that they are in ee res,on ing to a single growth hormone or stimulus8
38 3escri#e the 9in s of hormones foun in a rooting com,oun sol in gar ening stores5 an com,are the stores< e/,ectations with what you fin on the la#el of such com,oun s8

48 &/,lain the effects of au/ins an cyto9inins on the un ifferentiate callus of ,lant tissue in culture5 where au/ins ,ro uce root tissue e2elo,ment an cyto9inins ,ro uce shoot e2elo,ment8 "8 Consi er the actions of ethylene5 which is ,ro uce #y a ri,ening fruit an causes its continue ri,ening8 This is an e/am,le of ,ositi2e fee #ac95 not a re2ersi#le reaction8 $8 3iscuss how the chemical changes of )r to )fr in the ,resence of re @normalA light an of )fr to )r in the ,resence of far;re @twilightA light or ar9ness are associate with the actions of long; ay an short; ay flowering ,lants8 )fr acts to stimulate flowering in a long; ay ,lant an acts to inhi#it flowering in a short; ay ,lant5 which e/,lains the effects of a short #urst of light in the mi le of ar9ness in #oth 9in s of ,lants8 There is an intuiti2e #ut erroneous ,resum,tion that long; an short; ay ,lants must5 therefore5 res,on to the aylight ,erio B#ecause the name says so8C

Cri$i&al T!i",i"*
-%e#$i'" 10 0f we transferre a ,lant @s,ecimen or see A from a latitu e of 4.o 6orth in the northern o hemis,here to 4. South in the southern hemis,here5 what woul #e the ifficult a 7ustment for the ,lantK A"#.er: The ay;night cycles woul #e the same #ut the seasons woul #e si/ months off cycle8 This means that the 2egetati2e s,ecimen is ,ro#a#ly not easy to transfer since the seasons will #e ramatically ifferent8 The critical factor is this% can the see s germinate early or lateK Otherwise5 ay length woul #e the same8

1*$

-%e#$i'" 20 The #iochemistry of ,hoto,erio ism is not sim,le8 :hy woul ,lants not all e2olutionarily BselectC to flower in the same season #y the first mechanism that e2ol2e @all s,ring flowers or all fall flowersAK A"#.er: The ,ollinators are a resource that is limite 8 This woul re uce com,etition with other flower s,ecies8 0n a ition5 there are other a a,tations that woul ha2e to #e ma e in see ura#ility an ormancyD they too woul #e #eneficial if they istance the ,lant from com,etition with others8

Te&!"'l'*y 1r'+ M&Gra.;Hill

)lease consult your C'%r#e I"$e*ra$i'" G%ide for technology correlations for this cha,ter8

1*(

CHAPTER

2C

FLO/ERING PLANTS: REPRO UCTION

)lant re,ro ucti2e ,rocesses are e/,lore in this cha,ter8 0nclu e are sections on life cycles5 see e2elo,ment an is,ersal5 fertili'ation an su#se>uent e2elo,ment5 an ase/ual re,ro uction8 A Science Focus #o/ iscusses B)lants an Their )ollinators8C

C!a)$er O%$li"e
2C01 Se6%al Re)r'd%&$ive S$ra$e*ie#
A8 Life Cycle O2er2iew 18 0n contrast to animals with only one multicellular stage in their life cycle5 all ,lants ha2e two% a i,loi an a ha,loi generation8 28 0n flowering ,lants5 the i,loi s,oro,hyte is ominant5 an is the generation that #ears flowers8 38 A 1l'.er5 the re,ro ucti2e structure of an angios,erm5 ,ro uces two ty,es of s,ores5 micros,ores an megas,ores8 a8 A +i&r'#)'re is a ,lant s,ore that e2elo,s into a male gameto,hyte5 which is a ,ollen grain8 #8 A +e*a#)'re is a ,lant s,ore that e2elo,s into a female gameto,hyte5 the em#ryo sac which remains within a s,oro,hyte ,lant8 48 At maturity5 a ,ollen grain @which is either win #lown or carrie #y an animal to the 2icinity of the female gameto,hyteA tra2els 2ia a ,ollen tu#e to the em#ryo sac an fertili'es the egg8 "8 The 'ygote #ecomes an em#ryo5 which e2elo,s into a #eed0 $8 A see contains the em#ryo an store foo surroun e #y a see coat8 (8 The o2ary #ecomes a fruit8 *8 The s,oro,hyte is the generation that contains 2ascular tissue an has other a a,tations suita#le to li2ing on lan 5 inclu ing ,ro uction of flowers8 B8 !lowers 18 !lowers are uni>ue to angios,ermsD asi e from ,ro ucing the s,ores an ,rotecting gameto,hytes5 flowers attract ,ollinators an ,ro uce fruits to enclose the see s8 28 The shoot a,ical meristem sto,s forming lea2es to form flowersD a/illary #u s can #ecome flowers irectly8 38 Monocot flower ,arts are in threes or their multi,lesD eu icot flower ,arts are in fours or fi2es or their multi,les8 48 Se)al# are leafli9e5 usually greenD this outermost whorl ,rotects the #u as a flower e2elo,s within8 Collecti2ely5 se,als are calle the &aly60 "8 Pe$al# are interior to se,alsD coloration accounts for attracti2eness of many flowers8 Collecti2ely5 the ,etals are calle the &'r'lla0 a8 The si'e5 sha,e5 an color of a flower are attracti2e to a s,ecific ,ollinator8 #8 :in ;,ollinate flowers often ha2e no ,etals at all8 $8 1rou,e a#out a ,istil are #$a+e"#3 stal9e structures that ha2e two ,arts8 a8 The a"$!er is a sacli9e container within which ,ollen grains e2elo,8 #8 A 1ila+e"$ is a slen er stal9 that su,,orts the anther8 (8 The &ar)el is the 2aseli9e structure locate at the center of a flowerD car,els usually ha2e three ,arts8 a8 The #$i*+a is an enlarge stic9y 9no# on the en of a styleD stigma ser2es to recei2e ,ollen grains8 #8 The #$yle is a slen er stal9 that connects stigma with the 'vary0 c8 The 'vary is an enlarge #ase of a car,el that contains a num#er of 'v%le#0 *8 6ot all flowers ha2e se,als5 ,etals5 stamens5 an a ,istil8 a8 Com,lete flowers ha2e se,als5 ,etals5 stamens5 an a ,istilD incom,lete flowers o not8 #8 )erfect @#ise/ualA flowers ha2e #oth stamens an a ,istil8 c8 0m,erfect @unise/ualA flowers ha2e only stamens or car,els8 8 Car,ellate flowers ha2e only car,els8 -8 0f staminate an car,ellate flowers are on the same ,lant5 the ,lant is monoecious 0 1.8 0f staminate an car,ellate flowers are on ifferent ,lants5 the ,lant is ioecious8 C8 Life Cycle in 3etail

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18 28 38

48

"8

0n all lan ,lants5 the s,oro,hyte ,ro uces ha,loi s,ores #y meiosisD in animals5 meiosis ,ro uces gametes8 !lowering ,lants are heterosporous5 ,ro ucing micros,ores an megas,ores that #ecome s,erm; #earing ,ollen grains an egg;#earing em#ryo sacs5 res,ecti2ely8 3e2elo,ment of Male 1ameto,hyte a8 Micros,ores are ,ro uce in the anthers of flowers8 #8 An anther has four ,ollen sacsD each contains many micros,orocytes @micros,ore mother cellsA8 c8 Micros,orocytes un ergo meiotic cell i2ision to ,ro uce four ha,loi micros,ores8 8 The ha,loi nucleus then i2i es mitotically forming two cells enclose in a finely scul,ture wallD this is a )'lle" *rai"3 which is at first an immature +ale *a+e$')!y$e3 containing a tu#e cell an a generati2e cell8 e8 The larger tu#e cell will e2entually form the pollen tube8 f8 &2entually each generati2e cell will i2i e mitotically to form two s,erm8 g8 Once #oth e2ents ha2e occurre 5 the ,ollen grain is the mature male gameto,hyte8 3e2elo,ment of !emale 1ameto,hyte a8 The o2ary contains one or more o2ules8 #8 An o2ule is co2ere #y ,arenchymal cells e/ce,t for one small o,ening5 the micro,yle8 c8 One ,arenchyma cell enlarges to #ecome a megas,orocyte that un ergoes meiotic cell i2ision to ,ro uce four ha,loi megas,ores8 8 Three megas,ores are nonfunctionalD one megas,ore nucleus i2i es mitotically into eight nuclei in a 1e+ale *a+e$')!y$e0 e8 :hen cell walls form aroun the nuclei later5 there are se2en cells5 one of which is #inucleate8 f8 The female gameto,hyte @or e+bry' #a&A consists of se2en cells% 1A one egg cell5 2A two synergi cells5 3A one central cell with two ,olar nuclei5 an 4A three anti,o al cells8 3e2elo,ment of 6ew S,oro,hyte a8 :alls se,arating the ,ollen sacs in the anther #rea9 own when the ,ollen grains are to #e release 8 #8 P'lli"a$i'" is the transfer of ,ollen from an anther to the stigma of a car,el8 c8 Self;,ollination is transfer of ,ollen from anther to stigma of the same ,lant8 8 Cross ,ollination is transfer of ,ollen from anther of one ,lant to stigma of another ,lantD ,lants often ha2e mechanisms that ,romote cross ,ollination such as the car,el only maturing after anthers ha2e release their ,ollen8 e8 :hen a ,ollen grain lan s on a stigma5 it germinates5 forming a ,ollen tu#e8 f8 A germinate ,ollen grain5 containing a tu#e cell an two s,erm5 is the mature male gameto,hyte8 g8 As a ,ollen tu#e grows5 it ,asses #etween the cells of the stigma an the style to reach the micro,yle of an o2ule8 h8 '%ble 1er$ili5a$i'" occurs after the release of #oth s,erm cells into the o2ule8 i8 One s,erm nucleus unites with the egg nucleus5 forming a 2n 'ygote8 78 The other s,erm nucleus migrates an unites with the ,olar nuclei of the central cell5 forming a 3n en os,erm cell8 98 The 'ygote i2i es mitotically to #ecome the em#ryoD the en os,erm nucleus i2i es mitotically to #ecome the e"d'#)er+0 l8 The e"d'#)er+ is tissue that will nourish the em#ryo an see ling as they un ergo e2elo,ment8 m8 A mature see contains%

1A the em#ryo 2A store foo 3A the see coat n8 Some s,ecies rely on win ,ollination @grasses5 grainsA8 o8 Much of the ,lant<s energy goes into ma9ing ,ollen to ensure that some ,ollen grains actually reach a stigma8 ,8 The use of animal ,ollinators is uni>ue to flowering ,lants an it hel,s account 1*-

for why these ,lants are so successful on lan 8 >8 C'ev'l%$i'" means that as one s,ecies changes5 the other changes too5 so that in the en 5 the two s,ecies are suite to one another8 $8 )lants an Their )ollinators @Science Focus #o/A
a8 #8 c8 )lants an their ,ollinators ha2e a mutualistic relationshi, in which each #enefits8 1A )lants use ,ollinators to ensure that cross;,ollination ta9es ,lace8 2A The ,ollinator uses the ,lant as a source of foo 8 This relationshi, came a#out through coe2olution?co e,en ency of the ,lant an the ,ollinator is the result of suita#le changes in the structure an function of each8 Bee;)ollinate !lowers 1A Bees o not see re wa2elengths #ut o see ultra2iolet wa2elengths8 2A Bee;,ollinate flowers are usually #rightly colore an ,re ominatly #lue or yellow8 They may also ha2e ultra2iolet sha ings calle nector gui es8 3A 0n a ition5 the #ees< mouth,arts are a a,te to suc9ing the ,lant<s nectar8 4A :hen #ees tra2el to one flower5 the ,ollen attaches to their #o y8 :hen they tra2el to the ne/t flower5 they e,osit the ,ollen5 ,artici,ating in cross ,ollination8 "A Bee ,ollinate flowers are also stur y5 often with a lan ing ,a 5 a#le to su,,ort the weight of the #ee8 Moth; an Butterfly;)ollinate !lowers 1A Moths fee at night an ha2e a well; e2elo,e sense of smell8 2A Moth ,ollinate flowers are usually light colore an ha2e a strong5 sweet ,erfume to attract the moths8 3A Moth ,ollinate flowers ha2e ee, tu#es with o,en margins to allow the moths to reach the nectar with their long ,ro#oscis8 4A 0n contrast5 #utterflies fee uring the ay5 ha2e goo 2ision5 #ut wea9 sense of smell8 "A Butterfly ,ollinate flowers ha2e #right colors an are o orless8 Bir ; an Bat;)ollinate !lowers 1A 4umming#ir s ha2e goo eyesight #ut ha2e a wea9 sense of smell5 an ho2er when they fee 8 2A 4umming#ir ,ollinate flowers are re 5 with a slen er floral tu#e an margins that are cur2e #ac9 an out of the way5 an ha2e little o or8 3A Bats are nocturnal an ha2e an acute sense of smell8 4A Bat ,ollinate flowers o,en only at night an are light;colore or white8 They also ha2e a similar o or that #ats ,ro uce to attract each other8 Coe2olution

e8

f8

1A The use of animal motility to achie2e cross;fertili'ation resulte in the e2olution of flowers5 which ha2e features to attract ,ollinators8 2A As cross;fertili'ation continue 5 more an more flower 2ariations li9ely e2elo,e 5 an ,ollinators #ecame increasingly a a,te to s,ecific angios,erm s,ecies8 3A The success of angios,erms has ,ro#a#ly contri#ute to the success of insects5 an 2isa 2ersa8 2C02 Seed evel')+e"$
3e2elo,ment of the see is the ne/t e2ent in the life cycle of the angios,erm8 )lant growth an e2elo,ment in2ol2es cell i2ision5 cell elongation5 an ifferentiation of cells into tissues an then organs8 A8 Stages of &u icot 3e2elo,ment 18 0mme iately after ou#le fertili'ation5 the en os,erm nucleus i2i es to ,ro uce a mass of en os,erm surroun ing the em#ryo8 28 The single;celle 'ygote also i2i es5 #ut asymmetrically5 forming two ,arts% em#ryo an sus,ensor5 which anchors the em#ryo an transfers nutrients to it from the s,oro,hyte ,lant8 38 1lo#ular Stage 18 28

1-.

3uring this stage5 the ,roem#ryo is a #all of cells8 The root;shoot a/is is esta#lishe D cells near the sus,ensor will #ecome a root5 those at the o,,osite en will #ecome a shoot8 c8 The outermost cells #ecome ermal tissueD #y i2i ing with the cell ,late ,er,en icular to the surface5 they ,ro uce one outer cell layer8 8 3ermal tissue ,re2ents essication an also has stomata that regulate gas e/change8 48 The 4eart Stage an Tor,e o Stage &m#ryos a8 The em#ryo has a heart;sha,e when the &'$yled'"# a,,earD it then grows to a tor,e o sha,e8 #8 :ith elongation5 the root an shoot a,ical meristems are istinguisha#le8 c8 1roun meristem res,onsi#le for most of the interior of the em#ryo is also ,resent now8 "8 The Mature &m#ryo a8 After ifferentiation into em#ryo an sus,ensor5 one or two cotyle ons e2elo,8 #8 The em#ryo continues to ifferentiate into three ,arts8 c8 The e,icotyl is #etween the cotyle ons an first lea2esD it contri#utes to shoot e2elo,ment8 8 The hy,ocotyl is #elow the cotyle on an contri#utes to stem e2elo,ment8 e8 The ra icle is #elow the hy,ocotyl an contri#utes to root e2elo,ment8 f8 The cotyle ons are >uite noticea#le in a eu icot em#ryo5 an may fol o2er8 B8 Monocots Versus &u icot See s 18 Monocots ha2e only one cotyle on8 a8 0n monocots5 the cotyle on rarely stores foo 8 #8 0t a#sor#s foo molecules from the en os,erm an ,asses them to the em#ryo8 28 &u icots ha2e two cotyle ons a8 3uring e2elo,ment of a eu icot em#ryo5 cotyle ons usually store the nutrients the em#ryo uses8 #8 The en os,erm seemingly isa,,ears as the nutrients are consume 8

a8 #8

2C04 Fr%i$ Ty)e# a"d Seed i#)er#al

A 1r%i$ is a mature o2ary that encloses see sD sometimes they retain other flower ,arts8 !ruits ser2e to ,rotect an is,erse offs,ring8 The fruit ,rotects the ,each see well #ut ma9es germination ifficultD the ,eas esca,e easily #ut are lightly ,rotecte 8 A8 Ein s of !ruits 18 !ruits can #e sim,le or com,oun 8 a8 Simple fruit e2elo,s from a single car,el or se2eral fuse car,els of a com,oun o2ary8 #8 A compoun" fruit e2elo,s from se2eral in i2i ual o2aries8 c8 An aggregate fruit e2elo,s from o2aries from a single flower @e8g85 #lac9#erryA8 8 A multiple fruit e2elo,s from o2aries from se,arate flowers fuse together @e8g85 ,inea,,leA8 28 As fruit e2elo,s5 the o2ary wall thic9ens to #ecome the ,ericar,5 which can ha2e as many three layers% a8 The e/ocar, forms the outermost s9in of a fruit8 #8 The mesocaro, is often the fleshy tissue #etween the e/ocar, an en ocar, of the fruit8 c8 The en ocar, ser2es as the #oun ary #etween the see @sA8 0t may #e har @,each ,itsA5 or ,a,ery @a,,lesA8 38 Legumes an cereal grains are e/am,les of "ry fruitsD such fruits are mista9en for see s #ecause a ry ,ericar, a heres to the see within8 a8 Legumes are ehiscent #ecause they s,lit o,en when ri,e8 #8 1rains are in ehiscents #ecause they o not s,lit o,en when ri,e8 B8 3is,ersal of !ruits 18 Many ry fruits are win is,erse 8 a8 :oolly hairs5 ,lumes5 an wings are a a,tations for win is,ersal8 28 Other fruits are animal is,erse 8 a8 4oo9s an s,ines of clo2er5 #ur5 an coc9le#ur attach to the fur of animals8 #8 !leshy fruit attract animals an ,ro2i e them with foo 5 an they efecate the see s at a istance8 c8 S>uirrels an other animals gather see s an fruits an #ury them some istance away8 C8 See 1ermination 18 Seed *er+i"a$i'" occurs when growth an meta#olic acti2ity resume8 18 28 38

1-1

28

38

48 role8

Some see s o not germinate until they ha2e #een ormant for a ,erio of time8 a8 See ormancy is a time uring which no growth occurs e2en though con itions are fa2ora#le8 #8 0n tem,erate 'ones5 see s may ha2e to #e e/,ose to col weather #efore ormancy is #ro9en8 c8 !leshy fruits contain inhi#itors so that germination oes not occur while the fruit is still on the ,lant8 8 !or some see s to ta9e u, water5 #acterial action an e2en fire is re>uire @e8g8 (inus ban sianaA8 e8 Once water enters5 the see coat #ursts an the see germinates8 )rior to germination5 a eu icot em#ryo consists of the following% 1A two cotyle ons that su,,ly nutrients to the em#ryo an see ling5 #ut soon shri2el an isa,,earD 2A a ,lumuleMa ru imentary ,lant that consists of an e,icotyl #earing young lea2esD 3A the hy,ocotyl5 which #ecomes the stemD an 4A the ra icle5 which e2elo,s into roots8 0n monocots5 the en os,erm is the foo ;storage tissue an the cotyle on oes not ha2e a storage a8 #8 c8 A monocot Bsee C such as a corn 9ernel is actually the fruit an the outer co2ering is the ,ericar,8 The ,lumule an ra icle are enclose in ,rotecti2e sheaths5 the coleo,tile an the coleorhi'a5 res,ecti2ely8 The ,lumule an ra icle #urst through these co2erings when germination occurs8

2C07 A#e6%al Re)r'd%&$i'" S$ra$e*ie#

0n ase/ual re,ro uction5 offs,ring arise from a single ,arent an inherit genes of that ,arent only8 a8 Ase/ual re,ro uction is often a 2antageous when the ,arent is alrea y a a,te to a ,articular en2ironment an the ,ro uction of genetic 2ariations is not a necessity8 28 Ty,es of ase/ual re,ro uction inclu e% a8 )lant re,ro uction 2ia #$'l'"#Ma#o2egroun hori'ontal stems8 1A The ase/ual offs,ring grows from the stolons off of the ,arent ,lant8 2A The characteristics of the offs,ring are i entical to those of the ,arent ,lant8 #8 )lant re,ro uction 2ia r!i5'+e#Mun ergroun stems8 1A 0rises ha2e no a#o2egroun stem #ecause their main stem is a rhi'ome that grows hori'ontally un ergroun 8 2A 6ew ,lants grow at the no es of a rhi'ome8 3A &ach eye of a ,otato ,lant tu#er is a #u that ,ro uces a new ,lant8 c8 Many trees can #e starte from small Bsuc9ers8C 1A Stem cuttings ha2e long #een use to ,ro,agate a wi e array of ,lants @e8g85 sugarcane5 ,inea,,leA8 2A 0n these ,lants5 a cut stem will automatically ,ro uce roots8 3A The isco2ery that au/in will cause roots to e2elo, has e/,an e our a#ility to use stem cuttings8 A8 Tissue Culture of )lants 18 Ti##%e &%l$%re is the ,rocess of growing tissue artificially in a li>ui or soli culture me ium8 28 Many ,lant cells are $'$i)'$e"$D each cell has full genetic ,otential of the organism8 38 Three metho s of cloning ,lants ue to the a#ility of ,lants to grow from single cells are% a8 Somatic em#ryogenesis 1A 0n this metho 5 hormones are a e to the me ium an they cause leaf or other tissue cells to generate small masses of cells5 which can #e genetically engineer #efore #eing allowe to #ecome many new i entical ,lants8 2A Tomato5 rice5 celery5 as,aragus5 lilies5 #egonias5 an African 2iolets ha2e #een ,ro uce using somatic em#ryogenesis8 3A 6ot all ,lants are genetically i entical clones #ecause mutations5 calle somaclonal #ariations5 can airse s,ontaneously uring the ,ro uction ,rocess8 #8 Meristem tissue culture 1A Meristem culture micro,ro,agates many new shoots from a single shoot a,e/ culture in a me ium with correct ,ro,ortions of hormones8 2A :hen the shoots are remo2e 5 more shoots form8 3A Meristem culture generates meristem that is 2irus;freeD the ,lants ,ro uce are also 2irus;free8 c8 Anther tissue culture 18

1-2

48

1A 4a,loi cells within ,ollen grains are culture in or er to ,ro uce ha,loi ,lantlets8 2A A i,loi @2nA ,lantlet can #e ,ro uce if chemical agents are a e to the culture8 3A Similarly to meristem tissue cultures5 the offs,ring are genetically i entical to the ,arent ,lant8 Cell #%#)e"#i'" &%l$%re allows scientists to e/tract chemicals from ,lant cells in high concentrations without ha2ing to o2ercollect wil ;ty,e ,lants growing in their natural en2ironment8 a8 Single cells or small clum,s form a sus,ension of cellsD all ,ro uce the same chemicals as the entire ,lant8

Le&$%re E"ri&!+e"$ Idea#

E6)erie"&e Ba#e: Stu ent e/,erience with recogni'ing istinct flower ,arts will 2ary wi ely with high school science e/,eriences an farming #ac9groun 5 #ut in most cases is eclining8 !lower materials are a2aila#le5 safe5 ine/,ensi2e5 an con2enient to ,ro2i e an 2isuals are attention;getting8 18 )ro2i e s,ecimens of flowers that ha2e only Bmale ,artsC an others that ha2e only Bfemale ,arts8C 3escri#e how these may #e foun on the same ,lant or on com,letely ifferent ,lants8 &/amine the corn flowers5 for e/am,le5 with the male tassel on to, ,ro ucing ,ollen an the female flowers with the long sil9s that lea to the o2ariesD each corn 9ernel is a single fruit5 an the co# is a stem on which the in i2i ual flowers an fruits e2elo,8 28 )ro2i e 2isuals showing how some ,lants ha2e characteristics that attract animals as ,ollinators8 !or e/am,le5 the sha,e of some orchi flowers resem#les the re,ro ucti2e organs of female insects5 stimulating male insects to 2isit ifferent flowers an attem,t co,ulation5 thus transferring ,ollen8 The ,ro uction of scent an nectar5 an the #ullseye mar9ings 2isi#le to insects #ut not to humans5 coul also #e iscusse 8 38 3escri#e the flowers of oa9 or other trees that o not ha2e insect ,ollinators8 S,ring semester classes ha2e an a 2antage when win ;,ollinate trees are u#i>uitous8 Try to #ring s,ecimens or ,hotogra,hs5 an com,are how these flowers are ifferent from what we normally thin9 of as a flower8
48 \uery what ha,,ens when ifferent 9in s of ,ollen @from ifferent s,ecies of ,lantsA lan on a flower<s stigma8 There must #e antigenic @,roteinA recognition #etween the ,ollen grain an the tissue of the stigma for ,ro,er interaction to occurD an genetic information for #uil ing a ,ollen tu#e of the ,ro,er length must #e ,resent if ,ollen germination oes occur8

"8 Current news,a,er articles on newly engineere ,lants ,ro2i e a rele2ant a,,lication of the techni>ues for genetic engineering e/,laine in this cha,ter8 1enetically;engineere cro,s are the center of a ma7or ,olitical is,ute #etween the G8S8 which has high acce,tance5 an &uro,e where many are #eing #anne 8

Cri$i&al T!i",i"*
-%e#$i'" 10 A human 'ygote at the $4;cell stage has $1 cells e2ote to #ecoming the ,lacenta to su,,ort the e2elo,ing em#ryo that e2elo,s from the other three cells8 0n what way is this similar an ifferent com,are to the ,lant em#ryo an en os,ermK A"#.er: Both the ,lacenta an en os,erm function to ,ro2i e foo to the em#ryonic organism8 4owe2er5 the ,lacenta e2elo,s from the cells eri2e from a single;fertili'ation e2ent that also ,ro uce the em#ryo5 while the en os,erm e2elo,e from a se,arate fertili'ation e2ent that only ,ro2i e for this su,,ort unit8

1-3

-%e#$i'" 20 3escri,tions of the 2arious techni>ues for inserting genes into ,lant cells in icate that the cell wall is a fairly formi a#le #arrier8 :hat are the ,ractical conse>uences for intro ucing new genes5 such as her#ici e resistance into cro, ,lants5 if this #arrier was not ,resentK A"#.er: :hile it woul #e consi era#ly easier to e2elo, a resistant strain of cro, ,lant5 there woul also #e a anger of the gene mo2ing into un esira#le wee s an ,ro2i ing them with resistance8

1-4

PART VI ANIMAL EVOLUTION AN

IVERSITY

This ,art has #een reorgani'e to #e consistent with molecular ata regar ing the relationshi, of grou,s of animals8 Classification is #ase on molecular ata8 To accommo ate the new hy,otheses5 Cha,ter 2* now inclu es molluscs5 anneli s5 arthro,o s5 an echino erms8 Cha,ter 2- is e2ote e/clusi2ely to the 2erte#rates8 2* 0n2erte#rate &2olution 2- Verte#rate &2olution 3. 4uman &2olution

CHAPTER

2D

INVERTEBRATE EVOLUTION

This cha,ter #egins a three;cha,ter section on animal e2olution8 0n this cha,ter5 many ifferent in2erte#rates are iscusse in etail5 inclu ing ,rotostomes an euterostomes5 an human ,arsitic iseases in2ol2ing certain in2erte#rates are escri#e 8

C!a)$er O%$li"e
2D01 Ev'l%$i'" '1 A"i+al# 18 Mem#ers of the 9ing om Animalia are multicellular heterotro,hs that ingest their foo 8 28 Animals ha2e the i,loi life cycle5 an usually re,ro uce se/ually8 38 Muscle an ner2e tissues characteri'e animals8 a8 The e2olution of these tissues ena#le many ty,es of animals search acti2ely for their foo an ,rey on other organisms8 48 Animals are mono,hyletic?meaning #oth in2erte#rates an 2erte#rates can trace their ancestry to the same ancestor8 "8 A ult ver$ebra$e# ha2e a s,inal cor @or #ac9#oneA5 while i"ver$ebra$e# o not ha2e a #ac9#one8 A8 Ancestry of Animals 18 The colonial flagellate hypothesis states that animals are escen e from an ancestor that resem#le a hollow s,herical colony of flagellate cells8 28 The colonial flagellate hy,othesis im,lies that radial #y++e$ry ,rece e bila$eral #y++e$ry in the history of animals8 a8 0n a ra ially symmetrical animal5 any longitu inal cut ,ro uces two i entical hal2es8 #8 0n a #ilaterally symmetrical animal5 only one longitu inal cut yiel s two i entical hal2es8 38 The choanoflagellates @collare flagellatesA most li9ely resem#le the last unicellular ancestor of li2ing animals5 an molecular ata illustrates that they are the closest li2ing relati2es of animals8 48 A choanoflagellate is a single cell5 3=1. Um in iameter5 with a flagellum surroun e #y a collar of 3.=4. micro2illi8 "8 As the water mo2es through the micro2illi5 they engulf #acteria an e#ris from the 1-"

water8 B8 &2olution of Bo y )lans 18 As an animal e2elo,s5 there are many ,ossi#ilities regar ing the num#er5 ,osition5 si'e5 an ,atterns of its #o y ,arts8 28 Slight shifts in genes calle ,o! @homeoticA genes are res,onsi#le for the ma7or ifferences #etween animals that arise uring e2elo,ment8 a8 May#e the changes in the e/,ression of ,o! e2elo,mental genes e/,lan why all the animal grou,s of to ay ha re,resentations of the Cam#rian seas C8 The )hylogenetic Tree of Animals 18 The ,hylogenetic tree of animals is #ase on molecular an mor,hological ata8 28 0t is assume that the more closely relate two organisms5 the more r+6A nucleoti e se>uences they will ha2e in common8 38 Molecular ata ha2e resulte in a ,hylogenetic tree that is >uite ifferent from the one #ase only on mor,hological characteristics8 38 Mor,hological 3ata 18 Ty,es of Symmetry a8 Asymmetry means there is no ,articular #o y sha,e @e8g85 s,ongeA8 #8 'a"ial symmetry escri#es #o y ,arts arrange aroun an a/is5 li9e s,o9es of a wheel @e8g85 starfishA8 1A +a ially symmetrical animals may #e #e##ile @i8e85 attache to a su#strate or less motileA8 2A This symmetry ena#les an animal to reach out in all irections from one center8 c8 Bilateral symmetry escri#es a #o y ha2ing a right an left5 or com,lementary hal2es8 1A Only one longitu inal cut own the center ,ro uces mirror hal2es8 2A Bilaterally symmetrical animals ten to #e acti2e an to mo2e forwar at an anterior en 8 3A The e2elo,ment of a hea to locali'e the #rain an sensory organs at the anterior en is calle &e)!ali5a$i'"0 28 &m#ryonic 3e2elo,ment a8 The first three tissue layers are calle *er+ layer# #ecause they gi2e rise to the organs an organ systems of com,le/ animals8 #8 Animals @e8g85 cni ariansA that ha2e two tissues layers @ecto erm an en o ermA as em#ryos are "iploblastic with the tissue le2el of organi'ation8 c8 Animals that e2elo, further an ha2e all three tissue layers @ecto erm5 meso erm5 an en o ermA as em#ryos are triploblastic an ha2e the organ le2el of organi'ation8 1A Animals that ha2e three tissue layers are either )r'$'#$'+e# or de%$er'#$'+e#0 8 )rotostomes e/hi#it the following e2ents uring em#ryological e2elo,ment8 1A S,iral clea2age5 in which the cells i2i e without an increase in si'e8 2A The fate of the cells is fi/e ?each contri#utes to e2elo,ment in only one ,articular way8 3A The #lasto,ore is associate with the mouth8 4A A &'el'+ forms #y s,litting of the meso erm5 which has arisen from cells 1-$

near the #lasto,ore8 e8 3euterostomes e/hi#it the following e2ents uring em#ryological e2elo,ment8 1A +a ial clea2age5 where the new aughter cells sit ato, the ,re2ious cellsD the fate of these cells is in eterminate8 2A The #lasto,ore is associate with the anusD the mouth a,,ears later8 3A A coelom forms #y the fusion of meso ermal ,ouches from the ,rimiti2e gut8 f8 )rotostomes are i2i e into two grou,s% 1A E&dy#'5'a"# inclu e roun worms an arthro,o s8 a8 Both of these animals +'l$@ they she their outer co2ering as they grow8 2A L')!'$r'&!'5'a contains two grou,s a8 L')!')!'re# ha2e the same ty,e of fee ing a,,aratus8 #8 Tr'&!')!'re# either ha2e ,resently or their ancestors ha a trocho,hore lar2a8 2D02 I"$r'd%&i"* $!e I"ver$ebra$e# A8 S)'"*e# @,hylum )oriferaA 18 S,onges ha2e no symmetry an no tissues an remain at a cellular le2el of e2olution8 28 Their sacli9e #o ies are ,erforate #y many ,ores8 38 S,onges are a>uatic5 largely marine animals that 2ary greatly in si'e5 sha,e5 an color8 48 They ha2e a canal system that allows water to mo2e through their #o ies8 "8 Beating collar cells ,ro uce currents through ,ores in the wall into a central ca2ity an out through osculum8 $8 Sim,le s,onges 1. cm tall can filter as much as 1.. liters of water a ay8 (8 S,onges are #e##ile 1il$er 1eeder#D they stay in one ,lace an filter foo from the water8 a8 Collar cells engulf an igest foo ,articles in foo 2acuoles8 *8 S,onge s9eleton ,re2ents the #o y from colla,sing8 a8 All s,onges ha2e fi#ers of s,ongin5 a mo ifie form of collagen5 which gi2es a s,onge its fle/i#ility8 #8 The en os9eleton of s,onges also contains #)i&%le#3 which are tiny nee le;sha,e structures with one to si/ rays5 e,en ing on chemical structure8 c8 S,onges ha2e few ,re ators5 ue to s,icules5 an the ,ro uction of foul smelling an to/ic su#stances that iscourage ,re ators8 -8 S,onges re,ro uce ase/ually #y #u ing5 which can ,ro uce >uite large colonies8 1.8 !ragmentation occurs when s,onges are cho,,e u,D each ,iece can start a com,lete s,onge8 118 S,onges re,ro uce se/ually when eggs an s,erm are release into a central ca2ityD the 'ygote e2elo,s into a ciliate lar2a8 B8 Com# Hellies an Cni arians 18 C'+b Aellie# @,hylum Cteno,horaA re,resent the largest animals ,ro,elle #y #eating cilia an range in si'e from a few centimeters to 18" m in length8 a8 Most of their #o y is a 7ellyli9e ,ac9ing material calle +e#'*lea0 #8 Long tentacles co2ere with stic9y filaments?or an entire #o y co2ere #y stic9y mucus?ca,tures ,rey8 28 Cni arians @,hylum Cni ariaA are tu#ular or #ell;sha,e 8 a8 They mostly li2e in coastal waters #ut there are oceanic5 freshwater5 an #rac9ish 1-(

forms8 #8 Cni aria ha2e cni ocytes5 a s,eciali'e cell that contains a "e+a$'&y#$0 1A The nematocyst is a flui ;fille ca,sule5 which contains a long5 s,irally coile hollow threa 8 2A :hen the trigger of the cni ocyte is touche 5 the nematocyst is ischarge 8 3A Some threa s merely tra, ,rey or ,re atorsD others ha2e s,ines that ,enetrate an in7ect ,araly'ing to/ins8 c8 A cni arian #o y is a two;layere sac with the e,i ermis eri2e from ecto erm8 8 The inner tissue layer eri2e from the en o erm secretes igesti2e 7uices into the *a#$r'va#&%lar &avi$y0 e8 The gastro2ascular ca2ity igests foo 5 circulates nutrients5 an ser2es as a su,,orti2e !ydr'#,a$i& #,ele$'"0 f8 Cni aria ha2e two #asic #o y ,lans8 1A A )'ly) is 2ase;sha,e an the mouth is irecte u,war 8 2A A +ed%#a is #ell;sha,e an the mouth is irecte ownwar 8 3A A me usa has more mesoglea than a ,oly,D tentacles are concentrate on the margin of the #ell8 4A Both #o y forms may ha2e #een a ,art of life cycle of early cni aria8 "A :hen #oth stages are ,resent5 the animal is imor,hic an the ,oly, stage is sessile an ,ro uces the me usae8 $A The me usa stage is motile an ,ro uces the egg an s,erm5 is,ersing the s,ecies8 38 Cni arian 3i2ersity a8 Sea anemones are solitary ,oly,s .8"=2. cm in length an .8"=1. cm in iameter or larger8 1A Their u,war turne oral is9 that contains the mouth is surroun e #y a large num#er of hollow tentacles containing nematocytes8 #8 Corals resem#le sea anemones encase in a calcium car#onate house8 1A Some may #e solitaryD most are colonial8 2A Corals are res,onsi#le for #uil ing coral reefs #y the slow accumulation of limestone resulting in massi2e reefs8 c8 The hy ro'oans ha2e a ominant ,oly,8 1A Two e/am,les of hy ro'oans are ,y"ra an )ortuguese man;of;war8 2A The )ortuguese man;of;war is a colony of ,oly,sD the original ,oly, #ecomes a gas;fille float8 3A Other ,oly,s #u to s,eciali'e for fee ing or re,ro uction8 4A 0t can cause serious in7ury to swimmers with a tentacle ha2ing numerous nematocystsD each tentacle arises from the #ase of each fee ing ,oly,8 8 0n the true 7ellyfishes @e8g85 AureliaA the me usa stage is ominant in 7ellyfishD the ,oly, remains small8 1A Hellyfishes are an im,ortant ,art of the 'oo,lan9ton5 the foo for larger marine animals8 e8 ,y"ra are solitary5 freshwater hy ro'oan ,oly,s8 1A The hy ra #o y is a small tu#e a#out one;>uarter inch in length8 2A !our to si/ tentacles containing nematocysts surroun the mouth5 the only o,ening at one en 8 1-*

3A 0n the e,i ermis are nematocyst;containing cni ocytes an sensory cells that ma9e contact with the ner2e cells within a "erve "e$3 which allow transmission of im,ulses in se2eral irections at once 4A 4y ra re,ro uces ase/ually #y #u ing8 "A They can also re,ro uce se/ually% s,erm from a testis swim to an egg within an o2aryD after early e2elo,ment within an o2ary5 a ,rotecti2e shell allows the egg to sur2i2e until con itions are o,timum for it to emerge8 $A 4y ras can grow as entire organisms from a small ,iece @li9e s,ongesA8
2D04 Varie$y A+'"* $!e L')!'$r'&!'5'a"#

18 Lo,hotrocho'oans are #ilaterally symmetrical at least in some stage of e2elo,ment8 28 As em#ryos5 they ha2e three germ layersD as a ults they ha2e the organ le2el of organi'ation8 38 The two grou,s of lo,hotrocho'oans are% a8 The lo,ho,hores 1A &/am,les inclu e #ryo'oans an #rachio,o s8 2A They are not closely relate #ut share a similar fee ing a,,aratus calle the lo,ho,hore8 #8 The trocho,hores 1A &/am,les inclu e flatworms5 rotifers5 molluscs5 an anneli s8 2A They either ha2e a trocho,hore lar2a to ay5 or their ancestor ha trocho,hore lar2a8 A8 !latworms 18 Fla$.'r+# @,hylum )latyhelminthesA are trocho'oans8 28 !latworms ha2e a #a& b'dy )la" an thus an incomplete "igesti#e tract. 38 :hen an animal has two o,enings5 they ha2e a complete "igesti#e tract. 48 !latworms ha2e no #o y ca2ity8 "8 0n a ition to en o erm an ecto erm5 a meso erm layer fills the s,ace #etween their organs8 B8 !ree;li2ing !latworms 18 The ,lanaria Dugesia li2es in la9es5 ,on s5 an streams an fee on small li2ing or ea organisms8 28 3igestion a8 )lanaria ca,ture foo #y wra,,ing aroun ,rey5 entangling it in slime5 an ,inning it own8 #8 The ,haryn/ is a muscular tu#e that e/ten s through the mouth an through which foo is ingeste 8 c8 0n a three;#ranche gastro2ascular ca2ity5 igestion is #oth e/tracellular an intracellular8 8 3igesti2e system eli2ers nutrients an o/ygen to the cells an there is not circulatory or res,iratory system8 e8 :aste e/its through the mouth8 38 &/cretion a8 The flame;cell system consists of a series of interconnecting canals that run the length of the #o y on either si e of the longitu inal a/is an si e #ranches of the canals8 #8 A flame cell is a #ul#;sha,e cell containing a tuft of cilia insi e the hollow interior of the #ul#D cilia mo2e #ac9 an forth5 #ringing water into canals that 1--

em,ty through ,ores at the surface8 c8 0t functions in #oth water e/cretion an osmotic regulation8 48 )lanaria can re,ro uce #oth se/ually an ase/ually8 a8 They constrict #eneath the ,haryn/D each half will grow into a whole animal? regeneration8 #8 )lanaria are !er+a)!r'di$i&3 ,ossessing #oth male an female se/ organs8 c8 )lanaria cross;fertili'e each other8 8 !ertili'e eggs are enclose in a cocoon an hatch in two to three wee9s into tiny worms8 "8 6er2ous system a8 )lanarias ha2e a la""er.type ner2ous system8 #8 )aire ganglia function as a #rain in the hea region8 c8 The hea is #luntly arrow;sha,e D si e e/tensions @auriclesA are sensory organs to etect foo an enemies8 8 The two light;sensiti2e eyes,ots ha2e ,igmentation that ma9es them loo9 cross; eye 8 $8 Three muscle layers?an outer circular5 an inner longitu inal5 an a iagonal?allow for 2arie mo2ement8 (8 0n larger forms5 locomotion is accom,lishe #y mo2ement of cilia on 2entral an lateral surfaces8 *8 6umerous glan cells secrete a mucous material u,on which the animal mo2es8 C8 )arasitic !latworms 18 As ,arasites5 flu9es an ta,eworms ha2e characteristic mo ifications8 a8 Loss of ,re ation allows a lac9 of ce,hali'ationD the hea carries hoo9s an suc9ers to attach to a host8 #8 There is e/tensi2e e2elo,ment of the re,ro ucti2e system with loss of other systems8 c8 :ell; e2elo,e ner2ous an gastro2ascular systems are not nee e D it oes not see9 out or igest ,rey8 8 !lu9es an ta,eworms are co2ere #y a $e*%+e"$ that ,rotects them from host igesti2e 7uices8 28 Two hosts a8 !lu9es an ta,eworms use a secon ary @interme iateA host to tra2el from ,rimary host to ,rimary host8 #8 A ,rimary host is infecte with se/ually mature a ultsD the secon ary host contains the lar2al stage@sA8 38 !lu9es a8 Bloo 5 li2er5 an lung flu9es inha#it those organs8 #8 !lu9e #o ies are generally o2al an elongate8 c8 At the Bhea 5C an oral suc9er is surroun e #y sensory ,a,illaeD another suc9er also hel,s attach8 8 !lu9es ha2e re uce igesti2e5 ner2ous5 an e/cretory systems8 e8 The re,ro ucti2e system is well e2elo,e an they are usually herma,hro itic8 f8 The #loo flu9e causes #&!i#$'#'+ia#i#0 1A Schistosomiasis isease is foun ,re ominantly in the Mi le &ast5 Africa5 an Asia where a#out 2..5... infecte ,ersons ie each year8 2A Bloo flu9es are male or femaleD the female flu9e e,osits eggs in #loo 2..

2essels aroun the intestines8 3A The eggs migrate to the intestine an are ,asse out with feces8 4A Tiny lar2ae hatch in water an swim until they etect an enter a ,articular s,ecies of snail8 "A The lar2ae re,ro uce ase/ually insi e the snail an e2entually lea2e the snail8 $A 0f the lar2ae ,enetrate the s9in of the human #o y5 they #egin to mature in the li2er an im,lant in the small intestine #loo 2essels8 (A A wea9ene ,erson is more li9ely to ie from secon ary iseases8 g8 The Chinese li2er flu9e @0lonorchis sinensisA re>uires two interme iate hosts @a snail an a fishA8 1A 4umans #ecome infecte when they eat uncoo9e fish8 2A A ults li2e in the li2er an e,osit eggs in the #ile uct5 which carries eggs to the intestine8 3A Lar2al flu9es must then ,ass through two interme iate hosts5 a snail an a fish8 48 Ta,eworms a8 A ta,eworm hea or scole/ contains hoo9s an suc9ers for attachment to the intestinal wall of the host8 #8 Behin this hea is a short nec9 an then a long string of ,roglotti s8 c8 &ach ,roglotti segment contains a full set of #oth male an female se/ organs an little else8 8 There are e/cretory canals #ut no igesti2e system an only ru iments of ner2es8 e8 After fertili'ation5 ,roglotti s #ecome a #ag of eggsD mature ,roglotti s #rea9 off an ,ass out with feces8 f8 0f eggs of ta,eworms are ingeste #y ,igs or cattle5 lar2ae #ecome encyste in the muscle of hosts8 g8 The co2ering of ingeste eggs is igeste away an lar2ae #urrow through the intestinal wall an tra2el #y #loo stream to lo ge an encyst in muscle8 h8 A cyst is a har ;walle structure sheltering a lar2al worm8 i8 0f humans eat the meat of infecte ,igs or cattle an fail to coo9 the meat ,ro,erly5 they too #ecome infecte 8 38 +otifers A#out 25... s,ecies of rotifers #elong to ,hylum +otifera0 R'$i1er# are a#un ant in freshwater8 A crown of cilia @coronaA causes a rotating motionD this organ of locomotion also irects foo to the mouth8 They can esiccate for uring harsh con itions an remain ormant for lengthy ,erio s of time an thus are calle Bresurrection animacules8C &8 Molluscs 18 M'll%#&# @,hylum MolluscaA li2e in marine5 freshwater5 an terrestrial en2ironments8 28 )hylum Mollusca inclu es chitons5 lim,ets5 slugs5 snails5 a#alones5 conchs5 nu i#ranchs5 clams5 scallo,s5 s>ui 5 an octo,uses8 38 Molluscs ha2e a three;,art #o y ,lan% a 2isceral mass5 a mantle5 an a foot8 48 The 2isceral mass contains internal organs% igesti2e tract5 ,aire 9i neys5 an re,ro ucti2e organs8 "8 A +a"$le co2ering ,artly surroun s the 2isceral massD it may secrete a shell an hel, e2elo, the gills or lungs8 2.1

$8 The 1''$ is muscular an a a,te for locomotion5 attachment5 foo ca,ture5 or a com#ination of functions8 (8 The rad%la in the mouth #ears many rows of teeth an is use for fee ingD a ra ula is not ,resent in all molluscs8 *8 0n molluscs5 the true coelom is re uce an limite to the region aroun the heart8 -8 6utrients an o/ygen iffuse into the tissues from the sinuses instea of #eing carrie into the tissues #y ca,illaries8 1.8 Most molluscs ha2e an o,en circulatory system% a heart ,um,s hemolym,h through 2essels into a !e+'&'el0 118 Blue hemocyanin5 not re hemoglo#in5 is the res,iratory ,igment foun in molluscs8 128 Some are slow mo2ing with no hea D others are acti2e ,re ators with a hea an sense organs8 138 The ner2ous system consists of se2eral ganglia connecte #y ner2e cor s8 148 Chitons are in the class )oly,laco,hora0 a8 Chiton shells consist of a row of eight o2erla,,ing ,lates8 #8 The flat chiton foot is muscular an cree,s along or clings to roc9s8 c8 They scra,e algae an other ,lant foo from roc9s with a well; e2elo,e ra ula0 !8 Bi2al2es 18 Class Bi2al2ia contains the bivalve# @clams5 oysters5 mussels5 scallo,sA8 28 Bi2al2es are two;,art shells that are hinge an close #y ,owerful muscles8 38 They ha2e no hea 5 no ra ula5 an little ce,hali'ation8 48 Clams #urrow with a hatchet;sha,e footD mussels use it to ,ro uce threa s to attach to o#7ects8 "8 Scallo,s #oth #urrow an swimD ra,i cla,,ing of their 2al2es releases water in s,urts8 $8 The shell is secrete #y the mantle8 a8 The shell is com,ose of ,rotein an calcium car#onate with an inner layer of ,earl8 #8 The shell e,osits aroun a foreign ,article inserte #etween the mantle an the shell to form a ,earl8 (8 A com,resse muscular foot ,ro7ects own from the shellD #y e/,an ing the ti,5 it ,ulls in the #o y8 *8 The #eating cilia of the gills cause water to enter the mantle ca2ity #y way of an incurrent si,hon an e/it #y way of an e/current si,hon8 -8 The cilia of gills mo2e water through the mantle ca2ity8 1.8 1ills ca,ture ,articles an mo2e them towar the mouthD the mouth lea s to the stomach5 which lea s to the intestine5 which ,asses through a heart an en s at the anus8 118 The circulatory system is o,enD the heart ,um,s hemolym,h into 2essels that o,en into the hemocoel8 128 The ner2ous system consists of three ,airs of ganglia that connect the front5 #ac95 an foot8 138 Two e/cretory 9i neys #elow the heart remo2e ammonia waste from the ,ericar ial ca2ity8 148 The se/es are se,arateD the gona is locate aroun coils of intestine8 1"8 Some clams an anneli s ha2e the same ty,e of lar2a5 in icating an e2olutionary relationshi, #etween molluscs an anneli s8 2.2

18 1astro,o s 18 Ga#$r')'d# are the largest class of molluscs an inclu e snails5 lan slugs5 whel9s5 conchs5 ,eriwin9les5 sea hares5 an sea slugs8 28 Most are marine #ut some are freshwater or terrestrial8 38 They ha2e an elongate 5 flattene foot an most ha2e a one;,iece coile shell that ,rotects the 2isceral mass8 48 The anterior en of gastro,o s has a well; e2elo,e hea region with a cere#ral ganglion an eyes on the en of tentacles8 "8 Lan snails are herma,hro itic8 a8 0n ,re;mating #eha2ior5 they meet an shoot calcareous arts into each other<s #o y wall8 #8 &ach inserts a ,enis into the other<s 2aginaD this ,ro2i es s,erm for future fertili'ation of eggs8 c8 &ggs are e,osite in soil an e2elo,ment ,rocee s without the formation of a lar2ae8 48 Ce,halo,o s 18 Ce)!al')'d# inclu e s>ui s5 cuttlefish5 octo,uses5 an nautiluses8 28 S>ui s an octo,uses s>uee'e water out of the mantle ca2ityD the water force out through a funnel ,ro,els them #y 7et ,ro,ulsion8 38 Aroun the hea are tentacles with suc9ers or a hesi2e secretions a a,te for gras,ing ,rey8 48 A hea e>ui,,e with a ,owerful #ea9 can tear ,rey a,art8 "8 :ell; e2elo,e sense organs inclu e focusing camera;ty,e eyes8 $8 Ce,halo,o s5 ,articularly octo,uses5 ha2e well; e2elo,e #rains with a ca,acity for learning8 08 Anneli s 18 A""elid# are the only trocho'oan with segmentation an a well; e2elo,e coelom8 28 Se*+e"$a$i'" is the re,etition of #o y ,arts along the length of the #o y8 38 A well; e2elo,e 5 flui ;fille coelom an tough integument act as a hy"rostatic s eleton. 48 Gsing a hy rostatic s9eleton5 ,artitioning the coelom allows for in e,en ent mo2ement of the segments so it can not only #urrow #ut crawl on the surface8 "8 Se$ae are #ristles that ,rotru e from the #o y wall5 can anchor the worm5 an hel, it mo2e% oligochaetes ha2e few setae5 polychaetes ha2e many setae8 $8 The common earthworm5 @umbricus terrestris is an oligochaete8 a8 Locomotion re>uires coor inate mo2ement of #o y muscles an the hel, of setae8 1A As longitu inal muscles contract5 segments #ulge5 an setae ,rotru e to anchor into soil8 2A :hen circular muscles contract5 a worm lengthens5 setae are with rawn5 an the segment can #e ,ulle forwar 8 #8 &arthworms li2e in moist soilD a moist #o y wall allows for gas e/change8 c8 &arthworms are sca2engers that e/tract organic remains from soil they eat8 8 A muscular ,haryn/ raws foo into the mouth8 e8 !oo is store in a cro, an groun u, in a thic95 muscular gi''ar 8 f8 The orsal surface of the intestine is e/,an e into a $y)!l'#'le for more surface area for igestion8 2.3

g8 &ach e/ternal segment corres,on s to an internal se,tumD a wall that se,arates each #o y segment8 h8 A long 2entral ner2e cor lea s from the #rain to ganglionic swellings an lateral ner2es in each segment8 i8 The 2entral ner2e cor lea ing from the #rain has ganglionic swellings an lateral ner2es in each segment8 78 The coile "e)!ridia tu#ules in most segments ha2e two o,enings% one is a ciliate funnel that collects coelomic flui 5 an the other is an e/it through the #o y wall8 98 Between the two o,enings5 a coile ne,hri ia tu#ule remo2es waste from #loo 2essels8 l8 The orsal #loo 2essel mo2es re #loo anteriorlyD fi2e ,airs of hearts ,um, #loo to a 2entral 2essel8 m8 The e/tensi2e close" circulatory system has #loo 2essels running the length of the #o y an to e2ery segmentD muscular aortic arches @BheartsCA ,ro,el #loo through the 2essels8 n8 &arthworms are herma,hro iticD the male organs are the testes5 s,erm ucts5 an seminal 2esiclesD the female organs are the o2aries5 o2i ucts5 an seminal rece,tacles8 o8 Mating in2ol2es aligning ,arallel to each other facing o,,osite irections to e/change s,erm8 ,8 &ach ,ossesses a clitellum that secretes mucus that sli es off5 forming a slime tu#e that ,rotects the s,erm an eggs from rying out8 >8 The slime tu#e forms a cocoon aroun the fertili'e eggs as they e2elo,8 r8 &m#ryonic e2elo,ment lac9s a lar2al stage8 (8 A,,ro/imately two;thir s of all anneli s are marine ,olychaetes8 a8 )olychaetes ,ossess ,ara,o ia an setae8 1A Para)'dia are ,a le;li9e a,,en ages use in swimming an for res,iration8 2A Se$ae are #ristles5 attache to ,ara,o ia5 that hel, anchor ,olychaetes or hel, them mo2e8 #8 Clam worms such as Nereis are acti2e ,re ators8 c8 Many ha2e well; e2elo,e ce,hali'ationD the hea has well; e2elo,e 7aws5 eyes5 an other sense organs8 8 Other se entary filter fee ers ,ossess tentacles with cilia to create water currents an sort out foo ,articles8 e8 Only uring #ree ing seasons o ,olychaetes ha2e re,ro ucti2e organs8 f8 0n Nereis5 many worms coor inate the she ing of a ,ortion of their #o ies that contain either eggs or s,ermD these segments float to the surface where fertili'ation ta9es ,lace8 g8 Marine worm 'ygotes e2elo, lar2a similar to those of marine clamsD again this shows a relate ness #etween anneli s an molluscs8 *8 Leeches are anneli s that mostly li2e in freshwater ha#itats8 a8 They lac9 setae an each #o y ring has se2eral trans2erse groo2es8 #8 Leeches ,ossess a small anterior suc9er aroun the mouth an a larger ,osterior suc9er8 c8 Although some are free;li2ing ,re ators5 most fee on #o y flui s8 2.4

8 Leeches 9ee, #loo from coagulating #y hiru in5 an anticoagulant in their sali2a8 2D07 -%a"$i$y A+'"* $!e E&dy#'5'a"# A8 +oun worms 18 R'%"d.'r+# @,hylum 6emato aA are nonsegmente worms that are ,re2alent in almost any en2ironment8 28 The internal organs lie within a ,seu ocoelom?a #o y ca2ity that is incom,letely line with meso erm8 38 )arasitic roun worms a8 0n Ascaris lumbricoi"es5 males are smaller than females an their ,osterior en cur2es to a ,oint8 #8 These worms mo2e #y whi,li9e motions #ecause only longitu inal muscles lie ne/t to the #o y wall8 c8 Mating ,ro uces eggs that mature in the soilD therefore5 most are limite to warmer climates8 8 :hen eggs are swallowe 5 lar2ae #urrow through the intestinal wall to the li2er5 heart5 an For lungs8 e8 0n the lungs5 the lar2ae moltD after 1. ays they migrate u, the win ,i,e to the throat an are swallowe 8 f8 Bac9 in the intestine5 mature worms mate an the female e,osits eggs that are lost with feces8 g8 !eces must reach the mouth of the ne/t host to com,lete a life cycleD therefore5 ,ro,er sanitation easily ,re2ents infection8 48 /richinosis is a serious infection cause #y /richinella spirallis8 a8 4umans contract /richinella spirallis #y eating raw ,or9 with encyste lar2ae8 #8 After maturation5 the a ult female #urrows into the wall of the small intestine an ,ro uces li2ing offs,ring that are carrie #y the #loo stream to s9eletal muscles where they encyst8 "8 !ilarial worms cause 2arious iseases8 a8 0n the G8S85 a filarial worm is a ,arasite of ogs8 #8 0t li2es in the heart an the arteries that ser2e the lungs an thus is calle heartworm "isease8 $8 &lephantiasis occurs in tro,ical Africa8 a8 0t is cause #y a filarial worm @4uchereria bancroft3iA that utili'es the mos>uito as a secon ary host8 #8 A ult worms resi e in an #loc9 the lym,hatic 2esselsD ultimately this results in the lim#s of an infecte in i2i ual swelling to monstrous si'e8 c8 0t is treata#le only in the early stages #ut not after scar tissue has #loc9e the lym,hatic 2essels8 (8 )inworms are the most common nemato e in the Gnite States8 a8 A ult ,arasites li2e in the cecum an large intestines8 #8 !emales migrate to anal region at night to lay their eggs8 c8 Scratching an infecte area can contaminate the area with eggs8 The eggs are swallowe an the life cycle #egins again8 B8 Arthro,o s 18 Ar$!r')'d# @,hylum Arthro,o aA are consi ere highly successful #ecause% a8 Arthro,o s ha2e a rigi e/os9eleton with freely mo2a#le 7ointe a,,en ages8 1A The e6'#,ele$'" is a strong #ut fle/i#le outer co2ering com,ose mainly 2."

of &!i$i"0 2A Chitin is a strong5 fle/i#le5 nitrogenous ,olysacchari e8 3A The e/os9eleton ser2es for ,rotection5 attachment for muscles5 locomotion5 an ,re2ention of esiccation8 4A Because the e/os9eleton is har an none/,an a#le5 arthro,o s must +'l$ @she A the e/os9eleton to grow larger8 aA Before molting5 the #o y secretes a larger soft an wrin9le e/os9eleton un erneath8 #A &n'ymes ,artially issol2e an wea9en the ol e/os9eleton8 cA The arthro,o #rea9s the ol e/os9eleton o,en an wriggles out8 A The new e/os9eleton then >uic9ly e/,an s an har ens8 #8 Segmentation can #e o#ser2e #ecause each segment has a ,air of 7ointe a,,en agesD some segments of arthro,o s ha2e fuse into regions @e8g85 a hea 5 a thora/5 an an a# omenA8 1A Hointe a,,en ages of arthro,o s are hollow tu#es mo2e #y muscle8 2A The a,,en ages are mo ifie for foo gathering5 re,ro uction5 locomotion8 c8 Arthro,o s ha2e a well; e2elo,e ner2ous system8 1A A #rain is connecte to a 2entral soli ner2e cor 8 2A The hea #ears 2arious sensory organs8 3A Com,oun eyes ha2e many com,lete 2isual unitsD each collects light in e,en ently8 4A The lens of each 2isual unit focuses the image on the light;sensiti2e mem#ranes of a few ,hotorece,tors8 "A 0n sim,le eyes5 a single lens #rings the image to focus into many rece,tors5 each of which recei2es only a ,ortion of the image8 $A Many arthro,o s ha2e well; e2elo,e touch5 smell5 taste5 #alance5 an hearing5 an is,lay com,le/ #eha2iors an metho s of communication 8 Arthro,o s use a 2ariety of res,iratory organs8 aA Marine forms use gills with 2asculari'e 5 thin;walle tissue s,eciali'e for gas e/change8 #A Terrestrial forms ha2e #oo9 lungs @e8g85 s,i ersA or air tu#es calle $ra&!eae @e8g85 insectsA8 e8 Me$a+'r)!'#i# is a rastic change in form an ,hysiology that occurs as a lar2a #ecomes an a ult8 aA Metamor,hosis contri#utes to the success of arthro,o s8 #A A lar2a eats foo s an li2es in en2ironments ifferent from the a ult8 cA Com,etition #etween the immatures an a ults of a s,ecies is re uce 8 A This re uction in com,etition allows more mem#ers of the s,ecies to e/ist at one time8 C8 Crustaceans 18 Cr%#$a&ea"# ha2e a har 5 crusty e/os9eleton5 which contains calcium car#onate in a ition to chitin8 28 The hea of crustaceans usually #ears com,oun eyes an fi2e ,airs of a,,en ages8 a8 The first two a,,en ages are antennae an antennulesD in front of the mouth5 they ha2e sensory functions8 #8 The ne/t three ,airs @man i#les5 first an secon ma/illaeA lie #ehin the mouth 2.$

38

an are use in fee ing8 38 Biramous a,,en ages ha2e two #ranchesD one #ranch is a gill an the other is the leg #ranch8 48 Co,e,o s an 9rill fee on algaeD numerous5 they are an im,ortant lin9 in marine foo chains8 "8 Barnacles ha2e a thic95 hea2y shell an are sessile8 a8 Stal9e #arnacles attach #y their stal9D stal9less #arnacles attach irectly to the shell8 #8 Barnacles #egin as free;swimming lar2ae an #ecome sessile on wharf ,ilings5 roc9s5 etc8 c8 They e/ten feathery structures @cirriA to filter fee 8 $8 The hea an thora/ of a crayfish are fuse into a ce,halothora/5 which is co2ere on the to, an si es #y a nonsegmente cara,ace8 a8 A# ominal segments ha2e a ,air of swimmerets5 small ,a leli9e structures8 #8 The first two ,airs of swimmerets in the male @clas,ersA stronger to ,ass s,erm to the female8 c8 The last tail segments are the uro,o an the telson5 which together ma9e a fan; sha,e tail8 8 A crayfish awaits ,rey an uses its claws to carry it to the mouth8 e8 Crayfish ha2e gills that lie a#o2e the wal9ing legs an are ,rotecte #y the cara,ace8 f8 The crayfish stomach has two main regions8 1A The anterior gastric mill with chitinous teeth grin s foo 8 2A A ,osterior region filters coarse ,articles #efore a#sor,tion in the igesti2e glan s8 g8 1reen glan s in the hea area e/crete meta#olic wastes through a uct at the #ase of the antennae8 h8 The coelom is re uce in arthro,o s an forms the s,ace a#out the re,ro ucti2e system8 i8 The heart ,um,s hemolym,h containing #luish hemocyanin into a !e+'&'el where it washes aroun the organs8 78 A #rain is connecte to a 2entral ner2e cor D ,erio ic ganglia gi2e off lateral ner2es8 98 The se/es are se,arate in crayfish8 1A The male has a coile s,erm uct that o,ens to the outsi e at the #ase of its fifth wal9ing leg8 2A The female<s o2aries o,en at the #ase of the thir wal9ing legs8 3A The fol #etween the #ases of the fourth an fifth ,air of legs ser2es as a seminal rece,tacle8 4A !ollowing fertili'ation5 the eggs are attache to the swimmerets of the female8 Centi,e es an Milli,e es 18 There are a#out 35... s,ecies of &e"$i)ede# @Bhun re ;leggersCA8 a8 The #o y is com,ose of a hea an trun9 with many segmentsD each segment has one ,air of legs8 #8 Centi,e es are carni2orousD the hea #ears antennae an mouth,arts with ,oison fangs8 28 The +illi)ede# @Bthousan ;leggersCA ha2e a cylin rical segmente #o y8 2.(

a8 Some #o y segments are fuse with two ,air of legs on each resulting segment8 #8 They ,ossess more legs than centi,e es5 although not one thousan as the name states8 c8 Milli,e es well in the soil5 fee ing on ea organic matter8 &8 0nsects 18 Most i"#e&$# li2e on lan D some are secon arily a>uatic8
28 38 48 "8 $8 (8 *8 -8 1.8 118 128 138 The insect #o y is i2i e into a hea 5 thora/5 an a# omen8 The hea #ears sense organs an mouth,arts8 The thora/ #ears three ,airs of legs an one or two ,airs of wingsD the wings ,ro2i e a 2antages in esca,ing enemies5 fin ing foo 5 an mating8 0n grassho,,ers5 the thir ,air of legs is suite to 7um,ing8 The front wings are ,rotecti2e an leatheryD the thin hin ,air of wings fol u,8 &ach si e of the first a# ominal segment has a tym,anum for soun wa2e rece,tion8 Two ,aire ,ro7ections form an o2i,ositor in females use to ig a hole for laying eggs8 The grassho,,er igesti2e system is com,le/8 The mouth mechanically #rea9s a,art foo 5 an sali2ary secretions #egin igestion8 The cro, tem,orarily stores foo 8 A gi''ar finely grin s the foo 8 3igestion is com,lete in the stomachD gastric ceca ca2ities assist a#sor,tion of nutrients8

a8 The e/cretory system consists of Mal)i*!ia" $%b%le#0 1A The tu#ules e/ten into the hemocoel8 2A 6itrogenous wastes are collecte an e/crete into the igesti2e system8 3A !ormation of soli nitrogenous wastes @uric aci A conser2es water8 #8 The res,iratory system #egins with o,enings in the e/os9eleton calle s,iracles8 1A Air enters into small tu#ules calle tracheae8 2A The tracheae #ranch many times until they reach moist areas of gas a#sor,tion8 3A Air mo2ement through this tracheal system is assiste #y air sacs8 4A Air enters the anterior four s,iracles an e/its #y the ,osterior si/8 "A Breathing #y tracheae is a factor that limits the si'e of insects8 c8 The circulatory system contains a slen er5 tu#ular heart8 1A This heart lies against the orsal wall of the a# ominal e/os9eleton8 2A The heart ,um,s hemolym,h into a hemocoel where it circulates #efore returning to the heart8 3A 0nsect hemolym,h is colorless?it lac9s any res,iratory ,igment since the tracheal system trans,orts gases8 8 1rassho,,ers un ergo incomplete metamorphosisD the immature nym,h resem#les the a ult8 e8 Other insects un ergo complete metamorphosisD the wormli9e lar2ae reorgani'e into ifferent a ults8 f8 Some s,ecies @e8g85 #ees an antsA e/hi#it colonial social #eha2ior8 !8 Chelicerates 18 C!eli&era$e# in the su#,hylum Chelicerata inclu e s,i ers5 scor,ions5 an horseshoe cra#s8 28 The first ,air of a,,en ages are chelicerae5 the secon ,air are ,e i,al,s5 an the ne/t four ,airs are wal9ing legs8 a8 Chelicerae are a,,en ages that function as fee ing organs8 #8 )e i,al,s are fee ing or sensory structures8 38 All of the a,,en ages attach to a cephalothora!5 a fusion of hea an thoracic 2.*

regions8 48 The marine horseshoe cra# @genus @imulusA is common along the east coast of 6orth America8 a8 Their #o y is co2ere #y e/os9eletal shiel s8 #8 The anterior shiel is a horseshoe;sha,e cara,ace with two com,oun eyes8 "8 Arachni s inclu e tic9s5 mites5 scor,ions5 s,i ers5 an har2estmen8 a8 O2er 2"5... s,ecies of mites an tic9s ha2e #een classifie 8 #8 Tic9s are ecto,arasites of 2arious 2erte#rates an are carriers for +oc9y Mountain s,otte fe2er an Lyme 3isease8 c8 :hen not on a host5 tic9s hi e on ,lants an in the soil $8 Scor,ions a8 They are nocturnal an s,en the ay hi en un er a log or roc98 # )e i,al,s are large ,incerli9e a,,en agesD the a# omen en s in a stinger containing 2enom8 (8 S,i ers @o2er 3"5... s,eciesA ha2e a narrow waist se,arating the ce,halothora/ from the a# omen8 a8 S,i ers ha2e numerous sim,le eyes rather than com,oun eyes8 #8 S,i er chelicera are mo ifie as fangs with ucts lea ing from ,oison glan s8 c8 The a# omen has sil9 glan sD they may s,in a we# to tra, ,rey8 2D0? e%$er'#$'+e# A8 &chino erms 18 E&!i"'der+# are ,rimarily #ottom; welling marine animals8 28 &chino erms ha2e ";,ointe ra ial symmetry as a ultsD as lar2ae5 they are free; swimming filter fee ers with #ilateral symmetry8 38 They ha2e an en os9eleton of s,iny calcium;rich ,lates @ossiclesA8 48 &chino erms ha2e a .a$er va#&%lar #y#$e+ that consists of canals an a,,en ages that function in locomotion5 fee ing5 gas e/change5 an sensory rece,tion8 "8 Asteroi ea contains sea stars8 $8 4olothurians inclu e sea cucum#ers8 a8 Sea cucum#ers ha2e long leathery #o ies an resem#le a cucum#er8 (8 &chinoi ea inclu es the sea urchin an san ollar8 a8 Both these animals use their s,ines for locomotion5 efense5 an #urrowing8 *8 O,hiuroi ea inclu es #rittle stars8 a8 They ha2e a entral is9 surroun e #y ra ially fle/i#le arms8 -8 Crinoi ea is the ol est grou, of echino erms an inclu es stal9e feather stars an motile feather stars8 B8 Sea Stars 18 There are 15$.. s,ecies of #ea #$ar#0 28 They are foun along roc9y coasts5 where they fee on clams5 oysters5 an other #i2al2es8 38 Out of their #o y wall5 they ha2e% a8 s,ines from the en os9eletal ,lates that ser2e as ,rotection8 #8 ,incerli9e structures aroun the #ases of s,ines to 9ee, the surface free of small ,articles8 c8 s9in gills that are use for res,iration8 8 &ach arm has a groo2e line #y $%be 1ee$0 48 3igestion 2.-

a8 Sea stars ,ull mollus9 shells o,en using their tu#e feet8 c8 Once o,en5 the sea star in2erts its car iac stomach an ,ushes through the crac9 an secretes en'ymes8 8 3igestion #egins e/ternallyD igestion continues in the ,yloric stomach using en'ymes from the igesti2e glan s foun in each arm8 e8 The short insteine o,ens at the anus on the a#oral si e8 "8 &ach arm contains a well; e2elo,e coelom that has a ,air of igesti2e glan s an gona s8 $8 The ner2ous system is a central ner2e ring that gi2es off ra ial ner2es in each arm8 (8 A light;sensiti2e eyes,ot is at the ti, of each arm8 *8 Locomotion consists of e/,ansion an contraction of the tu#e feet8 -8 &chino erms o not ha2e a res,iratory5 e/cretory5 or circulatory systemD the water 2ascular system carries out these functions8 1.8 Sea stars re,ro uce ase/ually #y fragmentationD each fragment can regenerate a whole animal as long as a ,ortion of the central is9 is ,resent8 118 S,awning is the se/ual re,ro uction metho in echino erms8

Le&$%re E"ri&!+e"$ Idea#

E6)erie"&e Ba#e: Because the organisms iscusse in this cha,ter are small si'e or remote from inlan tem,erate ,o,ulations5 few stu ents will #e irectly familiar with them asi e from s,ecific targete #iology la#wor98 0nternational stu ents from tro,ical countries may #e willing to iscuss their e/,eriences with some of these ,arasitic organisms8
18 28 )ro2i e s,ecimens5 sli es5 or me ia to com,are si'e5 structure5 ha#itats5 an relati2e com,le/ity of the ifferent in2erte#rates8 3iscuss ,ossi#le reasons why5 #ase on fossils5 there a,,eare to #e a su en e/,losion of e2elo,ment of animal ,hyla uring the early Cam#rian )erio 8 +ecent molecular wor9 tracing #ac9war from mo ern animals suggests that the animal lineage goes #ac9 o2er twice as far in time to a common animal ancestor5 lea2ing two; thir s of the time of animal e2olution #efore the Cam#rian fossil recor #egins8 Contrast the in2erte structures of the me usa an ,oly, forms of cni aria5 an e/amine how the #o y structure is uni>uely ifferent from that of a s,onge8 Many stu ents ha2e the misconce,tion that e2olution occurs only to a more com,le/ity8 &2olution often in2ol2es loss of features5 as is rea ily seen in ,arasites8 This lesson can #e starte with the cni arians s,eciali'ing in the me usa or ,oly, stages only5 or the loss of #o y systems #y ta,eworms that a a,te to life in a host gut8

38

48 Com,are the #o y structure of the flatworm an the roun worm5 with em,hasis on #o y layers5 igesti2e tract5 an re,ro uction8 "8 Most of these ,arasitic iseases are tro,icalD utili'e sli es or other au io2isuals to illustrate the ra2ages of ele,hantiasis5 flu9e infections5 etc8 Many cultural ha#its ha2e e2ol2e to circum2ent ingestion of these ,arasitesD escri#e or solicit the #enefits of hygiene5 ,lum#ing5 etc85 noting that some e,en u,on a minimal le2el of affluence that is not a2aila#le in ,oor regions of the worl 8 Many stu ents o not reali'e the e/tent they a2oi suffering ue to G8S8 social customs5 ci2il engineering5 relati2e affluence5 an our tem,erate climate8 $8 3escri#e the similarities #etween the ,rotostomes an 21. euterostomes?,resence of a coelom5

tu#e;within;a;tu#e #o y ,lan5 meso erm5 etc8D au io2isuals are of great hel, in illustrating em#ryological e2elo,ment8 (8 &/amine the ifferent a a,tations of the mollusc #o y ,lan5 an com,are the #o y ,arts that iffer within the grou,s8 3escri#e how these #o y ,arts iffer from those of an anneli or an arthro,o 8 0f it is a ,ro#lem in your region5 s,en some time to illustrate the case of the intro uce @e/oticA 'e#ra mussel8 *8 3iscuss the ,resence of sensory rece,tors in the hea in some anneli s5 their a#sence in the earthworm5 an what this im,lies a#out the en2ironments in which these worms li2e8 -8 \uery why insects are so successful on lan an why there are so many ifferent s,ecies of insects8

Cri$i&al T!i",i"*
-%e#$i'" 10 The integument of flu9es an roun worms allows them to li2e intimately insi e our #loo stream an ucts without #eing re7ecte #y our immune system5 or easily affecte #y rugs8 0f customs are not easily change 5 how can the chain of transmission #e #ro9enK A"#.er: 0nterme iate hosts are in2ol2e 8 Molluscici es 9ill snails an without snails5 many of these cannot com,lete their life cycle to re;enter human hosts8 0n the case of filariasis5 mos>uitoes carry the microsco,ic worms an mos>uito control interru,ts the cycle8 -%e#$i'" 20 Both s,onges an sea anemones are sessile8 :hat is the ifference5 if any5 in #eing insi e the central ca2ity of these two organismsK A"#.er: A s,onge only soa9s u, foo ,articles as they ,ass through the ,ores in its wall5 an any organism in the o,en central ca2ity sim,ly flows out to the to, osculum8 4owe2er5 the central ca2ity of a sea anemone is a gastro2ascular ca2ity with igesti2e flui s that #rea9 own foo 8 An organism in this ca2ity woul soon #e igeste 8 -%e#$i'" 40 :hy are giant ants an s,i ers the si'e of humans or ele,hants not ,ossi#leK

A"#.er: The a#ility of air to iffuse through tracheae limits the e,th of tissue that can recei2e sufficient o/ygen an unloa car#on io/i e8 0n a ition5 the har e/os9eleton must #e continually molte 8 0t also ta9es a close circulatory system to #etter istri#ute nutrients to a larger system5 an it ta9es an internal system of su,,ort to ,re2ent herniating8 0f you a lungs5 a close circulatory system5 a s9eleton5 etc85 you no longer ha2e an arthro,o #ut a 2erte#rate8

211

CHAPTER

2J

VERTEBRATE EVOLUTION

This cha,ter #egins a stu y of the 2erte#rates with a iscussion of the anatomy an ,hysiology of the chor ates8 &/tensi2e iscussion of the ta/onomic classes of 2erte#rates ,rece es a etaile escri,tion of the mammals8 The cha,ter conclu es with the ta/onomic or ers of mammals an the animals foun within8 A Science Focus #o/ BVerte#rates an 4uman Me icine5C escri#es the use of certain animals as sources of ,harmacological agents for humans8

C!a)$er O%$li"e
2J01 T!e C!'rda$e# 18 C!'rda$e# @,hylum Chor ataA are euterostomes5 an ha2e an internal s9eleton5 with muscles attache to the outer surface8 28 At some time uring their life5 all chor ates ha2e four #asic characteristics8 a8 N'$'&!'rd 1A This su,,orting ro is locate orsally 7ust #elow the ner2e cor 8 2A 0t ,ro2i es su,,ort an is re,lace #y the 2erte#ral column in 2erte#rates8 #8 'r#al T%b%lar Nerve C'rd 1A This cor contains a flui ;fille canal8 2A 0n 2erte#rates5 this is the s,inal cor an it is ,rotecte #y 2erte#rae8 c8 P!ary"*eal P'%&!e# 1A These o,enings function in fee ing5 gas e/change5 or #oth8 2A They are seen only uring em#ryonic e2elo,ment in most 2erte#rates8 3A 0n in2erte#rate chor ates5 fish5 an am,hi#ian lar2ae5 they #ecome functioning *ill#0 4A 0n terrestrial 2erte#rates5 the ,ouches are mo ifie for 2arious ,ur,oses8 "A 0n humans5 the first ,air of ,ouches #ecomes the au itory tu#es5 the secon #ecome tonsils5 an the thir an fourth ,airs #ecome the thymus an ,arathyroi glan s8 8 A )'#$a"al $ail e/ten s #eyon the anusD in some this only a,,ear in em#ryos8 A8 6on2erte#rate Chor ates 18 Lancelets a8 Lancelets are in the grou, &e)!al'&!'rd#0

#8 Lancelets are name for their resem#lance to a lancet?a two;e ge surgical 9nife8
c8 8 They inha#it shallow coastal watersD they filter fee ,artly #urie in san y su#strates8 They fee on microsco,ic ,articles filtere from a constant stream of water that enters the mouth an e/its through gill slits into an atrium that o,ens at the atrio,ore8 e8 Lancelets retain the four chor ate characteristics as a ults8 f8 The notochor e/ten s from hea to tail5 accounting for their grou, name ce,halochor ates8 g8 They ,ossess segmente muscles an the orsal hollow ner2e cor has ,erio ic #ranches8 Sea S>uirts a8 Sea s>uirts #elong in the grou, %r'&!'rda$e#0 #8 A ults ha2e a #o y com,ose of an outer tunicD an e/current si,hon s>uirts out water when it is istur#e 8 c8 The lar2ae are #ilaterally symmetrical an ha2e the four chor ate characteristics8 8 The lar2ae un ergo metamor,hosis to e2elo, into sessile a ults8 e8 :ater ,asses into a ,haryn/ an out numerous gill slits5 the only chor ate characteristic that remains in a ults8 f8 0t is hy,othesi'e that sea s>uirts are irectly relate to 2erte#rates8 A lar2a with the four chor ate characteristic may ha2e #ecome se/ually mature without e2elo,ing the other sea s>uirt characteristic5 an then e2ol2e into a fishli9e 2erte#rate8

28

212

2J02 Ver$ebra$e#
As em#ryos5 2erte#rates ha2e the four chor ate characteristics8 Verte#rates also ha2e these features% a8 Verte#ral column 1A The em#ryonic notochor is re,lace #y a 2erte#ral column8 2A +emnants of the notochor are seen in the inter2erte#ral is9s8 3A The 2erte#ral column is ,art of a fle/i#le5 strong en os9eleton that is also e2i ence of segmentation8 #8 S9ull 1A A s9ull is an anterior com,onent of the main a/is of 2erte#rate en os9eletonD it encases the #rain8 2A The high egree of ce,hali'ation in 2erte#rates is accom,anie #y com,le/ sense organs8 3A The eyes e2elo,e as outgrowths of the #rain8 4A The ears?e>uili#rium e2ices in water?function as soun ;wa2e recei2ers in lan 2erte#rates8 c8 &n os9eleton 1A The en os9eleton an muscles together ,ermit ra,i an efficient mo2ement8 2A The ,ectoral an ,el2ic fins of fish e2ol2e into 7ointe a,,en ages allowing 2erte#rates to mo2e onto lan 8 8 0nternal organs 1A Verte#rates ,ossess a com,lete igesti2e system an a large coelom8 2A The circulatory system is close an the #loo is containe within #loo 2essels8 3A 1ills or lungs ,ro2i e efficient gas e/change8 4A The 9i neys efficiently e/crete nitrogenous waste an regulate water8 "A +e,ro uction is usually se/ual with se,arate se/es8 A8 Verte#rate &2olution 18 Chor ates @inclu ing 2erte#ratesA a,,eare at the start of the Cam#rian ,erio 8 28 The earliest 2erte#rates were fishesD most of which ha2e 7aws8 18 28

38
48 "8 $8

Hawe fish an other 2erte#rates are *"a$!'#$'+e#?animals with 7aws8

!ish also ha a #ony s9eleton5 lungs5 an fleshy fins5 which were ,rea a,ti2e for a lan e/istence8 Am,hi#ians are the first 2erte#rates to li2e on lan an to ha2e four lim#s @$e$ra)'d#A8 Am,hi#ians are not fully a a,te to li2ing on lan #ecause they still ha2e to re,ro uce in an a>uatic en2ironment8 (8 +e,tiles are fully a a,te to li2ing on lan #ecause they ,ro uce an amniotic egg8 *8 A+"i'$e# e2elo, within an a>uatic en2ironment #ut of their own ma9ing8 -8 0n ,lacental mammals5 the fertili'e egg e2elo,s insi e the female5 where it is surroun e #y an amniotic mem#rane8 1.8 Another feature for li2ing on lan inclu es watertight s9in5 an can #e seen in re,tiles an mammals8 2J04 T!e Fi#!e# A8 Hawless !ishes 18 Small5 7awless5 an finless '#$ra&'der+# are the earliest 2erte#rate fossils8 28 To ay<s Aa.le## 1i#!e#3 or a*"a$!a"# ha2e a cartilaginous s9eleton an ,ersistent notochor 8 38 They ha2e smooth nonscaly s9in8 48 They ha2e cylin rical #o ies an are u, to a meter long8 "8 Many lam,reys are filter fee ers similar to their ancestors8 $8 )arasitic lam,reys ha2e a roun muscular mouth e>ui,,e with teethD they attach themsel2es to fish an suc9 nutrients from the host<s circulatory system8 (8 Marine ,arasitic lam,reys entere the 1reat La9es an e2astate the trout ,o,ulation in the 1-".s8 B8 !ishes with Haws 18 !ishes with 7aws ha2e%

a8 E&$'$!er+y?they e,en on the en2ironment to regulate their #o y tem,erature8

#8 Gill# are use for gas e/change8 1A Hawe fish ha2e a single;loo,e 5 close circulatory ,athway with a heart that ,um,s the #loo first to the gills @for o/ygen e/changeA an then to the rest of the #o y8

213

c8 Car$ila*i"'%# 'r b'"y #,ele$'"?the en os9eleton of 7awe fishes inclu e 2erte#ral column5 s9ull with 7aws5 an ,aire ,ectoral or ,el2ic fins8
1A Haws e2ol2e from the first ,air of gill arches of agnathansD the secon ,air of arches #ecame su,,ort structures for the 7aws8 8 S&ale# co2er an ,rotect the fish s9in8 28 Pla&'der+# are e/tinct 7awe fishes of the 3e2onian )erio 8 a8 They were armore with hea2y ,lates an ha strong 7aws8 #8 Li9e e/tant fishes5 they ha ,aire ,ectoral an ,el2ic fins8 c8 )aire fins allow a fish to #alance an maneu2er well in waterD this hel,s ,re ation8 C8 Cartilaginous !ishes 18 Shar9s5 rays5 s9ates5 an chimaeras are marine &ar$ila*i"'%# 1i#!# @&!'"dri&!$!ye#A0 28 They ha2e a cartilaginous s9eleton rather than #one8 38 !i2e to se2en gill slits are on #oth si es of the ,haryn/D they lac9 the gill co2ers foun on #ony fish8 48 They ha2e many o,enings to the gill cham#er locate #ehin the eyes calle s,iracles8 "8 Their #o y is co2ere with ermal enticles8 $8 The teeth of shar9s are enlarge scalesD there are many rows of re,lacement teeth growing #ehin the front teeth8 (8 They ha2e three well e2elo,e senses to etect electric currents in water5 ,ressure @a lateral line systemA5 an smell8 *8 The largest shar9s are filter fee ers5 not ,re atorsD the #as9ing an whale shar9s eat tons of crustacea8 -8 Most shar9s are fast5 o,en;sea ,re atorsD a great white shar9 eats ol,hins5 sea lions an seals8 1.8 +ays an s9ates li2e on the ocean floorD their ,ectoral fins are enlarge into wingli9e fins an they swim slowly8 118 Stingrays ha2e a 2enomous s,ine8 128 &lectric rays fee on fish that ha2e #een stunne with an electric shoc9 that may reach o2er 3.. 2olts8 138 Sawfish rays ha2e a large anterior BsawC that they use to slash through schools of fish8 148 Chimaeras @ratfishesA li2e in col marine waters an are 9nown for their unusual sha,e an iri escent colors8 38 Bony !ishes 18 There are a#out 2"5... s,ecies of b'"y 1i#!e# @'#$ei&!$!ye#A8 28 Bony fishes ha2e a s9eleton of #oneD most are ray;1i""ed with thin5 #ony rays su,,orting the fins8 38 The gills of #ony fishes o not o,en se,arately #ut instea are co2ere #y an ')er&%l%+0 48 The #.i+ bladder is a gas;fille sac whose ,ressure can #e altere to regulate #uoyancy an e,th8 "8 Bony fish ha2e a single;loo,5 close car io2ascular system8 $8 They ha2e a well; e2elo,e ner2ous system8 (8 !ish s,erm an eggs are usually she into water8 *8 !or most fish5 the fertili'ation an em#ryonic e2elo,ment occur outsi e the female<s #o y8 -8 The l'be;1i""ed 1i#!e# inclu e si/ s,ecies of lungfishes an two s,ecies of coelacanth8 a8 Their fleshy fins are su,,orte #y central #ones8 #8 L%"*1i#!e# ha2e lungs an gills for gas e/change8 c8 Lungfishes an lo#e;finne fishes are grou,e together as #ar&')$ery*ii0 8 Lungfishes li2e in stagnant fresh water or in ,on s that ry u, annuallyD they are foun in Africa5 South America5 an Australia8 e8 Coelacanths li2e in ee, oceansD once consi ere e/tinct5 more than 2.. ha2e #een ca,ture since 1-3*8 2J07 T!e A+)!ibia"# 18 To ay<s a+)!ibia"# are tetra,o sD they ha2e four li+b#0 a8 The s9eleton is well; e2elo,e for locomotion8 28 Am,hi#ians ha2e #+''$! a"d "'"#&aly #,i"0 a8 The moist s9in ,lays an acti2e role in water #alance5 res,iration5 an tem,erature regulation8 38 Am,hi#ians usually ha2e small l%"*# su,,lemente #y gas e/change across ,orous s9in8 48 The single;loo, circulatory ,ath of fish is re,lace #y a close d'%ble;l'') &ir&%la$'ry #y#$e+@ howe2er o/ygen;rich #loo mi/es with some o/ygen;,oor #loo 8 a8 A three;cham#ere heart with a single 2entricle ,um,s mi/e #loo #efore an after it has gone to the lungs8 "8 Am,hi#ians ha2e #e"#e 'r*a"# that are a a,te to life on lan 8

214

a8 #8 c8 8 soun s8 $8

The #rain is larger than that of fishesD their cere#ral corte/ is more e2elo,e 8 A s,eciali'e tongue is use for catching ,rey8 The eyeli s 9ee, their eyes moist8 Am,hi#ian ears are a a,te for etecting soun wa2esD in turn5 the lary"6 ,ro uces

Am,hi#ians are e&$'$!er+i&3 e,en ing u,on the en2ironment to regulate #o y tem,erature8 a8 0f winter tem,erature ro,s too low5 tem,erate ectotherms #ecome inacti2e an enter torpor. (8 Am,hi#ians return to the water to re,ro uce8 a8 They she eggs into the water for e/ternal fertili'ation8 #8 1enerally5 am,hi#ian eggs are ,rotecte #y a coat of 7elly #ut not #y a shell8 c8 The young hatch into a>uatic lar2ae with gills @ta ,olesA8 8 The a>uatic lar2ae usually un ergo +e$a+'r)!'#i# to e2elo, into a terrestrial a ult8 e8 Some am,hi#ians e2ol2e mechanisms that allow them to #y,ass the a>uatic lar2al stage an ,ro uce on lan 8The lo#e;finne fishes of 3e2onian are ancestral to am,hi#ians8 A8 &2olution of Am,hi#ians 18 Am,hi#ians e2ol2e from the lo#e;finne fishes with lungs #y way of transitional forms8 28 Two hy,otheses escri#e e2olution of am,hi#ians from lo#e;finne fishes8 a8 Lo#e;finne fishes that coul mo2e from ,on ;to;,on ha an a 2antage o2er those that coul not8 #8 The su,,ly of foo on lan an the a#sence of ,re ators ,romote a a,tation to lan 8 38 )aleontologists foun a fossil5 /i talli roseae, from the late 3e2onian ,erio in Arctic Cana a that re,resents an interme iate #etween lo#e;finne fishes an tetra,o s with lim#s8 B8 3i2ersity of Li2ing Am,hi#ians 18 Mo ern am,hi#ians inclu e three grou,s% salaman ers an newts5 frogs an toa s5 an caecilians8 28 Salaman ers an newts ha2e a long #o y an tail5 an two ,airs of legs 38 Their S;sha,e locomotion is similar to fish mo2ements8 48 Salaman ers an newts are carni2orous5 fee ing on insects5 snails5 etc8 "8 Salaman ers ,ractice internal fertili'ationD the males ,ro uce a s,ermato,hore that females ,ic9 u, with the &l'a&a @the common rece,tacle for the urinary5 genital5 an igesti2e canalsA8 $8 !rogs an toa s are tailless as a ultsD the hin lim#s are s,eciali'e for 7um,ing8 (8 Some s9in glan s secrete ,oisonsD those tro,ical s,ecies often ha2e #rilliant warning coloration8 *8 !rogs an toa s ha2e the hea an trun9 fuse D frogs li2e near or in fresh water while toa s li2e in am, ,laces away from water8 -8 Caecilians are leglessD most #urrow in soil an fee on worms5 etc8 2J0? T!e Re)$ile# 18 +e,tiles @class +e,tiliaA are a successful grou, of terrestrial animals8 28 +e,tiles ha2e many characteristics showing that they are fully a a,te to li2ing on lan 8 a8 +e,tiles ha2e )aired li+b# an are a a,te for clim#ing5 running5 ,a ling5 or flying8 #8 +e,tiles ha2e a thic95 scaly #,i" that is im,ermea#le to water8 1A +e,tile<s ,rotecti2e s9in ,re2ents water loss #ut it also re>uires se2eral molts a year8 c8 +e,tile ha2e e11i&ie"$ brea$!i"* ; their lungs are more e2elo,e than in am,hi#iansD air rhythmically mo2es in an out of the lungs ue to an e/,an a#le ri# cage8 8 +e,tiles ha2e e11i&ie"$ &ir&%la$i'"0 The heart ,re2ents mi/ing of #loo 8 O/ygen;rich #loo is more fully se,arate from o/ygen;,oor #loo 8 e8 +e,tiles are e&$'$!er+i&0 1A They re>uire a fraction of the foo ,er #o y weight of #ir s an mammals8 2A They are #eha2iorally a a,te to warm their #o y tem,erature #y sun#athing8 f8 +e,tiles ha2e .ell;ada)$ed re)r'd%&$i'"0 1A The se/es are se,arate an fertili'ation is internal8 2A The a+"i'$i& e** contains e/traem#ryonic mem#ranes8 3A &/traem#ryonic mem#ranes are not a ,art of the em#ryo an are is,ose of after e2elo,ment8 4A They ,rotect the em#ryo5 remo2e nitrogenous wastes5 an ,ro2i e o/ygen5 foo 5 an water8 "A The amnion is one e/traem#ryonic mem#raneD it fills with flui to ,ro2i e a B,on C for

21"

em#ryo to e2elo,8 A8 &2olution of Amniotes 18 The amniotes consist of three lineages% a8 The turtles5 in which the s9ull has no o,enings #ehin the or#it?eye soc9et8 #8 All the other re,tiles5 in which the s9ull has two o,enings #ehin the or#it8 c8 The mammals5 in which the s9ull has one o,ening #ehin the or#it8 28 The re,tiles ha2e no common ancestorD they are a ,ara,hyletic grou, an not a mono,hyletic grou,8 38 Other re,tiles are "iapsi"s ha2e a s9ull with two o,enings #ehin the eyes8 48 Theco onts are ia,si s that ga2e rise to the ichthyosaurs5 which returne to the a>uatic en2ironment5 an the ,terosaurs5 which were terrestrial8 a8 The ,terosaurs of the Hurassic ,erio ha a 9eel for attachment of flight muscles an air s,aces in #ones to re uce weight8 #8 The theco onts ga2e rise to the croco iles an inosaurs8 "8 i"'#a%r# 2arie in si'e an #eha2iorD some ha a #i,e al stance an ga2e rise to #ir s8 $8 3inosaurs ominate earth for a#out 1(. million yearsD then most ie out at the en of the Cretaceous ,erio 8 (8 One theory of mass e/tinction% a8 A large meteorite or comet at the en of the Cretaceous )erio coul ha2e set off earth>ua9es an fires5 raising enough ust an smo9e to #loc9 out the sun8 #8 An iri ium layer5 a mineral common in meteorites5 occurs in roc9s at the en of this ,erio 8 *8 3i2ersity of Li2ing +e,tiles a8 Most re,tiles to ay li2e in the tro,ics or su#tro,icsD li'ar s an sna9es li2e on soilD turtles5 croco iles5 an alligators li2e in water8 #8 Turtles ha2e a hea2y shell fuse to the ri#s an to the thoracic 2erte#rae8 1A Turtles lac9 teeth #ut use a shar, #ea98 2A Sea turtles must return to lay eggs onshore8 c8 Li'ar s ha2e four clawe legs an are carni2orous8 1A Marine iguanas on the 1al_,agos 0slan s are a a,te to s,en long times in the sea8 2A Chameleons li2e in trees5 ha2e a long stic9y tongue to catch insects5 an change color8 3A 1ec9os are nocturnal an ha2e a hesi2e ,a s on their toes8 4A S9in9s ha2e re uce lim#s an shiny scales8 8 Sna9es e2ol2e from li'ar s an lost legs as an a a,tation to #urrowing8 1A Their 7aws can rea ily islocate to engulf large foo 8 2A A tongue collects air#orne molecules to transfer them to Haco#son<s organ for tasting8 3A Some sna9es are ,oisonous an ha2e s,ecial fangs to in7ect 2enom8 4A Sna9es ha2e internal ears that can etect low;fre>uency soun s an 2i#rations8 e8 Tuataras are li'ar li9e animals foun in 6ew aealan 8 1A They ,ossess a well; e2elo,e Bthir eye5C which is light sensiti2e an #urie #eneath the s9in in the u,,er ,art of the hea 8 2A They are the only mem#er of an ancient grou, of re,tiles that incu e the common ancestor of mo ern li'ar s an sna9es8 f8 Croco iles an alligators are largely a>uatic5 fee ing on fishes an other animals8 1A Their ,owerful 7aws ha2e numerous teethD a muscular tail is #oth a ,a le to swim an a wea,on8 2A Male croco iles #ellow to attract matesD males of some s,ecies ,rotect the eggs an young8 B8 Bir s 18 Bird# share a common ancestor with croco ilians an ha2e scales @feathers are mo ifie scalesA5 a tail with 2erte#rae5 an clawe fee 8 28 Fea$!er# 9ee, #ir s warm5 an hel, #ir s fly an steer8 a8 !eathers are mo ifie scales8 #8 Bir s molt an re,lace their feathers annually8 38 Bir s ha2e a +'di1ied #,ele$'"0 a8 The collar#one fuse an sternum has a 9eel8 #8 Other #ones are fuse to ma9e the s9eleton more rigi than the re,tilian s9eleton8 c8 The #reast muscles are attache to the 9eel8

21$

Bir s ha2e +'di1ied re#)ira$i'"0 a8 Bir res,iratory air sacs are e/tensi2e5 e2en e/ten ing into some larger #ones8 1A Gsing a one;way flow of air5 air sacs ma/imi'e gas e/change an o/ygenation of #loo 8 2A &fficient su,,ly of o/ygen to muscles is 2ital for the le2el of muscle acti2ity nee e for flight8 "8 Bri s are e"d'$!er+i&@ they ha2e the a#ility to maintain a constant5 relati2ely high #o y tem,erature8 $8 Bir s ha2e .ell;devel')ed #e"#e 'r*a"# a"d "erv'%# #y#$e+0 a8 Bir s ha2e 2ery acute 2ision8 #8 Bir s muscle refle/es are e/cellent8 c8 Bir migration allows use of wi es,rea foo sourcesD an enlarge ,ortion of the #rain is res,onsi#le for instincti2e #eha2iors8 (8 3i2ersity of Li2ing Bir s a8 Most #ir s can flyD some5 howe2er5 are flightless8 #8 Bir classification is #ase on #ea9 an foot ty,es5 an some on ha#itats an #eha2iors8 1A Bir s of ,rey ha2e notche #ea9s an shar, talons8 2A Shore#ir s ha2e long slen er #ills an long legs8 3A :aterfowl ha2e we##e toes an #roa #ills8 C8 Verte#rates an 4uman Me icine @Science Focus #o/A 18 There are many ,harmaceutical ,ro ucts that come from 2erte#rates8 a8 The 2enom of the Thailan co#ra is the source of 0mmuno9ine5 which has #een use for ten years in multi,le sclerosis ,atients8 #8 ABT;"-4 from the ,oison art frog is a#out ". times more ,owerful than mor,hine without the a icti2e ,ro,erties8 28 Animal ,harming uses genetically altere 2erte#rates @mice5 shee,5 goats5 cows5 chic9ens5 ,igsA to ,ro uce me ically useful ,harmaceutical ,ro ucts8 a8 The human gene for some useful ,ro uct is inserte into the em#ryo of the 2erte#rate8 #8 That em#ryo is im,lante into a foster mother5 which gi2es #irth to the transgenic animal8 38 Zenotrans,lantation is the trans,lantation of nonhuman 2erte#rate tissues an organs into humans8 a8 The use of transgenic 2erte#rates for me ical ,ur,oses raises many health an ethical concerns8 2J0B T!e Ma++al# 18 The following characteristics istinguish mammals% a8 Hair 1A 4air ,ro2i es insulation against heat loss8 2A 4air color can ,ro2i e camouflage to #len into its surroun ings8 3A 4air can ser2e sensory functions8 #8 Ma++ary *la"d# 1A Mammary glan s ena#le females to fee young without eserting them to o#tain foo 8 2A 6ursing creates a #on #etween mother an offs,ring to ensure ,arental care while the young are hel,less8 c8 S,ele$'" 1A The mammal s9ull is #igger than re,tiles<5 their teeth are ifferentiate into molars an ,remolars5 an the 2erte#ral column ,ro2i es more mo2ement8 8 I"$er"al 'r*a"# 1A 1as e/change is efficiently accom,lishe #y lungs8 2A Mammals ,ossess a four;cham#ere heart an a ou#le;loo, circulatory system8 3A Ei neys are a a,te to conser2ing water8 4A The ner2ous system an sensory organs are highly e2elo,e 8 e8 I"$er"al devel')+e"$ 1A 0n most mammals5 the young are #orn ali2e after a ,erio of e2elo,ment in uterus8 A8 &2olution of Mammals 18 Mammals e2ol2e uring the Meso'oic &ra from mammal;li9e syna,si s8 28 True mammals a,,eare uring the Triassic ,erio 5 a#out the same time as the first inosaurs8 a8 The first mammals were small5 a#out the si'e of mice8 #8 Some of the earliest mammalian grou,s were monotremes an marsu,ials8 c8 )lacental mammals e2ol2e later to occu,y ha#itats 2acate #y inosaurs8 38 Monotremes a8 M'"'$re+e# are mammals that ha2e a cloaca an lay har ;shelle amniote eggs8

48

21(

#8 c8 8 e8 48

"8

$8

They are re,resente #y the uc9#ill ,laty,us an two s,ecies of the s,iny anteaters8 A female uc9#ill ,laty,us lays her eggs in a #urrow in the groun where she incu#ates them8 After hatching5 the young lic9 mil9 see,ing from mo ifie sweat glan s on the a# omen8 The s,iny anteater has a ,ouch forme #y swollen mammary glan s an muscleD the egg mo2es from cloaca to ,ouch an hatchesD the young remain for "3 ays an li2e in the #urrow where the mother fee s them8 Marsu,ials a8 Mar#%)ial# #egin e2elo,ment insi e the mother<s #o y #ut are then #orn in a 2ery immature state8 #8 The new#orns crawl u, into a ,ouch on their mother<s a# omen8 c8 0nsi e a ,ouch they attach to the ni,,les of the mother<s mammary glan s an continue to e2elo,8 8 To ay5 most marsu,ials are foun in Australia where they un erwent a a,ti2e ra iation for se2eral million years without com,etition from the ,lacental mammals5 only intro uce recently8 )lacental Mammals a8 3e2elo,ing ,lacental mammals are e,en ent on a )la&e"$a3 an organ of e/change #etween maternal an fetal #loo 8 #8 The ,lacenta su,,lies nutrients to an remo2es wastes from the #loo of e2elo,ing offs,ring8 c8 A ,lacenta also allows a mother to mo2e a#out while the offs,ring e2elo,8 8 The ,lacenta ena#les young to #e #orn in a relati2ely a 2ance stage of e2elo,ment8 e8 )lacental mammals are 2ery acti2e animalsD they ,ossess acute senses an a relati2ely large #rain8 f8 The #rains of ,lacental animals ha2e cere#ral hemis,heres ,ro,ortionately larger than other animals8 g8 The young go through a long ,erio of e,en ency on their ,arents after #irth8 h8 Most are terrestrial5 #ut some are a>uatic5 an #ats can fly8 The main ty,es of ,lacental animals are% a8 Engulates are hoofe animals5 which ma9e u, a#out 1F3 of all li2ing an e/tinct mammal grou,s8 1A They ha2e a re uce num#er of toes an i2i e accor ing to whether an o or e2en num#er of toes remain8 2A They ha2e elongate lim#s a a,te for running across o,en grasslan 8 3A They are her#i2orous an ha2e large grin ing teeth8 #8 0arni#ores are meat eaters with large an conical;sha,e canine teeth8 1A A>uatic carni2ores such as seals an sea lions must return to lan to re,ro uce8 c8 (rimates tree; welling fruit eaters8 1A Their igits ha2e nails5 not clawsD the thum# is more o,,osa#le8 2A )rimates5 ,articularly humans5 ha2e well; e2elo,e #rains8 8 0etaceas are marine whales an ol,hins8 1A They lac9 su#stantial hair or fur8 2A Baleen whales that strain ,lan9ton from the water8 3A Toothe whales fee on fish an s>ui 8 e8 0hiroptera are nocturnal flying #ats8 1A :ings are layers of s9in an connecti2e tissue stretche #etween the elongate #ones of all fingers #ut the first8 2A Many s,ecies use echolocation to locate their usual insect ,rey8 3A Some #ats also eat #ir s5 fish5 frogs5 an ,lant tissues8 f8 'o"ents are most often small ,lant eaters8 1A +o ents ha2e incisors that grow continuously8 g8 (robisci"eans are the her#i2orous ele,hants8 1A They are the largest li2ing lan mammals8 2A The u,,er li, an nose ha2e #ecome elongate an musculari'e to form a h8 @agomorphans are ra##its5 hares5 an ,i9as8 1A They resem#le ro ents #ut ha2e two ,airs of continuously growing incisors8 2A Their hin legs are longer than their front legs an they are her#i2ores8 Insecti#ores inclu e the shrews an moles5 mammals with short snouts that li2e un ergroun 8 1A 0nsecti2ores were thought to #e most li9e the original ,lacentas8 4owe2er5 recent analysis

trun98

i8

21*

suggests that the e"entates @anteatersA an the ,angolins @scaly anteatersA are the more ,rimiti2e grou,s of ,lacentals8

Le&$%re E"ri&!+e"$ Idea#

E6)erie"&e Ba#e: Many stu ents will #e familiar with the #asic #iology of those mammals that are common omestic ,ets or5 in rural areas5 farm animals8 Being a mammal5 we can un erstan a large ,art of mammalian ,hysiology5 at least on the su,erficial le2el5 #ase on our own ,hysiology8 18 Contrast features share #y 2erte#rates an arthro,o s that ma9e them so successful8 0f harsh en2ironmental con itions arose5 which woul li9ely sur2i2e longestK 28 Consi er that the smallest terrestrial 2erte#rates @shrewsA #egin in si'e where the largest terrestrial arthro,o s sto,8 \uery stu ents why these scales to not o2erla,8 On the other han 5 a>uatic crustacea o grow much #igger than the large grassho,,er si'e limit that terrestrial arthro,o s face8 Again5 as9 why8 38 Com,are the BnewC e2olutionary characteristics of 7awe fishes5 am,hi#ians5 an re,tiles that ma9e them more successful than their ,re ecessors at com,eting to fill a ha#itat8 48 Most of these organisms are far more interesting to stu ents if you ha2e goo 2isual images of them5 ,articularly the more e/otic animals8 "8 3iscuss the e2olutionary significance of continental rift in the e2elo,ment of monotremes5 marsu,ials5 an ,lacental mammals8 3iscuss the fact that South America was inha#ite #y marsu,ials until relati2ely recently @within the last 2.5... years or soA5 when the lan #ri ge forme #etween 6orth an South America5 which allowe ,lacental mammals to reach South America an le to the e/tinction of many marsu,ials8 Consi er whether the same thing is ha,,ening in Australia now5 since humans ha2e intro uce ogs5 rats5 ra##its5 etc8

Cri$i&al T!i",i"*
-%e#$i'" 10 Aristotle woul ha2e classifie #ir s5 #ats5 an insects together as animals of the air8 4e woul ha2e ,lace earthworms an #urrowing sna9es together8 :hy on<t weK A"#.er: The e2olution of wings in insects an #ir s o not in2ol2e the same structures8 6or o the su,erficial similarities in earthworms an sna9es ha2e the im,ortance of the many other features that ,lace earthworms with in2erte#rates an sna9es with 2erte#rates8 The ma7or em#ryological an structural grou,ings #ase on coelom5 #lasto,ore5 s9eleton5 etc85 correlate with a large num#er of other similarities?structural5 ,hysiological an molecular?as well as match the fossil recor 8

-%e#$i'" 20

Of the chor ates that are not 2erte#rates5 which is most li9ely closest relate to the 2erte#ratesK

A"#.er: The tunicates only is,lay chor ate characteristics in the lar2al stageD the lancelets is,lay all four chor ate traits as a ults an they is,lay a fishli9e #o y8

Te&!"'l'*y 1r'+ M&Gra.;Hill

)lease consult your C'%r#e I"$e*ra$i'" G%ide for technology correlations for this cha,ter8

21-

CHAPTER

40

HUMAN EVOLUTION

This cha,ter escri#es the e2olution of ,rimates5 #eginning with ,hysical characteristics uni>ue to ,rimates5 an mo2ing through the e2olutionary ,rocess ultimately lea ing to ,omo sapiens8 &2i ence of e2olution through fossili'e remains is ,resente 8 A Science Focus #o/ escri#es the origins of the genus ,omo an an &cology Focus #o/ iscusses #iocultural e2olution that #egan with ,omo8

C!a)$er O%$li"e
4001 Ev'l%$i'" '1 Pri+a$e# A8 )rimate Characteristics 18 Pri+a$e# iffer from other mammals #y #eing a a,te for arb'real life @li2ing in treesA8 28 Mo#ile !orelim#s an 4in lim#s a8 0n ,rimates5 the lim#s are mo#ile an the han s an feet ha2e fi2e igits each8 #8 0n most ,rimates5 flat nails re,lace claws an sensiti2e ,a s e2elo, on the un ersi e of fingers an toes8 c8 Many ,rimate han s ha2e an '))'#able $!%+b @i8e85 can touch each of the other igitsAD some also ha2e an o,,osa#le #ig toe8 8 These features allow the free gras,ing of tree lim#s an easy har2esting of fruit8 38 Stereosco,ic Vision a8 )rimates ha2e a re uce snout an the face is relati2ely flat8 #8 The sense of smell is generally re uce 8 c8 The eyes are mo2e to the front of the face for o2erla,,ing 2iews that ,ro2i e #$ere'#&')i& vi#i'"0 8 Cone cells ,ro2i e greater 2isual acuity an color 2ision #ut re>uire #right light8 48 Large5 Com,le/ Brain a8 Better senses re>uires #oth sense organs an a more com,le/ #rain to ,rocess the in,ut8 #8 More of the #rain #ecomes e2ote to ,rocessing information recei2e from the han s an thum#5 less to smell8 "8 +e uce +e,ro ucti2e +ate a8 )rimates ha2e more single #irths5 which re uces the nee for care for se2eral offs,ring8 #8 The ,erio of ,arental care is e/ten e with an em,hasis on learne #eha2ior an com,le/ social interactions8 B8 Se>uence of )rimate &2olution 18 H'+i"i"# are humans an s,ecies that closely resem#le humans8 a8 They first e2ol2e a#out $ MLA8 #8 4ominins5 chim,an'ees5 an gorillas share a common ancestor uring the Miocene ,erio 8 28 H'+i"i"e# inclu e hominins5 chim,an'ees5 an gorillas8 22.

38 H'+i"id# inclu e hominines an orangutan8 48 H'+i"'id# inclu e homini s an gi##on8 a8 The hominoi common ancestor first e2ol2e a#out 23 MLA8 "8 A"$!r')'id# inclu e hominoi s an the Ol :orl mon9eys an 6ew :orl mon9eys8 a8 Ol :orl mon9eys on<t ha2e tails an ha2e ,rotru ing noses8 1A &/am,les of Ol :orl mon9eys are the #a#oon an the rhesus mon9ey8 #8 6ew :orl mon9eys ha2e long ,rehensile @gras,ingA tails an flat noses8 1A &/am,les of 6ew :orl mon9eys are the s,i er mon9ey an the ca,uchin8 $8 )rimate fossils similar to mon9eys are first foun in Africa5 a#out 4" MLA8 (8 Pr'#i+ia"# @lemurs an tarsiersA were the first ty,e of ,rimate to i2erge from the common ancestor for all ,rimates8 *8 )rimates share one common mammalian ancestor5 which li2e a#out "" MLA8 -8 4ominoi &2olution a8 A#out 1" MLA5 o'ens of hominoi s,ecies arose8 #8 (roconsul was one s,ecies that li2e at this time5 an it is #elie2e to #e ancestral to the dry')i$!e&i"e#5 from which the hominoi s arose8 c8 A#out 1. MLA5 Africara#ia 7oine with Asia5 an the hominoi s migrate into &uro,e8 8 3uring this ,erio 5 two ancestral grou,s of ,rimates were the ryomor,hs an the ramamor,hs5 the latter now #elie2e to #e the ancestral orangutan8 e8 Dryopithecus was a tree; weller that mo2e similar to orangutans #ut i not wal9 along tree lim#s as i (roconsul. 4002 Ev'l%$i'" '1 Early H'+i"i"# 18 Molecular ata is use to etermine the #eginning of hominin e2olution8 28 :hen two lines of escent first i2erge from a common ancestor the genes of the two lineages are nearly i entical8 38 4owe2er5 as time ,asses5 each lineage accumulate genetic changes8 48 1enetic changes suggest that hominin e2olution #egan a#out ( MLA8 A8 3eri2e Characters of 4ominins 18 4umans an chim,an'ees ha2e many traits in common8 28 Se2eral istinct ifferences e/ist8 0n humans% a8 The s9ull is in the mi line of the #o y8 #8 The longer cur2e s,ine ,laces the center of gra2ity o2er the feet8 c8 The #roa er ,el2is an hi, 7oints ,re2ent swaying when wal9ing8 8 A longer nec9 on the femur in humans causes the femur to angle inwar at the 9nees8 e8 The human 9nee 7oint is mo ifie to su,,ort the #o y<s weight8 f8 The human toe is not o,,osa#le #ut the foot has an arch for long istance wal9ing8 B8 The &arly 4ominins 18 Gntil recently5 science thought that the climate change forests into sa2annasD there is little e2i ence of a shift in 2egetation at ( MLA8 28 A itional a 2antages of #i,e alism inclu e re uction of heat stro9e an carrying foo #ac9 to females8 38 :hile still li2ing in trees5 the first homini s may ha2e wal9e u,right on two feet 221

@#i,e alismA to collect o2erhea fruit8 48 &arly 4omini !ossils a8 The #raincase of Sahelanthropus tcha"ensis has #een ate at ( MLA8 #8 S9ull fragments from Ar"ipithecus rami"us ha2e #een foun an ate at 48" MLA8 0t was li9ely #i,e al8 c8 !ossils ate 4 MLA show a irect lin9 #etween A. rami"us an australo,iths8 4004 Ev'l%$i'" '1 La$er H'+i"i"# 18 A%#$ral')i$!e&i"e# @calle a%#$ral')i$!# for shortA e2ol2e in Africa 4 MLA8 28 &/,an ing fossil recor s show it is not an or erly se>uence #etween forms8 38 Australo,ithecines e2ol2e an i2ersifie in Africa with gracile an ro#ust forms with 2arie ietsD they show a a,tations to ifferent ways of life8 48 They were a,eli9e a#o2e the waist an humanli9e #elow the waistD human characteristics ,ro#a#ly i not e2ol2e all together at the same time8 This is an e/am,le of +'#ai& ev'l%$i'"0 A8 The !ossils 18 Australopithecus africanus, escri#e #y +aymon 3art in the 1-2.s5 is a gracile ty,e from southern Africa8 28 A#un ant fossils of A. africanus ate a#out 28* MLA8 38 (aranthropus robustus was a ro#ust ty,eD it ha a #rain si'e of ".. cc similar to A. africanus an ate from 2 to 18" MLA8 48 Both ha forelim#s longer than hin lim#s #ut ,ro#a#ly wal9e u,right8 "8 Africanus ha a larger #rain an is the #est can i ate as ancestor to early ,omo. $8 Australopithecus afarensis is #ase on many s9eletal fragments @LucyA ate at 381* MLA8 a8 0ts #rain was small at 4.. cc8 #8 This may ha2e #een ancestral to the ro#ust ty,es, (. aethiopicus an (. boisei, that later ie out8 c8 They may #e the s,ecies that left the Laetoli foot,rints in 2olcanic ash a#out 38( MLA8 8 This s,ecies is thought to ha2e stoo u,right an wal9e #i,e ally8 e8 0t is ,ossi#le that Australopithecus afarensis is ancestral to early ,omo8 (8 A 383;million;year;ol 7u2enile A. afarensis was foun in 2...5 7ust 4 9m away from where Lucy ha #een isco2ere 8 a8 This s9eleton is often calle BLucy<s #a#y5C e2en though she is tens of thousan s of years ol er than Lucy8 #8 This s9eleton also re,resents the most com,lete A. afarensis fossil to ate8 *8 A fossil5 A. garhi, may #e the transitional lin9 #etween the australo,iths an the early ,omo s,ecies8 a8 A. garhi is an australo,ith5 #ut it ma e tools8 B8 Origins of the 1enus ,omo @Science Focus #o/A 18 The genus ,omo e2ol2e from the genus Australopithecus8 28 The #rain si'e of the two are 2ery ifferent% ,omo has the #rain a#out the si'e of a gra,efruit5 while Australopithecus has a #rain the si'e of an orange8 38 0n ,omo5 the new#orn has a high rate of fetal #rain growth through the first year after #irth5 while Australopithecus oes not8 48 4owe2er5 some negati2es that go along with a larger #rain si'e inclu e% wea9 an uncoor inate new#orns5 una#le to cling to mother8 222

"8 This e2olutionary com,romise must ha2e outweighte the negati2e as,ects of infant hel,lessness or else ,omo woul ha2e ne2er e2ol2e 8 $8 As genetic information is increasing5 we may isco2er a ,articular gene or gene com#inations that cause ,omo to ha2e a large #rain8 4007 Ev'l%$i'" '1 Early Homo 18 !ossils are assigne to the genus ,omo #ase on the following traits% a8 #rain si'e $.. cc or greaterD #8 7aw an teeth are human;li9eD an c8 tool use seems e2i ent8 28 ,omo ergaster an ,omo erectus a8 Homo ergaster e2ol2e in Africa ,erha,s from ,. ru"olfensis8 #8 Homo erectus fossils were foun in Asia ifferent than those of ,. ergaster an ,. ru"olfensis8 c8 !ossils foun in Africa5 Asia5 an &uro,e ate #etween 18- an .83 million years ago8 8 ,. erectus ha a #rain ca,acity of 1... cc5 a fatter face5 an a ,ro7ecting nose8 e8 ,. erectus fossils foun in Ha2a an the +e,u#lic of 1eorgia at 18- MLA an 18$ MLA in icate an early migration from Africa5 followe #y ,. erectus e2ol2ing in Asia an s,rea ing to other areas8 f8 These are the first homini s to use fire5 fashion more a 2ance tools5 to #e systematic game hunters5 an ,ossi#ly to use home #ases8 g8 !ossil remains of ,omo floresiensis were isco2ere in 2..4 on the islan of !lores in the South )acificD it was the si'e of a three;year;ol human #eing #ut with a #raincase only one;thir the si'e8 1A A stu y in 2..( su,,orts that ,. floresiensis e2ol2e from normal;si'e 5 ,omo erectus ,o,ulations that reache !lores a#out *4.5... years ago 2A ,. floresiensis use tools an fire8 A8 Biocultural &2olution Began with ,omo @&cology Focus #o/A 18 ,omo habilis5 from Africa5 ma e sim,le stone tools @Ol owan toolsA for hammering5 cho,,ing5 an igging8 a8 Their iet most li9ely consiste of eating ,lants an the occasional animal8 28 ,omo erectus5 from &urasia5 ma e shar,er stone tools @Acheulian toolsA8 a8 They ma e a wi er 2ariety of tools using many ty,es of sources com,are to ,. habilis. #8 They ate ,lants an ate more meat than ,. habilis8 c8 ,. erectus also ma e fire for coo9ing5 ,rotection5 warmth8 8 ,. erectus are consi ere !%"$er;*a$!erer#?they hunte animals an gathere ,lants8 38 4unting most li9ely encourages the e2elo,ment an s,rea of culture #etween in i2i uals an generations8 48 The cultural achie2ements of ,. erectus #egan a new ,hase of human e2olution5 calle bi';&%l$%ral ev'l%$i'"?in which natural selection is influence #y cultural achie2ements rather than #y anatomic ,henoty,e8 400? Ev'l%$i'" '1 La$er Homo Two contra icting hy,otheses are suggeste a#out the origin of mo ern humans% 18 The re)la&e+e"$ +'del or '%$;'1;A1ri&a !y)'$!e#i# states that mo ern humans originate only in Africa an after migrating into &uro,e an Asia5 they re,lace the 223

archaic ,omo s,ecies foun thereD current e2i ence leans towar this hy,othesis8 a8 All e/tant humans are escen e from a few in i2i uals from a#out 1..5... years ago8 #8 Mitochon rial 36A analyses in icate a close genetic relationshi, among all &uro,eansD although the first analysis was flawe 5 the ata ten to su,,ort the out;of;Africa hy,othesis8 28 The multiregional continuity hy,othesis ,ro,oses that mo ern humans originate se,arately in Asia5 &uro,e5 an Africa8 a8 0f 2ali 5 then a istincti2e continuity in anatomy an genetic 2ariation is e/,ecte in each location8 #8 &2olution of mo ern humans woul #e essentially similar in se2eral ifferent ,laces8 A8 6ean ertals 18 6ean ertals were name for 6ean er Valley in 1ermany where s9eletons were ate as early as 2..5... years ago8 28 Nea"der$al# are classifie as ,omo nean"ertalensis8 38 Classic 6ean ertal anatomy inclu es massi2e #row ri gesD a nose5 7aws5 an teeth that ,rotru e forwar D a low slo,ing forehea D a lower 7aw slo,ing #ac9 without a chinD a longer ,u#ic #oneD a slightly larger #rain than that of mo ern humansD shorter an thic9er lim# #onesD an hea2ier muscles in the shoul er an nec98 48 0t is s,eculate that a larger #rain than that of mo ern humans was re>uire to control the e/tra musculature8 "8 The stur y #uil of 6ean ertals was li9ely an a a,tation to col climateD they li2e in &urasia uring the last 0ce Age8 $8 The 6ean ertals gi2e e2i ence of #eing culturally a 2ance 8 a8 Most li2e in ca2es5 #ut those who li2e in the o,en may ha2e #uilt houses8 #8 They manufacture a 2ariety of stone tools5 inclu ing s,ear ,oints5 scra,ers5 an 9ni2es8 c8 They use an coul control fire5 which ,ro#a#ly hel,e in coo9ing fro'en meat an in 9ee,ing warm8 8 They #urie their ea with flowers an tools an may ha2e ha a religion8 B8 Cro;Magnons 18 Cr';Ma*"'"# are the ol est fossils to #e esignate ,. sapiensD they were foun in &urasia 1..5... years ago8 28 Cro;Magnons are name for a fossil location in !rance an ha a thoroughly mo ern a,,earance8 38 They were hunter;gatherers li9e ,. erectus8 48 They ha a 2ance stone tools an may ha2e #een the first to throw s,ears8 "8 Cro;Magnons hunte coo,erati2ely5 an ,erha,s were the first to ha2e ha a language8 $8 They may ha2e #een res,onsi#le for the e/tinction of large mammals uring the late )leistocene8 (8 Cro;Magnon culture inclu e figurines car2e out of #one an antler5 an ca2e ,aintings8 C8 4uman Variation 18 Some human 2ariation e2ol2e as a a,tation to local en2ironmental con itions% ar9er s9in to ,rotect from GV light5 lighter s9in for 2itamin 3 ,ro uction5 etc8 224

28 A #ul9ier #o y also #enefits in col er regions while hot climates fa2or a slight #uil an longer lim#s8 38 4air te/ture5 eyeli fol 5 an other traits are not e/,laine as a a,tations8 48 Variation among mo ern ,o,ulations is consi era#ly less than among archaic human ,o,ulations of 2".5... years ago8 "8 Com,arati2e stu ies of m36A in icate that human ,o,ulations ha a common ancestor no more than a million years ago8 $8 The great ma7ority of genetic 2ariation5 a#out *"N5 occurs within ethnic grou,s5 not among them8 (8 1enetic &2i ence for a Common Ancestry a8 The replacement mo"el suggests that mo ern humans ha2e a relati2ely recent common ancestor who e2ol2e in Africa then s,rea to other regions8 #8 Stu ies with mitochon rial 36A show that ifferences among human ,o,ulations are consistent with their ha2ing a common ancestor no more than a million years ago8

Le&$%re E"ri&!+e"$ Idea#

E6)erie"&e Ba#e: 6ew isco2eries re>uiring reinter,retation of our ,hylogeny will cause this cha,ter to ha2e new or ifferent conce,ts from what stu ents may ha2e learne in high school #iology8 :hile the changes may seem casual an ar#itrary5 there is a consistency an com,le/ rationale for the e2olutionary schema for recent humans that stu ents can un erstan if it is not ,resente in a cynical or ca2alier way8 Visuals of the growing num#er of fossils will hel, stu ents see the istinctions escri#e in this cha,ter8 There may #e a small ,ortion of the stu ents who may ha2e some concerns with this cha,ter #ase on religious #ac9groun 8 !orthright an clear e/,lication of the current status of our science 9nowle ge may hel,8 18 3iscuss why it is incorrect to say that humans escen e from a,es5 since humans an a,es are #oth escen e from a common ancestor that was not a mo ern a,e or human8 )oint out that if you go #ac9 far enough5 we also share a common ancestor with a og5 a li'ar 5 a frog5 a fish5 an earthworm5 a ,lant5 or a #acterium8 4owe2er5 it ma9es no sense to say that one mo ern li2ing animal s,ecies is escen e from another mo ern li2ing animal s,ecies8 28 3iscuss how the e2elo,ment of language an culture ma9es the human so ifferent from our closest relati2e5 the chim,an'ee8 38 \uery stu ents for what ma9es humans uni>ue8 Tool useK LanguageK 4an gri,K The a#ility to 9now what we 9now @mental com,artmentali'ationAK 48 Shoul e2olution #e taught in high school5 an 5 in ee 5 college without a,,ro,riate time #eing gi2en to creationistic i easK This su#7ect is certain to elicit ro#ust iscussion8

Cri$i&al T!i",i"*
-%e#$i'" 10 :hy is it ifficult to ,in,oint e/actly when humans e2ol2e from nonhuman ancestorsK A"#.er: 1A 0t is ifficult to efine e/actly what constitutes human uni>ueness8 2A The e2olutionary ,rocess was gra ual8 3A The fossil recor is not continuous8 4A 6ot all #o y ,arts 22"

e2ol2e at the same rate @mosaic e2olutionA8 -%e#$i'" 20 Author &laine Morgan has cham,ione the a>uatic a,e theory that ,ro2i es an alternati2e scenario for human e2olution% there was an a>uatic wa ing stage that accounts for our hair ,attern5 i2ing refle/5 u,right stance5 etc8 :hat e2i ence woul #e re>uire for scientists to shift from the sa2annah hunter;sca2enger scenario to the a>uatic a,e theoryK A"#.er: !ossil e2i ence woul #e esira#le #ut there may #e little fossil e2i ence or tools left in such ero i#le shoreline en2ironments8 &2i ence of other a,es with a>uatic ha#its might hel,8 Most e uctions for this new theory are e/tra,olate from current anatomical an ,hysiological com,arisons8

Te&!"'l'*y 1r'+ M&Gra.;Hill

)lease consult your C'%r#e I"$e*ra$i'" G%ide for technology correlations for this cha,ter8

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PART

VII

COMPARATIVE ANIMAL BIOLOGY

Animal organi'ation an homeostasis ,ro2i e a conte/t for escri#ing animal systems etaile in the following cha,ters8 This com,arati2e a,,roach conclu es with re,ro uction an the e2elo,ment of 2arious selecte animals8 31 32 33 34 3" 3$ 3( 3* 34. 41 42 Animal Organi'ation an 4omeostasis Circulation an Car io2ascular Systems Lym,h Trans,ort an 0mmunity 3igesti2e Systems an 6utrition +es,iratory Systems Bo y !lui +egulation an &/cretory Systems 6eurons an 6er2ous Systems Sense Organs Locomotion an Su,,ort Systems 4ormones an &n ocrine Systems +e,ro ucti2e Systems Animal 3e2elo,ment

CHAPTER

41

ANIMAL ORGANIFATION AN HOMEOSTASIS

This cha,ter ,resents a etaile stu y of the 2arious ty,es of tissues foun in animals8 The section 6rgans an" 6rgan Systems focuses ,rimarily on the structure an function of the s9in8 The cha,ter conclu es with a escri,tion of the homeostasis an homeostatic control mechanisms @negati2e an ,ositi2e fee #ac9AD e/am,les are gi2en of each8 A ,ealth Focus #o/ iscusses state;of;the;art 9nowle ge on ner2e regeneration8

C!a)$er O%$li"e
4101 Ty)e# '1 Ti##%e#
A $i##%e is com,ose of s,eciali'e cells of the same ty,e that ,erform a common function in the #o y8 A8 !our Ma7or Ty,es of Tissue 18 &pithelial tissue co2ers #o y surfaces an lines #o y ca2ities8 28 0onnecti#e tissue #in s an su,,orts #o y ,arts8 38 Muscular tissue causes #o y ,arts to mo2e8 48 Ner#ous tissue res,on s to stimuli an transmits im,ulses8 B8 &,ithelial Tissues 18 E)i$!elial $i##%e forms a continuous layer o2er the #o y surface# inclu ing inner ca2ities8 28 &,ithelial tissue cells are ,ac9e tightlyD they 7oin to one another in one of three ways% a8 Tight 7unctions ha2e ,lasma ,roteins e/ten ing #etween neigh#oring cells to #in cells tightly8 #8 A hesion 7unctions ha2e cytos9eletal elements 7oining internal ,la>ues in neigh#oring cells8 c8 1a, 7unctions form when two i entical ,lasma mem#rane channels of neigh#oring cells 7oin so that ions an small molecules ,ass #etween cells8 38 &,ithelial cells are e/,ose to the en2ironment on one si eD the other si e is ba#e+e"$ +e+bra"e3 a thin layer of 2arious ty,es of ,roteins that anchors the e,ithelium to un erlying connecti2e tissue8 48 Sim,le &,ithelia a8 S<%a+'%# e)i$!eli%+ is com,ose of flat cells @e8g85 air sac linings of lungs5 walls of ca,illariesA8 #8 C%b'idal e)i$!eli%+ has cu#e;sha,e cells8 c8 C'l%+"ar e)i$!eli%+ has elongate cells that resem#le ,illars or columns @e8g85 small intestineA8

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8 Sim,le e,ithelium has one cell layerD all cells contact a #asement mem#rane8 e8 )seu ostratifie e,ithelium a,,ears layere 5 #ut actually all cells contact the #asement mem#rane8 "8 Stratifie e,ithelia are com,ose of more than one layer of cells8 a8 The outer layer of s9in is stratifie s>uamous e,ithelium5 #ut the cells ha2e #een reinforce #y 9eratin8 $8 1lan ular e,ithelia a8 A *la"d can #e a single e,ithelial cell or a grou, of cells that secrete ,ro ucts into the lumen of or onto the lining of a tu#e or ca2ity5 into #loo 5 or to outsi e of the #o yD they are classifie in two ty,es% 1A E6'&ri"e *la"d# secrete their ,ro ucts into ucts or irectly into a tu#e or ca2ity8 2A E"d'&ri"e *la"d# secrete their ,ro uct irectly into the #loo stream8 C8 Connecti2e Tissue 18 C'""e&$ive $i##%e #in s structures together5 ,ro2i es su,,ort an ,rotection5 fills s,aces5 stores fat5 an forms #loo cells8 28 Connecti2e tissue ,ro2i es source cells for muscle an s9eletal cells in animals that regenerate ,arts8 38 Connecti2e tissue cells are se,arate wi ely #y a matri/5 a noncellular material #etween cells8 48 Fibrous 0onnecti#e /issue a8 Cells of loose an fi#rous connecti2e tissues are 1ibr'bla#$#0 #8 !i#ro#lasts are s,ace a,art an are se,arate #y a 7elly matri/ of white collagen fi#ers an yellow elastic fi#ers8 c8 C'lla*e" 1iber# ,ro2i e fle/i#ility an strengthD ela#$i& 1iber# ,ro2i e elasticity8 8 L''#e 1ibr'%# &'""e&$ive $i##%e su,,orts e,ithelium an ,ro2i es su,,ort5 fle/i#ility5 an ,rotecti2e co2ering encasing many internal organs8 e8 Adi)'#e Ti##%e 1A This is loose connecti2e tissue that insulates the #o y5 ,ro2i es ,rotecti2e ,a ing5 an stores fat8 2A 0n mammals5 a i,ose tissue is #eneath the s9in5 aroun the 9i neys5 an on surface of the heart8 f8 e"#e 1ibr'%# &'""e&$ive $i##%e contains closely ,ac9e collagenous fi#ersD it is foun in $e"d'"#5 which attach muscles to #one5 an li*a+e"$#3 which #in #ones to other #ones at 7oints8 "8 Supporti#e 0onnecti#e /issue a8 Cartilage an #one are rigi connecti2e tissues8 #8 Structural ,roteins @cartilageA or calcium salts @#oneA are e,osite in an intercellular matri/8 c8 Car$ila*e cells or &!'"dr'&y$e# lie in small cham#ers or la&%"ae em#e e in a strong5 fle/i#le matri/8 1A Hyali"e &ar$ila*e is the most common ty,e of cartilageD it is foun in the nose5 the en s of long #ones an ri#s5 the rings of the res,iratory ,assages5 an the human fetal s9eleton8 2A Ela#$i& &ar$ila*e is more elastic than hyaline cartilageD it is foun in the outer ear8 3A Fibr'&ar$ila*e has a matri/ of strong collagen fi#ersD it is foun in areas that must withstan tension an ,ressure @e8g85 ,a s #etween 2erte#rae5 9nee 7ointA8 $8 Bone 1A 0n b'"e3 a matri/ of calcium salts is e,osite aroun ,rotein fi#ers8 2A Calcium salts gi2e #one rigi ity while ,rotein fi#ers ,ro2i e elasticity an strength8 3A C'+)a&$ #one has cells calle '#$e'&y$e# that lie within lacunae arrange in concentric circles within '#$e'"# @4a2ersian systemsA aroun tiny tu#es calle &e"$ral &a"al#0 4A These canals contain ner2e fi#ers an #loo 2essels8 "A 6utrients #rought #y the #loo reach all of the cells 2ia minute canals @canaliculiA containing thin ,rocesses of osteocytes that connect them with one another an with the central canals8 $A S)'"*y b'"e at en of long #ones is esigne for strength5 an has many long #ony #ars an ,lates8 (8 Flui" 0onnecti#e /issue a8 Bl''d trans,orts nutrients an o/ygen to cells an remo2es CO2 an wastesD #loo also has a role in flui 5 ion an ,4 #alance an istri#utes heat8 #8 Bloo is a connecti2e tissue with cells se,arate #y li>ui ,lasma8 c8 0n 2erte#rates5 the #loo cells are mainly of two ty,es8 1A Red bl''d &ell# @erythrocytesA carry o/ygen8

22*

2A /!i$e bl''d &ell# @leu9ocytesA ai in fighting infection8 Pla$ele$# ,resent in ,lasma are fragments of giant cells foun in #one marrow an ,lay a role in #loo clotting8 e8 Ly+)! is a flui connecti2e tissue locate in lym,hatic 2essels8 1A Lym,hatic 2essels a#sor# e/cess tissue flui an trans,ort it to 2essels of the car io2ascular system8 2A Lacteals5 s,ecial lym,hatic ca,illaries5 a#sor# fat molecules from the small intestine8 3A :hite #loo cells congregate in the lym,h no esD lym,h is cleanse as it ,asses through8 38 Muscular Tissue 18 M%#&%lar 8&'"$ra&$ile9 $i##%e is com,ose of cells calle muscle fi#ers8 28 Muscle fi#ers contain actin an myosin filamentsD interactions result in animal mo2ement8 38 The three ty,es of 2erte#rate muscle tissue are s9eletal5 car iac5 an smooth muscle8 48 S,ele$al +%#&le attaches #y ten ons to the #ones of the s9eleton8 a8 S9eletal muscle mo2es #o y ,arts5 is un er 2oluntary control5 an contracts faster than other ty,es8 #8 S9eletal muscle fi#ers are long5 cylin rical5 multinucleate cells arising from the fusion of se2eral cells8 c8 S9eletal fi#ers are #$ria$ed ue to the light an ar9 #an s of o2erla,,ing actin an myosin filaments8 "8 S+''$! 8vi#&eral9 +%#&le is not striate 8 a8 S,in le;sha,e fi#ers form layers with the thic9 mi le ,ortion of one fi#er o,,osite the thin en s of a 7acent fi#ers8 #8 The nuclei form an irregular ,attern in the tissue8 c8 Smooth muscle is not un er 2oluntary controlD it is therefore in2oluntary8 8 Smooth muscle is foun in the walls of 2iscera @e8g85 intestine5 stomach5 etc8A an #loo 2essels8 e8 Smooth muscles ri2e the intestinal contractions an #loo 2essel constrictions8 $8 Cardia& +%#&le is foun only in the heart wall an ,owers the heart#eat that ,um,s #loo 8 a8 Car iac muscle com#ines the features of #oth smooth an s9eletal muscle8 #8 Gnli9e s9eletal muscles with many nuclei5 car iac muscles ha2e one centrally ,lace nucleus8 c8 Although it a,,ears to #e one mass of muscle fi#ers5 the car iac muscle fi#ers are in i2i ual cells8 8 Car iac muscle cells are #oun en ;to;en at intercalate is9s where the fol e mem#ranes #etween two fi#ers contain esmosomes an ga, 7unctions e8 0m,ulses mo2e from cell to cell so the heart#eat is coor inate 8 8

&8 6er2ous Tissue

Nerv'%# $i##%e contains "e%r'"# in the #rain5 s,inal cor 5 an ner2es8 A neuron has three ,arts8 a8 e"dri$e# recei2e a stimulus an con uct signals to the cell #o y8 #8 The &ell b'dy contains most of the cyto,lasm an the nucleus of the neuron8 c8 The a6'" con ucts ner2e im,ulses away from the cell #o yD long a/ons are co2ere #y myelin8 8 Long a/ons an en rites form neuron fi#ersD #oun together #y connecti2e tissue5 they form ner2es8 e8 Outsi e the #rain an s,inal cor 5 fi#ers #oun #y connecti2e tissue form "erve#0 38 6euroglia a8 There are se2eral ty,es of "e%r'*lia in the central ner2ous system8 #8 6euroglia outnum#er neurons ". to 15 an were once thought to only su,,ort or nourish neurons8 c8 Microglial cells su,,ort neurons an also ,hagocyti'e #acterial an cellular e#ris8 8 Astrocytes ,ro2i e nutrients an ,ro uce a growth factor 9nown as glia."eri#e" growth factor that some ay may #e use to cure iseases of neural egeneration8 e8 Oligo en rocytes form the myelin aroun an a/on8 f8 6euroglia lac9 long ,rocesses #ut communicate among themsel2es an with neurons8 !8 6er2e +egeneration @,ealth Focus #o/A 18 0n humans5 a/ons cannot regenerate insi e the #rain an s,inal cor 8 28 This is es,ecially im,ortant for central ner2ous system @C6SA egeneration 2ictims5 who may ha2e ,ermanent loss of ner2ous function8 38 Currently5 one effecti2e metho for ,aralysis 2ictims is e/ercise8 48 !or e/am,le5 Christo,her +ee2es5 who fell off his horse an #ecame ,araly'e from the nec9 own5 18 28

22-

e/ercise for at least fi2e hours a ay5 an after time5 #egan to ha2e sensation throughout his #o y8 0t is ,ossi#le that +ee2e<s a 2ances were the result of im,ro2e strength an #one ensity5 which lea to stronger ner2e signals8 $8 Another metho to regain a/on regeneration may from stem cells8 (8 +esearch has shown that #oth em#ryonic an #one marrow stem cells can ifferentiate into neurons in the la#oratory8 4102 Or*a"# a"d Or*a" Sy#$e+# Or*a"# are com#inations of two or more ifferent tissues ,erforming common functions8 18 An 'r*a" #y#$e+ contains many ifferent organs that coo,erate to carry out a ,rocess @e8g85 igestionA8 28 The integumentary system is com,ose of the s9in an accessory organs @i8e85 nails5 hair5 glan s5 an sensory rece,torsA8 A8 S9in as an Organ 18 4uman s9in ,rotects the un erlying tissues from trauma5 esiccation5 ra iation amage5 an micro#ial in2asion8 28 The s9in ,ro uces a ,recursor molecule that is con2erte to 2itamin 3 after e/,osure to GV light8 38 The s9in also hel,s regulate #o y tem,erature8 48 La en with sensory rece,tors5 the s9in collects information a#out the e/ternal en2ironment8 B8 +egions of S9in 18 The s9in has #oth an outer e,i ermal layer 8e)ider+i#9 an a ee,er layer 8der+i#A@ a #%b&%$a"e'%# layer @hy,o ermisA is foun #etween the s9in an un erlying structures8 28 The e)ider+i# is the outer5 thinner layer of s9in8 a8 The e,i ermis is com,ose of stratifie s>uamous e,ithelium8 #8 &,i ermal cells are eri2e from the #asal layer of stem cells that un ergo continuous cell i2ision un erneath8 c8 The newly forme cells ,ush to the surface away from their #loo su,,lyD they flatten an har en as they accumulate ,era$i"5 a har 5 water,roof ,rotein8 8 &2entually5 the 9eratini'e cells ie an are sloughe off8 e8 Mela"'&y$e# locate in the #asal layer ,ro uce a +ela"i" ,igment that a#sor#s GV light5 ,rotecting ee,er cells from ra iation amageD certain cells in the e,i ermis con2ert a steroi relate to cholesterol into vi$a+i" 3 a chemical re>uire for ,ro,er #one growth8 f8 S9in Cancer 1A Too much ultra2iolet ra iation is angerous an can lea to s9in cancer8 2A &/cessi2e e/,osure to GV ra iation can con2ert cells in the #asal layer of the e,i ermis into cancer cells @#asal cell carcinomaAD melanoma is s9in cancer eri2e from melanocytes8 38 The der+i# is fi#rous connecti2e tissue that forms a thic9er an ee,er layer of s9in8 a8 The ermis contains #oth elastic fi#ers an collagen fi#ersD these run ,arallel with the s9in surface8 #8 The ermis contains #loo 2essels that can constrict an ilate8 c8 Many small sensory rece,tors are ,resent in the ermis8 1A There are se,arate rece,tors for ,ressure5 touch5 tem,erature5 an ,ain8 48 The #%b&%$a"e'%# layer is not technically a ,art of the s9inD it is com,ose of loose connecti2e tissue an a i,ose cells5 which store fat8 a8 The su#cutaneous layer lies #elow ermis8 #8 This is com,ose of loose connecti2e tissue5 inclu ing a i,ose tissue8 c8 A i,ose tissue hel,s insulate the #o y #y minimi'ing #oth heat gain an heat loss8 8 This layer of a i,ose gi2es a roun e a,,earance to the #o y8 e8 The e/cessi2e e2elo,ment of a i,ose tissue occurs with o#esity8 C8 Accessory Organs of the S9in 18 Nail# grow from s,ecial e,i ermal cells at the #ase of the nail in a region calle the nail root8 a8 The 2isi#le ,ortion of a nail is the nail #o y8 #8 Cells #ecome 9eratini'e as they grow out o2er the nail #e 8 c8 The 2ascular ermal tissue un er the nail ,ro2i es the ,in9 colorD the white half;moon area is the thic9er germinal area8 28 A !air 1'lli&le contains a nonli2ing !air #!a1$ an the li2ing !air r''$ that ,ro uce it8 a8 The hair shaft is forme of ea 5 9eratini'e e,i ermal cells that ,rotect the surface of the s9in8 #8 The arre&$'r )ili +%#&le is a smooth muscle attache to the hair follicleD contracting it causes the hair to erect8 "8

23.

!ollicles ha2e 'il 8#eba&e'%#9 *la"d# ,ro ucing #eb%+3 an oil secrete to lu#ricate #oth the hair an the s9in8 38 The #.ea$ 8#%d'ri1er'%#9 *la"d# are coile tu#ules ,resent in most of the regions of s9in that secrete a flui @sweatA onto the surface of the s9in8 38 Organ Systems 0n most animals5 in i2i ual organs function as ,art of 'r*a" #y#$e+#0 The organ systems carry out life ,rocesses common to organisms8 18 Bo y Ca2ities a8 The human #o y has two main ca2ities% the orsal ca2ity hol s the #rain an s,inal cor 5 an the larger 2entral ca2ity8 #8 The 2entral ca2ity locate on the front si e of the #o y e2elo,s from the coelom an is i2i e #y a muscular ia,hragm in humans an other mammals8 c8 The u,,er @thoracic or chestA ca2ity is locate in the u,,er ,art of the 2entral ca2ity5 a#o2e the ia,hragm5 an contains the heart an lungs8 8 The lower @a# ominalA ca2ity is locate in the lower ,art of the 2entral ca2ityD it contains the ma7or ,ortions of the igesti2e an e/cretory systems5 an much of the re,ro ucti2e system8

c8

4104 H'+e'#$a#i#
H'+e'#$a#i# is the maintenance of internal con itions in a cell or organism #y means of self;regulating mechanisms that curtail fluctuations a#o2e an #elow a normal range8 18 The organ systems of the human #o y contri#ute to homeostasis8 a8 The res,iratory system a s o/ygen an remo2es car#on io/i eD the amounts are altere to meet nee s8 #8 The li2er remo2es an stores glucose as glycogen an then re,laces the #loo glucose le2els when they lower8 c8 The hormone insulin is secrete #y the ,ancreas to regulate glucose le2els8 8 The 9i neys are un er hormonal control to e/crete wastes an salts an to maintain #loo ,48 28 Although homeostasis is controlle #y hormones5 it is ultimately controlle #y the ner2ous system8 38 The #rain contains centers that regulate tem,erature an #loo ,ressure8 48 +egulation re>uires a rece,tor that etects unacce,ta#le le2els an signals a regulator center that can irect an a a,ti2e res,onseD once normalcy is o#taine 5 the rece,tor is no longer stimulate 8 A8 6egati2e !ee #ac9 18 A "e*a$ive 1eedba&, +e&!a"i#+ in2ol2es a res,onse in which a 2aria#le is 9e,t close to a ,articular set ,oint8 a8 The ,rocess in2ol2es a sensor an a control center8 #8 The sensor etects a change in the internal en2ironment8 c8 The control center #rings a#out an effect to #ring con itions #ac9 to normal8 8 &/am,le% :hen #loo ,ressure rises5 sensory rece,tors signal a control center in the #rain8 This center sto,s sen ing ner2e im,ulses to the arterial walls an they rela/8 Once the #loo ,ressure ro,s5 signals no longer go to the control center8 e8 A home heating system is a mechanical e/am,le of a negati2e fee #ac9 mechanism8 f8 ,uman &!ample: 'egulation of Bo"y /emperature 1A The sensor an control center are locate in the hy,othalamus8 2A :hen #o y tem,erature is a#o2e normal5 the control center irects #loo 2essels in the s9in to ilate?heat is lost to the en2ironment8 3A :hen #o y tem,erature is #elow normal5 the control center irects #loo 2essels in the s9in to constrict?heat is conser2e in the #o y8 B8 )ositi2e !ee #ac9 18 A )'#i$ive 1eedba&, +e&!a"i#+ in2ol2es out,ut that intensifies an increases the in,ut5 there#y increasing the ,rocessD an e2er;greater change in the same irection occurs8 28 Once chil #irth #egins5 each e2ent am,lifiesD the ,rocess continues until #irth occurs8 38 )ositi2e fee #ac9 mechanisms can #e harmful5 e8g85 when a fe2er causes meto#olic changes that ,ush the fe2er e2en higher8

231

Le&$%re E"ri&!+e"$ Idea#

E6)erie"&e Ba#e: This o2er2iew of systems may seem a#stract #ut will gain more rele2ance as each system is etaile in later cha,ters8 4owe2er5 the s9in is co2ere here in etail an is generally una,,reciate as a ynamic organ an often o2erloo9e in #iology te/ts8 18 Show sli es of 2arious tissue ty,es5 an ,oint out the characteristics of each s,ecific ty,e5 ,articularly the ifferent 9in s of connecti2e tissue8 28 &m,hasi'e that organ systems or #o y regions also often efine me ical s,ecialties% thoracic surgeon5 #rain surgeon5 etc8 38 &m,hasi'e the ,resence of ifferent 9in s of tissues in nearly e2ery organ5 such as e,ithelium lining the stomach<s interior an e/terior surfaces5 muscle that allows stomach contractions to occur5 ner2es that su,,ly the im,ulses for those contractions5 an connecti2e tissues such as #loo an connections #in ing the 2arious tissues together to form functional organs8 48 )ortray the 2iew,oint of a louse or flea5 where a human #o y is a collection of ecosystems? from a tem,erate forest of hair on the hea 5 to tro,ical 7ungles in the arm,its an ,u#ic area5 to #arren grasslan s of a forearm8 :hile we ten to thin9 of the human #o y as uniform5 hea lice an ,u#ic lice are well aware of the climatic ifferences5 #oth in tem,erature5 moisture5 an amount of s9in fla9es8
"8 Most stu ents recogni'e cartilage from the mil9y;colore en of the 9eel un er chic9en;#reast meat8 They may notice that this cartilage has no #loo 2essels running through it8 0t is therefore inert com,are to the #one tissues that can #e 2ery #loo y8 Bone o,erations may e2en re>uire #loo transfusions8

$8 Some stu ents will not recogni'e that most of the re meat in the meat mar9et is sim,ly muscle cells5 fairly ,ure in lean meat #ut interlace with fat tissue in mar#le meat8 1enerally5 fat a s fla2or an a ma7or ,ro#lem with fat;free foo s is their ecrease fla2or8 :hat stu ents see5 an usually trim off as Bfat5C is truly fat tissue8 (8 The critical role of connecti2e tissue is ifficult to emonstrate without 2isiting the meat ,rocessing ,lant or #ringing in sections of articulate lim#s8 *8 Our 9nowle ge of #loo is intertwine with much history8 G8S8 troo,s in ::00 were gi2en ,lasma instea of whole #loo ue to the uncertainty surroun ing #loo ty,es5 while the +ussians effecti2ely trans,lante #loo from ca a2ers8 -8 Ma7or changes ha2e occurre in our un erstan ing of the ner2ous system in the last two eca es5 ue to new technology for e/,loring #rain function8 This inclu es the re2elation that neuroglial cells5 not stan ar s neurons5 com,ose a ma7or ,ortion of #rain tissue8 1.8 3escri#e the internal sensors that o,erate in maintaining #loo ,ressure5 #loo 2olume5 #loo chemistry5 an other characteristics5 ,ointing out that sensory information is not always from the e/ternal en2ironment an is not always consciously recogni'e 8 This has im,lications for e2olution5 where we ten to thin9 only of a a,tations to the e/ternal en2ironmentD a a,tations to ,arasites an #acterial an 2iral in2a ers may #e more im,ortant to humans who ha2e mastere their e/ternal en2ironment with heaters5 air con itioners an clothing8 Stu ents may #e aware of se,arate hot an col ner2es as chil ren5 ue to col water feeling warm after coming in from ,laying in the snow8 118 3iscuss the functions of the s9in5 es,ecially its ,rotecti2e functions of maintaining water in 232

the #o y an ,re2enting #acterial infections8 Lou might iscuss how #urns o2er much of the #o y are so angerous in eliminating these functions of the s9in5 an com,lete estruction of all s9in can #e fatal8 As with other con itions5 we often o not a,,reciate the 2alue of s9in until we see a ,atient that lac9s it8 128 4umans?the Bna9e a,esC?ha2e come to utili'e sweat glan s more than most animalsD many stu ents will un erstan the effecti2eness of heat loss through e2a,oration if this is relate to the chilling that occurs after you get out of a shower or tu# without toweling offD for water to go from li>ui ro,lets to e2a,orate gas 2a,or re>uires heat energy that is ta9en from the surface of the #o y @the same e2a,orati2e cooling that occurs in refrigerator coilsA8 Most G8S8 non;science stu ents will not un erstan this latent heat of e#aporation since most lac9 a strong ,hysics #ac9groun 8

Cri$i&al T!i",i"*
-%e#$i'" 10 :hy woul more s9in ,igment #e selecte in tro,ical regions an less s9in ,igment #e ,re,on erant in ,olar regionsK
A"#.er: Tro,ical regions ha2e more intense sunlight an a higher ris9 of cancerD melanin an other ,igments hel, shiel elicate cells from this ra iation8 S9in cells5 howe2er5 are also res,onsi#le for ,ro2i ing the ,recursor molecule that is con2erte to 2itamin 3 in the #o y #y e/,osure to sunlightD the sunlight a2aila#le in ,olar regions is 2ery slight5 an the im,ortance of ,igments for GV ,rotection is far less than the nee for 2itamin 38 -%e#$i'" 20 4ow o the fee #ac9 mechanisms of la#or an chil #irth iffer from those of maintaining a constant #o y tem,eratureK A"#.er: La#or in2ol2es an e2er;increasing nee for uterine muscle contractions5 etc85 lea ing to chil #irth an in2ol2es ,ositi2e fee #ac9 that continues this ,rocess8 The normal human #o y tem,erature is li9e the house thermostat an nee s to #e 9e,t within a narrow rangeD therefore5 mo2ement towar hotter or col er triggers negati2e fee #ac9 mechanisms to re2erse the ,rocesses an return the #o y tem,erature to within the normal range8

Te&!"'l'*y 1r'+ M&Gra.;Hill

)lease consult your C'%r#e I"$e*ra$i'" G%ide for technology correlations for this cha,ter8

233

CHAPTER

42

CIRCULATION AN CAR IOVASCULAR SYSTEMS

This chapter presents a study of circulation in various forms of life, including invertebrates, vertebrates, and humans. A detailed discussion of the anatomy and physiology of the human circulatory system precedes a description of various cardiovascular diseases. The formed elements (cells) of human blood are described. A Health Focus box looks at Prevention of ardiovascular !isease." A section on blood types is included.

Chapter Outline
4201 Tra"#)'r$ i" I"ver$ebra$e#
S,onges5 cni arians an flatworms are grou,s of organisms with a thin #o y wall that ma9e a circulatory system unnecessary8 28 4y ras ha2e each cells e/,ose to water an can in e,en ently e/change gases an e/crete wastes8 38 )lanaria ha2e a trilo#e gastro2ascular ca2ity an a small5 flat #o y where nutrients iffuse from cell to cell8 48 )seu ocoelomates5 such as nemato es5 use the coelomic flui of the #o y ca2ity to trans,ort flui s8 "8 &chino erms rely on mo2ement of coelomic flui as a circulatory system8 A8 0n2erte#rates with a Circulatory System 18 0n a &ir&%la$'ry #y#$e+3 a ,um,ing heart mo2es one of two ty,es of circulatory flui s8 a8 Bl''d is a circulatory flui an is always containe within #loo 2essels8 #8 He+'ly+)! is a circulatory flui which flows into the hemocoel of certain arthro,o s an molluscsD it is a mi/ture of #loo an interstitial flui 8 28 Certain arthro,o s an molluscs ha2e an ')e" &ir&%la$'ry #y#$e+0 a8 4emolym,h is ,um,e #y the heart into the #o y ca2ity or sacli9e sinuses8 #8 4emolym,h #athes the internal organs an then rains #ac9 to the heart8 c8 0n grassho,,ers5 a orsal heart ,um,s hemolym,h into an aorta5 which em,ties into the hemocoel8 8 4emolym,h is colorless @it lac9s hemoglo#in or other res,iratory ,igmentsAD a system of tracheae ,ro2i es o/ygen8 38 Some in2erte#rates5 inclu ing earthworms an ce,halo,o s5 ha2e a &l'#ed &ir&%la$'ry #y#$e+ in which #loo ne2er lea2es the heart or 2essels8 a8 Val2es ,re2ent any #ac9war flow of the #loo as it mo2es through 2essels8 #8 &arthworms ha2e fi2e ,airs of anterior lateral 2essels that ,um, #loo to e2ery segment8 c8 Bloo mo2es in ca,illaries where an e/change with tissue flui ta9es ,lace #efore returning in 2eins8 8 &arthworms ha2e a re res,iratory ,igment hemoglo#in issol2e in the #loo 5 not insi e #loo cells8 e8 :ith no s,ecial ca2ity for gas e/change5 the gas must iffuse across a moist #o y wall8 18

4202 Tra"#)'r$ i" Ver$ebra$e#

18 28 38 Verte#rates ha2e a close circulatory system calle a &ardi'va#&%lar #y#$e+0 The muscular heart 9ee,s #loo circulating through the #loo 2essels8 a8 The atria are the cham#ers of the heart that recei2e #loo 8 #8 The 2entricles ,um, #loo into arteries8 There are three 9in s of #loo 2essels% ar$erie# carry the #loo away from the heart5 &a)illarie# are where the e/change with tissue flui ta9es ,lace5 an vei"# return the #loo to the heart8 a8 Ar$erie# 1A ha2e thic9 walls an are resilient8 2A e/,an to accommo ate su en increase in #loo 2olume that results after heart contraction8 3A i2i e into small ar$eri'le#0 #8 Arteriole constriction an ilation is regulate #y the ner2ous system to affect #loo ,ressure8

234

Ca,illaries are microsco,ic #loo 2essels with a wall forme of one layer of sim,le s>uamous cells8 1A Ca,illary #e s are so ,re2alent that5 in humans5 all cells are within $.=*. dm of a ca,illary8 2A Only "N of the ca,illaries are o,en at one timeD after an animal has eaten5 the ca,illary #e s of the igesti2e system o,en8 3A Ca,illaries are so narrow that re #loo cells must ,ass through them in single file8 4A 1as5 nutrient5 an waste e/change occurs across the thin ca,illary walls8 8 The ve"%le# are 2essels that ta9e #loo from ca,illaries an 7oin to form a 2ein8 e8 Veins trans,ort #loo towar the heart8 1A The walls of 2eins are much thinner than those of arteriesD there is a lower #loo ,ressure in 2eins than in arteries8 2A One;way 2al2es o,en in the irection of the heart5 then close to ,re2ent #ac9flow8 A8 Com,arison of Circulatory )athways 18 0n 2erte#rates5 there are three ifferent ty,es of circulatory ,athways8 28 !ishes ha2e a one;circuit @single;loo,A circulatory ,athway8 a8 The heart has a single atrium an a single 2entricle an ,um,s the #loo un er ,ressure to the gills8 #8 Bloo is o/ygenate in the gills8 c8 After ,assing through gills5 #loo is returne to the orsal aorta5 which istri#utes the #loo throughout the #o y8 38 Other 2erte#rates ha2e a two;circuit @ ou#le;loo,A circulatory ,athway to #reathe air on lan 8 a8 The #y#$e+i& &ir&%i$ trans,orts the #loo to tissues8 #8 The )%l+'"ary &ir&%i$ ,um,s the #loo to lungs8 48 0n am,hi#ians an most re,tiles5 the heart has two atria an a single 2entricle8 "8 0n most re,tiles5 an in all #ir s an mammals5 the heart is i2i e into left an right hal2es8 a8 :ith two atria an two 2entricles5 the o/ygenate #loo is always se,arate from the eo/ygenate #loo 8 #8 The right 2entricle ,um,s #loo to the lungsD the left 2entricle ,um,s #loo to the rest of the #o y8 c8 This arrangement ,ro2i es a e>uate #loo ,ressure for #oth the ,ulmonary an the systemic circulations8

c8

4204 Tra"#)'r$ i" H%+a"#

A8 The 4uman 4eart 18 The ,um,ing of the heart 9ee,s the #loo mo2ing in arteries8 28 S9eletal muscle contraction is res,onsi#le for the #loo mo2ement in 2eins8 38 The !ear$ is a cone;sha,e 5 muscular organ a#out the si'e of a fist8 48 0t is locate #etween the lungs irectly #ehin the sternum an is tilte so that the a,e/ is oriente to the left8 "8 The myocar ium is a ma7or ,ortion of the heart consisting mostly of car iac muscleD its muscle fi#ers are #ranche an tightly 7oine together8 $8 The heart lies within the ,ericar ium5 a sac that secretes a lu#ricating flui 8 (8 The en ocar ium lines the inner surface of the heartD it consists of connecti2e tissue an en othelial tissue8 *8 An internal wall calle the #e)$%+ se,arates the heart into right an left hal2es8 -8 The heart has two u,,er5 thin;walle a$ria an two lower5 thic9;walle ve"$ri&le#0 1.8 4eart 2al2es irect the flow of #loo an ,re2ent any #ac9war mo2ement8 a8 Val2es are su,,orte #y strong fi#rous ten ons @chor ae ten ineaeA which su,,ort the 2al2es an ,re2ent them from in2erting when the heart contracts8 #8 A$ri've"$ri&%lar valve# #etween the atria an 2entricles ,re2ent any #ac9 flow from the 2entricle to the atrium8 c8 The right atrio2entricular @tricus,i A 2al2e on right si e of the heart consists of three cus,s or fla,s8 8 The left atrio2entricular @#icus,i or mitralA 2al2e on left si e consists of two cus,s or fla,s8 e8 Se+il%"ar valve# are locate #etween the 2entricles an their attache 2essels8 1A The ,ulmonary semilunar 2al2e lies #etween the right 2entricle an the ,ulmonary trun98 2A The aortic semilunar 2al2e lies #etween the left 2entricle an the aorta8 B8 )ath of Bloo Through the 4eart

23"

The route of #loo through the heart is as follows% a8 O/ygen;,oor #loo enters the right atrium from #oth the su,erior 2ena ca2a an the inferior 2ena ca2a8 #8 The right atrium sen s #loo through the right atrio2entricular @tricus,i A 2al2e to the right 2entricle8 c8 The right 2entricle sen s #loo through the ,ulmonary semilunar 2al2e into the ,ulmonary trun9 an arteries to the lungs8 8 O/ygen;rich #loo returns from the lungs through ,ulmonary 2eins an is eli2ere to the left atrium8 e8 The left atrium sen s #loo through the left atrio2entricular @#icus,i or mitralA 2al2e to the left 2entricle8 f8 The left 2entricle sen s #loo through the aortic semilunar 2al2e into the aorta an on to the #o y ,ro,er8 28 The heart is therefore a ou#le ,um, ser2ing the lungs an #o y circulations simultaneouslyD O2;,oor #loo an O2;rich #loo ne2er mi/8 38 Since the left 2entricle has the har er 7o# of ,um,ing #loo throughout the #o y5 its walls are thic9erD accor ingly5 #loo ,ressure is greatest in the aorta8 48 Bloo ,ressure ecreases as the cross;sectional area of the arteries an arterioles increases8 C8 The 4eart#eat 18 The human heart contracts @#eatsA a#out (. times a minute @28" #illion times in a lifetimeAD each heart#eat lasts a#out .8*" secon s8 28 The heart#eat or &ardia& &y&le consists of ,hases8 38 The atria contract first while the 2entricles rela/ @.81" sec8A5 then the 2entricles contract while atria rela/ @.83. sec8A5 an then all cham#ers rest @.84. sec8A8 48 Sy#$'le refers to the contraction of heart cham#ers an dia#$'le refers to the rela/ation of the heart cham#ers8 "8 The heart is in iastole a#out ".N of the time8 $8 The short systole of the atria is nee e only to sen #loo into the 2entricles8 (8 :hen the term BsystoleC is use alone5 it refers to the left 2entricle systoleD the 2olume of #loo that the left 2entricle ,um,s ,er minute into the systemic circuit is calle the &ardia& '%$)%$0 *8 :hen the heart #eats5 the familiar lub;"ub soun is hear as the 2al2es of the heart close8 a8 @ub is cause #y the 2i#rations of the heart when the atrio2entricular 2al2es close8 #8 Dub is hear when the 2i#rations occur ue to the closing of semilunar 2al2es8 -8 The )%l#e is a wa2e effect that ,asses own the walls of arterial #loo 2essels when the aorta e/,an s an then recoils following 2entricular systole8 1.8 Since there is one arterial ,ulse ,er 2entricular systole5 the arterial ,ulse rate can #e use to etermine the heart rate8 118 +hythmic contraction of the heart is ue to the &ardia& &'"d%&$i'" #y#$e+0 a8 The sinoatrial @SAA no e is the B,acema9erC foun in the u,,er orsal wall of the right atriumD it initiates the heart#eat #y sen ing out an e/citatory im,ulse e2ery .8*" secon s to cause the atria to contract8 #8 The atrio2entricular @AVA no e is foun in the #ase of the right atrium 2ery near the se,tumD when stimulate #y im,ulses from the SA no e5 it sen s out im,ulses through the se,tum to cause the 2entricles to contract8 c8 Although the #eat of the heart is intrinsic5 it is regulate #y the ner2ous system which can increase or ecrease the heart#eat rate8 8 The SA no e is calle the &ardia& )a&e+a,er #ecause it usually 9ee,s the heart#eat regular8 e8 The hormones e,ine,hrine an nore,ine,hrine also stimulate the heart8 128 An ele&$r'&ardi'*ra+ 8ECG9 is a recor ing of the electrical changes that occur in the myocar ium uring a car iac cycleD it is use as a iagnostic tool to i entify a#normal car iac function8 138 6ormal Car iac Cycle a8 The ) wa2e re,resents e/citation an occurs 7ust #efore atrial contraction8 #8 The \+S com,le/ signals that the 2entricles are a#out to contract8 c8 The electrical changes that occur as the 2entricular muscle fi#ers reco2er ,ro uce the T wa2e8 148 Ventricular fi#rillation is uncoor inate contraction of the 2entriclesD with the a,,lication of a strong electric current5 the SA no e may reesta#lish a coor inate #eat8

18

23$

38 Vascular )athways The human car io2ascular system has two ma7or circular ,athways8 18 The )ulmonary Circuit a8 The )%l+'"ary &ir&%i$ circulates #loo to the lungs8 #8 O/ygen;,oor #loo from the #o y collects in the right 2entricle5 which ,um,s it to the )%lm'"ary trun90 c8 The ,ulmonary trun9 i2i es into right an left ,ulmonary arteries to carry #loo to each lung8 8 0n the lungs5 car#on io/i e @CO2A is unloa e an O2 is ,ic9e u, #y #loo 8 e8 O/ygen;rich #loo from the lungs is returne through ,ulmonary 2eins to the left atrium8 28 The Systemic Circuit a8 The a'r$a an ve"a &avae are main ,athways for #loo in the #y#$e+i& &ir&%i$0 #8 Trans,ort of o/ygenate #loo mo2es from the left 2entricle through the aorta out to all tissues8 c8 3eo/ygenate #loo returns from all tissues 2ia the 2ena ca2ae8 8 0n a systemic circuit5 arteries contain #right re o/ygen;rich #loo D the 2eins contain ull re o/ygen;,oor #loo that a,,ears #lue when 2iewe through the s9in8 38 The coronary arteries ser2e the heart muscle itself8 a8 Coronary arteries originate from the #ase of the aorta 7ust a#o2e the aortic semilunar 2al2e8 #8 Coronary arteries lie on the e/ternal surface of the heartD they #ranch into arterioles an ca,illaries8 c8 Ca,illary #e s enter the 2enules that 7oin to form the car iac 2eins8 8 Coronary 2eins collect o/ygen;,oor #loo from the ca,illaries an em,ty it into the right atrium8 48 The )'r$al #y#$e+ is a ,athway of #loo flow that #egins an en s in ca,illaries8 a8 The !e)a$i& )'r$al vei" trans,orts #loo from ca,illaries in the small intestinal 2illi to ca,illaries in the li2er8 #8 The he,atic 2ein lea2es the li2er an enters the inferior 2ena ca2a8 c8 0n the li2er5 su#stances a#sor#e #y the intestine are mo ifie 5 to/ins an #acteria are remo2e 5 an the normal com,osition of #loo is monitore 8 "8 Tracing the )ath of Bloo a8 Branches from the aorta go to the organs an ma7or #o y regions8 #8 1enerally5 the artery an the 2ein that ser2e the same region are gi2en the same name8 c8 Once #loo goes through the artery5 it tra2els to the arterioles5 then into #ranching ca,illaries where gas e/change occurs5 an then 2enules 7oin to form the 2ein that enters a 2ena ca2a8 &8 Bloo )ressure 18 Systolic ,ressure results from #loo #eing force into the arteries uring 2entricular systole8 28 3iastolic ,ressure is the ,ressure in arteries uring 2entricular iastole8 38 4uman bl''d )re##%re is measure as the force ,ushing against the wall of the #rachial artery of the u,,er arm8 a8 Bloo ,ressure is measure #y a #)!y*+'+a"'+e$er3 which has a ,ressure cuff8 #8 Clinical #loo ,ressure measures ,ressures ,ro uce #y contraction an rela/ation of the left 2entricle8 c8 Bloo ,ressure is state in millimeters of mercury @e8g85 12.F*. mm 4gA for systolicF iastolic8 48 As #loo flows from the aorta into arteries an arterioles5 the #loo ,ressure falls8 "8 The ifference in ,ressure #etween systolic an iastolic ,ressures gra ually iminishes8 $8 Ca,illaries ha2e a slow5 e2en #loo flow ue to the high total cross;sectional area8 (8 Bloo ,ressure in the 2eins is low an cannot mo2e #loo #ac9 to heart5 es,ecially from the lim#s8 *8 Venous return is e,en ent on these factors% a8 S9eletal muscle contraction on the walls of 2eins with 2al2es5 ,re2enting #ac9flow of #loo 5 is res,onsi#le for the flow of #loo in 2eins8 #8 Varicose 2eins are a#normal ilations that e2elo, when the 2al2es #ecome wea9 an ineffecti2e8 c8 A re,iratory ,um, hel,s #loo flow from the higher ,ressure @when we e/haleA to lower ,ressure @when we inhaleA8

!8 Car io2ascular 3isease Car io2ascular isease @CV3A is the lea ing cause of untimely eath in :estern countries8 The ris9 of CV3 can #e re uce #y following gui elines for a heart;healthy life;style8 23(

4y,ertension a8 An estimate 2.N of Americans suffer from hy,ertension @high #loo ,ressureA8 #8 Gn er the age of 4"5 a rea ing a#o2e 13.F-. is hy,ertensi2e8 c8 Beyon the age of 4"5 a rea ing a#o2e 14.F-" is hy,ertensi2e8 8 The iastolic ,ressure is what is em,hasi'e when me ical treatment is consi ere 8 28 Atherosclerosis a8 4y,ertension is seen in in i2i uals with atherosclerosis @formerly calle arteriosclerosisA8 #8 Soft masses of fatty materials5 mostly cholesterol5 accumulate #eneath the inner linings of arteries8 c8 As this ,la>ue accumulates5 it ,rotru es into the 2essel an interferes with #loo flow8 8 Atherosclerosis e2elo,s in early a ulthoo #ut the sym,toms may not a,,ear until age ". or ol er8 e8 )la>ue can cause a #loo clot to form on irregular arterial walls8 f8 As long as a clot remains stationary5 it is a throm#us8 g8 0f a clot islo ges5 it is an em#olus5 a #loo clot that mo2es in the #loo 8 h8 0n some families5 atherosclerosis is inherite as familial hy,ercholesterolemia8 38 Stro9e an 4eart Attac9 a8 Stro9e5 heart attac95 an aneurysm are associate with hy,ertension an atherosclerosis8 #8 A #$r',e can result in ,aralysis or eathD a small cranial arteriole #ursts or is #loc9e #y an em#olus8 1A A stro9e is also calle a car io2ascular acci ent @CVAA8 2A :hether ,aralysis or eath occurs e,en s on the e/tent of the ,ortion of the #rain that lac9s O28 3A :arning sym,toms that foretell stro9e inclu e% num#ness in han s or face5 ifficulty s,ea9ing5 #lin ness in one eye5 etc8 c8 A myocar ial infarction @M0A is also calle !ear$ a$$a&,8 1A This occurs when a ,ortion of heart muscle ies ue to a lac9 of O2D this may #e cause #y a throm#oem#olism #loc9ing a coronary artery8 2A A ,artially #loc9e coronary artery causes a"*i"a )e&$'ri# causing ,ains or a flash of #urning8 3A 6itroglycerin an relate rugs ilate the #loo 2essels an relie2e ,ain8 18 )re2ention of Car io2ascular 3isease @,ealth Focus #o/A 18 The 3on<ts a8 Smo9ing 1A Smo9ing contritu#es to hy,ertension8 2A :hen a ,erson smo9es5 nicotine enters the #loo stream5 causing arterioles to constrict an #loo ,ressure to rise8 3A +estricte #loo flow an col han s are associate with smo9ing8 4A The heart then must ,um, har er to sen the #loo through the lungs at the time when o/ygen;carrying ca,acity of the #loo is re uce 8 #8 3rug A#use 1A 3rugs5 ,articularly stimulants5 can lea to heart attac9s an stro9es8 2A 3rin9ing two to four rin9s a wee9 for men an one to three rin9s for women may actually lower the ris9 of heart isease8 c8 :eight 1ain 1A )eo,le who are more than 2.N a#o2e their recommen e weight ha2e a higher ris9 of hy,ertension8 2A 0n o2erweight ,eo,le5 more tissue nee s ser2icing5 an the heart sen s the e/tra #loo out un er greater ,ressure8 28 The 3o<s a8 4ealthy 3iet 1A &ating foo with monounsatur ate an ,olyunsatur ate fats may lower L3L cholesterol8 2A A iet high in antio/i ants may ,re2ent car io2ascular isease8 #8 Cholesterol )rofile 1A An L3L le2el a#o2e 1$. mgF1.. ml an an 43L le2el #elow 4. mgF1.. ml are matters of concern8

18

23*

2A 3A gui elines8 c8 hy,ertension

An L3L le2el of #elow 1.. mgF1.. ml is recommen e 8 Me ications may #e ,rescri#e for in i2i uals who o not meet these minimum

&/ercise 1A &/ercise may re uce the ris9 of car io2ascular isease8 2A &/ercsie hel,s 9ee, weight un er control5 may hel, minimi'e stress5 an re uce

4207 Bl''d3 a Tra"#)'r$ Medi%+

The #loo of mammals has two com,onents% ,lasma an forme elements @cells an ,lateletsA8 18 Pla#+a contains water an many ty,es of molecules5 inclu ing nutrients5 wastes5 salts5 an ,roteins8 28 Salts an ,roteins #uffer the #loo 8 a8 They effecti2ely 9ee, the #loo ,4 near (848 #8 They maintain the #loo osmotic ,ressure so water has a ten ency to enter ca,illaries8 38 Some ,lasma ,roteins are in2ol2e in #loo clotting8 48 Some ,lasma ,roteins assist in trans,orting large organic molecules in the #loo 8 a8 Li,o,roteins that trans,ort cholesterol are glo#ulins8 #8 Al#umin5 a common ,lasma ,rotein5 trans,orts #iliru#in5 a #rea9 own ,ro uct of hemoglo#in8 A8 !orme &lements 18 !orme elements are of three ty,es% re #loo cells @+BCsA5 white #loo cells @:BCsA5 an ,latelets8 28 +e Bloo Cells a8 Red bl''d &ell# @ery$!r'&y$e#A are small #iconca2e is9s8 #8 :hen mature5 +BCs lac9 a nucleus an contain hemoglo#in8 c8 There are $ million +BCs ,er mm3 of whole #loo 8 8 &ach +BC contains a#out 2". million hemoglo#in molecules8 1A He+'*l'bi" contains four glo#in ,rotein chains5 each with an iron;containing heme grou,8 2A The iron atom of a heme grou, loosely #in s with an O2 moleculeD thus5 #loo carries o/ygen8 3A Anemia is either a lac9 of enough +BC or insufficient hemoglo#inD an in i2i ual suffers from a tire 5 run; own feeling8 e8 +BCs are manufacture in the re #one marrow of the s9ull5 ri#s5 2erte#rae5 an the en s of long #ones8 f8 The growth factor erythro,oietin is ,ro uce when an en'yme from the 9i neys acts on a ,recursor ma e #y the li2er an stimulates ,ro uction of re #loo cellsD as a rug it hel,s ,eo,le with anemia8 g8 Before #eing release from #one marrow5 the +BCs lose their nucleus an synthesi'e hemoglo#in8 h8 +e #loo cells ha2e a life s,an of a#out 12. aysD then they are estroye chiefly in the li2er an s,leen8 i8 :hen the +BCs are estroye 5 the hemoglo#in is release D the iron is reco2ere an returne to the #one marrow where it is reuse 8 78 The heme ,ortions un ergo chemical egra ation an are e/crete #y the li2er as #ile ,igmentsD it colors the feces8 38 :hite Bloo Cells a8 /!i$e bl''d &ell# @le%,'&y$e#A iffer from +BCs in #eing larger an in ha2ing a nucleus8 #8 :BCs lac9 hemoglo#in an a,,ear translucent without staining8 c8 1ranular leu9ocytes contain cons,icuous granules in their cyto,lasm an ha2e a lo#e nucleus8 1A Ne%$r')!il# ha2e granules that stain slightly ,in9D they are amoe#oi 5 s,herical cells that rea ily s>uee'e through ca,illary walls an ,hagocyti'e foreign material8 2A E'#i"')!il# ha2e granules that ta9e u, the re ye eosin8 3A Ba#')!il# ha2e granules that ta9e u, a #asic ye5 staining them ee, #lue8 8 A newly isco2ere stem cell growth factor @S1!A increases the ,ro uction of all :BCs5 which hel,s ,atients with low immunity8 e8 Agranular leu9ocytes lac9 granules in their cyto,lasm an ha2e a circular or in ente nucleus8 1A M'"'&y$e# are amoe#oi an a#le to enter tissues where they transform into +a&r')!a*e#0 2A Ma&r')!a*e# release white #loo cell growth factors that increase the num#er of leu9ocytes8 3A )us is a thic95 yellowish flui that contains a large ,ro,ortion of ea :BCs that ha2e fought infection8 4A Ly+)!'&y$e# ,lay a 9ey role in fighting infection an inclu e two ty,es8

23-

aA T cells are lym,hocytes that irectly attac9 2irus;infecte cells8 #A B cells can #e stimulate to ,ro uce one ty,e of a"$ib'dy s,ecific for one ty,e of antigen8 "A An a"$i*e" is any su#stance stimulating ,ro uction of anti#o iesD antigen is foreign to the #o y8 $A A"$ib'die# com#ine with antigens to ,romote their #eing ,hagocyti'e #y a macro,hage8 (A A ,erson is acti2ely immune when many B cells ,ro uce a s,ecific anti#o y for an infection8 48 )latelets a8 Pla$ele$# @$!r'+b'&y$e#A result from fragmente giant cells @+e*a,ary'&y$e#A in the #one marrow8 #8 2.. #illion ,latelets are ,ro uce a ayD #loo contains 1".5...=3..5... ,latelets ,er mm38 c8 )latelets are in2ol2e in #loo clotting5 or coagulation8 "8 Bloo Clotting a8 :hen a #loo 2essel is amage 5 ,latelets clum, at the site of the ,uncture an ,artially seal the lea98 #8 The ,latelets an amage tissue cells release a clotting factor calle ,rothrom#in acti2ator8 c8 :ith calcium ions5 ,rothrom#in acti2ator cataly'es a reaction con2erting ,rothrom#in to throm#in8 8 /hrombin acts as an en'yme to se2er two amino aci chains from each fi#rinogen molecule8 e8 These acti2ate fragments 7oin en ;to;en forming long threa s of fi#rin8 f8 !i#rin threa s win aroun the ,latelet ,lug an ,ro2i e a framewor9 for a clot8 g8 +BCs are tra,,e within the fi#rin threa s5 ma9ing the clot a,,ear re 8 h8 :hen #loo 2essel re,air is initiate 5 ,lasmin estroys the fi#rin networ9 an restores ,lasma flui ity8 B8 Ca,illary &/change 18 Two forces control the mo2ement of flui through the ca,illary walls8 a8 O#+'$i& )re##%re ten s to cause water to mo2e from tissue flui to the #loo 8 #8 Bl''d )re##%re ten s to cause water to mo2e from the #loo to tissues8 c8 At the arterial en of a ca,illary5 #loo ,ressure is higher than osmotic ,ressure% water e/its an mo2es into tissues8 8 Along the ca,illary5 O2 an nutrients iffuse out into the tissue flui 5 while CO2 an other meta#olic wastes iffuse into the ca,illaries from the tissue flui 8 28 Mi way along a ca,illary5 there is no net mo2ement of water8 38 The $i##%e 1l%id is intercellular flui that surroun s the cellsD the circulatory system e/changes materials with this flui 8 48 The e/change #etween the #loo an tissue flui occurs #y iffusion through the one;cell;thic9 ca,illary walls8 a8 At the 2enule en 5 osmotic ,ressure is higher than #loo ,ressure an water mo2es #ac9 into the #loo 8 #8 Almost the same amount of flui that left the ca,illary returns to itD there is always some e/cess tissue flui collecte #y the lym,hatic ca,illaries8 "8 The tissue flui within lym,hatic 2essels is ly+)!0 $8 Lym,h returns to the systemic 2enous #loo when lym,hatic 2essels enter the su#cla2ian 2eins in the shoul er8 (8 6ot all ca,illary #e s are o,en at the same timeD ,reca,illary s,hincters shunt #loo along 2arious ,athways8 *8 Through ca,illary ilation an constriction5 #loo also istri#utes heat to #o y ,arts an conser2es heat when col 8 C8 Bloo Ty,es 18 ABO System a8 The ,resence or a#sence of ty,e A an B antigens on re #loo cells etermine a ,erson<s #loo ty,e8 #8 0f the ,erson has ty,e A #loo 5 the A antigen is on the re #loo cellsD if the ,erson is ty,e B5 the B antigen is on the re #loo cells8 c8 0n the ABO system5 there are four #loo ty,es% A5 B5 AB5 O8 1A 0n i2i uals ha2e naturally;occurring anti#o ies to #loo ty,e antigens not ,resent on their

24.

#loo cellsD these are calle anti;A an anti;B 2A +BCs with a ,articular antigen a**l%$i"a$e when e/,ose to corres,on ing anti#o ies5 e8g85 ty,e A +BCs will agglutinate in the ,resence of anti;A anti#o y @as woul #e foun in the #loo of a ty,e B in i2i ualA8 3A A**l%$i"a$i'" is the clum,ing of re #loo cells ue to a reaction #etween antigens on the re #loo cells8 4A To recei2e #loo 5 the reci,ient<s ,lasma must not ha2e an anti#o y that causes onor cells to agglutinate8 aA +eci,ients with ty,e AB #loo can recei2e any ty,e #loo D they are the uni2ersal reci,ient8 #A +eci,ients with ty,e O #loo cannot recei2e A5 B5 or ABD #ut they are a uni2ersal onor8 cA +eci,ients with ty,e A #loo cannot recei2e B or AB8 A +eci,ients with ty,e B #loo cannot recei2e A or AB8 38 +h System 18 +h factor is an im,ortant antigen in human #loo ty,es8 28 +h ,ositi2e @+hOA has the +h factor on re #loo cellsD +h negati2e @+h;A lac9s the +h antigen on +BCs8 38 +h;negati2e in i2i uals o not ha2e anti#o ies to +h factor #ut ma9e them if e/,ose to +hO #loo 8 48 +h factor is ,articularly im,ortant uring ,regnancy8 a8 4emolytic isease of the new#orn is ,ossi#le if the mother is +h negati2e an the father is +h ,ositi2e8 #8 +h ,ositi2e is a genetically ominant traitD an +h negati2e mother an an +h ,ositi2e father ,ose a +h conflict8 c8 The chil <s +h ,ositi2e +BCs can lea9 across the ,lacenta into the mother<s circulatory system when the ,lacenta #rea9s own8 8 The ,resence of the BforeignC +h ,ositi2e antigens causes the mother to ,ro uce anti;+h anti#o ies8 e8 Anti;+h anti#o ies ,ass across the ,lacenta an estroy the +BCs of the +h ,ositi2e chil 8

Le&$%re E"ri&!+e"$ Idea#

E6)erie"&e Ba#e: Because of the ,re2alence of heart isease5 this to,ic usually generates interest #ecause most stu ents ha2e family mem#ers or relati2es affecte #y it8 0n s,ite of high school #iology curricula5 few college stu ents seem to un erstan the mechanism #y which #loo ,ressure is ta9en8 Bloo onor ri2es are commonly s,onsore on cam,us an some of #loo #iology can #e relate to the e/,eriences stu ents will ha2e ha if they onate #loo 8 18 3escri#e why most molluscs woul ha2e an o,en circulatory system #ut why ce,halo,o s @octo,us5 s>ui 5 an nautilusA woul ha2e a close circulatory system8 Consi er the circulatory nee s of the ,re ator as o,,ose to the se entary filter fee er or the her#i2ore8 28 3raw the im,ro2ements in efficiency from the one;circuit heart of the fish to the ,artially se,arate circulation in most re,tiles5 to the com,letely se,arate two;circuit heart of #ir s an mammals8 0t is ,ossi#le to allu e to the e2olutionary mo ifications that le to these changes when rawing the iagrams an merely a ing a #loo 2essel shunt or e/ten ing a heart wall to ma9e a three;cham#ere heart a four;cham#ere heart8 Consi er acti2ity le2els5 homeothermy5 an similar functions that e,en on o/ygen an nutrient eli2ery8 38 Sometimes a human #a#y is #orn without com,lete closure of the hole #etween the 2entricles @foramen o2aleAD without surgery5 this is fatal an illustrates that we cannot li2e with incom,lete se,aration of o/ygenate an eo/ygenate #loo 5 as can a frog8
48 Consi er the si'e5 sha,e5 an structure of the human heart an why it has a thic9er wall on the left si e5 which

241

eli2ers #loo to the systemic circuit5 as o,,ose to the right si e5 which sen s #loo only to the near#y ,ulmonary circuit8 Stu ents may ha2e #een taught to ,le ge with their han o2er their heart far to the leftD it is more central8 As a general rule5 it is as #ig as the ,erson<s ou#le;u, fist8

"8 3iscuss the actions of the 2al2es an why 2al2ular amage can cause heart murmurs5 2aricose 2eins in the legs5 an e2en eath8 4eart murmurs a soun s to the lu#; u# e,en ing u,on which 2al2e is failing to close an allowing #loo to #ac9wash with a shhh soun 5 as in Blu#; u#;shhh8C $8 An actual emonstration of ta9ing #loo ,ressure will go far to clear the mystery of how the #loo ,ressure cuff wor9s an what is actually hear uring the rea ing of a nonelectronic B) meter8
(8 Many isor ers an iseases ha2e sym,toms that slowly get worse5 #ut stro9e an heart attac9 are usually critical imme iately8 As9 stu ents why this is8

*8 Varicose 2eins are common enough that most stu ents will recogni'e the term5 as well as the sym,toms among ol er in i2i uals8 3iscussion items can inclu e% 1A what is the #lue s,i erli9e ,attern seen near the surface with 2aricose 2einsD 2A why are ,eo,le with se entary 7o#s @where they stan or sit oftenA more ,rone to 2aricose 2einsD 3A how can an o,eration for stri,,ing out 2aricose 2eins or re,lacing a section of 2ein with another segment #e one if it lea2es an area without that 2enous #loo 2esselD 4A if there are fewer 2al2es in 2eins on the left than on the right5 where are 2aricose 2eins more li9elyK -8 +e #loo cells are ,ro uce #y stem cells that efy the 4ayflic9 limit on num#er of cell i2isions an continually ,ro uce +BCs8 Current research is ,ro#ing the ,ossi#le a#ility of some stem cells to B#ac9 u,C an ,ro uce other tissues8 1.8 Lecture >uestion% 0f ,eo,le li2ing at higher altitu es with Bthinner airC an therefore less o/ygen a a,t #y increasing their re #loo cells an For hemoglo#in5 what are the ,hysiological effects @concerning s,orts5 for instanceA when they com,ete at sea le2elK :hat are the effects when a sea le2el ,erson tra2els to the +oc9y Mountains5 for instanceK Tie this in with the conce,t of B#loo o,ing8C 118 Some stu ents may ha2e etecte attache leeches after swimming an witnesse the strong anticoagulant action in the sali2a of the leechD others may ha2e notice mos>uito #ites #lee more freely from a wea9 anticoagulant8 128 Because car#on mono/i e is o orless an to/ic5 not only o some homeowners install CO etectors5 #ut forest firefighters ha2e time limitations for staying on the front lines where it is not ,ossi#le to accurately etect the le2els of car#on mono/i e8 138 Some stu ents #elie2e that 2enous #loo is #lue8 O/ygen;,oor #loo is a ar9 re an #ecomes #righter re with o/ygen8 The #lue a,,earance of #loo in 2eins is ue to the tissuesD stu ents who ha2e gi2en #loo #y 0V can see the ar9 re @not #lueMA 2enous #loo in the collecting #ag8 148 The shunting of #loo flow to an away from 2arious tissues is a ,articularly im,ortant mechanism in i2ing marine mammals8 This a#ility accounts for the whale an other i2ing mammals #eing a#le to stay #elow water far longer than we can8 1"8 :hile arteries an 2eins carry #loo one irection only @away from an towar the heart5 res,ecti2elyA5 footage of ca,illary flow often shows #loo re2ersing8 Ca,illaries can #e com,are to si e streets in a town% while there may #e one ma7or BarteryC into a town5 there 242

are many si estreets for traffic flow #efore it e/its the other si e of town8 As tissue is com,resse or as arteriole s,hincters restrict flow in one area5 #loo may re2erse in ca,illaries to mo2e through a networ9 of other Bsi e streets8C The networ9 is calle an Banastomosis5C an regular routes to #y,ass ca,illary #e s are arterio2enous shunts8 1$8 0n smaller classrooms5 #oth mo els an a real heart @shee,5 #eef5 etc85 from local meat ,rocessing ,lantsA can emonstrate the circulatory system uring lectureD stu ents who actually get their han s on an insi e the heart un erstan the flow ,attern an the soft5 wet machinery5 far #etter8 0f ,ossi#le5 ta9e a fiel tri, to a ca a2er la# an allow stu ents to e/,lore on the BrealC human #o y8 1(8 Stu ents familiar with streams an ri2ers will un erstan that 2elocity changes with stream cross sectionD a ri2er that is wi e flows slowly #ut #ecomes ra,i when force through a small channel?the cross section of all the ca,illaries is greater than the arteries an therefore the flow is slower in ca,illaries8 1*8 :ithout any s,ecial e>ui,ment5 a stu ent who sin9s own in the #athtu# to where ears are #elow water can soon hear their own heart#eat in clear etail8

Cri$i&al T!i",i"*
-%e#$i'" 10 The 9i ney recei2es a#out one;fifth of the #loo flowD this translates into a re #loo cell ,assing through the 9i ney once for e2ery four times it ma9es a circuit through the rest of the #o y8 4ow oes this com,are to #loo flow through the lungsK A"#.er: Because the heart is se,arate into four cham#ers with the right si e shunting all #loo to the ,ulmonary circuit5 a re #loo cell will ,ass through the lungs e2ery circuit or fi2e times more often than it will ,ass through the 9i ney8 -%e#$i'" 20 The ,ercentage of 6orth American 0n ians with ty,e B #loo is only 1N5 an 2irtually none has ty,e AB8 Let5 anthro,ologists #elie2e they originate from northern Asia5 an the ,ercentages of Americans with ty,es B an AB are 3"N an 1.N5 res,ecti2ely8 :hat e2olutionary mechanism coul account for thisK A"#.er: Because of the high ,ersistence of these #loo ty,es in human ,o,ulations5 there is unli9ely to #e a significant a 2antage to ha2ing any ,articular #loo ty,e8 4owe2er5 if the migration of ,eo,les from northern Asia to 6orth America across a lan #ri ge ga2e rise to the 6orth American 0n ian ,o,ulation5 it is li9ely that the 1'%"der e11e&$ le to a lac9 of alleles for ty,e B #loo 8 Small grou,s of immigrants mostly lac9e this #loo ty,e8 -%e#$i'" 40 The lung of a fetus is not yet functioning to a#sor# o/ygen;rich #loo from airD the ,lacental um#ilical cor functions to eli2er this through the a# omen to the fetus<s main #loo 2essels8 Before #irth5 the fetal heart therefore has an o,ening5 calle the foramen o2ale5 in the se,tum #etween the right an left 2entricle8 0f this oes not close #y #irth5 the infant may re>uire heart surgery8 @1A :hy oes this o,ening ,ose a ,ro#lem for a new#orn only after #irth5 an what sym,toms woul you e/,ectK @2A 0f this is such a ,otential anger5 why hasn<t e2olution eliminate the o,ening com,letelyK A"#.er: @1A O/ygen;rich an o/ygen;,oor #loo in the 2entricles mi/D this rastically ecreases the effecti2eness of the heart cham#ers since some o/ygen;rich #loo is now sent to the lungs an some o/ygen;,oor #loo is sent #ac9 to the #o y5 resulting in the a,,earance of a B#lue #a#yC who cannot secure enough o/ygen8 :hile a e>uate o/ygen was ,ro2i e #y the mother5 who is also B#reathing for twoC #efore #irth5 after #irth all #o y systems are star2e for o/ygen to carry out cell res,iration8 @2A The colla,se fetal lungs are merely e2elo,ing tissue with no more nee for o/ygen than other fetal tissues #efore #irthD a fully i2i e four;cham#ere heart is not of any a 2antage5 an the foramen o2ale is not a han ica,5 until the #a#y is #reathing on its own8 -%e#$i'" 70 The um#ilical cor of the fetus is ,art of the fetal #loo system an lea s to the ,lacental interface

243

where o/ygen an car#on io/i e iffuse across5 as well as foo molecules an meta#olic wastes8 4ow are the arteries an 2eins in the um#ilical cor similar to the ,ulmonary circuitK A"#.er: Arteries are efine as carrying #loo away from the heart an 2eins return #loo to the heart8 1enerally arteries carry o/ygen;rich #loo an 2eins carry o/ygen;,oor #loo 5 #ut in the um#ilical cor 5 this is re2erse as it is in the ,ulmonary circulation8 -%e#$i'" ?0 BBloo o,ingC occurs when an athlete or horse owner remo2es #loo 5 stores it5 an then returns it after the #o y has ha time to restore normal #loo le2els8 :hy is this sometimes one an how woul this #e iagnose K A"#.er: This increases the amount of re #loo cells an hemoglo#in a2aila#le to carry o/ygen uring the s,ort e2entD a #loo sam,le woul show a higher;than;normal re #loo cell count8

Te&!"'l'*y 1r'+ M&Gra.;Hill

)lease consult your C'%r#e I"$e*ra$i'" G%ide for technology correlations for this cha,ter8

244

CHAPTER

44

LYMPH TRANSPORT AN IMMUNITY

The lym,hatic system an immunity are etaile in this cha,ter8 To,ics inclu e the anatomy of the lym,hatic system5 nons,ecific an s,ecific efenses5 acti2e an ,assi2e immunity5 an autoimmune iseases8 A Science Focus #o/ e/amines BAnti#o y 3i2ersity8C A ,ealth Focus #o/ loo9s at BO,,ortunistic 0nfections an 40V8C

C!a)$er O%$li"e
4401 Ly+)!a$i& Sy#$e+
The mammalian ly+)!a$i& #y#$e+ consists of lym,hatic 2essels an lym,hoi organs8 This system is closely associate with the car io2ascular system an has four main functions8 a8 Lym,hatic 2essels a#sor# e/cess tissue flui an return it to the #loo stream8 #8 Lacteals recei2e li,o,roteins at the intestinal 2illi an the lym,hatic 2essels trans,ort these fats to the #loo stream8 c8 The lym,hatic system is res,onsi#le for the ,ro uction5 maintenance5 an istri#ution of lym,hocytes8 8 The lym,hatic system hel,s efen the #o y against isease8 A8 Lym,hatic Vessels 18 Ly+)!a$i& ve##el# are e/tensi2eD most regions ha2e lym,hatic ca,illaries8 28 The structure of the larger lym,hatic 2essels resem#les 2eins5 inclu ing the ,resence of 2al2es8 38 The mo2ement of flui is e,en ent u,on s9eletal muscle contractionD when the muscles contract5 flui is s>uee'e ,ast a 2al2e that closes5 ,re2enting it from flowing #ac9war s8 48 The lym,hatic system is a one;way system that #egins with lym,hatic ca,illaries8 a8 They ta9e u, flui that has iffuse out of the #loo ca,illaries an has not #een rea#sor#e 8 #8 0f e/cess tissue flui is ,ro uce or not a#sor#e 5 it will accumulate an result in e ema8 "8 Once tissue flui enters the lym,hatic ca,illaries5 it is calle ly+)!0 $8 Lym,hatic ca,illaries 7oin as lym,hatic 2essels that merge #efore entering one of two ucts8 a8 The thoracic uct is larger than the right lym,hatic uct8 1A 0t ser2es the lower e/tremities5 a# omen5 left arm5 left si e of the hea an nec95 an the left thoracic region8 2A 0t then eli2ers lym,h to the left su#cla2ian 2ein of the car io2ascular system8 #8 The right lym,hatic uct is smaller8 1A 0t ser2es the right arm5 the right si e of the hea an nec95 an the right thoracic region8 2A 0t then eli2ers lym,h to the right su#cla2ian 2ein of the car io2ascular system8 B8 Lym,hatic Organs 18 The red b'"e +arr'. is the origin for all #loo cells inclu ing all leu9ocytes that function in immunity8 18 28

a8 Some lym,hocytes #ecome mature B &ell# in the #one marrow8 #8 Most #ones of a chil ha2e re #one marrow #ut in a ults5 re #one marrow is only in the s9ull5 sternum5 ri#s5 cla2icle5 ,el2ic #ones5 an 2erte#ral column8 c8 +e #one marrow consists of reticular fi#ers ,ro uce #y reticular cells ,ac9e aroun thin;walle sinuses8 8 3ifferentiate #loo cells enter the #loo stream at these #one sinuses8
28 The $!y+%# *la"d is locate along the trachea #ehin the sternum in the u,,er thoracic ca2ity8

a8 T &ell# mature in the thymus8 The thymus glan is larger in chil ren than in a ults an may isa,,ear com,letely in ol age8
#8 The thymus ,ro uces thymic hormones5 such as thymosin5 that are thought to ai in T cell maturation8

24"

38

Ly+)! "'de# are small @a#out 1=2" mmA o2oi structures locate along lym,hatic 2essels8

a8 A lym,h no e contains no ules5 each ,ac9e with B lym,hocytes an contain a sinus8 #8 Lym,h no es cluster in certain regions of the #o y an are name accor ingly% inunal no es in the groin an a/illary no es in the arm,its8
48 The #)lee" is locate in the u,,er left a# ominal ca2ity 7ust #elow the ia,hragm8 The s,leen is similar to a lym,h no e #ut it is much larger5 a#out the si'e of a fist8 0nstea of cleansing the lym,h5 the s,leen cleanses the #loo 8 A ca,sule i2i es the s,leen into lo#ules which contain sinuses fille with #loo 8 +e ,ul, consists of #loo 2essels an sinuses where macro,hages remo2e ol an efecti2e #loo cellsD lym,hocytes cleanse the #loo of foreign ,articles8 :hite ,ul, consists of little lum,s of lym,hatic tissue8 0f the s,leen ru,tures ue to in7ury5 it can #e remo2e D its functions are assume #y other organs8 4owe2er5 a ,erson without a s,leen is more susce,ti#le to infections an may re>uire anti#iotic thera,y8 The $'"#il# are ,atches of lym,hatic tissue locate in a ring aroun the ,haryn/8 a8 PeyerL# )a$&!e# are locate in the intestinal wall an the 2ermiform a,,en i/ is attache to the cecum?#oth encounter ,athogens that enter the #o y #y way of the intestinal tract8

"8

4402 N'"#)e&i1i& e1e"#e A*ai"#$ i#ea#e

I++%"i$y is the a#ility to re,el infectious agents5 foreign cells5 an cancer cells8 18 0mmunity #egins with nons,ecific efenses8 28 The four nons,ecific efenses inclu e #arrier to entry5 ,rotecti2e ,roteins5 natural 9iller cells5 an inflammatory res,onse8

A8 Barriers to &ntry S9in an the mucous mem#ranes lining the res,iratory5 igesti2e5 an urinary tracts are non;chemical5 mechanical #arriers8 Ciliate cells lining the u,,er res,iratory tract swee, mucous an ,articles u, into the throat to #e swallowe 8 Oil glan secretions inhi#it the growth of #acteria on the s9in8 The stomach has a low ,4 @182=38.A that inhi#its the growth of many #acteria8 B8 0nflammatory +es,onse 18 0f tissue is amage 5 a series of e2ents 9nown as the i"1la++a$'ry re#)'"#e occurs8 28 The inflame area has four sym,toms% re ness5 ,ain5 swelling5 an heat8 38 Chemical signals5 e8g85 !i#$a+i"e5 an mast cells5 a ty,e of white #loo cell5 cause 2aso ilation an increase ,ermea#ility of ca,illaries8 48 &nlarge ca,illaries ,ro uce re ness an a local increase in tem,erature8 "8 The swollen area stimulates free ner2e en ings5 causing ,ain8 $8 6eutro,hils an monocytes migrate #y amoe#oi mo2ement to the site of the in7uryD they esca,e from the #loo #y s>uee'ing through the ca,illary wall8 (8 3en ritic cells an macro,hages recogni'e the ,resence of ,athogens an res,on #y releasing cyto9ines8 *8 The cyto9ines stimulate other immune cells8 -8 6eutro,hils5 en ritic cells5 an macro,hages engulf ,athogens8 1.8 As ,hagocytic cells ie5 they5 along with ea #acteria5 ea tissue cells5 an li2ing white #loo cells5 form ,us8 118 3en ritic cells an macro,hages mo2e to the lym,h no es an s,leen5 where they acti2ate B an T lym,hocytes8 128 An inflammatory res,onse may also in2ol2e the ,ro uction of a fe2er5 which ser2es to inhi#it the growth of microorganisms an stimulates immune cells8 C8 )hagocytes an 6atural Eiller Cells 24$

Ne%$r')!il# are cells that are a#le to lea2e the #loo stream an ,hagocyti'e @engulfA #acteria in connecti2e tissue8 28 E'#i"')!il# are ,hagocytic5 #ut are #etter 9nown for attac9ing animal ,arasites that are too large to #e ,hagocyti'e 8 38 Ma&r')!a*e# an de"dri$i& &ell# are the most ,owerful ,hagocytic white #loo cells that engulf ,athogens8 48 Na$%ral ,iller 8NGA &ell# 9ill 2irus;infecte cells an tumor cells #y cell;to;cell contact8 a8 After stimulation #y en ritic cells5 they loo9 for a self ,rotein on the #o y<s cells8 #8 6E cells are not s,ecificD they ha2e no memory an their num#ers o not increase after stimulation8 38 )rotecti2e )roteins 18 C'+)le+e"$ is com,ose of a num#er of ,lasma ,roteins esignate #y the letter C an a su#scri,t8 28 0t Bcom,lementsC certain immune res,onses5 which accounts for its name8 38 0t am,lifies an inflammatory reaction #y #in ing to +a#$ &ell#3 triggering histamine release5 an #y attracting ,hagocytic cells to the site of infection8 48 Some com,lement ,roteins #in s to anti#o ies alrea y on the surface of ,athogens5 there#y increasing the ,ro#a#ility that ,athogens will #e ,hagocyti'e #y a neutro,hil or macro,hage8 "8 Some com,lement ,roteins form a mem#rane attac9 com,le/ that ,ro uces holes in #acterial cell walls an ,lasma mem#ranesD flui s an salts then enter to the ,oint where the cell #ursts8 $8 I"$er1er'"# are &y$',i"e#3 ,roteins ,ro uce #y 2irus;infecte animal cells8 4404 S)e&i1i& e1e"#e A*ai"#$ i#ea#e 18 0f nons,ecific efenses fail to ,re2ent an infection5 s,ecific efenses acti2ate against a s,ecific antigen8 28 :e o not or inarily #ecome immune to our own cellsD the immune system can tell BselfC from Bnonself8C 38 The ste,s to accom,lish a s,ecific efense are% a8 The immune system is a#le to recogni-e ,articular molecules5 calle a"$i*e"#0 1A An a"$i*e" is calle a 1'rei*" a"$i*e" #ecause the #o y oes not ,ro uce themD a #el1;a"$i*e" is an antigen that the #o y ,ro uces8 #8 After recogni'ing antigens5 the immune system can respon" to them8 c8 The immune system can remember antigens it has met #efore8 48 S,ecific immunity is ,rimarily the result of the action of B ly+)!'&y$e# @B &ell#A an T ly+)!'&y$e# 8T &ell#90 a8 B cells an T cells recogni'e antigens #ecause they ha2e a"$i*e" re&e)$'r#? ,lasma mem#rane ,roteins that allow them to com#ine with ,articular antigens8 #8 B cells gi2e rise to ,lasma cells that ,ro uce anti#o ies8 c8 T cells ifferentiate into hel,er T cells5 which regulate the immune res,onse5 or cytoto/ic T cells5 which 9ill 2irus;infecte an tumor cells8 "8 B cells are res,onsi#le for a"$ib'dy;+edia$ed i++%"i$y0
a8 #8 &ach ty,e of B cell carries its s,ecific rece,tor on its surfaceD this is calle the B cell receptor +B0'A8 :hen a B cell in a lym,h no e of the s,leen encounters an a,,ro,riate antigen5 it is acti2ate to i2i e8

24(

A8

The resulting cells are )la#+a &ell#5 mature B cells that ,ro uce anti#o ies in the lym,h no es an s,leenD the anti#o ies are i entical to the BC+ of the B cell that ,ro uce them8 $8 T cells are res,onsi#le for &ell;+edia$ed i++%"i$y0 a8 Antigens must #e ,resente to T cells #y an a"$i*e";)re#e"$i"* &ell @APCA0 #8 T cells ifferentiate into either !el)er T &ell#5 which release cyto9ines5 or &y$'$'6i& T &ell#5 which attac9 an 9ill 2irus;infecte cells an cancer cells8 B Cells an Anti#o y;Me iate 0mmunity 18 The &l'"al #ele&$i'" $!e'ry states that the antigen selects the B cell to ,ro uce a clone of ,lasma cells8 a8 Only one B cell has the BC+s that can com#ine with the s,ecific antigen clone8 The antigen BselectsC the B cell that will clone8 #8 3efence #y B cells is calle antibo"y.me"iate" immunity #ecause most mem#ers of the clone #ecome ,lasma cells that ,ro uce s,ecific anti#o ies8 c8 Some clone B cells o not ,artici,ate in anti#o y ,ro uction #ut remain in the #loo a# +e+'ry B &ell#0 28 A&$ive I++%"i$y occurs when an in i2i ual ,ro uces a su,,ly of anti#iotics8 a8 4owe2er5 acti2e immunity is often in uce when a ,erson is well so that future infection is ,re2ente 8 #8 I++%"i5a$i'" uses va&&i"e# to ,ro2i e the antigen to which the immune system res,on s8 c8 To ,re,are 2accines5 usually ,athogens are treate so they are no longer 2irulent8 8 1enetically engineere #acteria can also ,ro uce antigen ,roteins from ,athogensD the ,rotein is then use as a 2accine8 e8 After a 2accine is gi2en5 the immune res,onse is measure #y the anti#o y le2el in serum?the anti#o y titer8 1A After the first e/,osure5 a ,rimary res,onse occurs from no anti#o ies to a slow rise in titer8 2A After a #rief ,lateau5 a gra ual ecline follows as anti#o ies #in to antigen or sim,ly #rea9 own8 3A After a secon e/,osure5 a secon ary res,onse occurs an the anti#o y titer rises ra,i ly to a le2el much greater than #eforeD this is a B#ooster8C 4A The high anti#o y titer is now e/,ecte to ,re2ent any isease sym,toms if the in i2i ual is infecte 8 f8 Acti2e immunity e,en s on memory B an memory T cells res,on ing to lower oses of antigen8 g8 Acti2e immunity is usually long;li2e although a #ooster may #e re>uire e2ery so many years8 38 Pa##ive i++%"i$y occurs when an in i2i ual is gi2en ,re,are anti#o ies to com#at a isease8 a8 0t is short;li2e #ecause anti#o ies are not ma e #y an in i2i ual<s own B cells8 #8 6ew#orn infants are immune to some iseases #ecause the mother<s anti#o ies ha2e crosse the ,lacenta8 c8 Breast;fee ing also ,romotes ,assi2e immunity?the anti#o ies are in the mother<s mil98 8 )assi2e immunity is also nee e when a ,atient is in imme iate anger from an infectious isease or to/in8 e8 A ,erson may #e gi2en a gamma glo#ulin in7ection @serum that contains anti#o ies against the agentA ta9en from an in i2i ual or animal who has reco2ere from it8

c8

48 An anti#o y molecule is a #$sha,e ,rotein molecule with two arms8

a8 #8 c8 &ach arm has a Bhea2yC an BlightC ,oly,e,ti e chain8 These chains ha2e constant regions an 2aria#le regions8 The constant regions ha2e amino aci se>uences that o not changeD the constant regions are not i entical among all anti#o ies8 8 The 2aria#le regions ha2e ,ortions of ,oly,e,ti e chains whose amino aci se>uence changes ,ro2i ing antigen s,ecificityD it forms the antigen #in ing sites of anti#o ies?their sha,e is s,ecific to antigen8 e8 Another name for anti#o y is i++%"'*l'b%li" @I*A0 f8 0g1 Anti#o ies 1A These are the ma7or ty,e in #loo D less is in the lym,h an tissue flui 8 2A 0g1 anti#o ies #in to ,athogens an to/ins8

24*

0gM Anti#o ies 1A These are ,entamersD they contain fi2e #$sha,e structures8 2A 0gM a,,ears in #loo soon after an infection #egins an isa,,ears #efore it is o2er8 3A They are goo acti2ators of the com,lement system8 B8 Monoclonal Anti#o ies 18 &2ery ,lasma cell eri2e from the same B cell secretes anti#o ies against the same antigenD these are +'"'&l'"al a"$ib'die#0 28 Monoclonal anti#o ies can #e ,ro uce in 2itro8 a8 B lym,hocytes are remo2e from the #o y @usually mice are use A an e/,ose to a ,articular antigen8 #8 Acti2ate B lym,hocytes are fuse with myeloma cells @malignant ,lasma cells that i2i e in efinitelyA8 c8 !use cells are calle !ybrid'+a# #ecause they result from two ifferent cells @hy#ri A an one is cancerous5 therefore the suffi/ B;oma8C 38 Monoclonal anti#o ies are useful #ecause of their e/treme s,ecificity for only a ,articular molecule8 48 They can #e use to select out a s,ecific molecule among many others8 "8 Monoclonal anti#o ies are use for >uic95 relia#le iagnosis of 2arious con itions such as ,regnancy8 $8 They i entify infections5 sort out ifferent T cells5 an istinguish #etween normal an cancer cells8 (8 They can istinguish cancerous from normal cells an can #e use to carry isoto,es or to/ic rugs to 9ill tumors8 C8 Anti#o y 3i2ersity @Science Focus #o/A 18 0mmunologists an geneticists 9new that each B cell ma9es an anti#o y es,ecially e>ui,,e to recogni'e the s,ecific sha,e of a ,articular antigen8 28 4owe2er5 what was not 9nown was how the human genome containe enough genetic information to ,ermit the ,ro uction of u, to 2 million ifferent anti#o y ty,es nee e to com#at all of the ,athogens an in i2i ual is li9ely to encounter throughout their life8 38 Susumu Tonegawa e/amine the 36A se>uences of lym,ho#lasts an com,are them to mature B cells8 48 4e foun that the 36A segments co ing for the 2aria#le an constant regions of the anti#o ies were ,resent in each mature anti#o y;secreting B cells5 where they ran omly came together an co e for a s,ecific 2aria#le region8 "8 Tonegawa #ecame the first Ha,anese scientist to win the 6o#el )ri'e in )hysiology or Me icine8

g8

38 T Cells an Cell;Me iate 0mmunity

18 Li9e B cells5 T cells ha2e uni>ue antigen rece,tors5 calle the / cell receptor5 or /0'8 28 4owe2er5 the rece,tors of cytoto/ic an hel,er T cells cannot recogni'e antigen ,resent in the tissues5 lym,h5 or #loo 8 38 0nstea 5 antigen must #e ,resente to them #y an antigen;,resenting cell @A)CA8 48 :hen an A)C ,resents a 2iral or cancer cell antigen5 the antigen is first lin9e to a +aA'r !i#$'&'+)a$ibili$y &'+)le6 @MHCA )r'$ei"D together they are ,resente to a T cell8 a8 The im,ortance of the M4C was recogni'e when it was isco2ere it contri#utes to the ifficulty of trans,lanting tissues from one ,erson to another8 #8 :hen a onor an reci,ient are histocom,ati#le5 it is li9ely a trans,lant will #e successful8 "8 :hen a macro,hage antigen is ,resente to a T cell5 the T cell recogni'es the antigen8 a8 Once a hel,er T cell recogni'es the antigen5 it un ergoes clonal e/,ansion an ,ro uces cyto9ines stimulating immune cells to remain acti2e an ,erform their functions8 #8 Once a cytoto/ic T cell is acti2ate 5 it un ergoes clonal e/,ansion an estroys any cell that ,ossesses antigen if the cell #ears the correct 4LA antigen ,resente earlier8 c8 As the infection isa,,ears5 the immune reaction wanes an few cyto9ines are ,ro uce 8 $8 A,o,tosis occurs in the thymus if the T cell #ears a rece,tor to recogni'e a self antigenD if a,o,tosis oes not occur5 T;cell cancers result @i8e85 lym,homas an leu9emiasA8 (8 Ty,es of T Cells a8 Cy$'$'6i& T Cell# 1A They estroy antigen;#earing cells @e8g85 2irus;infecte or cancer cellsA8 2A They ha2e storage 2acuoles that contain ,erforin molecules8 3A )erforin molecules ,erforate a ,lasma mem#raneD water5 salts5 an en'ymes @calle gran-ymesA then enter causing the cell to #urst8

24-

#8

c8 cells8

4A This is calle &ell;+edia$ed i++%"i$y0 Hel)er T Cell# regulate immunity #y enhancing the res,onse of other immune cells8 1A :hen e/,ose to an antigen5 they enlarge an secrete &y$',i"e#0 2A Cyto9ines stimulate the hel,er T cells to clone an other immune cells to ,erform their functions8 40V infections 1A The ,rimary host for an 40V is a hel,er T cell8 2A The host hel,er T cell then ,ro uces 2iruses that go on to estroy more hel,er T

3A At first5 the in i2i ual is a#le to stay ahea of the 2irus #y ,ro ucing enough hel,er T cells to 9ee, their num#er within the normal range8 4A 1ra ually the T cell count ro,s to way #elow normal8 "A The infecte in i2i ual comes own with o,,ortunistic infections8 $A 6ow the in i2i ual has A03S8 (A An 40V infection is ,resently a treata#le isease5 #ut the regimen is ifficult to maintain5 an 2iral resistance to the me ications is #ecoming a,,arent8 &8 O,,ortunistic 0nfections an 40V @,ealth Focus #o/A 18 A03S @ac>uire immuno eficiency syn romeA is cause #y the estruction of the immune system5 followe #y an 40V @human immuno eficiency 2irusA infection8 28 40V e2entually estroys the immune system cells an the ,erson succum#s to infections that woul not cause isease in a ,erson with a healthy immune system8 38 40V 9ills hel,er T cells #y irectly infecting them5 an also causes uninfecte T cells to ie #y mechanisms5 inclu ing a,o,tosis8 48 0t may ta9e u, to ten years for an in i2i ual hel,er T cell to #ecome e,lete so the immune system can no longer organi'e a s,ecific res,onse to o,,ortunistic infections @OlsA8 "8 Some of the illnesses 40V ,atients may #e susce,ti#le to are% Shingles5 0an"i"iasis, (neumoctosis ,neumonia5 Ea,osi<s sarcoma5 to/o,lasmic ence,halitis5 Mycobacterium a#ium com,le/ @MACA5 an cytomegalo2irus8 $8 4owe2er5 ue to the e2elo,ment of ,owerful rug thera,ies5 ,eo,le infecte with 40V in the G8S8 are suffering lower inci ence of Ols than in the 1-*.s an 1--.s8 !8 Cyto9ines an Cancer Thera,y 18 Cyto9ines are signaling molecules ,ro uce #y either lym,hocytes5 monocytes5 or other cells8 28 Cyto9ines stimulate white #loo cell formationD they may wor9 as a 7unct thera,y for cancer an A03S8 38 0nterferon an interleu9ins are use to im,ro2e the a#ility of an in i2i ual<s T cells to fight cancer8 48 Cancer cells with altere ,roteins on their cell surface shoul #e attac9e #y cytoto/ic T cells8 "8 Cyto9ines may awa9en the immune system an lea to the estruction of cancer8 a8 +esearchers with raw T cells from a ,atient an culture them in the ,resence of interleu9in8 #8 The T cells are re;in7ecte into the ,atientD oses of interleu9in then maintain the 9iller acti2ity of the T cells8 $8 0nterleu9in antagonists may hel, ,re2ent s9in or organ re7ection5 autoimmune iseases5 an allergies when use as a 7uncts for 2accines8

4407 I++%"i$y Side E11e&$#

A8 Tissue +e7ection 18 Tissue re7ection occurs #ecause cytoto/ic T cells cause isintegration of foreign tissueD this is a correct istinguishing #etween self an nonself8 28 Selection of com,ati#le organs an a ministration of immunosu,,ressi2e rugs ,re2ent tissue re7ection8 38 Trans,lante organs shoul ha2e the same ty,e antigens as in the reci,ient8 48 Cyclos,orine an tacrolimus #oth act #y inhi#iting the res,onse of T cells to cyto9ines8 "8 Fenotransplantation5 the trans,lantation of animal tissues an organs into human #eings5 is another way to sol2e the ,ro#lem of organ re7ection8 B8 3isor ers of the 0mmune System 18 A%$'i++%"e di#ea#e# result when cytoto/ic T cells or anti#o ies mista9enly attac9 the #o y<s own cells as if they #ear foreign antigens8 28 The cause is not 9nown #ut autoimmune iseases sometimes a,,ear following reco2ery from an

2".

infection8 0n myasthenia gra2is5 the neuromuscular 7unctions o not wor9 ,ro,erly an muscular wea9ness results8 48 0n multi,le sclerosis @MSA5 the myelin sheath of ner2e fi#ers is attac9e 8 "8 )ersons with systemic lu,us erythematosus ,resent many sym,toms #efore ying from 9i ney amage8 $8 4eart amage following rheumatic fe2er an ty,e 0 ia#etes are also autoimmune iseases8 (8 There are no cures for autoimmune iseases5 #ut they are controlle #y rugs8 C8 Allergies 18 Aller*ie# are hy,ersensiti2ities to su#stances such as ,ollen an other e2ery ay su#stances8 28 A res,onse to these antigens5 calle aller*e"#3 usually in2ol2es tissue amage8 38 0mme iate an elaye allergic res,onses are two of four ,ossi#le res,onses8 a8 I++edia$e aller*i& re#)'"#e# occur within secon s of contact with an allergen8 #8 Col li9e sym,toms are common8 c8 0g& anti#o ies are attache to the ,lasma mem#rane of mast cells in tissues an #aso,hils in #loo 8 8 :hen an allergen attaches to 0g& anti#o ies on these mast cells5 they release large amounts of histamine an other su#stances5 which cause the col sym,toms or e2en ana,hylactic shoc98 e8 A"a)!yla&$i& #!'&, is an imme iate allergic res,onse that occurs #ecause the allergen has entere the #loo streamD it is characteri'e #y a su en5 life;threatening ro, in #loo ,ressure8 48 Allergy shots sometimes ,re2ent the onset of allergic sym,toms8 a8 0n7ections of the allergen cause the #o y to #uil u, high >uantities of 0g1 anti#o ies8 #8 These com#ine with allergens recei2e from the en2ironment #efore they ha2e a chance to reach 0g& anti#o ies locate on the ,lasma mem#rane of mast cells an #aso,hils8 "8 3elaye Allergic +es,onse a8 elayed aller*i& re#)'"#e# are initiate #y sensiti'e memory T cells at the site of allergen in the #o y8 #8 The allergic res,onse is regulate #y the cyto9ines secrete #y #oth T cells an macro,hages8 c8 The tu#erculin s9in test is an e/am,le% ,ositi2e test shows ,rior e/,osure to TB #acilli #ut re>uires some time to e2elo, re ening of tissue8 38

Le&$%re E"ri&!+e"$ Idea#

E6)erie"&e Ba#e: 3ue to the success of mo ern me icine5 American stu ents ha2e far less memora#le e/,osure to #oth serious infectious isease an 2accines @often a ministere in infancy an early chil hoo A8 College;age stu ents no longer ha2e small,o/ 2accination scars nor memories of ,olio e,i emics8 The isor ers that remain are often com,le/ @lu,us5 allergic res,onses5 etc8A an not as sim,le to e/,licate as earlier infectious iseases8 4owe2er5 the recent national concerns with #iological warfare agents an #ioterrorism will ,ro2i e a new moti2ation to un erstan these conce,ts since stu ents may ha2e to ma9e their own ecisions on small,o/ 2accinations5 etc8 18 0nflammation is often o2erloo9e as an im,ortant ,rocessD em,hasi'e its role as one of the nons,ecific reactions that hel,s ,rotect the #o y from in2asion8 Many ,eo,le 2iew inflammation as #a D an we o ,urchase many o2er;the;counter rugs to re uce the sym,toms8 4owe2er5 as9 stu ents to consi er if they really woul want to eliminate the inflammatory res,onse8 28 3escri#e the s,ecificity of the immune res,onse5 with s,ecial em,hasis on the loc9;an ;9ey mechanism of antigen;anti#o y interaction8 38 0n the tro,ics5 small worms @microfilariaA are in7ecte #y mos>uitoes an they e2entually clog the lym,hatic system5 causing sym,toms many stu ents will recogni'e seeing in films 2"1

or 2i eos as Bele,hantiasis8C Stu ents shoul now #e a#le to e/,lain why this enlargement occurs5 why it is not imme iately fatal5 an why it is not cura#le #y surgery8 48 & ema is a fairly common con itionD stu ents can un erstan how a ,hysician or nurse iagnoses it% ,ress against the s9in until a ,ale finger,rint is left where the surface ca,illaries ha2e #een ,resse free of #loo D #efore the ,in9 color returns5 feel if the finger,rint e,ression remainsD if so5 the tissues are retaining water @e emaA8 Such ela#orations hel, stu ents un erstan #oth that the #o y oes contain much #o y flui outsi e the #loo stream5 an that me ical ,rofessionals must learn an array of iagnostic techni>ues5 in this case #y feel or ,al,ation8 "8 Another name for the lym,h glan un er the arm,its or in the groin area was B#u#oCD hence the term #u#onic ,lague ue to the enlargement of these glan s uring infection8 3octors5 unaware of the function of these organs5 ne2ertheless lance them an raine the large amount of ,us8 Stu ents shoul now #e a#le to escri#e5 in mo ern terms5 why this swelling occurre 8
$8 The critical role of natural #acteria on the s9in was emonstrate when an anti#acterial he/achlora,hene soa, was mar9ete o2er three eca es agoD it was 2ery effecti2e in re ucing harmless #acteria that cause #o y o or5 #ut the a#sence of these natural #acteria allowe harmful #acteria to coloni'e the s9in an cause serious s9in isor ers?the soa, was soon restricte from e2ery ay use8 Mil er anti#acterial soa,s using mil er agents ha2e since #een mar9ete although researchers are still worrie a#out the e2elo,ment of resistant #acterial strains8

(8 3istinguish Bcom,lementC @meaning Ba e to for com,letionCA from com,liment @meaning Bto flatterCA5 since few of to ay<s stu ents will recogni'e the first meaning unless e/,erience in geometry8 The conce,t of Bcom,lementC is also ifficult to un erstan without use of 2isuals8 Lecture >uestion% :hy isn<t Bcom,lementC consi ere an acti2e agent on its ownK *8 Continue e/,loring in more etail how the immune ,rocess #ecomes more s,ecific as it goes on5 so that later anti#o ies #in more tightly to the antigen than earlier ones8 This is a ,art of the clonal selection that occurs5 an the memory cells are a#le to react more selecti2ely against the antigen if it shoul a,,ear again8 3iscuss why you on<t get measles or chic9en ,o/ more than once an how influen'a 2iruses must continually change their surface ,roteins to remain a ,ro#lem for each of us8
-8 Contrast small,o/5 which was era icate 5 with influen'a an malaria5 which ha2e not #een8 The limite 2ariation5 restricte human host5 economy of 2accine5 etc85 that ma e small,o/ 2ulnera#le is not the case for most agents8

1.8 As9 why it ta9es so long @sometimes yearsA to ,ro uce allergy relief through allergy shots an whether the shots must #e continue when relief has occurre 8 118 &m,hasi'e the istinction #etween T an B cells8 3iscuss the maturation ,rocess of T cells in the thymus an the ,resence of a se,arate organ @the #ursa of !a#riciusA in #ir s that has a similar function in maturation of the B cells there8 Athymic @nu eA mice lac9 a thymus @an hairA an can #e grafte with ,ractically any tissue @inclu ing chic9en s9in?they grow feathersMA without re7ection #ecause the ,re;T cells ha2e no organ in which to mature8

120 Pa#$e%r .a# .'r,i"* .i$! &!i&,e" &!'lera3 )a##i"* i$ 1r'+ #i&, $' !eal$!y &!i&,e"#3 .!e" !e #%#)e"ded
$!e re#ear&! a"d .e"$ '" va&a$i'"0 /!e" !e re$%r"ed3 $!e &%l$%re !e *ave $' !eal$!y &!i&,e"# 1ailed $' ,ill $!e+0 He a##%+ed !i# &%l$%re .a# bad a"d i"Ae&$ed $!e#e #a+e &!i&,e"# .i$! $!e 1re#! di#ea#e a*e"$@ $!ey re+ai"ed !eal$!y3 +%&! $' !i# )%55le+e"$0 He eve"$%ally &'"&l%ded $!a$ !i# 1ir#$ di#ea#e &%l$%re !ad .ea,e"ed 8a$$e"%a$ed9 'ver $i+e3 a"d &'%ld be %#ed $' )r'vide i++%"i$y $!r'%*! va&&i"a$i'"0 T!i# #''"

2"2

)r'ved $' be $!e &a#e .i$! !i# rabie# $i##%e#3 .!i&! !e %#ed )re+a$%rely b%$ .i$! *rea$ l%&, $' #ave a b'yL# li1e0 Pa#$e%r .'r,ed '%$ $!e &'"&e)$ '1 Na$$e"%a$i"* ba&$eriaO b%$ did "'$ ,"'. .!a$ $!e b'dy .a# a&$%ally d'i"* $' 1'r+ i++%"i$y0 H'. .'%ld y'%r #$%de"$# e6)lai" $' Pa#$e%r .!a$ $!e &!i&,e"#L b'die# .ere d'i"* $' 1'r+ i++%"i$y3 i" $'dayL# la"*%a*eP

Cri$i&al T!i",i"*
-%e#$i'" 10 The ,roce ure where a me ical octor uses his or her han s to feel tissues is calle B,al,ation8C :hy woul ,al,ation of the lym,h no es un er the arm or ear #e a common iagnostic ,racticeK A"#.er: 0nfectious agents are often swe,t along the lym,h ucts an en u, collecte at the lym,h no es when the swelling in icates that the lym,hocytes are fighting the infection8

-%e#$i'" 20 0n ele,hantiasis5 small filarial worms enter #y mos>uito #ites an e2entually clog the lym,h system5 causing great istention of the legs5 arms5 scrotum5 etc8 0t is untreata#le8 :hat causes these sym,toms an why is it 2irtually untreata#leK
A"#.er: There is a gra ual flow of #o y flui s5 from serum see,ing across the ca,illary wall through the e/tensi2e lym,h ucts an e2entually um,ing #ac9 into the #loo stream at the su#cla2ian 2ein8 The filarial worms clog the lym,hatic ucts an lym,h #ac9s u,5 greatly isten ing these tissues that5 li9e 2eins5 mo2e lym,h #y 2al2es an muscular contractions from the lower e/tremities8 0t is not ,ossi#le to remo2e the worms since the surgical intrusion woul #e far more amaging5 an the worms a,,arently ,resent a cuticle surface that can a2oi the immune res,onse8 -%e#$i'" 40 0f a rug such as Cyclos,orine can ,re2ent tissue re7ection5 why can<t it #e use to cure the autoimmune iseasesK

A"#.er: Cyclos,orine acts #y inhi#iting the ,ro uction of interleu9in;28 0nterleu9ins im,ro2e the a#ility of an in i2i ual<s own T cells to fight cancer an other foreign ,roteins8 Autoimmune iseases a,,ear after infections an may #e ue to the T cells learning to attac9 the #o y<s own tissues8 0f su,,ression of the T cells im,ro2e a ,atient with an autoimmune isease5 the ,atient woul also #e at higher ris9 for other infections8
-%e#$i'" 70 Although we ,resume we ha era icate small,o/ as a isease5 recent e2i ence in icates that the 2irus ha #een culture an wea,oni'e 5 an that there is a ris9 that it coul #e release as a #ioterrorism agent8 The uration of a small,o/ 2accination is un9nown5 #ut ,rotection is not ensure ,ast ten years8 The G8S8 iscontinue small,o/ 2accination of citi'ens a#out 1-*.8 Small,o/ is uni>ue in that a ,erson e/,ose to the 2irus can still #e ,rotecte if they recei2e the 2accine within the ne/t 3=4 ays8 @1A :hy woul a #ioterrorism attac9 in the G8S8 #e met with an une2en occurrence of the isease5 com,are with the earlier natural out#rea9s in thir worl countriesK @2A :hat is the effecti2eness of this #iological warfare agent as time goes #yK @3A 0f the current G8S8 stoc9,ile of a few million oses was ilute to allow more to #e 2accinate 5 what woul #e the resultK A"#.er#: @1A )re2iously 2accinate ol er ,ersons woul ha2e 2arying titers of anti#o y e,en ing on their ,ersonal le2els of immunity5 although most woul not #e ,rotecte 8 @2A :ith more ,assage of time5 the increase in un2accinate younger ,o,ulation an loss of ,rotection in aging ol er ,eo,le ma9es small,o/ a more e2astating #iological wea,on8 @3A 0n case of an attac95 the a ministration of a ilute 2accine coul re uce the se2erity of the isease8

-%e#$i'" ?0 0f you are #itten #y an eastern iamon #ac9 rattlesna9e5 you coul #e gi2en anti2enin ma e from the ,lasma of horses gi2en in7ections of 2enom from this e/act s,ecies5 or a general rattlesna9e anti2enin ma e #y in7ecting a mi/ture of many ifferent rattlesna9e 2enoms8 :hich woul you ,refer for fast action an why is it faster

2"3

actingK A"#.er: Since this ,ro2i es ,assi2e immunity5 or #orrows the anti#o ies alrea y #uilt u, #y the horse5 this oes not in2ol2e the #uil u, of your memory cells #ut merely uses the anti#o ies imme iately ,resent in the horse serum8 The anti2enin ma e from the e/act same s,ecies woul ha2e the highest ose of these anti#o ies an woul #e more effecti2eD the mi/ture woul contain a much lower ose since anti#o ies ma e to other ,roteins woul not #e effecti2e8 The general anti2enin is ma e for use when the i entity of the rattlesna9e is uncertain8

-%e#$i'" B0 Most ,eo,le in the Gnite States trace ancestry to &uro,e where the ,o,ulation re,resents the resistant sur2i2ors of many centuries of e2olution with tu#erculosis8 Therefore5 in the G8S85 tu#erculosis is not ,re2alent5 is usually a chronic isease5 an we monitor it #y using an allergy test to etect in i2i uals who ha2e #een e/,ose 8 4owe2er5 in Asia5 tu#erculosis is much BnewerC an the ,o,ulation has not ha as many centuries to select for resistant sur2i2ors8 The tu#erculosis cases are more acute an easily transmitte D therefore the health officials 2accinate the ,u#lic with a relate BC1 #acterium that ,ro2i es some immune res,onse8 @1A Can Asia monitor for tu#erculosis using the ,atch testK @2A :hich continent is using the correct strategyK @3A 0f you tra2ele #riefly to Asia5 shoul you get the BC1 2accineK A"#.er#: @1A Once you recei2e the BC1 2accine5 you will test ,ositi2e for tu#erculosisD thus the allergy test is not useful8 @2A The two strategies are a,,ro,riate for each res,ecti2e region8 @3A 0f you ta9e the BC1 2accine5 you woul always test ,ositi2e after return to the G8S8 an woul ha2e to ha2e a chest /;ray to chec9 for tu#erculosisD the BC1 might #e 7ustifie if you tra2ele to a tu#erculosis war or other Bhots,otC #ut woul otherwise #e ,ro#lematic8

Te&!"'l'*y 1r'+ M&Gra.;Hill

)lease consult your C'%r#e I"$e*ra$i'" G%ide for technology correlations for this cha,ter8

2"4

CHAPTER

47

IGESTIVE

SYSTEMS AN NUTRITION

This cha,ter ,resents a stu y of the igesti2e systems of animals5 with em,hasis on the human system8 The acti2ity of each ,art of the igesti2e system is escri#e in etail8 Various igesti2e en'ymes an their mo e of action are escri#e 8 The cha,ter conclu es with a stu y of nutrition% the 2arious nutrients necessary for the human #o y an the functions in which they ,artici,ate8 A ,ealth Focus #o/ escri#es the B:all of the 3igesti2e Tract8C

C!a)$er O%$li"e
4701 i*e#$ive Tra&$# 18 Most animals nee to igest foo into small molecules that can cross ,lasma mem#ranes8
28 3igestion ,ro2i es the energy nee e to carry out routine meta#olic acti2ities an maintain homeostasis8 38 The igesti2e tract ingests foo 5 #rea9s own foo into small molecules that can cross ,lasma mem#ranes5 a#sor#s these nutrient molecules5 an eliminates non igesti#le remains8 A8 0ncom,lete Versus Com,lete Tracts 18 )lanarians are organisms with an i"&'+)le$e di*e#$ive $ra&$5 a single o,ening @usually calle a mouthA8 a8 )lanaria are carni2orous an fee largely on smaller a>uatic animals8 #8 The igesti2e system contains only a mouth5 a ,haryn/5 an an intestine8 c8 To fee 5 its ,haryn/ e/ten s far #eyon the mouth to suc9 u, minute >uantities at one time8 8 3igesti2e en'ymes in the tract allow some e/tracellular igestion8 e8 3igestion is finishe intracellularly #y cells that line the igesti2e ca2ityD foo then iffuses to near#y cells8 f8 The igesti2e system lac9s regions of s,eciali'e function8 g8 The ta,eworm5 relati2es of ,lanaria5 lac9 a igesti2e system altogetherD they a#sor# foo through a #o y wall with mo ifie microsco,ic ,ro7ections that a#sor# nutrients from the host8 28 0n contrast5 the earthworm has a &'+)le$e di*e#$ive $ra&$0 a8 The igesti2e system is com,ose of a tu#e with a mouth an an anus8 #8 &arthworms fee on ecaye organic matter in the soil8 c8 3ifferent regions of the gut ha2e s,eciali'e functions @e8g85 ingestion5 mechanical igestion5 etc8A8 8 A muscular ,haryn/ raws in foo with suc9ing action8 e8 The cro, is storage area with e/,ansi2e walls8 f8 The gi''ar has thic9 muscular walls to grin foo 8 g8 3igestion occurs in the intestine5 outsi e of cells or Be/tracellular8C h8 The surface area for a#sor,tion is increase #y an intestinal fol calle the $y)!l'#'le0 i8 The un igeste remains e/it the #o y at the anus8 B8 Continuous Versus 3iscontinuous !ee ers 18 Clams are continuous fee ers5 or filter fee ers8 a8 :ater mo2es into a mantle ca2ity through an incurrent si,hon an e,osits ,articles on gills8 #8 Ciliary action mo2es ,articles to the la#ial ,al,s which irect them into the mouth an into the stomach8 c8 3igesti2e en'ymes from a igesti2e glan hel, amoe#oi cells in the tract com,lete igestion8 28 Marine fanworms are sessile filter fee ersD only small ,articles are consume while large ,articles are re7ecte 8 38 Baleen whales are acti2e filter fee ersD #aleen @fringeA filters small 9rill from water8 48 S>ui s are an e/am,le of iscontinuous fee ers8 a8 The hea of a s>ui has ten armsD two arms sei'e the ,rey an #ring it to the s>ui <s mouth8 #8 Bea9li9e 7aws an a rad%la @toothy tongueA re uce the foo to ,ieces8

2""

c8 The eso,hagus lea s to a stomach that hol s foo until igestion is com,lete8 8 3iscontinuous fee ers re>uire a storage region in the gut8 C8 A a,tation to 3iet 18 Animals are herbi#ores @eat ,lants onlyA or carni#ores @eat only other animalsA or omni#ores @eat #othA8 28 0n2erte#rates emonstrate a wi e 2ariety of iets8 38 Mammal entition iffers accor ing to their mo e of nutrition8 a8 Omni2ores5 inclu ing humans5 ha2e entition that accommo ates #oth a 2egeta#le an meat iet8 #8 Omni2ore teeth inclu e incisors @cutting an shearingA5 canines @tearingA5 premolars @crushingA5 an molars @grin ingA8 c8 4er#i2ores ha2e large5 flat ,remolars an molars for grin ing ,lant matter8 8 1ra'ers @e8g85 horsesA ha2e shar, incisors for cli,,ing off grass an lea2es8 e8 4ar ;to; igest ,lant material re>uires e/tensi2e grin ing to isru,t the ,lant cell walls8 f8 Animals that fee on ,lants may ha2e long an com,le/ igesti2e tracts an #acteria in their igesti2e tracts that can igest cellulose5 ,ro ucing nutrients @glucoseA that the animal can use8 g8 Some gra'ers ha2e a r%+e" to igest chewe grassesD ,artially igeste cu is then re;chewe 8 h8 Carni2ores< ,ointe incisors an canines tear off ,ieces small enough to swallow8 i8 Meat is rich in ,rotein an fatty aci s an is easier to igest than ,lant material8 78 Carni2ores ha2e fewer molars for grin ing an a shorter igesti2e tract with less s,eciali'ation8 4702 H%+a" i*e#$ive Tra&$ 18 28 38 48 "8 $8 The human igesti2e tract is a com,lete tu#e;within;a;tu#e system8 &ach ,art of the igesti2e system has a s,ecific function8 !oo is ne2er foun within the accessory glan s5 only within the tract itself8 The igestion of foo in humans is an e/tracellular ,rocess8 &n'ymes are secrete into the igesti2e tract #y near#y glan s which ne2er contain foo themsel2es8 3igestion re>uires a coo,erati2e effort #y the ,ro uction of hormones an the actions of the ner2ous system8

A8 Mouth 18 !oo is chewe in the +'%$! @oral ca2ityA an mi/e with sali2aD the mouth is the #eginning of the igesti2e tract8 a8 Three ,airs of #alivary *la"d# secrete sali2a #y way of ucts into the mouth8 #8 Salivary a+yla#e is the en'yme that #egins starch igestionD maltose is the common en ,ro uct8 c8 !oo is mani,ulate #y a muscular tongue containing #oth touch an ,ressure rece,tors8 8 Taste #u s are locate ,rimarily on the tongue #ut also on the surface of the mouthD these chemical rece,tors are stimulate #y the chemical com,osition of foo 8 e8 !oo is chewe an mi/e with sali2a to form a bolus in ,re,aration for swallowing8 B8 The )haryn/ an the &so,hagus 18 The igesti2e an res,iratory ,assages come together in the )!ary"63 an then se,arate8 a8 3uring swallowing5 the ,athway of air to the lungs coul #e #loc9e if foo entere the trachea8 #8 The e)i*l'$$i# co2ers the o,ening into the $ra&!ea as muscles mo2e a #olus of foo through the ,haryn/ into the eso,hagus8 28 The e#')!a*%# is a muscular tu#e that mo2es swallowe foo to the #$'+a&! #y )eri#$al#i#3 a rhythmical contraction that mo2es the contents along in tu#ular organs8 C8 Stomach 18 The #$'+a&! stores liters of ,artially igeste foo 5 freeing humans from continual eating8 28 3r8 :illiam Beaumont re2eale much of the stomach<s functions in the mi ;1*..s8 a8 Ale/is St8 Martin ha an o,ening @fistulaA into the stomach5 recei2e from a gunshot5 through which 3r8 Beaumont coul o#ser2e stomach acti2ity8 #8 Beaumont collecte the gastric 7uice ,ro uce #y cells of gastric glan s8 c8 :alls of the stomach contract 2igorously an mi/ foo with 7uices secrete when the foo enters8 8 Beaumont foun that gastric 7uice contains hy rochloric aci an another igesti2e su#stance5 ,e,sin8 e8 4e isco2ere gastric 7uices are ,ro uce in e,en ently of the ,rotecti2e mucous secretions8 f8 4is careful wor9 ,ioneere the stu y of the ,hysiology of igestion8 38 4y rochloric aci @4ClA lowers ,4 of the gastric contents to a#out 28 a8 The e,ithelial lining of the stomach has millions of gastric ,its lea ing to gastric glan s8 #8 This aci 9ills most #acteria an other microorganisms8

2"$

The low ,4 also sto,s the acti2ity of sali2ary amylase an ,romotes the acti2ity of ,e,sin5 an en'yme that igests large ,roteins to smaller ,e,ti es8 48 A thic9 layer of mucus ,rotects the wall of the stomach from the 4Cl an ,e,sin8 "8 Glcers e2elo, when the lining is e/,ose to igesti2e actionD recent research in icates this is usually ue to infection #y ,elicobacter pylori #acteria8 $8 Stomach contents5 a thic95 sou,y mi/ture5 is calle &!y+e0 (8 At the #ase of the stomach is a narrow o,ening controlle #y a #)!i"&$er @a circular muscle 2al2eA8 a8 :hen the s,hincter rela/es5 chyme enters the first ,art of the small intestine5 calle the uo enumD a neural refle/ causes the s,hincter to contract5 closing off the o,ening8 c8 The s,hincter rela/es an allows more chyme to enter the uo enum8 8 The slow5 rhythmic ,ace with which chyme e/its the stomach allows for thorough igestion8 38 The Small 0ntestine 18 The human #+all i"$e#$i"e is a coile muscular tu#e a#out three meters long8 28 As chyme enters the d%'de"%+3 ,roteins an car#ohy rates are ,artly igeste #ut no fat igestion occurs8 38 A itional igestion is ai e #y secretions from the liver an the )a"&rea#8 a8 Bile is a secretion of the liver tem,orarily store in the *allbladder #efore #eing sent to uo enumD #ile emulsifies fat @allows fat ro,lets to is,erse in waterA8 48 The lining of the small intestine has ri ges an furrowsD these surfaces are co2ere #y villi @sing8 vill%#AD the small intestine is s,eciali'e for a#sor,tion #y the huge num#er of 2illi that line the intestinal wall8 a8 Villi are fingerli9e ,ro7ectionsD their surface cells are co2ere #y +i&r'villi0 #8 Mi&r'villi are minute ,ro7ections5 calle the B#rush #or er5C on the surface of the cells of the intestinal 2illi8 c8 +i ges5 furrows5 2illi5 an micro2illi greatly increase the effecti2e surface area of the small intestine8 "8 &ach 2illus contains #loo 2essels an a lym,hatic ca,illary5 calle a la&$eal0 a8 A la&$eal ai s in the a#sor,tion of fats8 $8 Sugars an amino aci s enter 2illi cells an are a#sor#e into #loo stream8 (8 1lycerol an fatty aci s enter 2illi cellsD reassem#le into fat molecules5 they mo2e into lacteals8 *8 After nutrients are a#sor#e 5 they are e2entually carrie throughout the #o y #y the #loo stream8 &8 Large 0ntestine 18 The lar*e i"$e#$i"e has four ,arts% the cecum5 colon5 rectum5 an anal canal8 28 0t is larger in iameter #ut shorter in length than the small intestine an is the region following the small intestine8 38 A,,en i/ a8 The a))e"di6 is a fingerli9e ,ro7ection e/ten ing from the &e&%+3 a #lin sac at the 7unction of the small an large intestine8 #8 0t may ,lay a role in fighting infections8 c8 0f an infecte a,,en i/ #ursts5 it results in general a# ominal infection 5 calle peritonitis8 48 The &'l'" is su# i2i e into the ascen"ing5 trans#erse5 "escen"ing5 an sigmoi"al colon8 "8 A#out 18" liters of water enter the igesti2e tract aily from ingestion an another *8" liters enter from 2arious secretions8 a8 A#out -"N of this total li>ui is rea#sor#e #y the small intestineD most of the remain er is a#sor#e #y cells of the colon8 #8 0f the water is not rea#sor#e 5 it causes diarr!ea which can cause a serious ehy ration an ion loss8 $8 0n a ition to water5 the large intestine a#sor#s salts an some 2itamins5 inclu ing the 2itamin E ,ro uce #y intestinal #acteria8 (8 The large intestine terminates at the a"%#3 the o,ening of the anal canal8 *8 !eces a8 !eces consists of a#out ("N water an 2"N soli matter8 #8 One;thir of the soli matter is intestinal #acteria8 c8 The remain er is un igeste wastes5 fats5 organic material5 mucus5 an ea cells from the intestinal lining8 -8 0ntestinal )'ly)# are small growths arising from the e,ithelial lining8

c8

2"(

:hether they are #enign or cancerous5 ,oly,s can #e remo2e surgically8 A low;fat5 high;fi#er iet ,romotes regularity an may ,ro2i e ,rotection against mutagenic agents8 !8 Three Accessory Organs 18 The )ancreas a8 The )a"&rea# lies ee, within the a# ominal ca2ity5 7ust #elow the stomach5 an rests on the ,osterior a# ominal wall8 #8 0t is an elongate an somewhat flattene organ8 c8 As an en"ocrine glan 5 it secretes glucagon an insulin hormone into the #loo stream8 8 As an e!ocrine glan 5 it secretes ,ancreatic 7uice8 1A )ancreatic 7uice contains so ium #icar#onate that neutrali'es aci ic chyme8 2A )ancreatic en'ymes igest car#ohy rates5 fats5 an ,roteins8 28 The Li2er a8 The liver3 the largest glan in the #o y5 fills the to, of the a# ominal ca2ity5 7ust un er the ia,hragm8 #8 The li2er has numerous functions% 1A 0t eto/ifies #loo #y remo2ing an meta#oli'ing ,oisonous su#stances8 2A 0t ma9es ,lasma ,roteins inclu ing al#umin an fi#rinogen8 3A 0t estroys ol re #loo cells an con2erts hemoglo#in to #iliru#in an #ili2er in in #ile8 4A 0t ,ro uces #ile store in the *allbladder #efore it enters the uo enum to emulsify fats8 "A 0t stores glucose as glycogen an #rea9s own glycogen to maintain a constant #loo glucose concentration8 $A The li2er ,ro uces urea from amino grou,s an ammonia8 c8 Bloo 2essels from #oth the large an small intestines lea to the li2er as the he,atic ,ortal 2ein8 8 The li2er maintains the #loo glucose le2el at .81N #y remo2ing glucose from the he,atic ,ortal 2ein to store as glycogenD when nee e 5 glycogen is #ro9en own an glucose re;enters the he,atic 2ein8 e8 Amino aci s can #e con2erte to glucose #ut eamination @remo2al of amino grou,sA must occur8 f8 By a com,le/ meta#olic ,athway5 the li2er con2erts amino grou,s to urea5 the nitrogenous #rea9 own ,ro uct of amino aci s8 g8 Grea is the most common human nitrogenous wasteD it is trans,orte #y the #loo to the 9i neys8 38 Li2er 3isor ers a8 Ea%"di&e is a sym,tom in2ol2ing a yellowish s9in ue to a large amount of #iliru#in in #loo 8 1A Haun ice can also result from !e)a$i$i#3 inflammation of the li2er8 #8 Viral !e)a$i$i# is a 2iral li2er infection8 1A 4e,atitis A results from eating contaminate foo 8 2A 4e,atitis B an C are s,rea #y #loo transfusions5 9i ney ialysis5 an unsterile nee le use8 3A All three can #e cause from se/ual contact8 c8 Cirr!'#i# is a chronic isease where the li2er tissue is re,lace #y fatty tissue an then scar tissueD alcoholics ,ro2i e too much alcohol for the li2er to #rea9 own8 48 The 1all#la er a8 The *allbladder is a ,ear;sha,e 5 muscular sac attache to the surface of the li2er8 #8 Bile5 ,ro uce in the li2er5 is store in the gall#la er8 c8 :hen nee e 5 #ile lea2es the gall#la er an goes into the uo enum 2ia the common #ile uct8 18 :all of the 3igesti2e Tract @,ealth Focus #o/A The wall of the igesti2e tract has four layers8 18 M%&'#a 8+%&'%# +e+bra"e9 a8 The mucosa is the first layer of the wall ne/t to the lumen8 #8 The mucosa ,ro uces mucus5 which ,rotects the wall from the igesti2e en'ymes insi e the lumen8 c8 3i2erticulosis is the con ition in which ,ortions of the mucosa ha2e ,ushe through the other layers an forme ,ouches where foo can collect8 8 :hen the ,ouches #ecome inflame or infecte 5 the con ition is calle "i#erticulitis. 28 S%b+%&'#a a8 The su#mucosa is the secon layer in the igesti2e wall8 #8 This layer is a #roa #an of loose connecti2e tissue that contains #loo 2essels5

a8 #8

2"*

4704

lym,hatic 2essels5 an ner2es8 Because the su#mucosa contains #loo 2essels5 it can #e the site of an inflammatory res,onse that lea s to inflammatory bowel "isease @0B3A5 which is categori'e #y chronic iarrhea5 a# ominal ,ain5 fe2er5 an weight loss8 38 M%#&%lari# a8 The muscularis is the thir layer of the igesti2e tract wall8 #8 This layer contains two layers of smooth muscle8 c8 The contraction of these muscles accounts for mo2ement of igeste foo from the eso,hagus to the anus8 8 The muscularis can #e associate with Irritable Bowel Syn"rome @0BSA5 in which contractions of the wall cause a# ominal ,ain5 consti,ation5 an For iarrhea8 48 Ser'#a a8 The serosa is the fourth layer of the igesti2e tract wall8 #8 This layer secretes a serous flui an is ,art of the internal lining of the a# ominal ca2ity8 c8 An inflame a,,en i/ @appen"icitisA has to #e remo2e #ecause5 shoul the a,,en i/ #urst5 the result can #e peritonitis5 a life;threatening infection of the ,eritoneum8 i*e#$ive E"5y+e# 18 Salivary a+yla#e is the en'yme that #egins starch igestionD maltose is the common en ,ro uct8 a8 Maltose cannot #e a#sor#e in the small intestineD a itional igesti2e action #rea9s the maltose into glucose5 which can #e a#sor#e 8 28 )rotein igestion #egins in the stomach8 a8 )e,sinogen is con2erte to )e)#i" when e/,ose to the 4Cl in the stomachD ,e,sin #rea9s ,roteins into smaller ,e,ti es8 38 Starch5 ,roteins5 nucleic aci s5 an fats are en'ymatically #ro9en own in the small intestine8 a8 Pa"&rea$i& a+yla#e igests starch to maltose8 #8 Try)#i"5 also a ,ancreatic en'yme5 igests ,rotein to ,e,ti es8 c8 Pe)$ida#e# an +al$a#e5 ,ro uce #y the small intestine5 com,lete the igestion of ,rotein to amino aci s an starch to glucose5 res,ecti2ely8 8 Li)a#e5 another ,ancreatic en'yme5 igests fat ro,lets to glycerol an fatty aci s8 c8

4707 N%$ri$i'" A8 Car#ohy rates 18 Carb'!ydra$e# are ,resent in foo in the form of sugars5 starch5 an fi#er8 28 After #eing a#sor#e from the igesti2e tract into #loo stream5 all sugars are con2erte to glucose for trans,ort in the #loo an use #y cells8 38 1oo sources of starch are% #eans5 ,eas5 cereal5 grains5 an ,otatoes8 48 Fiber inclu es 2arious un igesti#le car#ohy rates eri2e from ,lants8 a8 !oo sources rich in fi#er are% #eans5 ,eas5 nuts5 fruits5 2egeta#les5 an whole; grain ,ro ucts8 #8 !i#er is not a nutrient #ecause it cannot #e igeste to small molecules that enter the #loo stream8 c8 0nsolu#le fi#er @e8g85 as foun in wheat #ranA has a la/ati2e effect an may guar against colon cancer8 8 Solu#le fi#er @e8g85 as foun in oat #ranA com#ines with #ile aci s an cholesterol in the intestine an ,re2ents their a#sor,tion8 e8 The recommen e aily inta9e of fi#er is 2" g for women an 3* g for men8 The a2erage American is consuming 1" g of fi#er ,er ay8 "8 Com,le/ car#ohy rates @e8g85 whole grain cereals5 #rea s5 etc8A are recommen e #ecause they are igeste to sugars an contain fi#er8 B8 Li,i s 2"-

18 Tri*ly&eride# @fats an oilsA su,,ly energy for cells5 #ut 1a$ is store for the long term in the #o y8 28 6utritionists recommen that ,eo,le inclu e unsaturate @i8e85 canola an soy#ean oilA5 rather than saturate @i8e85 #utter5 meat5 cheeseA5 fats in their iets8 38 C!'le#$er'l is a li,i an can #e synthesi'e #y the #o y8 a8 Cholesterol is not foun in ,lant foo sD only animal foo s @chesse5 egg yol95 li2er5 shrim, an lo#sterA are rich in cholesterol8 48 Tra"# 1a$$y a&id# are more li9ely to cause CV isease than saturate fats?any ,ac9age goo s that contain ,artially hy rogenate 2egeta#le oils @BshorteningCA will li9ely contain trans fat8 C8 )roteins 18 3ietary )r'$ei"# are igeste to amino aci s5 which cells use to synthesi'e hun re of cellular ,roteins8 28 Of the 2. ifferent amino aci s re>uire for ,rotein synthesis5 * @- in chil renA cannot #e synthesi'e #y the #o y an are thus terme essential amino aci"s8 38 Some foo s o not ,ro2i e all the essential amino aci s?2egetarians shoul com#ine two or more ,lant ,ro ucts to ac>uire all the essential amino aci s8 48 A high;,rotein iet can harm the #o y8 a8 3ehy ration can occur8 #8 Calcium loss in the urine can occur5 lea ing to 9i ney stones8
38 3iet an O#esity 18 Ty,e 2 3ia#etes a8 3ia#etes mellitus is in icate #y the ,resence of glucose in the urine8 #8 1locuse has s,ille o2er into the urine #ecause there is too high a le2el of glucose in the #loo 8 c8 0n ty,e 2 ia#etes5 the ,erson is usually o#ese an is,lays im,arie insulin ,ro uction an insulin resistance8 8 The #o y<s cells can<t ta9e u, glucose5 e2en when insulin is ,resentD the #loo le2el e/cee s the norrnal le2el an glucose a,,ears in the urine8 e8 Ty,e 2 ia#etes is increasing ra,i ly in most in ustrial countries of the worl 8 f8 A healthy iet5 increase ,hysical acti2ity5 an weight loss ha2e #een seen to im,ro2e the a#ility of insulin to function ,ro,erly in ty,e 2 ia#etes8 28 Car io2ascular 3isease a8 Car io2ascula isease @inclu ing hy,ertension5 heart attac95 an stro9eA is among the lea ing causes of eath in the Gnite States8 #8 Car io2ascular is often ue to arteries #loc9e #y ,la>ue8 c8 Consuming saturate fats ten to raise L3L cholesterol le2els5 while eating unsaturate fats lowers L3L cholesterol le2els8 8 The American 4eart Association recommen s limiting total cholesterol inta9e to 3.. mg ,er ay8 &8 Vitamins an Minerals 18 Vi$a+i"# are essential organic com,oun s the #o y cannot ma9e #ut still re>uires for meta#olic acti2ities8 a8 Many 2itamins are ,ortions of coen-ymes% e8g85 niacin is ,art of 6A3O an ri#ofla2in is a ,art of !A38 #8 Coen'ymes are nee e in small amounts #ecause they are use re,eate ly8 c8 Vitamin A is not a coen'yme #ut a ,recursor for the 2isual ,igment that ,re2ents night #lin ness8 8 Lac9 of 2itamins results in 2itamin eficiencies8 e8 The 13 2itamins are i2i e into those that are fat solu#le an those that are water solu#le8 28 4umans re>uire 2. +i"eral# @e8g85 calcium5 ,hos,horusA8 a8 They are constituents of cells an #o y flui s an structural com,onents of tissues8

2$.

#8 c8

Calcium is nee e to #uil #ones an teeth an for ner2e con uction an muscle contraction8 Many ,eo,le consume too much so ium5 which can cause water retention an contri#ute to hy,ertension8

Le&$%re E"ri&!+e"$ Idea#

E6)erie"&e Ba#e: A science instructor may want to #rowse through a nutrition store to gain an i ea of the e/tent of local use of su,,lements an the allu e ;to claims of ietary su,,lements that o not ha2e full research su,,ort8 This is one area where stu ents o not ha2e su#stantially less e/,erience than earlier generations8 Much of the content of this cha,ter will #e meaningful to most stu ents8
18 0t is ifficult to iscuss the igesti2e systems of organisms meaningfully without an awareness of the lifestyle5 ha#itat5 etc85 of those organisms8 3escri#ing the com,lete an incom,lete guts5 an continuous an iscontinuous fee ers is much easier with 2isual sli es or 2i eota,es showing the organisms in action8

28 3escri#e the ifferences in teeth an igesti2e tracts among mammalian omni2ores5 her#i2ores5 an carni2ores8 !or fossil animals5 sometimes the only e2i ence ,aleontologists ha2e to e uce the life history of organisms is their entition8 38 0n com,aring cni aria an ,lanaria to earthworms an insects5 escri#e the increase nee for se,aration an so,histication of the igesti2e5 res,iratory5 an circulatory systems8 6ote that ,arasitic forms may often sim,lify from their com,le/ ancestors8
48 Com,are the earthworm<s stomach5 which is i2i e into cro, an gi''ar 5 to #oth the cow<s stomach5 with its four se,arate areas to hol an igest foo 5 an the sim,ler stomach of a human or a cat8 As9 stu ents how these s,eciali'ations are relate to iet8

"8 The effects of malnutrition were an are a win ow into the function of #oth the human #o y an the role of 2arious nutrients8 &/am,les can #e rawn from cases of star2ation in the worl 5 an from history as in the case of the ,rison cam, at An erson2illeD rea ing factual sym,tomology can ma9e 2i2i the effects of lac9 of ,ro,er nutrition8 $8 Most stu ents will #e familiar with 2itamins an other su,,lements8 This is an o,,ortunity to e/ten iscussion into the science necessary to esta#lish minimum aily re>uirements5 genuine #ioacti2ity5 an soli gui elines to a2oi eficiency or o2er ose8 (8 Most ,eo,le consi er iarrhea a nuisance5 #ut what woul #e the #iological conse>uences of not ha2ing iarrhea when an amoe#a or other ,arasite that ,ro uces to/ins was resi ing in the intestineK *8 Mo els of the igesti2e system ,ro2i e su,erior han s;on un erstan ing to stu ents8
-8 The 9i ney @not yet stu ie in this te/t#oo9 se>uenceA was one of the first organs to #e successfully trans,lante since it has a single generali'e function5 one ma7or artery an 2ein5 an is com,artmentali'e in connecti2e tissue8 As9 stu ents to suggest why the li2er is one of the last organs to #e successfully trans,lante ?a >uestion that will re>uire recognition of its many com,le/ meta#olic functions an intricate #loo 2essel su,,ly8 As9 why a ,erson who rin9s alcohol e/cessi2ely throughout early life might ie from cat scratches or other minor infections from tri2ial #acteria that woul not cause more than a minor fe2er in most ,eo,le8

1.8 )ancreatic cancer is generally fatal8 As9 stu ents to escri#e the functions that woul #e re>uire of a hy,othetical artificial ,ancreas machine8 118 :hen a ,erson who has an inflame gall#la er consumes foo high in fats5 they often #egin to ha2e ,ains from the acti2e gall#la er8 Lecture >uestion% 4ow oes the gall#la er 2$1

B9nowC that fats are Bon their wayKC

128 The use of actual e/,erimental results is the #est o,,ortunity to also hel, stu ents thin9 scientifically8 0n using this Bcoo9#oo9C e/,eriment with four tu#es with 4Cl5 en'yme5 #oth an neither5 is the control really necessary an whyK 0f igestion occurs with an en'yme an no 4Cl5 oes that ,ro2e that 4Cl was inertD what a itional e/,eriment woul #e necessary to confirm thisK

138 The attitu es of many citi'ens who are not o#ese contri#ute to the Bi eal #o y imageC in a 2ertisements5 #eauty ,ageants5 etc8 Sensiti'ation of more stu ents to the a 2erse conse>uences can contri#ute to the e2entual solution8

Cri$i&al T!i",i"*
-%e#$i'" 10 Sometimes a section of intestine must #e remo2e when it is foun to #e cancerous8 :hich woul most a 2ersely affect the functioning of the total igesti2e system% the loss of one foot of uo enum5 one foot of the lower small intestine5 or one foot of the large intestineK :hyK
A"#.er: There woul #e su#stantial ,ortions of small an large intestine left o2er to ,erform the functions of nutrient an water a#sor,tion5 res,ecti2ely8 4owe2er5 one foot of uo enum woul constitute most of this section8 0n a ition5 it is the region that must accommo ate the influ/ of stomach contents5 #ile salts5 an ,ancreatic 7uices8 -%e#$i'" 20 Although we ha2e e2elo,e artificial 9i neys an hearts5 there really is no machine that can function as an artificial li2er8 :hy is it so ifficult to re,licate all of the functions of the li2erK A"#.er: Gnli9e the heart that has the single res,onsi#ility to ,um, #loo 5 or the 9i ney that mainly filters #loo 5 the li2er has si/ ma7or an istinct functions% eto/ifying #loo of meta#olic ,oisons5 ma9ing #loo ,roteins5 estroying ol re #loo cells an con2erting hemoglo#in to #ile ,ro ucts5 ,ro ucing #ile to emulsify fats5 storing an releasing glucoseFglycogen5 an ,ro ucing urea from amino grou,s8 An artificial li2er woul ha2e to consist of si/ com,le/ machines8 -%e#$i'" 40 There are a few ,o,ulations of ,eo,le on the glo#e who ha2e a long tra ition of many more in i2i uals li2ing to great ol age @o2er 1..A8 :hen emigrants from these regions li2e in mo ern settings with am,le iets5 their sur2i2orshi, is lower an near a2erage le2els8 The one common factor a,,ears to #e a much lower caloric inta9e5 ,erha,s (.N of the a2erage aily allowance consi ere Bnormal8C 3iscuss this in the light of Bantio/i ants8C

A"#.er: A ,erson who li2es on less foo woul ,ro uce fewer free ra icals an suffer less cellular amage8 4owe2er5 they woul ris9 malnutrition #y li2ing nearer the minimal threshol for 2ital nutrients an 2itamins8
-%e#$i'" 70 0f the foo ,ro uct is a,,eti'ing to a ,erson5 why is it unwise to focus on a iet of 7ust this one foo item5 e2en if it is high in ,rotein li9e soy#eansK A"#.er: A foo can #e high in ,rotein #ut ha2e a limite num#er of the essential aci s that cannot #e forme #y #o y meta#olism an must #e in the iet8 The amino aci s ,ro2i e #y soy ,ro ucts woul not inclu e all of these amino aci s an another source woul #e necessary to ,re2ent eficiency iseases8

Te&!"'l'*y 1r'+ M&Gra.;Hill

)lease consult your C'%r#e I"$e*ra$i'" G%ide for technology correlations for this cha,ter8

2$2

CHAPTER

4?

RESPIRATORY SYSTEMS

This cha,ter stu ies the res,iratory systems of animals5 #eginning with those that inha#it a>uatic en2ironments an ,rogressing to the human res,iratory system5 escri#e in etail8 The #iochemistry of gas trans,ort an gas e/change is escri#e 8 A Science Focus #o/ answers5 B\uestions A#out To#acco5 Smo9ing5 an 4ealth8C A num#er of human iseases of the res,iratory system are iscusse 8

C!a)$er O%$li"e
4?01 Ga# E6&!a"*e S%r1a&e# Re#)ira$i'" is the se>uence of e2ents that results in gas e/change #etween the en2ironment an the #o y<s cells8

18 Ve"$ila$i'" @#reathingA inclu es ins,iration @#ringing air inA an e/,iration @mo2ing air outA8
E6$er"al re#)ira$i'" in2ol2es gas e/change with the e/ternal en2ironment in the lungs8 I"$er"al re#)ira$i'" in2ol2es gas e/change #etween the #loo an tissue flui 8 An effecti2e gas e/change region must #e moist5 thin5 an large in relation to the si'e of the #o y8 Some animals are small an sha,e to allow their surface to #e an a e>uate gas;e/change surface8 Larger animals are com,le/ an ha2e a s,eciali'e gas;e/change surface8 3iffusion im,ro2es with 2asculari'ationD gas eli2ery to cells is ,romote if the #loo contains hemoglo#in8 A8 &/ternal 1as;&/change Surfaces 18 0t is more ifficult for animals to o#tain O2 from water than from air8 a8 :ater fully saturate with air contains only a fraction of the O2 as the same 2olume of air8 #8 :ater is more ense than airD therefore a>uatic animals must use more energy to res,ire8 c8 !ishes use u, to 2"N of their energy to res,ire5 whereas lan mammals use only 1=2N of their energy out,ut8 28 4y ras an ,lanaria ha2e a large surface area in com,arison to their si'e8 a8 1as e/change occurs irectly across their #o y surface8 #8 The hy ra<s outer cell layer contacts the en2ironmentD an inner layer e/changes gases with the water in the gastro2ascular ca2ity8 c8 The flat #o y of ,lanaria ,ermits cells to e/change gases with the e/ternal en2ironment8 38 A tu#ular sha,e an 2asculari'e ,ara,o ia e/tensions in ,olychaete worms ,ro2i e surface areas for iffusion8 48 The earthworm is an in2erte#rate that uses its #o y surface for res,iration8 a8 An earthworm e/,en s energy to secrete mucus an release flui s from e/cretory ,ores8 #8 The earthworm is also #eha2iorally a a,te to stay in the moist soil uring the ay when air is riest8 "8 A>uatic animals often ,ass water o2er *ill#0 a8 1ills are finely i2i e an 2asculari'e outgrowths of either an outer or inner #o y surface8 #8 Among clams5 water is rawn into the mantle ca2ity an flows o2er gills8 $8 0nsects ha2e a system of air tu#es calle tracheae through which o/ygen is eli2ere irectly to the cells without entering the #loo 8 (8 Terrestrial 2erte#rates usually ha2e l%"*#5 which are 2asculari'e outgrowths fron the lower ,haryngeal region8 a8 The lungs of #ir s an mammals are su# i2i e into smaller ,assageways an s,aces8 B8 The 1ills of a !ish 18 3eca,o gills are locate in #rachial cham#ers un er the e/os9eletonD water is circulate #y s,ecial mouth,arts8 28 38 48 "8 $8 (8

2$3

!ish gills are outwar e/tensions of the ,haryn/ organi'e into arches8 Ventilation is the result of the com#ine action of the mouth an gill co2ers8 :hen the mouth is o,en5 the o,ercula are close an water is rawn inD the mouth then closes an the o,ercula o,en5 rawing water from the ,haryn/ through gill slits locate #etween the gill arches8 "8 To the outsi e of the gill arches are gill filaments fol e into ,lateli9e lamellae5 each of which contains ca,illariesD the result is a tremen ous surface area for gas e/change8 a8 Bloo in ca,illaries of gill lamellae flows in a irection o,,osite to that of water8 #8 This &'%"$er&%rre"$ 1l'. of water an #loo increases the amount of O2 an CO2 e/change 8 c8 Such a countercurrent mechanism e/tracts a#out *.=-.N of the initial issol2e O2 in the water8 C8 The Tracheal System of 0nsects 18 0nsects an certain terrestrial arthro,o s utili'e air tu#es calle $ra&!eae0 a8 O/ygen enters a tracheal system at s,iracles5 which are 2al2eli9e o,enings at each si e of the #o y8 #8 The tracheae #ranch an re#ranch to en in tiny tracheoles that are in irect contact with #o y cells8 c8 Larger insects ha2e air sacs locate near ma7or muscles to 9ee, air mo2ing in an out of the trachea8 8 The tracheae effecti2ely eli2er a e>uate o/ygen to the cells of insectsD the circulatory system has no role in gas trans,ort8 28 Larger insects ha2e air sacs locate near ma7or muscles8 a8 Contraction an rela/ation of these muscles raw in an em,ty air8 38 !or insects that s,en their lar2al or a ult stages in water5 the tracheae o not recei2e air #y way of s,iracles8 a8 3iffusion of o/ygen across the #o y wall su,,lies the tracheae with o/ygen8 38 The Lungs of 4umans 18 The human res,iratory system inclu es e2erything that con ucts air to an from the lungsD the lungs lie ee, within the thoracic ca2ity for ,rotection against rying8 28 Air mo2es into the nose5 crosses the )!ary"63 flows through the *l'$$i# @an o,ening into the lary"6 or 2oice #o/A to the $ra&!ea3 br'"&!i3 br'"&!i'le#3 an finally the alve'li5 where gas e/change occurs8 a8 This ,rocess filters e#ris5 warms the air5 an a s moisture8 #8 :hen the air reaches the lungs5 it is at #o y tem,erature an is saturate with water8 c8 The trachea an #ronchi are line with cilia that #eat u,war carrying mucus5 ust5 an any foo ,articles that went the wrong route8 8 The har an soft ,alates se,arate the nasal ca2ities from the mouth8 e8 :hen foo is #eing swallowe 5 the glottis is close #y the e)i*l'$$i#3 an the soft ,alate co2ers the entrance of the nasal ,assages into the ,haryn/8 f8 At the e ges of the glottis are v'&al &'rd#@ as air ,asses across them5 these tissues 2i#rate creating soun s8 g8 !rom the laryn/5 air flows own the $ra&!ea to the br'"&!i0 1A The laryn/ is hel o,en #y cartilage that forms the A am<s a,,le8 2A The $ra&!ea walls are reinforce with $sha,e rings of cartilage8 h8 The trachea i2i es into two br'"&!iD $sha,e rings of cartilage iminish as #ronchi #ranch8 i8 :ithin the lungs5 each #ronchus #ranches into numerous br'"&!i'le# that con uct air to alve'li8 78 Alve'li are microsco,ic air sacs8 &8 \uestions A#out To#acco5 Smo9ing5 an 4ealth @Science Focus #o/A 18 There is no safe way to smo9e8 All cigarettes can amage the human #o y8 28 Cigarette smo9ing contains nicotine5 which is a icti2e8 38 Smo9ing oes cause cancer% To#acco use accounts for a#out one;thir of all cancer eaths in the Gnite States8 48 Cigarette smo9e affects the lungs #y causing chronic #ronchitis5 em,hysema5 an chronic o#structi2e ,ulmonary isease @as well as cancerA8 "8 Smo9ers ha2e a Bsmo9er<s coughC #ecause cigarette smo9e contains chemicals that irritate the air ,assages an lungs8 $8 0f you smo9e5 #ut on<t inhale5 there is still anger8 6onsmo9ers are #reathing the secon han smo9e

28 38 48

2$4

from smo9ers an are still at ris9 for lung cancer8 Cigarette smo9ing affects the heart #y increasing the ris9 of heart isease8 Smo9ing while ,regnant is lin9e to a greater chance of miscarriage5 ,remature eli2ery5 still#irth5 infant eath5 low #irth weight5 an su en infant eath syn rome @S03SA8 -8 Some of the short;term effects of smo9ing cigarettes inclu e shortness of #reath5 a nagging cough5 iminishe a#ility to smell an taste5 ,remature aging of s9in5 an increase ris9 of se/ual im,otence in men8 Long;term effects inclu e cancer5 heart isease5 aneurysms5 #ronchitis5 em,hysema5 an stro9e8 1.8 &n2ironmental to#acco smo9e @&TSA causes a#out 35... lung cancer eaths an a#out 3"5...=4.5... eaths from heart isease each year @in nonsmo9ersA8 118 Chewing to#acco an snuff are not safe alternati2es to cigarette smo9ing8 The ris9 of other cancers is still increase 8 4?02 Brea$!i"* a"d Tra"#)'r$ '1 Ga#e# A8 Breathing 18 I"#)ira$i'" @or inhalationA is the act of mo2ing air into the lungs8 28 E6)ira$i'" @or e/halationA is the act of mo2ing air out of the lungs8 38 Mammals ha2e #oth a ri# cage an a ia,hragm8 a8 The dia)!ra*+ is a hori'ontal muscle that i2i es the thoracic ca2ity from the a# ominal ca2ity8 #8 As the thoracic ca2ity e/,an s5 the lung 2olume increasesD air flows in ue to the ifference in air ,ressure8 c8 By lowering the ri#s5 ,ressure is e/erte on the lungs5 which forces air out8 8 All terrestrial 2erte#rates5 e/ce,t #ir s5 use a ti"al #entilation mechanismD air mo2es in an out #y the same route8 1A The lungs of re,tiles5 am,hi#ians5 an mammals are not com,letely em,tie uring each #reathing cycle8 2A :ith incom,lete 2entilation5 entering air mi/es with use air in the lungs8 3A This conser2es moisture #ut ecreases gas;e/change efficiency8 e8 The high o/ygen re>uirements of flying #ir s re>uire a one.way #entilation mechanism8 1A 0ncoming air is carrie ,ast the lungs #y a trachea that ta9es it to a set of ,osterior air sacs8 2A Air then ,asses forwar through the lungs into a set of anterior air sacs an is finally e/,elle 8 3A The one;way flow means that o/ygen;rich air oes not mi/ with use airD this ma/imi'es gas e/change8 48 A ults ty,ically ha2e a #reathing rate of 12 to 2. 2entilations ,er minute8 "8 The rhythm of 2entilation is controlle #y a re#)ira$'ry &e"$er in the me ulla o#longata of the #rain8 $8 &2en though the res,iratory center automatically controls the rate an e,th of #reathing5 the acti2ity can #e influence #y ner2ous an chemical in,uts8 a8 The chemorece,tors in the &ar'$id b'die#3 locate in the caroti arteries5 an in the a'r$i& b'die#3 locate in the aorta5 will stimulate the res,iratory center uring intense e/ercise8 B8 1as &/change an Trans,ort 18 +es,iration inclu es e/ternal an internal res,iration8 28 1as e/change #etween the air in the al2eoli an the #loo in the ,ulmonary ca,illaries is ,rimarily #y iffusion8 38 The amount of ,ressure each gas e/erts is calle the )ar$ial )re##%re @)O2 an )CO2A8 a8 CO2 iffuses from higher concentration in the #loo across the walls of al2eolar ca,illaries to lower concentration in the air in the al2eoli8 #8 O/ygen iffuses from higher concentration in al2eoli across the walls of the al2eolar ca,illaries to the lower concentration in the #loo 8 C8 Trans,ort of O/ygen an Car#on 3io/i e 18 Most O2 entering the ,ulmonary ca,illaries com#ines with !e+'*l'bi" @4#A to form '6y!e+'*l'bi" @4#O2A8 4# O O2 R 4#O2 (8 *8

eo/yhemoglo#in
28

o/ygen

o/yhemoglo#in

&ach hemoglo#in molecule has four ,oly,e,ti e chainsD each chain fol s o2er an iron;containing !e+e0 a8 &ach +BC has 2". million hemoglo#in molecules8 #8 &ach +BC can carry a #illion molecules of O2 o/yhemoglo#in8

2$"

38

48 "8

c8 The iron atom of a heme grou, loosely #in s with an O2 molecule8 The o/ygen;#in ing a#ility of hemoglo#in can #e gra,he 8 a8 The ,ercentage of o/ygen;#in ing sites of hemoglo#in carrying O2 2aries with ,artial ,ressure of O2 in the imme iate en2ironment8 #8 The ,artial ,ressure is the amount of ,ressure e/erte #y a ,articular gas among all of the gases ,resent8 c8 At a normal ,artial ,ressure of O2 in lungs5 hemoglo#in #ecomes ,ractically saturate with O28 8 At the O2 ,artial ,ressures in the tissues5 o/yhemoglo#in >uic9ly unloa s much of its O28 4#O2 R 4# O O2 e8 The aci ,4 an warmer tem,erature of the tissues also ,romote this issociation8 0n tissues5 some hemoglo#in com#ines with CO2 to form car#aminohemoglo#in8 4owe2er5 most CO2 is trans,orte in the form of bi&arb'"a$e i'" @4CO3 ;A8 a8 !irst5 CO2 com#ines with water5 forming &arb'"i& a&id @42CO3A8 #8 This then issociates to a 4O an a 4CO3; CO2 O 42O R 42CO3 R 4O O 4CO3; car#onic aci #icar#onate ion c8 Carb'"i& a"!ydra#e5 an en'yme in re #loo cells5 s,ee s this reaction8 8 +elease of 4O ions coul rastically lower #loo ,4D howe2er5 the hy rogen ions are a#sor#e #y the glo#in ,ortions of hemoglo#in an the 4CO3; iffuses out of the +BCs an into the ,lasma8 e8 4emoglo#in com#ines with 4O ions as re uce hemoglo#in @44#AD 44# ,lays a 2ital role in maintaining normal #loo ,48 f8 As #loo enters the ,ulmonary ca,illaries5 most of the CO2 is in ,lasma as 4CO3;8 g8 The little free CO2 remaining iffuses out of the #loo across the walls of the ,ulmonary ca,illaries an into al2eoli8 h8 Any ecrease in ,lasma CO2 concentration causes the following reaction also cataly'e #y car#onic anhy rase% 4O O 4CO3; R 42CO3 R CO2 O 42O i8 At the same time5 hemoglo#in unloa s 4O an 44# #ecomes 4#8

4?04 Re#)ira$i'" a"d Heal$!

A8 Lower +es,iratory Tract 3isor ers 18 Acute bronchitis is an infection of the ,rimary an secon ary #ronchi an is usually ,rece e #y a 2iral u,,er res,iratory infection8 28 )neumonia a8 (neumonia is usually cause #y a #acterial or 2iral lung infection8 #8 The #ronchi an al2eoli fill with flui 8 c8 )neumonia can #e locali'e in s,ecific lo#ules8 8 A03S ,atients are su#7ect to a rare form of ,neumonia cause #y the ,roto'oan (neumocystis carinii. 38 )ulmonary Tu#erculosis a8 (ulmonary tuberculosis is cause #y the tu#ercle #acillus5 a ty,e of #acterium8 #8 A TB s9in test is a highly ilute e/tract of the #acilli in7ecte into the ,atient<s s9inD if a ,erson has #een e/,ose 5 the immune res,onse will cause an area of inflammation8 c8 Bacilli that in2a e lung tissue are isolate #y the lung tissue in tiny ca,sules calle tu#ercles8 8 0f the ,erson is highly resistant5 the im,risone #acteria ie8 e8 0f resistance is low5 the #acteria can e2entually #e li#erate 8 f8 A chest Z;ray etects acti2e tu#ercles8 g8 A,,ro,riate rug thera,y can ensure locali'ation an the e2entual estruction of li2e #acteria8 h8 +esurgence has accom,anie increases in A03S5 homeless5 an ,oor8 i8 The new strains are resistant to stan ar anti#iotics8 C8 3isor ers 18 )ulmonary !i#rosis a8 0nhaling ,articles of silica5 coal ust5 fi#erglass an as#estos can lea to pulmonary fibrosis8 #8 These agents result in a #uil u, of fi#rous connecti2e tissue?the lungs then cannot inflate ,ro,erly8 c8 As#estos was use wi ely for fire,roofing an wi es,rea e/,osure occurre D it is estimate that

2$$

28

38

48

"8

a ,ossi#le 2 million eaths coul #e cause #y as#estos #etween 1--. an 2.2.8 Chronic Bronchitis a8 0n chronic bronchitis5 airways are inflame an fille with mucusD often a cough #rings mucus u,8 #8 The #ronchi egenerate5 losing cilia an normal cleansing action an ma9ing an infection li9ely8 c8 Smo9ing cigarettes an cigars is the most common cause5 #ut other ,ollutants are also in2ol2e 8 &m,hysema a8 &mphysema is a chronic an incura#le isor erD it in2ol2es isten e an amage al2eoli8 #8 The lungs often #alloon ue to tra,,e air an ineffecti2e al2eoli8 c8 &m,hysema is often ,rece e #y chronic #ronchitis8 8 The elastic recoil of the lungs is re uce an the airways are narrowe 5 ma9ing e/,iration ifficult8 e8 Since the surface area for gas e/change is re uce 5 insufficient O2 reaches the heart an the #rain8 f8 This triggers the heart to wor9 furiously to force more #loo through the lungsD this can then lea to a heart con ition8 g8 Lac9 of o/ygen to the #rain ma9es the ,atient feel e,resse 5 sluggish5 an irrita#le8 h8 &/ercise5 rug thera,y5 an su,,lemental o/ygen may relie2e the sym,toms an slow the ,rogress8 Asthma a8 Asthma is a isease of the #ronchi an #ronchiolesD it causes whee'ing5 #reathlessness5 an a cough8 #8 The airways are sensiti2e to s,ecific allergens @e8g85 ,ollen5 ust5 col air5 etc8A8 c8 &/,osure to the irritant causes the smooth muscle in #ronchi to s,asmD chemical me iators gi2en off #y the immune cells in the #ronchioles result in the s,asms8 8 Bronchial inflammation re uces the iameter of the airways8 e8 S,ecial inhalers can control the inflammation an sometimes ,re2ent an attac9D other inhalers can sto, muscle s,asms8 Lung Cancer a8 !ormerly more common in men5 lung cancer now sur,asses #reast cancer as the cause of eath in women ue to smo9ing8 #8 @ung cancer e2elo,s in the lung tissue in ste,s8 1A !irst5 a thic9ening an callusing of the cells lining the #ronchi a,,ears8 2A Cilia are lost so it #ecomes im,ossi#le to ,re2ent ust an irt from settling in the lungs8 3A 6e/t5 cells with aty,ical nuclei a,,ear in the calluse lining8 4A A tumor consisting of isor ere cells with aty,ical nuclei e2elo,s as cancer in situ @cancer at one locationA8 "A :hen some tumor cells #rea9 free an ,enetrate other tissue @metastasisA5 the cancer s,rea s8 $A A tumor may grow until the #ronchus is #loc9e 5 cutting off the air su,,ly to the lungs8 (A The entire lung then colla,sesD the tra,,e secretions #ecome infecte causing ,neumonia or lung a#scess8 c8 The only treatment is surgery @pneumonectomyA where a lo#e or whole lung is remo2e #efore metastasis occurs8

Le&$%re E"ri&!+e"$ Idea#

E6)erie"&e Ba#e% Am#iguous use of the term Bres,irationC in ,re2ious #iology classes an in common usage will nee to #e countere #y careful an correct classroom usage5 iscerning 2entilation from aero#ic res,irationFmitochon rial acti2ity8 Stu ents will ha2e some e/,eriences with asthma5 #ronchitis5 an laryngitis #ut 2isuals will #e nee e for tu#erculosis5 iron lungs5 an other res,iratory health concerns more common at an earlier time in human history8 18 Com,are the amount of o/ygen nee e #y an animal with little mo2ement 2ersus an animal that mo2es a#out a lot5 an iscuss how the res,iratory system is a a,te for those nee s8 0n ,articular5 com,arisons shoul #e ma e #etween in2erte#rates @such as a hy ra or an earthwormA 2ersus flying insects5 an #etween ectothermic 2erte#rates @such as a frogA an 2$(

an en othermic #ir that must meta#oli'e u, to ten times more foo 8 28 3iagram why a countercurrent e/change mechanism in a fish<s gills allows ma/imal efficiency in a#sor#ing o/ygen from the water8 This can #e relate to the same conce,t seen in the ne/t cha,ter in the function of the 9i ney8 Countercurrent e/change also functions in the e2ening out of the tem,erature e/tremes at the ti,s of lim#s of arctic fo/es with a hot core #o y tem,erature an col foot ,a s5 an is an im,ortant #iological conce,t cutting across se2eral other systems8 38 Consi er why a #ir has a com,lete 2entilation metho #ut a mammal oes notD consi er what ifferent meta#olic re>uirements might ha2e le #ir s to e2elo, their more efficient mechanism o2er time8 There will #e an assum,tion that humans are always the most efficient5 an that e2olution always mo2es organisms towar the most efficient systems ,ossi#le8 Slow meta#olism organisms5 howe2er5 o not nee this a itional efficiency in res,iration8 48 Most stu ents are familiar with the flight atten ant<s re>uire narration on safety e>ui,ment at the #eginning of a high;altitu e flight8 Lecture >uestion% )ro2i e a correct scientific escri,tion of the ,hysiological e2ents that woul occur to a ,assenger in the case of ca#in ecom,ression8 "8 Lecture >uestion% Consi er that a scientist isco2ers a hemoglo#in su#stitute that is far more efficient in attracting o/ygen an hol s it with greater affinityD why is this not #etter than hemoglo#inK $8 &/,lain how a octor can listen for ea s,ots that in icate lo#es of lungs ha2e fille with flui @,neumoniaAD most stu ents ha2e #een ,atients an will remem#er BBreathe ee,ly 8 8 8 again8C The ea s,ots woul most li9ely #e in the #ottom lo#es where flui woul mo2e #y gra2ity8 (8 \uery stu ents on the conse>uence of our BwearingC our lung on the outsi e as one large flat gill surface e/,ose to the air @a surface the si'e of se2eral classroom wallsA8 )ro#lems woul inclu e ,hysical trauma5 massi2e ehy ration5 infection5 etc8 *8 Before our un erstan ing of the 2arious forms of lung iseases an isor ers5 the term Bconsum,tionC was use for certain lung ailments8 This is an e/cellent o,,ortunity to show how our ,rogress in me ical 9nowle ge #oth ,ro uces a ,reciseness in our scientific language5 an this ,reciseness in turn hel,s us generate the ne/t le2el of research8 -8 Mo els of the res,iratory system can #e #rought into the classroom to illustrate the res,iratory ,arts8 A #ell 7ar with a ru##er sheet at the #ottom an 5 at the other en 5 a cor9 with a glass tu#e connecte to a #alloon can #e create 2ery ine/,ensi2ely to emonstrate ,ositi2e an negati2e ,ressure effects on the mechanism of #reathing8 Simulation of how the 2ocal cor s wor9 can #e emonstrate #y #ringing to class a guitar an ,luc9ing at the ifferent si'e wires an tension8 1.8 A hos,ital tour can illustrate the e>ui,ment use in assisting ,atients in res,iratory istress8 118 0n contrast to the many illustrations in #iology that show many #o y tu#es o,en an ,i,eli9e5 all tu#es in the #o y are colla,se flat unless there is something in them8 The e/ce,tion to this is the trachea that5 li9e a 2acuum cleaner hose5 has rings to 9ee, it from colla,sing8 128 A Bsuc9ing chest woun C is a terri#ly e/cruciating ,uncture of the thoracic ca2ity that allows 2$*

air to flow into the ,leural region8 As9 stu ents why this ,re2ents normal #reathing an what is the only solution to correct B,neumothora/8C :hen5 after e/halation or after inhalation5 shoul the airtight #an age #e ,lace to seal the chest woun K 138 Lecture >uestion% 4ow o we 9now CO2 is monitore instea of o/ygenK 0f we constantly #reathe into an out of the same #ag5 the CO2 le2el woul rise an the O2 le2el woul fall8 But if we #reathe out air that was then #u##le through a solution that e/tracte the CO25 an then #reathe the resultant air again5 only the O2 le2el woul fall an 5 li9e most mammals5 we o "'$ increase our #reathing rate an woul faint from lac9 of o/ygen to the #rain8 148 0n C)+5 a ,erson assisting a 2ictim #reathes into the 2ictim only a ,artial #reath of Balrea y use C air from their own lungs8 Lecture >uestion% :hy is this5 nonetheless5 effecti2eK 1"8 3i2ing sea mammals face an unusual situation in regulating their #reathing com,are to terrestrial animals8 :hile lan mammals always see CO2 le2els increase concurrent with O2 e,letion5 i2ing mammals can shut off #loo flow to large ,ortions of tissues an these tissues no longer contri#ute CO2 to the #loo 8 Therefore5 what system for regulating #reathing rate shoul a i2ing mammal e2ol2eK

Cri$i&al T!i",i"*
-%e#$i'" 10 Most ,eo,le are familiar with hos,ital Bo/ygen tentsC use to increase the ,ercentage of o/ygen inhale in ,atients who ha2e res,iratory or circulatory ,ro#lems8 :hy woul #reathing such a rich o/ygen atmos,here not #e recommen e for a healthy ,erson5 or e2en for such ,atients o2er a ,rolonge timeK Consi er all gases in2ol2e in the res,iratory ,rocess8 A"#.er: The amount of 2entilation also etermines the amount of car#on io/i e that is remo2e 8 0f a ,erson can #reathe slower #ecause the air is enriche in o/ygen5 the amount of car#on io/i e woul theoretically #e higher8 4owe2er5 the #reathing rate is regulate #y chemical sensors that mainly etect the le2els of car#on io/i e8 Therefore5 the #reathing rate will #e 9e,t higher than o/ygen eman woul re>uire an the #loo woul #e o/ygenate at higher le2els than normal5 with the sym,toms of Bhy,er2entilation8C -%e#$i'" 20 0n 4ong Eong5 China5 the ,o,ulation has not #een e/,ose to tu#erculosis5 an most Chinese resi ents are not resistant to the #acteria5 in com,arison to :esterners whose &uro,ean ancestors ha2e #een the sur2i2ors of tu#erculosis for millennia8 Therefore5 health officials ha2e chosen to gi2e 4ong Eong chil ren BC15 a 2accine of relate harmless #acteria that #estows some immunity to tu#erculosis8 Therefore5 our :estern BTB testC oes not wor9 with 4ong Eong resi ents an screening for TB has to #e one with more e/,ensi2e Z;rays8 Meanwhile5 in the G8S8 we use the BTB testC an o not use BC18 :hy on<t they a o,t our systemD or why on<t we a o,t theirsK A"#.er: 4a2ing e2ol2e a resistant ,o,ulation #y coe/isting with an sur2i2ing tu#erculosis5 the mainly :estern ,o,ulation in the G8S8 is more resistant5 has a lower inci ence of tu#erculosis5 an TB is transmitte only with ifficulty8 Therefore5 it is not necessary to immuni'e e2eryone with BC1 to 9ee, the num#ers low5 an infecte in i2i uals can #e isco2ere with an ine/,ensi2e test8 0n 4ong Eong5 failure to use BC1 in such a crow e city of ,eo,le who ha2e no e2olutionary resistance to TB woul assure the isease was ra,i ly s,rea 8 Gse of BC1 ma9es immune in i2i uals who thereafter test ,ositi2e for tu#erculosis an the TB test is therefore useless8 0f the G8S8 mo2e to BC15 the cost of the 2accine woul greatly e/cee the #enefit of conferring immunity on a few in i2i uals in a more resistant ,o,ulation5 an the loss of the ine/,ensi2e TB test woul re>uire wi es,rea use of more e/,ensi2e Z;rays8 Both ,o,ulations are using the me ical ,rotocol a,,ro,riate for their e2olutionary an immunological situation8 -%e#$i'" 40 Seals an whales ha2e sensors that etect the o/ygen le2el of the #loo in a ition to the car#on io/i e le2els as seen in humans8 :hyK

2$-

A"#.er: As i2ing animals5 they shut off #loo flow to ma7or ,ortions of their #o ies in or er to use the circulating o/ygen in the critical tissues8 Since there is not as much CO2 coming from the tissue meta#olism5 it is necessary to monitor the o/ygen le2els irectly in or er to etect when the i2ing animal must surface as o/ygen is running out8 -%e#$i'" 70 4ow is #reathing affecte in a ,assenger ri ing in a ,lane that is not ,ressuri'e K

A"#.er: The ,lane is limite in how high it can fly an 9ee, the ,ilot an ,assengers ali2e8 The iffusion of o/ygen from the atmos,here into the #o y is affecte #y the air ,ressure% the greater the ,ressure gra ient5 the faster the rate of iffusion8 At high altitu es in an air,lane5 there is less air ,ressure5 an therefore5 less iffusion of o/ygen into the #loo woul ta9e ,lace8

Te&!"'l'*y 1r'+ M&Gra.;Hill

)lease consult your Course I"$e*ra$i'" G%ide for technology correlations for this cha,ter8

2(.

CHAPTER

4B

BO Y FLUI REGULATION AN EKCRETORY SYSTEMS

This cha,ter ,resents a stu y of the mechanisms #y which animals regulate #o y flui concentrations8 0nclu e are sections of a>uatic animals an terrestrial animals5 an the forms of nitrogenous waste ,ro uce #y ,rototy,e animals8 The 2arious organs of e/cretion in animals are characteri'e 8 The human urinary system is escri#e in etail8

C!a)$er O%$li"e
4B01 E6&re$i'" a"d $!e E"vir'"+e"$ A8 6itrogenous :aste )ro ucts
18 28 38 48 "8 $8 (8 The #rea9 own of nucleic aci s an amino aci s results in nitrogenous wastes8 Amino aci s eri2e from ,rotein synthesi'e #o y ,roteins or nitrogen;containing molecules8 Gnuse amino aci s are o/i i'e to generate energy or are store as fats or car#ohy rates8 0n #oth cases5 amino grou,s @?642A must #e remo2e 8 6itrogenous wastes are e/crete as ammonia5 urea5 or uric aci 5 e,en ing on the s,ecies8 The remo2al of amino grou,s re>uires a fairly constant amount of energy that iffers for each con2ersion8 Amino grou,s remo2e from amino aci s form a++'"ia @643A #y a ing a thir hy rogen ion @4OA8 a8 This re>uires little or no energy8 #8 Ammonia is >uite to/ic #ut it is water solu#leD it re>uires the most water to wash it away from the #o y8 c8 Bony fishes5 a>uatic in2erte#rates5 an am,hi#ians e/crete this ammonia through gills an s9in surfaces8 Terrestrial am,hi#ians an mammals usually e/crete %rea as their main nitrogenous waste8 a8 Grea is much less to/ic than ammoniaD e/crete in a mo erately concentrate solution5 it also conser2es #o y water8 #8 )ro uction of urea re>uires energyD it is ,ro uce in the li2er as a ,ro uct of the energy;re>uiring urea cycle8 c8 0n the urea cycle5 carrier molecules ta9e u, car#on io/i e an two molecules of ammonia5 finally releasing urea8 0nsects5 re,tiles5 an #ir s e/crete %ri& a&id as their main nitrogenous waste8 a8 Gric aci is not 2ery to/ic an is ,oorly solu#le in waterD uric aci is rea ily concentrate for water conser2ation8 #8 0n re,tiles an #ir s5 a ilute solution of uric aci ,asses from the 9i neys to the cloaca3 a common reser2oir for ,ro ucts of the igesti2e5 urinary5 an re,ro ucti2e systems8 c8 After any water is a#sor#e #y the cloaca5 the uric aci ,asses out with the feces8 8 +e,tile an #ir em#ryos are enclose in eggshellsD the uric aci that #uil s u, is nonto/ic in storage8 e8 Gric aci is synthesi'e #y en'ymatic reactions using e2en more AT) than urea synthesis8 f8 Therefore5 there is a tra e;off #etween water conser2ation an energy e/,en iture8

*8

-8

B8 &/cretory Organs Among 0n2erte#rates

Most animals ha2e tu#ular organs to regulate salt;water #alance an e/crete meta#olic wastes8 18 )lanaria ha2e two stran s of #ranching e/cretory tu#ules that o,en to the outsi e through e/cretory ,ores8 a8 Locate along the tu#ules are 1la+e &ell# @,hotone,hri iaA containing tufts of cilia that a,,ear to flic9er8

2(1

The cilia #eat #ac9 an forth5 ,ro,elling a hy,otonic flui through canals em,tying at the #o y surface8 c8 This system functions in the e/cretion of e/cess water an wastes8 28 An earthworm<s #o y is i2i e into segments an nearly e2ery segment has a ,air of "e)!ridia0 a8 A ne,hri ium is a tu#ule with a ciliate o,ening5 the ne,hri iostome5 an an e/cretory ne,hri io,ore8 #8 !lui from the #o y ca2ity is ,ro,elle through this tu#ule #y cilia8 c8 6utrients are rea#sor#e an carrie away #y the networ9 of ca,illaries surroun ing the tu#ules8 8 The ne,hri ia form urine that contains only meta#olic wastes5 salts5 an water8 e8 &ach ay5 an earthworm ,ro uces urine e>ual to $.N of its #o y weight5 enough water that it can safely e/crete ammonia8 38 0nsects ha2e a uni>ue e/cretory system consisting of long5 thin Mal)i*!ia" $%b%le# attache to the gut8 a8 The Mal,ighian tu#ules ta9e u, meta#olic wastes an water from the hemolym,h?these follow the salt gra ient esta#lishe #y acti2e trans,ort of EO ions8 #8 At the rectum5 water an other useful su#stances are rea#sor#e 8 c8 Gric aci remains an e2entually ,asses out the anus8 8 0nsects that li2e in the water or that eat large >uantities of moist foo rea#sor# 2ery little water8 e8 0nsects in ry climates rea#sor# most of the water an e/crete a ry5 semisoli mass of uric aci 8 f8 Crayfish @an arthro,o A ha2e antennal glan s @green glan sA in the hea which ,erform selecti2e secretion of certain salts8 g8 0n shrim, an ,ill#ugs5 the e/cretory organs5 calle ma/illary glan s5 are locate in the ma/illary segments8 h8 Arachni s @s,i ers5 scor,ions5 etc8A ha2e co/al glan s use in e/cretion near the 7oint of one or more a,,en ages8 C8 Osmoregulation Among A>uatic Verte#rates 18 Most 2erte#rates '#+'re*%la$e?maintain ,articular ion concentrations in their #loo 8 28 The e/cretory system regulates #o y flui concentrations #y regulating the water an ions in #o y flui s8 38 This regulation e,en s on the concentration of mineral ions @i8e85 6aO5 C0;5 EO5 an 4CO3; A8 48 Only cartilaginous fishes @shar9s5 raysA an marine in2erte#rates @molluscs5 arthro,o sA ha2e #o y flui s that are isotonic to seawater5 yet those flui s o not contain the same amount of salt as seawater a8 Their #loo has high concentrations of urea to match the tonicity of seawaterD for some un9nown reason5 this is not to/ic to the fishes8 "8 Marine #ony fishes ha2e a mo erate salt le2el com,are to seawaterD their common ancestor ,ro#a#ly e2ol2e in fresh water8 a8 They are ,rone to water loss an coul #ecome ehy rate 5 therefore they constantly rin9 seawater8 #8 They swallow water e>ual to 1N of their weight e2ery hour to counteract ehy ration8 c8 To remo2e e/cess salt5 they acti2ely trans,ort 6aO an C0; ions @saltA at the gills8 $8 The #o y flui s of freshwater #ony fish are hy,ertonic to freshwaterD they ,assi2ely gain water8 a8 !reshwater fishes ne2er rin9 water8 #8 They ta9e in salts at the gills an ,ass large >uantities of ilute5 hy,otonic urine8 c8 They ischarge a >uantity of urine e>ual to one;thir their #o y weight each ay8 8 Because this causes them to lose salts5 they acti2ely im,ort 6aO an C0; ions into the #loo at the gills8 38 Osmoregulation Among Terrestrial Verte#rates 18 The 9angaroo rat li2es in the esert an is threatene #y ehy ration8 a8 Their fur ,re2ents loss of water5 an uring the ay5 it remains in a cool #urrow8 #8 The 9angaroo rat has con2olute nasal ,assages that a#sor# moisture from e/hale air8 c8 Most terrestrial animals must rin9 fresh water oftenD howe2er5 the 9angaroo rat com,letely a2oi s rin9ing water8 1A 0t forms a 2ery concentrate urine8 2A 0t efecates fecal matter that is almost com,letely ry8 3A 0t meets its water re>uirements with the meta#olic water eri2e from aero#ic res,iration8

#8

2(2

28

Some terrestrial animals that li2e near oceans are a#le to rin9 seawater es,ite its high osmolarity8 a8 Such #ir s an re,tiles ha2e a salt glan that e/cretes concentrate salt solution8

4B02 Uri"ary Sy#$e+ i" H%+a"#

The human urinary system is an organ system with four ,arts8 18 The human ,id"ey# are two #ean;sha,e 5 re ish #rown organs5 each a#out the si'e of a fist8 a8 They are locate on either si e of the 2erte#ral column5 #elow the ia,hragm5 an ,artly ,rotecte #y the lower ri# cage8 #8 The 9i neys are the sites of %ri"e formation8 28 &ach 9i ney is connecte to a %re$er@ each con ucts urine from a 9i ney to the %ri"ary bladder0 38 The %ri"ary bladder stores urine until it is 2oi e from the #o y through the %re$!ra0 48 A single %re$!ra con ucts urine from the urinary #la er to the e/terior of the #o y8 "8 The male urethra runs through the ,enis an also carries semenD in females5 it o,ens the 2entral to the 2aginal o,ening8 Ei neys 18 0f a 9i ney is sectione longitu inally5 three ma7or regions can #e istinguishe 8 a8 The re"al &'r$e6 is the thin5 outer region an it a,,ears granular8 #8 The re"al +ed%lla consists of the stri,e 5 ,yrami ;sha,e regions that lie on the inner si e of the corte/8 c8 The re"al )elvi# is the innermost hollow cham#er8 28 &ach human 9i ney is com,ose of a#out one million tiny tu#ules calle "e)!r'"#0 38 Some ne,hrons are locate ,rimarily in the corte/ #ut others i, own into the me ulla8 6e,hrons 18 &ach ne,hron is com,rise of se2eral ,arts8 28 The en of a ne,hron ,ushes in to form a cu,li9e structure calle the *l'+er%lar &a)#%le0 a8 The outer layer is com,ose of sim,le s>uamous e,ithelium8 #8 The inner layer is ma e of s,eciali'e cells that allow easy ,assage of molecules8 38 6earest the glomerular ca,sule is the )r'6i+al &'"v'l%$ed $%b%le3 line #y cells with many mitochon ria an tightly ,ac9e micro2illi8 48 Sim,le s>uamous e,ithelium forms the l'') '1 $!e "e)!r'"3 the mi le ,ortion of the ne,hron tu#ule with a escen ing an ascen ing lim#8 "8 The di#$al &'"v'l%$ed $%b%le is the istal ,ortion of the ne,hron tu#uleD se2eral 7oin to eli2er the urine into &'lle&$i"* d%&$#0 $8 The loo, of ne,hron an the collecting uct gi2e ,yrami s of the me ulla their stri,e a,,earance8 (8 &ach ne,hron has its own #loo su,,ly8 a8 The renal artery #ranches into smaller arteries5 which then #ranch into afferent arterioles5 one for each ne,hron8 #8 &ach afferent arteriole i2i es to form a ca,illary #e or *l'+er%l%#0 c8 The glomerular ca,illaries rain into an e11ere"$ ar$eri'le which #ranches into a ,eritu#ular networ98 8 The ,eritu#ular ca,illaries rain into a 2enuleD the 2enules from many ne,hrons rain into a small 2einD small 2eins 7oin to form the renal 2ein5 a 2essel that enters the inferior 2ena ca2a8 Grine !ormation 18 Grine ,ro uction re>uires three istinct ,rocesses8 28 1lomerular filtration occurs at the glomerular ca,sule8 38 Tu#ular rea#sor,tion occurs at the ,ro/imal con2olute tu#ule8 48 Tu#ular secretion occurs at the istal con2olute tu#ule8 1lomerular !iltration 18 :hen #loo enters the glomerulus5 #loo ,ressure mo2es small molecules from the glomerulus across the inner mem#rane of the glomerular ca,sule into the lumen of the glomerular ca,suleD this is *l'+er%lar 1il$ra$i'"0 28 The glomerular walls are 1.. times more ,ermea#le than the walls of most ca,illaries8 38 Molecules that lea2e the #loo an enter the glomerular ca,sules are the glomerular filtrate8 48 )lasma ,roteins an #loo cells are too large to #e ,art of the glomerular filtrate8 "8 !ailure to restore flui s woul soon cause eath from loss of water5 nutrients5 an low #loo ,ressure8 Tu#ular +ea#sor,tion 18 T%b%lar reab#'r)$i'" of flui s from the ne,hron #ac9 to the #loo occurs through the walls of the

A8

B8

C8

38

&8

2(3

,ro/imal con2olute tu#ule8 +ea#sor,tion reco2ers much of the glomerular filtrate8 a8 The osmolarity of the #loo e>uals the filtrate so osmosis of water oes not occur8 #8 So ium ions are acti2ely rea#sor#e D chlorine ions follow ,assi2ely8 c8 This changes the osmolarity of the #loo so that water mo2es ,assi2ely from the tu#ule #ac9 to the #loo 8 8 A#out $.=(.N of salt an water are rea#sor#e at the ,ro/imal con2olute tu#ule8 38 Cells of the ,ro/imal con2olute tu#ule ha2e numerous micro2illi5 increasing the surface area for a#sor,tion5 an numerous mitochon ria5 which su,,ly the energy nee e for acti2e trans,ort8 48 Only molecules with carrier molecules for them are rea#sor#e 8 "8 0f there is more glucose5 for e/am,le5 than carriers5 e/cess glucose will a,,ear in the urine8 $8 0n ia#etes mellitus5 there is too much glucose #ecause the li2er fails to store glucose as glycogen8 !8 Tu#ular Secretion 18 T%b%lar #e&re$i'" mo2es su#stances from the #loo to the tu#ular lumen #y other than glomerular filtration8 28 Secretion #ac9 into the filtrate is ,rimarily associate with the istal con2olute tu#ule8 38 This hel,s ri the #o y of ,otentially harmful com,oun s that were not filtere into the glomerular ca,sule8 48 Gric aci 5 hy rogen ions5 ammonia5 an ,enicillin are eliminate this way8 18 The Ei neys an 4omeostasis 18 The 9i neys regulate the water #alance of the #loo 5 there#y maintaining the #loo 2olume an #loo ,ressure8 48 Maintaining the Salt;:ater Balance 18 The long loo, of ne,hron is com,rise of a escen ing lim# an an ascen ing lim#8 28 Salt @6aClA ,assi2ely iffuses out of the lower ,ortion of the ascen ing lim#5 #ut the u,,er5 thic9 ,ortion of the lim# acti2ely trans,orts salt out into the tissue of the outer renal me ulla8 38 Less salt is a2aila#le for trans,ort from the tu#ule as flui mo2es u, the thic9 ,ortion of the ascen ing lim#D the ascen ing lim# is im,ermea#le to water8 48 Grea lea9s from the lower ,ortion of the collecting ucts5 causing the concentration in the lower me ulla to #e highest8 "8 Because of the solute concentration gra ient within the renal me ulla5 water lea2es the escen ing lim# of the loo, of ne,hron along its length8 $8 The ecreasing water concentration in the escen ing lim# encounters an increasing solute concentrationD this is a countercurrent mechanism8 (8 !lui recei2e #y a collecting uct from the istal con2olute tu#ule is isotonic to the cells of the corte/D as this flui ,asses through the renal me ulla5 water iffuses out of the collecting uct into the renal me ulla8 *8 The urine finally eli2ere to the renal ,el2is is usually hy,ertonic to the #loo ,lasma8 -8 A"$idi%re$i& !'r+'"e @A HA is release from the ,osterior lo#e of the ,ituitary8 a8 A34 acts on the collecting ucts #y increasing its ,ermea#ility to 42O5 there#y increasing 42O retention8 #8 :hen A34 is release 5 more water is rea#sor#e an there is less urine8 c8 :hen A34 is not release 5 more water is e/crete an more urine forms8 8 0f an in i2i ual oes not rin9 much water5 the ,ituitary releases A34D if hy rate 5 A34 is not release 8 e8 Diuresis means increase urineD anti"iuresis means a ecrease amount of urine8 1.8 +ea#sor,tion of Salt a8 Gsually more than --N of the so ium filtere out at the glomerulus is returne to the #loo 8 #8 Most is rea#sor#e at the ,ro/imal tu#ule5 2"N is e/tru e #y the ascen ing lim# of the loo, of ne,hron5 an the rest is from the istal con2olute tu#ule an collecting uct8 c8 Ald'#$er'"e is a hormone secrete #y the a renal corte/8 1A 0t acts on the istal con2olute tu#ules to increase the rea#sor,tion of 6aO an the e/cretion of E O8 2A 0ncrease 6aO in the #loo causes water to #e rea#sor#e 5 increasing #loo 2olume an ,ressure8 3A 0f the #loo ,ressure is insufficient to ,romote glomerular filtration5 the afferent arteriole cells 28

2(4

08

secrete re"i"0 4A +enin cataly'es the con2ersion of angiotensinogen @a ,rotein ,ro uce #y the li2erA into angiotensin 08 "A Later5 angiotensin 0 is con2erte to angiotensin 00 #y angiotensin;con2erting en'yme8 $A Angiotensin 00 stimulates cells in the a renal corte/ to ,ro uce al osterone8 (A Angiotensin 00 increases the #loo ,ressure as a 2asoconstrictor8 118 T!e A$rial "a$ri%re$i& !'r+'"e @ANHA is ,ro uce #y the atria of the heart when car iac cells stretch8 a8 :hen #loo ,ressure rises5 the heart ,ro uces A64 to inhi#it the secretion of renin an the release of A348 #8 Therefore5 this hormone ecreases #loo 2olume an ,ressure8 Maintaining the Aci ;Base Balance 18 The #icar#onate #uffer system an #reathing wor9 together to maintain #loo ,48 28 The e/cretion of 4O ions an 6435 an rea#sor,tion of #icar#onate ions @4CO3 ; A is a 7uste 8 a8 0f the #loo is #asic5 fewer hy rogen ions are e/crete an fewer so ium an #icar#onate ions are rea#sor#e 8 4O O 4CO3; 42CO3 42O O CO2 #8 0f the #loo is aci ic5 4O ions are e/crete with ammonia5 while 6aO an 4CO3; ions are rea#sor#e D 6aO ions ,romote formation of hy ro/i e ions an #icar#onate ta9es u, 4O ions when car#onic aci is forme 8 643 O 4O R 644O c8 Ammonia is ,ro uce in the tu#ule cells #y eamination of amino aci s8 38 +ea#sor,tion or e/cretion of ions #y the 9i neys is a homeostatic function that maintains the ,4 of the #loo an osmolarity8

Le&$%re E"ri&!+e"$ Idea#

E6)erie"&e Ba#e% Stu ents may 9now the location of 9i neys from the #o/ing rules a#out 9i ney ,unches8 Some international stu ents5 es,ecially from British Commonwealth countries may #e familiar with 9i ney structure from its more common use in foo 8 Visuals are critical in e/,laining the ne,hron system8 Gsing mo els or me ia to emonstrate the gross anatomy of the 9i ney5 #la er5 etc85 is also im,ortant8 18 3escri#e the role of the e/cretory system in e/cretion an why it is so im,ortant that nitrogenous wastes #e remo2e from the #o yD only the American #ear can recycle amino aci meta#olic wastes to usa#le ,roteins uring hi#ernationD all other organisms must ri themsel2es of these to/ins8 Bears in hi#ernation still un ergo meta#olism although at a slower rate8 Stu ents may #e a#le to ,ostulate the ,ro#lems that must #e o2ercome8 28 A freshwater fish ,lace in the ocean5 or a marine fish ,lace in fresh water are un er ,hysiological stress8 A contrast of these two systems hel,s em,hasi'e the mo ifications foun in organisms8 38 Com,are the countercurrent mechanism in fish gill o/ygenation with the same conce,t foun in the human 9i ney8
48 There is an o2erall ,rinci,le in e/cretory systems of ,ushing out most flui s an then rea#sor#ing the useful nutrients an water8 Gse this as a Brunning themeC as flame cells5 Mal,ighian tu#ules5 an ne,hrons are escri#e 8

"8 Stu ents may recoil at ol conce,ts of using warm urine to melt earwa/ or tra,,e miners sur2i2ing on urine8 This is a ,lace to em,hasi'e that5 in contrast to the igesti2e system5 the urinary system is a filtere an sterile system unless there is a urinary tract infection8 The 2("

first human trials on the anti#iotic ,enicillin5 ,ro uce in small >uantities5 in2ol2e e/tracting the ,enicillin in the ,atient<s urine an recycling it8 BSmelly;urineC restrooms are the result of #acterial action on urine waste molecules after the urine has e/ite the #o y8 $8 Bir s must remain lightweight an cannot store large >uantities of hea2y water8 Lecture >uestion% :hat is the li9ely system in #ir sK 6ote the 2ariation in to/icity an solu#ility of ammonia5 urea5 an uric aci ,asteli9e wastes8 (8 The 2ariations in length of the urethra are relate to the ease of entry of #acterial infectionsD stu ents shoul #e a#le to s,eculate on whether males or females are more ,rone to #la erF9i ney infections8 *8 Stu ents may confuse BureterC an BurethraC ue to their similarityD a ,honics istinction is that BuretersC soun s correct in the ,lural #ut BurethrasC oes not8 -8 Te/t#oo9 an o2erhea outlines of sagittal sections of the ,el2ic organs usually illustrate the su#stantially smaller s,ace allotte for the female urinary #la er5 thus accounting for a 2ery real ifference in mileage #etween #athroom sto,s uring long; istance tri,s8 Lecture >uestion% :hat is li9ely to ha,,en in B#la er s,aceC after a hysterectomyK 1.8 On occasion5 a ,erson e2elo,s four 9i neys in the same s,ace as twoD howe2er5 this means there are twice as many renal arteries an 2eins8 As9 what the conse>uence woul #e in ,rocessing time for a soft rin95 for instance8 This is a common enough anomaly that a large lecture class is 2ery li9ely to ha2e one ,erson with four 9i neys5 although they may not 9now it8 :hy is this so common5 from an e2olutionary ,ers,ecti2eK But5 if it is in fact a 2antageous5 why o we not all ha2e four 9i neysK 118 Lecture >uestion% :hy was the 9i ney one of the first organs to #e successfully trans,lante K @Answer% 0t is enca,sulate an has a limite num#er of connections Iartery5 2ein5 ureterJA8 128 4a2e stu ents 9ee, an a,,ro/imate recor of their flui inta9e an urinary out,ut for a 24; hour ,erio an e/,lain any iscre,ancies #etween the two 2alues8 138 Al#umin is a large ,rotein molecule in #loo ,lasmaD stu ents will relate to it an its Bthic9nessC as a molecule in sim,le raw egg white8 148 Lecture >uestion% :hy must a ,erson continue to ta9e ta#lets or ca,sules for a me ication to remain in the #loo at le2els to #e effecti2eK The rate at which a me ication is remo2e is one of the critical items in rug research5 an is the #asis for the ,rescri,tion line% twice;a; ay5 once;a; ay5 etc8 The faster the 9i ney remo2es the rug from the #loo 5 the more we ha2e to re; ose8 1"8 The conce,t of BcountercurrentC is not rea ily a,,arent #ecause there are no general 2isi#le e/,eriences that o,erate as countercurrents in aily life8 Therefore5 it is necessary to wal9 through the two re2erse gra ients an show the effect with an without the countercurrent ,rocess8 1$8 Many #loo ,ressure me icines act through changing the #loo 2olume an amount of urine ,ro uce 8 At the en of this section5 stu ents shoul #e a#le to e uce why8 A iagram showing the 9i neys ta,,ing into a ma7or ,ortion of the systemic circulation may also hel,? the 9i neys interce,t a,,ro/imately 2.N of #loo flow8 1(8 4emo ialysis in2ol2ing artificial mechanisms is not effecti2e in remo2ing all meta#olic waste molecules8 Lecture >uestion% :hy o ,atients on ialysis machines ha2e to a here to 2($

limite

ietsK

1*8 Cha,ter conce,ts here shoul now ma9e e2i ent what a ,hysician is loo9ing for with urine tests for sugar5 ,rotein5 etc8

Cri$i&al T!i",i"*
-%e#$i'" 10 :hy o #ir s ,ro uce a white ,aste in #ir feces5 an why is it so amaging to car ,aintK A"#.er: Bir s ha2e a common o,ening for igesti2e5 e/cretory an re,ro ucti2e systems8 The white ,asteli9e material is uric aci 5 an e/cretory ,ro uct that is com#ine with feces #efore it is eliminate 8 The uric aci allows nonto/ic storage an conser2es water for the #ir that cannot store large reser2es of hea2y water an fly8 Gric aci is aci ic5 an therefore caustic to ,aint8 -%e#$i'" 20 urine 2olumeK 0f a iuretic such as tea ecrease rea#sor,tion of water from --N to -*N5 what woul ha,,en to ou#le8 )re2ious urine re,resente 1N after --N is rea#sor#e D a ro, to -*N lea2es

A"#.er: Grine 2olume woul 2N or ou#le the ,ro uct8 -%e#$i'" 40

4ow are 9i neys relate to #loo ,ressureK

A"#.er: 6e,hrons regulate the water;salt #alance of the #loo 8 The more salts in the #loo 5 the greater the iffusion of water into the #loo D the greater #loo 2olume re>uires the heart to wor9 har er an causes greater #loo ,ressure8 -%e#$i'" 70 Tea is an e/cellent iureticD if you rin9 one cu, of tea5 you will ,ro#a#ly urinate se2eral times that in water8 :hy oes a small change in the ,ercentage of water rea#sor#e ,ro uce a large change in the 2olume of urine ,ro uce K A"#.er: 0f --N of the water is #eing rea#sor#e 5 the urine constitutes the 1N not rea#sor#e 8 0f rea#sor,tion ro,s 1N to -*N the urine will constitute 2N5 or ou#le the urine ,ro uction8

Te&!"'l'*y 1r'+ M&Gra.;Hill

)lease consult your C'%r#e I"$e*ra$i'" G%ide for technology correlations for this cha,ter8

2((

CHAPTER

4C

NEURONS AN NERVOUS SYSTEMS

This cha,ter ,resents a etaile stu y of the ner2ous system8 After a escri,tion of the e2olution of the ner2ous system5 the cha,ter focuses e/clusi2ely on the human system8 The structure an function of neurons are escri#e in etail8 The 2arious areas of the #rain an their functions5 an ner2ous system ,hysiology are escri#e 8 The #iochemistry of im,ulse transmission is iscusse 8 A Science Focus #o/ iscusses B!i2e 3rugs of A#use8C

C!a)$er O%$li"e
4C01 Ev'l%$i'" '1 $!e Nerv'%# Sy#$e+ A8 0n2erte#rate 6er2ous Organi'ation
Com,arati2e stu y shows the e2olutionary ste,s lea ing to the centrali'e ner2ous system of 2erte#rates8 28 &2en ,rimiti2e s,onges5 with only a cellular le2el of organi'ation5 res,on #y closing the osculum8 38 4y ra @cni ariansA ,ossesses two cell layers se,arate #y mesoglea8 a8 The hy ra can contract5 e/ten 5 an mo2e tentacles to ca,ture ,rey an e2en turn somersaults8 #8 A sim,le "erve "e$ e/ten s throughout the hy ra #o y within the mesoglea8 c8 The hy ra ner2e net is com,ose of neurons in contact with one another an with contractile e,itheliomuscular cells8 8 The more com,le/ cni aria @sea anemones an 7ellyfishA may ha2e two ner2e nets8 1A A fast;acting ner2e net ena#les ma7or res,onses5 ,articularly in times of anger8 2A Another ner2e net coor inates slower an more elicate mo2ements8 48 The ,lanarian ner2ous system is #ilaterally symmetrical8 a8 0t has two lateral ner2e cor s that allow ra,i transfer of information from anterior to ,osterior8 #8 The ner2ous system of ,lanaria is calle a ladderli,e "erv'%# #y#$e+0 c8 The ner2ous system of ,lanaria e/hi#its &e)!ali5a$i'"@ at their anterior en 5 ,lanaria ha2e a sim,le #rain com,ose of a cluster of neurons or ganglia8 8 Cere#ral *a"*lia recei2e in,ut from ,hotorece,tors in eyes,ots an sensory cells in auricles8 e8 The trans2erse ner2e fi#ers #etween the si es of the la erli9e ner2e cor s 9ee, the mo2ement on #oth si es of a ,lanarian #o y coor inate 8 f8 Bilateral symmetry ,lus ce,hali'ation are im,ortant tren s in ner2ous system e2elo,ment8 g8 The organi'ation of the ,lanarian ner2ous system foresha ows #oth the central an ,eri,heral system of 2erte#rates8 "8 The anneli s5 arthro,o s5 an mollus9s are com,le/ animals with true ner2ous systems8 a8 The ner2e cor has a ganglion in each segment of the #o y that controls muscles of that segment8 #8 The #rain still recei2es sensory information an controls the acti2ity of the ganglia so the entire animal is coor inate 8 c8 The ,resence of a #rain an other ganglia in icate an increase num#er of neurons among in2erte#rates8 B8 Verte#rate 6er2ous Organi'ation 18 Verte#rate ner2ous systems e/hi#it ce,hali'ation an #ilateral symmetry8 a8 The 2erte#rate ner2ous system is com,ose of #oth central an ,eri,heral ner2ous systems8 1A The &e"$ral "erv'%# #y#$e+ @CNSA e2elo,s a #rain an s,inal cor from the em#ryonic orsal ner2e cor 8 2A The ,eri,heral ner2ous system consists of ,aire cranial an s,inal ner2es8 #8 )aire eyes5 ears5 an olfactory structures gather information from the en2ironment8 c8 A 2ast increase in num#er of neurons accom,anie e2olution of the 2erte#rate ner2ous systemD an insect may ha2e one million neurons while 2erte#rates may contain a thousan to a #illion times more8 28 The Verte#rate Brain 18

2(*

C8

The 2erte#rate #rain is at the anterior en of the orsal tu#ular ner2e cor 8 The 2erte#rate #rain is customarily i2i e into the hin #rain5 mi #rain5 an fore#rain8 1A A well; e2elo,e hin #rain regulates organs #elow a le2el of consciousnessD in humans it regulates lung an heart function e2en when slee,ingD also5 it coor inates motor acti2ity8 2A The o,tic lo#es are ,art of a mi #rain which was originally a center for coor inating refle/ res,onses to 2isual in,ut8 3A The fore#rain recei2es sensory in,ut from the other two sections an regulates their out,ut8 4A The cere#rum is highly e2elo,e in mammals an is associate with conscious controlD the outer layer5 calle the cere#ral corte/5 is large an com,le/8 The 4uman 6er2ous System 18 Three s,ecific functions of the ner2ous system are to% a8 recei2e sensory in,utD #8 ,erform integrationD an c8 generate motor out,ut to muscles an glan s8 28 The central ner2ous system @C6SA consists of the #rain @in the s9ullA an the s,inal cor @in the 2erte#ral columnA8 38 The )eri)!eral "erv'%# #y#$e+ @PNSA lies outsi e the C6S an contains the cranial an s,inal ner2es8 48 The )6S is i2i e into the somatic an autonomic systems8 a8 The somatic system controls the s9eletal muscles8 #8 The autonomic system controls the smooth muscles5 car iac muscles5 an glan s8 "8 The C6S an )6S of the human ner2ous system are connecte an wor9 together to ,erform the functions of a ner2ous system8

a8 #8

4C02 Nerv'%# Ti##%e 6er2ous tissue is ma e u, of "e%r'"# @ner2e cellsA an "e%r'*lia @which su,,ort an nourish the neuronsA8 A8 6eurons an 6euroglia 18 Ne%r'"# 2ary in a,,earance5 e,en ing on their function an location5 #ut they all ha2e three ,arts8
a8 #8 c8 The &ell b'dy contains the nucleus an other organelles8 e"dri$e# recei2e information an con uct im,ulses towar the cell #o y8 A single a6'" con ucts im,ulses away from the cell #o y to stimulate or inhi#it a neuron5 muscle5 or glan 8 1A A long a/on is calle a "erve 1iber0 2A The long a/ons are co2ere #y a white +yeli" #!ea$!0 Ty,es of 6eurons a8 M'$'r @e11ere"$A "e%r'"# ha2e many en rites an a single a/onD they con uct im,ulses from the C6S to muscles or glan s8 #8 Se"#'ry @a11ere"$A "e%r'"# are uni,olarD they con uct im,ulses from the ,eri,hery towar the C6S8 1A The ,rocess that e/ten s from the cell #o y i2i es into two ,rocesses5 one going to the C6S an one to ,eri,hery8 c8 I"$er"e%r'"# @a##'&ia$i'" "e%r'"#A are multi,olar8 1A They ha2e highly;#ranche en rites within the C6S8 2A 0nterneurons con2ey messages #etween the 2arious ,arts of the C6S8 3A They form com,le/ #rain ,athways accounting for thin9ing5 memory5 language5 etc8 Hulius Bernstein @early 1-..sA ,ro,ose that the ner2e im,ulse is the mo2ement of une>ually istri#ute ions on either si e of an a/onal mem#rane5 the ,lasma mem#rane of an a/on8 A8 L8 4o g9in an A8 !8 4u/ley later confirme this theory8 a8 They an other researchers inserte a tiny electro e into the giant a/on of a s>ui 8 #8 The electro e was attache to a 2oltmeter an an oscillosco,e to trace a change in 2oltage o2er time8 c8 The 2oltage measure the ifference in the electrical ,otential #etween the insi e an outsi e of the mem#rane8

28

B8 Transmission of the 6er2e 0m,ulses

18 28

2(-

8 An oscillosco,e in icate any changes in ,olarity8 +esting )otential a8 :hen an a/on is not con ucting an im,ulse5 an oscillosco,e recor s a mem#rane ,otential e>ual to negati2e (. mV5 in icating that the insi e of the neuron is more negati2e than the outsi e8 #8 This is the re#$i"* )'$e"$ial #ecause the a/on is not con ucting an im,ulse8 c8 This ,olarity is ue to the ifference in electrical charge on either si e of the a/omem#rane8 1A The insi e of the ,lasma mem#rane is more negati2ely charge than the outsi e8 2A Although there is a higher concentration of EO ions insi e the a/on5 there is a much higher concentration of 6aO ions outsi e the a/on8 3A The ,lasma mem#rane is more ,ermea#le to EO ions5 so this gra ient is less an the EO ion ,otential is less8 4A The so ium;,otassium ,um, maintains this une>ual istri#ution of 6a O an EO ions8 8 The so ium;,otassium @6aO;EOA ,um, is an acti2e trans,ort system that mo2es 6aO ions out an EO ions into the a/on8 e8 The ,um, is always wor9ing #ecause the mem#rane is ,ermea#le to these ions an they ten to iffuse towar the lesser concentration8 f8 Since the ,lasma mem#rane is more ,ermea#le to ,otassium ions than to so ium ions5 there are always more ,ositi2e ions outsi eD this accounts for some ,olarity8 g8 The large negati2ely charge ,roteins in the cyto,lasm of the a/on also contri#ute to the resting ,otential of = (. mV8 48 Action )otential a8 :hen an a/on con ucts a ner2e im,ulse5 the ra,i change in the mem#rane ,otential is the a&$i'" )'$e"$ial0 #8 )rotein;line channels in the a/omem#rane o,en to allow either so ium or ,otassium ions to ,assD these are so ium an ,otassium gate ion channels8 c8 The oscillosco,e goes from =(. mV to O4. mV in a "epolari-ation ,hase5 in icating the cyto,lasm is now more ,ositi2e than the tissue flui 8 8 The trace returns to =(. mV again in the repolari-ation ,hase5 in icating the insi e of the a/on is negati2e again8 "8 )ro,agation of Action )otentials a8 0f an a/on is unmyelinate 5 an action ,otential stimulates an a 7acent a/omem#rane to ,ro uce an action ,otential8 #8 0n myelinate fi#ers5 the action ,otential at one neurofi#ril no e causes action ,otential at the ne/t no e8 1A The myelinate sheath has neurofi#ril no es, ga,s where one neurolemmocyte en s an the ne/t #egins8 2A The action ,otential Blea,sC from one neurofi#ril no e to another?this is calle #al$a$'ry &'"d%&$i'"0 3A Saltatory con uction may reach rates of o2er 2.. metersFsecon 5 com,are to 1 meterFsecon without it8 c8 As each im,ulse ,asses5 the mem#rane un ergoes a short re1ra&$'ry )eri'd #efore it can o,en the so ium gates againD this ensures a one;way irection to the im,ulse8 C8 Transmission Across a Syna,se 18 The minute s,ace #etween the a/on #ul# an the cell #o y of the ne/t neuron is the #y"a)#e0 28 A syna,se consists of a ,resyna,tic mem#rane5 a syna,tic cleft5 an the ,ostsyna,tic mem#rane8 a8 Syna,tic 2esicles store "e%r'$ra"#+i$$er# that iffuse across the syna,se8 #8 :hen the action ,otential arri2es at the ,resyna,tic a/on #ul#5 syna,tic 2esicles merge with the ,resyna,tic mem#rane8 c8 :hen 2esicles merge with the mem#rane5 "e%r'$ra"#+i$$er# are ischarge into the syna,tic cleft8 8 The neurotransmitter molecules iffuse across the syna,tic cleft to the ,ostsyna,tic mem#rane where they #in with s,ecific rece,tors8 e8 The ty,e of neurotransmitter an For rece,tor etermines if the res,onse is e/citation or inhi#ition8 f8 &/citatory neurotransmitters use gate ion channels an are fast acting8 g8 Other neurotransmitters affect the meta#olism of the ,ostsyna,tic cells an are slower8 38 6eurotransmitters an 6euromo ulators 38

2*.

At least 1.. ifferent neurotransmitters ha2e #een i entifie 8 A&e$yl&!'li"e @AC!A an "'re)i"e)!ri"e @NEA5 d')a+i"e3 an #er'$'"i" are ,resent in #oth the C6S an the )6S8 1A ACh can ha2e either an e/citatory or an inhi#itory effect5 e,en ing on the tissue8 2A 6& is im,ortant to reaming5 wa9ing5 an moo 8 3A 3o,amine is in2ol2e in emotions5 learning5 an attention8 4A Serotonin is in2ol2e in thermoregulation5 emotions5 an ,erce,tion8 c8 Once a neurotransmitter is release into a syna,tic cleft5 it initiates a res,onse an is then remo2e from the cleft8 8 0n some syna,ses5 the ,ostsyna,tic mem#rane contains en'ymes that ra,i ly inacti2ate the neurotransmitter8 e8 A&e$yl&!'li"e#$era#e @AC!eA #rea9s own acetylcholine8 f8 0n other syna,ses5 the ,resyna,tic mem#rane rea#sor#s the neurotransmitter for re,ac9aging in syna,tic 2esicles or for molecular #rea9 own8 g8 The short e/istence of neurotransmitters in a syna,se ,re2ents continuous stimulation @or inhi#itionA of ,ostsyna,tic mem#ranes8 h8 Many rugs that affect the ner2ous system act #y interfering with or ,otentiating the action of neurotransmitters8 i8 Ne%r'+'d%la$'r# are molecules that #loc9 the release of a neurotransmitter or mo ify a neuron<s res,onse to one8 1A Su#stance ) is release #y sensory neurons when ,ain is ,resentD en or,hins #loc9 the release of su#stance ) an therefore act as natural ,ain9illers8 38 Syna,tic 0ntegration 18 A neuron has many en rites an may ha2e one to ten thousan syna,ses with other neurons8 28 A neuron recei2es many e/citatory an inhi#itory signals8 38 &/citatory neurotransmitters ,ro uce a ,otential change @signalA that ri2es the neuron closer to an action ,otentialD inhi#itory signals ,ro uce a signal that ri2es the neuron further from an action ,otential8 48 Thus5 e/citatory signals ha2e a e,olari'ing effect an inhi#itory signals ha2e a hy,er,olari'ing effect8 "8 I"$e*ra$i'" is the summing u, of e/citatory an inhi#itory signals8 a8 0f a neuron recei2es many e/citatory signals5 or at a ra,i rate from one syna,se5 the a/on will ,ro#a#ly transmit a ner2e im,ulse8 #8 0f #oth ,ositi2e an inhi#itory signals are recei2e 5 the summing may ,rohi#it the a/on from firing8

a8 #8

4C04 Ce"$ral Nerv'%# Sy#$e+: Brai" a"d S)i"al C'rd

The central ner2ous system @C6SA is where sensory im,ulses are recei2e an motor control is initiate 8 28 Both the #rain an the s,inal cor are ,rotecte #y #one8 38 Both are wra,,e in three connecti2e tissue co2erings calle +e"i"*e#@ +e"i"*i$i# is a isease cause #y many ifferent #acteria or 2iruses that in2a e the meninges8 48 The s,aces #etween the meninges are fille with &erebr'#)i"al 1l%id to cushion an ,rotect the C6S8 "8 The cere#ros,inal flui is containe in the central canal of the s,inal cor an within the ve"$ri&le# of the #rain8 $8 The 2entricles are interconnecting s,aces that ,ro uce an ser2e as reser2oirs for the cere#ros,inal flui 8 A8 The S,inal Cor 18 The #)i"al &'rd has two main functions8 a8 0t is the center for many re1le6 a&$i'"# @automatic res,onses to e/ternal stimuliA8 #8 0t ,ro2i es the means of communication #etween the #rain an the s,inal ner2es8 28 The s,inal cor is com,ose of white an gray matter. a8 1ray Matter 1A The unmyelinate cell #o ies an short fi#ers gi2e *ray +a$$er its color8 2A 0n a cross section5 the gray area loo9s li9e a #utterfly or the letter 48 3A 0t contains ,ortions of sensory neurons an motor neuronsD short interneurons connect them8 #8 :hite Matter 1A Myelinate long fi#ers of interneurons run together in $ra&$# an gi2e the .!i$e +a$$er its 18

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c8

8 B8 The Brain 18 The brai" has four ve"$ri&le#: two lateral 2entricles an a thir an fourth 2entricle8 28 The cere#rum is associate with the two lateral 2entricles5 the ience,halon with the thir 5 an the #rain stem an cere#ellum with the fourth8 38 The Cere#rum a8 The &erebr%+5 also calle the telence,halon5 is the largest ,art of the #rain in humans8 #8 0t is the last center recei2ing sensory in,ut an carrying out integration to comman motor res,onses8 c8 The right an left &erebral !e+i#)!ere# @the two hal2es of the cere#rumA are connecte #y a #ri ge of ner2e fi#ers5 the cor,us callosumD ifferent functions are associate with the two hemis,heres8 8 The outer ,ortion is a highly con2olute cere#ral corte/ consisting of gray matter containing cell #o ies an short unmyelinate fi#ers8 e8 The cere#ral hemis,here is i2i e into four surface lo#es% 1A Frontal lobe?locate towar s the front of the hemis,heres an is associate with motor control5 memory5 reasoning5 an 7u gment8 a8 The left frontal lo#e has Broca?s area for our a#ility to s,ea98 2A (arietal lobe?locate #ehin the frontal lo# an in2ol2e with sensory rece,tion an integration5 an taste8 3A /emporal lobe?locate laterally an recei2es information from our ears8 4A 6ccipital lobe?locate in the #ac9 si e of the #rain5 it recei2es information from our eyes8 f8 The &erebral &'r$e6 contains motor5 sensory5 an association areas8 1A The human han ta9es u, a large ,ro,ortion of the )ri+ary +'$'r area0 2A The 2entral to the ,rimary motor area is a premotor area that organi'es motor functions #efore the ,rimary area sen s signals to the cere#ellum8 3A Sensory information from the s9in an s9eletal muscles arri2es at a )ri+ary #'+a$'#e"#'ry area8 4A A general inter,retation area recei2es information from all of the sensory association areas an allows us to >uic9ly integrate signals an sen them to the ,refrontal area for imme iate res,onse8 g8 Basal 6uclei 1A Asi e from the tracts5 there are masses of gray matter locate ee, within the white matter8 2A These #asal nuclei integrate motor comman sD malfunctions cause H%"$i"*$'" an Par,i"#'" isease8 48 The 3ience,halon a8 The !y)'$!ala+%# an $!ala+%# are in a ,ortion of the #rain 9nown as the die"&e)!al'"3 where the thir 2entricle is locate 8 #8 The hy,othalamus forms the floor of the thir 2entricle8 c8 The hy,othalamus maintains homeostasis8 1A 0t is an integrating center that regulates hunger5 slee,5 thirst5 #o y tem,erature5 water #alance5 an #loo ,ressure8 2A 0t controls the ,ituitary glan an there#y ser2es as a lin9 #etween the ner2ous an en ocrine systems8 8 The thalamus consists of two masses of gray matter in the si es an roof of the thir 2entricle8 1A 0t is the last ,ortion of the #rain for sensory in,ut #efore the cere#rum8 2A 0t is a central relay station for sensory im,ulses tra2eling u, from the #o y or from the #rain to the cere#rum8 3A &/ce,t for smell5 it channels sensory im,ulses to s,ecific regions of the cere#rum for

color8 2A Tracts con uct im,ulses #etween the #rain an the s,inal ner2esD ascen ing tracts are orsal an escen ing tracts from the #rain are 2entral8 3A Tracts cross o2er near the #rainD therefore5 the left si e of the #rain controls the right si e of the #o y8 0f a s,inal cor in7ury occurs in the cer2ical region5 the con ition of >ua ri,legia @,aralysis of all four lim#sA results8 0f the in7ury is in the thoracic region5 the lower lim#s may #e ,araly'e @,ara,legiaA8

2*2

"8

$8

(8

*8

inter,retation8 e8 The )i"eal *la"d5 which secretes the melatonin hormone5 is in the ience,halon8 The Cere#ellum a8 The &erebell%+ is se,arate from the #rain stem #y the fourth 2entricle8 #8 The cere#ellum is in two ,ortions 7oine #y a narrow me ian ,ortion8 c8 0t recei2es information from the eyes5 inner ear5 muscles5 etc85 in icating #o y ,osition5 integrates the information5 an sen s im,ulses to muscles maintaining #alance8 8 The cere#ellum assists in the learning of new motor s9ills5 as in s,orts or ,laying the ,ianoD it may #e im,ortant in 7u ging the ,assage of time8 The Brain Stem a8 The brai" #$e+ contains the me ulla o#longata5 ,ons5 an mi #rain8 #8 Besi es acting as a relay station for tracts ,assing #etween the cere#rum an s,inal cor or cere#ellum5 the +idbrai" has refle/ centers for 2isual5 au itory5 an tactile res,onses8 c8 The )'"# @B#ri geCA contains #un les of a/ons tra2eling #etween the cere#ellum an rest of the C6S8 1A The ,ons functions with the me ulla to regulate the #reathing rate8 2A 0t has refle/ centers concerne with hea mo2ements in res,onse to 2isual or au itory stimuli8 8 The +ed%lla 'bl'"*a$a lies #etween the s,inal cor an the ,ons5 anterior to the cere#ellum8 1A 0t contains refle/ centers for regulating heart#eat5 #reathing5 an 2asoconstriction8 2A 0t contains refle/ centers for 2omiting5 coughing5 snee'ing5 hiccu,,ing5 an swallowing8 3A 0t contains ner2e tracts that ascen or escen #etween the s,inal cor an the #rain<s higher centers8 The +eticular Acti2ating System @+ASA a8 The reticular formation consists of gray matter an ner2e fi#ers that e/ten the length of the #rain stem an is a ma7or com,onent of the +AS8 #8 The +AS recei2es sensory signals that it sen s u, to higher centers5 an motor signals that it sen s to the s,inal cor 8 c8 The +AS sources the cere#rum an causes a ,erson to #e alert8 8 The +AS can filter out unnecessary sensory stimuli5 which e/,lains why you can stu y with the TV on8 e8 1eneral anesthetics function #y su,,ressing the +AS8 f8 A se2ere in7ury to the +AS can cause a ,erson to #e comatose5 from which reco2ery may #e im,ossi#le8 The Lim#ic System a8 The li+bi& #y#$e+ is a com,le/ networ9 of tracts an nuclei that incor,orate me ial ,ortions of cere#ral lo#es5 su#cortical nuclei5 an ience,halon8 #8 0t #len s higher mental functions an ,rimiti2e emotions8 c8 0ts two ma7or structures are the hi,,ocam,us an amyg ala5 essential for learning an memory8 1A The hi,,ocam,us ma9es ,refrontal area aware of ,ast e/,eriences store in association areas8 2A The amyg ala causes e/,eriences to ha2e emotional o2ertones8 3A 0nclusion of the frontal lo#e in the lim#ic system allows reasoning to 9ee, us from acting out strong feelings8 8 Learning an Memory 1A Me+'ry is the a#ility to hol thoughts in the min an to recall ,ast e2ents8 2A Learning ta9es ,lace when we retain an utili'e ,ast memories8 3A The ,refrontal area in the frontal lo#e is acti2e in short;term memory @e8g85 tele,hone num#ersA8 4A Long;term memory is a mi/ of semantic memory @num#ers5 wor sA an e,iso ic memory @,ersons5 e2entsA8 "A S9ill memory is the a#ility to ,erform motor acti2ities8 $A The hi,,ocam,us ser2es as a go;#etween to #ring memories to min 8 (A The amyg ala is res,onsi#le for fear con itioning an associates anger with sensory stimuli8 *A Long;term ,otentiation @LT)A is an enhance res,onse at syna,ses within the hi,,ocam,us8 -A LT) is essential to memory storageD e/cite ,ostsyna,tic cells may ie ue to a glutamate neurotransmitter8 1.A &/tinction of too many cells in the hi,,ocam,us is the un erlying cause of Al'heimer isease8

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4C07 Peri)!eral Nerv'%# Sy#$e+ The ,eri,heral ner2ous system lies outsi e the C6S8 a8 Cra"ial "erve# connect to the #rain8 #8 S)i"al "erve# lie on either si e of the s,inal cor 8 28 A/ons in ner2es are calle ner2e fi#ers8 38 The cell #o ies of neurons are foun in the C6S or in *a"*lia0 48 1anglia are collections of cell #o ies in the )6S8 "8 4umans ha2e 12 ,airs of &ra"ial "erve# attache to the #rain8 a8 Sensory ner2es only contain sensory ner2e fi#ers8 #8 Motor ner2es only contain motor ner2e fi#ers8 c8 Mi/e ner2es contain #oth sensory an motor ner2e fi#ers8 8 Cranial ner2es mostly connect to the hea 5 nec95 an facial regions8 e8 The 2agus ner2e also #ranches to the ,haryn/5 laryn/5 an some internal organs8 $8 4umans ha2e 31 ,airs of #)i"al "erve# emerging from the #)i"al &'rd0 a8 The ,aire s,inal ner2es lea2e the s,inal cor #y two short #ranches5 or roots8 #8 The orsal root contains fi#ers of sensory neurons con ucting ner2e im,ulses to the s,inal cor D the cell #o y of a sensory neuron is in the d'r#al r''$ *a"*li'"0 c8 The 2entral root contains the a/ons of motor neurons that con uct ner2e im,ulses away from the s,inal cor 8 8 All s,inal ner2es are mi/e ner2es that con uct im,ulses to an from the s,inal cor 8 e8 S,inal ner2es are mi/e ner2es with sensory an motor fi#ersD each ser2es its own region8 A8 Somatic System 18 The ,eri,heral ner2ous system has two i2isions% somatic an autonomic8 28 The #'+a$i& #y#$e+ inclu es the ner2es that carry sensory information to the C6S an motor comman s away from the C6S to s9eletal muscles8 38 Any 2oluntary control of muscles in2ol2es the #rainD re1le6e#3 in2oluntary res,onses to stimuli5 in2ol2e the #rain or 7ust the s,inal cor 8 48 Outsi e stimuli can initiate refle/ actions5 some of which in2ol2e the #rain8 B8 The +efle/ Arc 18 A refle/ arc in2ol2es the following ,athway% a8 Sensory rece,tors generate an im,ulse in a sensory neuron that mo2es along sensory a/ons towar the s,inal cor 8 #8 Sensory neurons enter the cor orsally an ,ass signals to interneurons8 c8 0m,ulses tra2el along motor a/ons to an effector5 which #rings a#out a res,onse to the stimulus8 8 The imme iate res,onse is that muscles contract to with raw from source of ,ain8 28 +efle/ res,onse occurs #ecause the sensory neuron stimulates se2eral interneurons8 38 Some im,ulses e/ten to the cere#rum5 which ma9es a ,erson conscious of the stimulus an the reaction8 C8 Autonomic System 18 The a%$'"'+i& #y#$e+ is a ,art of the )6S an regulates car iac an smooth muscle an glan s8 28 There are two i2isions% the sym,athetic an ,arasym,athetic systems8 a8 Both function automatically an usually in an in2oluntary manner8 #8 Both inner2ate all internal organs8 c8 Both utili'e two neurons an one ganglion for each im,ulse8 1A The first neuron has a cell #o y within the C6S an a ,reganglionic fi#er8 2A The secon neuron has a cell #o y within the ganglion an a ,ostganglionic fi#er8 8 Breathing rate an #loo ,ressure are regulate #y refle/ actions to maintain homeostasis8 38 Sym,athetic 3i2ision a8 Most ,reganglionic fi#ers of the #y+)a$!e$i& #y#$e+ arise from the mi le @thoracic;lum#arA ,ortion of the s,inal cor an almost imme iately terminate in ganglia that lie near the cor @thoracic;lum#ar ,ortionA8 #8 Therefore the ,reganglionic fi#er is short5 #ut the ,ostganglionic fi#er that contacts an organ is long8 c8 The sym,athetic system is es,ecially im,ortant uring emergency situations @the Bfight or flightC res,onseA8 8 To efen or flee5 muscles nee a su,,ly of glucose an o/ygenD the sym,athetic system 18

2*4

accelerates heart#eat5 an ilates #ronchi8 To i2ert energy from less necessary igesti2e functions5 the sym,athetic system inhi#its igestion8 f8 The neurotransmitter release #y the ,ostganglionic a/on is mainly nore,ine,hrine5 similar to e,ine,hrine @a renalineA use as a heart stimulant8 48 )arasym,athetic 3i2ision a8 The )ara#y+)a$!e$i& #y#$e+ consists of a few cranial ner2es5 inclu ing the 2agus ner2e5 an fi#ers that arise from the #ottom craniosacral ,ortion of the s,inal cor 8 #8 0n this case5 the ,reganglionic fi#ers are long an the ,ostganglionic fi#ers are short8 c8 This system is a Bhouse9ee,er systemCD it ,romotes internal res,onses resulting in a rela/e state8 8 The ,arasym,athetic system causes the eye ,u,il to constrict5 ,romotes igestion5 an retar s heart#eat8 e8 The neurotransmitter release is acetylcholine8 38 3rugs of A#use @Science Focus #o/A 18 Alcohol a8 Alcohol consum,tion is the most socially acce,te form of rug use worl wi e8 #8 Alcohol @ethanolA acts as a "epressant on many ,arts of the #rain where it affects neurotransmitter release or u,ta9e8 c8 3e,en ing on the amount consume 5 the effects of alcohol on the #rain can lea to a feeling of rela/ation5 lower inhi#itions5 im,aire concentration an coor ination5 slurre s,eech5 an 2omiting8 8 Coma or eath can occur if #loo le2el of alcohol #ecomes too high8 e8 Chronic consum,tion can amage the frontal lo#es5 ecrease o2erall #rain si'e5 an increase 2entricle si'e8 f8 )rolonge alcohol use can ,ermanently amage the li2er5 e2en to a ,oint where a li2er trans,lant may #e necessary8 28 6icotine a8 :hen to#acco is smo9e 5 nicotine is eli2ere to the C6S where it #in s to the neurons5 causing the release of o,amine8 #8 0n the )6S5 nicotine acts as a stimulant #y mimic9ing acetylcholine an increasing heart rate5 #loo ,ressure5 an muscle acti2ity8 c8 6icotine with rawal sym,toms inclu e irrita#ility5 hea ache5 insomnia5 ,oor cogniti2e ,erformance5 the urge to smo9e5 an weight gain8 38 Clu# an 3ate +a,e 3rugs a8 The chemical structure of metham,hetamine @also calle meth or s,ee A is similar to that of o,amine5 an its stimulatory effects mimic that of cocaine8 #8 The initial rush of metham,hetamine is ty,ically followe #y a state of high agitation that may lea to 2iolent #eha2ior8 c8 Chronic use is characteri'e #y ,aranoia5 au itory an 2isual hallucinations5 self;a#sor,tion5 irrita#ility5 an aggressi2e5 erratic #eha2ior8 8 &/cessi2e inta9e can lea to hy,erthermia5 con2ulsions5 an eath8 e8 &cstasy is a rug with similar effects to those of metham,hetamine8 f8 &cstasy has an o2erstimulatory effect on neurons that ,ro uce serotonin which ele2ates our moo s8 g8 3ate ra,e rugs ha2e se ati2e effects such as rela/ation5 amnesia5 an isorientation8 h8 They are also ,o,ular at clu#s #ecause they enhance the effect of heroin an &cstasy8 48 Cocaine a8 Cocaine is a stimulant in the C6S that interferes with the u,;ta9e of o,amine at syna,ses5 resulting in a rush of well;#eing that lasts "=3. minutes8 #8 +esult of cocaine use is slee,lessness5 lac9 of a,,etite5 increase se/ ri2e5 tremors5 an Bcocaine ,sychosis8C c8 Cocaine relate eaths are usually ue to car iac an For res,iratory arrests8 "8 4eroin a8 4eroin acts as a e,ressant in the ner2ous system8 #8 O,iates @of which heroin #elongsA e,ress #reathing5 #loc9 ,ain ,athways5 clou mental function5 an sometimes cause nausea an 2omiting8 e8

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c8 $8

(8

Long;term effects are a iction5 he,atitis5 40VFA03S5 an #acterial infections ue to using share nee les8 Mari7uana a8 The acti2e ingre ient in mari7uana is the resin that is rich in T4C @tetrahy rocanna#inolA8 #8 :hen T4C reaches the C6S5 the ,erson e/,eriences mil eu,horia5 along with alterations in 2ision an 7u gment8 c8 0n hea2y users5 hallucinations5 an/iety5 e,ression5 ra,i flow of i eas5 #o y image istortions5 ,aranoia5 an ,sychotic sym,toms can result8 8 +egular usage of mari7uana can cause cra2ings that ma9e it ifficult to sto,8 Treatment for A icti2e 3rugs a8 Treatment for a iction to rugs consists mainly of #eha2ior mo ifications8 #8 6ew treatment techni>ues in2ol2e a ministering anti#o ies to #loc9 the effects of cocaine an metham,hetamine8 c8 A 2accine for cocaine that woul stimulate anti#o y ,ro uction is #eing teste 8

Le&$%re E"ri&!+e"$ Idea#

E6)erie"&e Ba#e% Our un erstan ing of the functioning of the #rain is a 2ancing ra,i ly since the 1--.sD the first B eca e of the #rain5C as )&T scans an other new techni>ues allow us to achie2e much un erstan ing of #rain function without surgical inter2ention8 0t is li9ely that some of the conce,ts e/,laine here will #e mo ifie an refine uring the ne/t two years8 4owe2er5 this research fosters news stories which can #e use for class iscussion8 18 3escri#e why the e2elo,ment of a more com,le/ ner2ous system woul ha2e #een a 2antageous to animals early in their e2olution8 28 6ot all neurons ha2e the classic s,i erli9e a,,earanceD illustrations of ro s in the retina an other rece,tor neurons can ,ro2i e a ,ers,ecti2e of the 2ariations on the general theme8 38 3ominoes can #e line u, an Bri,,le C to illustrate that an im,ulse can eli2er a message while no one omino actually has to trans2erse the whole length5 7ust as no calcium ion has to mo2e the length of an a/onD the setting u, of the ominoes is re,resentati2e of the so ium ,um, mo2ing the so ium ions outsi e the mem#rane5 an the falling own is their flow insi e the mem#rane?the Bri,,leC is the im,ulse8 The num#er of times you can sen a omino Bim,ulseC e,en s on how fast you can reset the ominoes5 7ust as the num#er of ner2e im,ulses ,er secon e,en s on how fast the a/on mem#rane can ,um, ions #ac9 outsi e8 48 \uery stu ents as to why laterali-ation @ ifferent functions in the two cere#ral hemis,heresA woul e2ol2e8 "8 3etail the a 2antages of segmental ganglia in anneli s an arthro,o s8 :hen a fly is raise off of its feet5 its wings #egin #eating8 :hen it is lowere an its feet touch the floor5 its wings sto, #eating8 This effect still occurs when the fly<s hea an small B#rainC has #een remo2e M $8 The myelin sheath is usually 2iewe as mere insulation an it is necessary to escri#e how myelination ma9es the electrical transmission of ner2ous im,ulses more ra,i 8 (8 Clarify how the somatic system has motor functions that eal with s9eletal muscles5 while the autonomic system<s motor neurons cause the contraction of smooth or car iac muscle an effect the release of glan ular secretions8 2*$

*8 Because of its e2elo,ment in layers #ase on function5 researchers sometimes refer to the 2arious layers of the #rain as the Bre,tilian #rain5C etc8 A se>uence of #rain mo els across fish5 am,hi#ians5 re,tiles5 an mammals will show ,rogressi2e e2elo,ment with the com,le/ cere#rum #eing the istinguishing human e2elo,ment8 !or instance5 there is a Bre,tilian #rainC in us that re,resents the #asic a#ility to maintain #o y functions an this ,ortion is essentially the same as in re,tiles8 -8 As9 stu ents why a lin9age of emotions to memory woul #e an e2olutionary a 2antage5 as ,erha,s in the case of remem#ering how one successfully e2a e a ,re ator8 The effect of emotions u,on retaining images in long;term memory can #e illustrate #y as9ing stu ents where they were on Se,tem#er 115 2..1D mi le;age stu ents5 where they were when they hear the s,ace shuttle ha e/,lo e D an for e2en ol er nontra itional stu ents5 where they were when they hear Eenne y ha #een shot8 1.8 0m,ulses along an a/on are analogous to current along a co,,er wire8 Let a ra io is not a mess of wire an a human #eha2ior is not 7ust one continuous ner2e im,ulse8 :ires lea to an from the antenna an s,ea9er magnets5 etc85 an neurons connect sensory cells with other neurons an with muscles an glan s8 Therefore5 what ha,,ens at the syna,se is critical to un erstan ing the effects8 Me ia an For mo els can emonstrate how the ner2e im,ulse an syna,se generate #eha2ior8 118 Some stu ents are familiar with the effects of common aerosol insectici es on mos>uitoes5 flies5 #eetles5 etc8% the insect ies in s,asms of uncontrolle twitching8 Co2erage of the action of neurotransmitters at a syna,se gi2es stu ents the #ac9groun to now un erstan what is ha,,ening% a common family of insectici es estroys acetylcholinesterase an the insect is una#le to isa#le its natural neurotransmitterD continue im,ulses o2erri e any a#ility to control normal #o y functions8 128 Most of our un erstan ing of neuron ,hysiology was researche on the 2ery large neurons of the s>ui an snail8 6ote how to ay5 animal research remains critical in this isci,line as well as throughout #iome ical research8 138 This may #e the first time that stu ents ha2e encountere s,ecific terms for 2arious ty,es of memories8 3istinguishing ifferences an #eing more e/act with terminology is ,art of science ,rogress8 Terms such as Bthin9C or BmemoryC are less useful as we iscern them to consist of many istinct ,rocesses8 148 Stu ents who are #ilingual from #irth will Bstore #oth languagesC in Broca<s area5 #ut if they learn the secon language after ages 3="5 the secon will #e Bstore C in :ernic9e<s region8 Acci ents that amage :ernic9e<s region eliminate secon language com,etency in the secon case only8 Lecture >uestion% :hat oes this #iological fact suggest a#out chil ren growing u, in multilingual &uro,e 2ersus monolingual American societyK
1"8 Gse two 2aria#le ,oints5 such as s,rea ing a,art the ti,s of two 9eys on your 9ey ring5 to etect the ensity of sensory ner2es on the human #o yD a stu ent can feel two close ,oints on a fingerti, #ut cannot istinguish ,oints much further a,art on the #ac9 of the arm5 etc8 4igh ensities e/ist in the mouth an li,s5 fingers5 an genital regions8

1$8 Stu ying organs in i2i ually misses the fact that they must act in concert8 Lecture >uestion% :hat might ha,,en if organs were not controlle #y a coor inate sym,athetic an ,arasym,athetic systemK Such a B,hysiologically confuse C organism woul ha2e little chance of sur2i2al8 Two families of ner2ous system rugs affect one or the other of these 2*(

systems8

Cri$i&al T!i",i"*
-%e#$i'" 10 syna,seK :hat 9ee,s a ner2e im,ulse from flowing B#ac9war C in a neuron an across a

A"#.er: 1enerally5 sensory neurons are structure to recei2e stimuli from the en s of en rites8 As a ner2e im,ulse mo2es along5 ,ores o,en in a casca e uring e,olari'ation #ut ta9e a few millisecon s to re,olari'eD this 9ee,s the so ium gates from #ac9war ,ro,agating8 At the syna,se5 the a/on en secretes the neurotransmitter that is recei2e #y the en rite en of the ne/t neuronD this chemical transmitter;recei2er system ,re2ents #ac9war ,ro,agation across the syna,se8 -%e#$i'" 20 :hy o most ,eo,le remem#er where they were when they hear the s,ace shuttle 0hallenger ha e/,lo e or @for ol er stu entsA when )resi ent Eenne y was shotK A"#.er: The lim#ic system is in2ol2e in stimulating memory uring emotionally;charge e2ents8 -%e#$i'" 40 4ow can a ,erson #e eclare B#rain ea C when heFshe is still #reathingK

A"#.er: This efinition refers to cere#ral #rain acti2ityD the 2ital centers for heart#eat5 #reathing5 an some other functions are locate in the #rainstem8 -%e#$i'" 70 :hy is it ifficult to iagnose the cause of an ina#ility to s,ea9K

A"#.er: S,eech re>uires not only the functioning of BrocaYs or :ernic9eYs area5 #ut also accurate hearing5 memory for wor associations5 an 2arious motor areas to generate s,eech5 all #e integrate correctly8

Te&!"'l'*y 1r'+ M&Gra.;Hill

)lease consult your C'%r#e I"$e*ra$i'" G%ide for technology correlations for this cha,ter8

2**

CHAPTER

4D

SENSE ORGANS

This cha,ter escri#es the structures in2ol2e with the senses of taste5 smell5 2ision5 an hearing8 The #iochemistry in2ol2e with the sensory ,erce,tions is escri#e 8 A ,ealth Focus #o/ loo9s at B)rotecting Vision an 4earing8C

C!a)$er O%$li"e
4D01 C!e+i&al Se"#e# A8 C!e+'re&e)$'r# are res,onsi#le for taste an smell #y #eing sensiti2e to chemicals in foo 5 li>ui s5 an air8
18 Chemorece,tion is foun uni2ersally in animalsD it is thought to #e the most ,rimiti2e sense8 28 Chemorece,tors are ,resent all o2er a ,lanarian #ut concentrate in the auricles at the si e of the hea 8 38 0nsects5 such as houseflies5 taste with their feet8 48 Crustacea ha2e chemorece,tors on their antennae an a,,en ages8 "8 0n am,hi#ians5 chemorece,tors are locate in the nose5 mouth5 an all o2er the s9in8 $8 0n mammals5 rece,tors for taste are in the mouth5 an rece,tors for smell are in the nose8 B8 Sense of Taste 18 4uman $a#$e b%d# are locate ,rimarily on the tongue8 28 Many lie along the walls of ,a,illae5 the small ele2ations on the surface of the tongue8 38 0solate ones are ,resent on the surfaces of the har ,alate5 ,haryn/5 an e,iglottis8 48 Taste #u s are em#e e in tongue e,ithelium an o,en at a taste ,ore8 "8 Taste #u s ha2e su,,orting cells an elongate taste cells that en in micro2illi8 $8 Micro2illi #ear rece,tor ,roteins for certain chemicals8 a8 Molecules #in to rece,tor ,roteins an im,ulses are generate in associate sensory ner2es8 #8 6er2e im,ulses go to the #rain cortical areas which inter,ret them as tastes8 (8 4umans ha2e four ,rimary ty,es of taste8 a8 Taste #u s for each are concentrate in ,articular regions8 1A Sweet rece,tors are most ,lentiful near the ti, of the tongue8 2A Sour rece,tors occur ,rimarily along the margins of the tongue8 3A Salty rece,tors are most common on the ti, an u,,er front ,ortion8 4A Bitter rece,tors are locate near the #ac9 of the tongue8 "A A fifth ty,e5 calle umami5 may e/ist for certain fla2ors @MS15 cheese5 #eef #roth5 seafoo A8 #8 The #rain a,,ears to ta9e an o2erall Bweighte a2erageC of taste messages as the ,ercei2e taste8 C8 Sense of Smell 18 The sense of smell e,en s on 'l1a&$'ry &ell# locate in the olfactory e,ithelium high in the roof of the nasal ca2ity8 28 Olfactory cells are mo ifie neurons8 38 &ach cell has a tuft of fi2e olfactory cilia that #ear rece,tor ,roteins for an o or molecule8 a8 There are aroun 15... ifferent ty,es of o or rece,torsD many olfactory cells carry the same ty,e8 #8 6er2e fi#ers from li9e olfactory cells lea to the same neuron in the olfactory #ul#8 c8 An o or acti2ates a characteristic com#ination of cellsD this information is ,oole in the olfactory #ul#8 8 0nterneurons communicate this information 2ia the olfactory tract to areas of the cere#ral corte/8 48 Olfactory #ul#s are irectly connecte with the lim#ic systemD smells are associate with emotions an memory8 "8 Taste an smell su,,lement each other8 a8 BSmellingC foo also in2ol2es the taste rece,tors8 #8 Losing taste when you ha2e a col is usually ue to a loss of smell8

4D02 Se"#e '1 Vi#i'"

A8 Animals lac9ing )!'$'re&e)$'r#3 sensory rece,tors sensiti2e to light5 e,en on their senses of hearing an

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smell rather than sight8 B8 )hotorece,tors 2ary in com,le/ity8 18 0n its sim,lest form5 a ,hotorece,tor in icates only the ,resence of light an its intensity8 28 B&yes,otsC of ,lanaria allow flatworms to etermine irection of light8 38 0mage;forming eyes occur in four in2erte#rate grou,s% cni aria5 anneli s5 molluscs5 an arthro,o s8 48 Arthro,o s ha2e &'+)'%"d eye# com,ose of many in e,en ent 2isual units @ommati iaA5 each ,ossessing all of the elements nee e for light rece,tion8 a8 The cornea an crystalline cone of each 2isual unit focus rays towar the ,hotorece,tors8 #8 )hotorece,tors generate ner2e im,ulses5 which ,ass to the #rain #y way of o,tic ner2e fi#ers8 c8 The image resulting from all stimulate 2isual units is cru eD the small si'e of com,oun eyes limits the num#er of 2isual units8 8 0nsects ha2e color 2ision #ut utili'e a narrower range of the electromagnetic s,ectrum an can see some ultra2iolet8 "8 Some fishes5 re,tiles5 an most #ir s are #elie2e to ha2e color 2ision5 #ut among mammals5 only humans an other ,rimates ha2e color 2isionD this is a a,ti2e for ay acti2ity8 $8 Verte#rates an certain molluscs @e8g85 the s>ui an the octo,usA ha2e a &a+era;$y)e eye0 a8 Molluscs an 2erte#rates are not closely relate D therefore this is con2ergent e2olution8 #8 A single lens focuses an image of the 2isual fiel on closely ,ac9e ,hotorece,tors8 c8 0n 2erte#rates the lens changes sha,e to ai in focusingD in molluscs the lens mo2e #ac9 an forth8 8 The human eye is consi era#ly more com,le/ than a camera8 (8 Animals with two eyes facing forwar ha2e three; imensional5 or #$ere'#&')i& vi#i'"0 *8 Animals with eyes facing si eways @e8g85 ra##itsA ha2e )a"'ra+i& vi#i'"?the 2isual fiel is wi e8 C8 The 4uman &ye 18 The human eye is an elongate s,here 28" cm in iameter with three layers8 28 The #&lera is the outer5 white fi#rous layer that co2ers most of the eyeD it ,rotects an su,,orts the eye#all8 38 The &'r"ea is a trans,arent ,art of the sclera at the front of the eyeD it is the win ow of the eye8 48 The &'"A%"&$iva is a thin layer of e,ithelial cells that co2ers the sclera an 9ee,s the eyes moist8 "8 The mi le5 thin5 ar9;#rown layer is the &!'r'id containing many #loo 2essels an ,igments a#sor#ing stray light rays8 $8 To the front of the eye5 the choroi thic9ens an forms a ring;sha,e &iliary b'dy an finally #ecomes the iri# that regulates the si'e of an o,ening calle the )%)il0 (8 T!e le"# i2i es the ca2ity into two ,ortions% a<%e'%# !%+'r fills the anterior ca2ity an vi$re'%# !%+'r fills the ,osterior8 *8 +etina a8 The inner layer is the re$i"a that contains ,hotorece,tors calle r'd &ell# an &'"e &ell#0 #8 The 1'vea &e"$rali# is a small area of retina that contains only conesD this area ,ro uces acute color 2ision in aylight8 c8 Cone cells are not 2ery sensiti2e in low intensity lightD at night5 the ro s are still acti2e8 -8 !ocusing of the &ye a8 Light rays enter the eye through the ,u,il an are focuse on the retina8 #8 !ocusing in2ol2es light ,assing through the cornea5 the lens5 an the humors8 c8 Because of refraction5 the image on the retina is in2erte 1*.Q from actual #ut is ,ercei2e righte in the #rain8 8 The sha,e of the lens is controlle #y the &iliary +%#&le0 e8 The lens is flatter when the ciliary muscle is rela/e when we are 2iewing istant o#7ects8 f8 The lens is naturally elastic an #ecomes roun er for 2iewing near o#7ects where light rays must #en to a greater egree8 g8 This change is calle vi#%al a&&'++'da$i'"0 h8 An aging lens loses its a#ility to accommo ate for near o#7ects an we may nee rea ing glasses #y mi le age8 i8 The lens is also su#7ect to cataracts5 or #ecoming o,a>ueD surgery5 using a cryo,ro#e5 is the only current treatment8 78 )ersons who can see well close u, #ut not far away are nearsighte" @myo,iaA8 1A They often ha2e an elongate eye#all that focuses a istant image in front of the retina8 2A They can wear correcti2e conca2e lenses to refocus the image on the retina8

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3A +a ial 9eratotomy is a new treatment that surgically cuts an flattens the cornea8 )ersons who can see far away #ut not u, close are farsighte" @hy,ero,iaA8 1A They often ha2e a shortene eye#all that focuses near images #ehin retina8 2A They can wear correcti2e con2e/ lenses to refocus the image on retina8 l8 :hen the cornea or lens is une2en5 the image is fu''yD this is astigmatism correcte #y an une2enly groun lens to com,ensate for une2enness8 38 )hotorece,tors of the &ye 18 Vision #egins when light has #een focuse on ,hotorece,tors in the retina8 28 R'd &ell# an &'"e &ell# ha2e an outer segment 7oine to an inner segment #y a stal98 38 The outer segment contains stac9s of mem#ranous is9s @lamellaeA with many molecules of r!'d')#i"0 48 The rho o,sin molecules contain a ,rotein ')#i" an the ,igment molecule re$i"al eri2e from Vitamin A8 "8 :hen a ro a#sor#s light5 rho o,sin s,lits into o,sin an retinal5 lea ing to a casca e of reactions an the closure of ion channels in the ro cell ,lasma mem#rane8 $8 This sto,s the release of inhi#itory molecules from the ro <s syna,tic 2esicles an starts signals that result in im,ulses to #rain8 (8 The ro s are stimulate #y low light an ,ro2i e night 2ision8 *8 Because ro s are istri#ute throughout the retina5 ro s etect our ,eri,heral 2ision an motion #ut not color or etail8 -8 Cones locate ,rimarily in the fo2ea centralis are acti2ate #y #right light an etect etail an color8 1.8 The three 9in s of cones contain #lue5 green5 or re ,igment8 118 &ach ,igment is com,ose of retinal an o,sin5 #ut the structure of o,sin 2aries among the three8 128 Com#inations of cones are stimulate #y interme iate colorsD the com#ine ner2e im,ulses are inter,rete in the #rain8 &8 0ntegration of Visual Signals in the +etina 18 The retina has three layers of neurons8 a8 The ro s an cones are nearest the choroi 8 #8 Bi,olar cells form the mi le layer8 c8 1anglion cells5 whose fi#ers #ecome the o,tic ner2e5 form the innermost layer8 28 Since only ro an cone cells are sensiti2e to light5 light must ,enetrate through the ganglion cells8 38 +o s an cones syna,se with #i,olar cells which ,ass the im,ulse to ganglion cells8 48 There are more ro s an cones than ner2e fi#ers lea2ing ganglionic cells8 "8 G, to 1". ro s may syna,se with a ganglion cellD this results in in istinct 2ision8 $8 &ach cone syna,ses with one ganglionic cellD this accounts for the etaile images of cones5 mostly foun in the fo2ea8 (8 0ntegration occurs as signals ,ass from the #i,olar to the ganglion cells8 a8 0f all ro cells in a rece,ti2e fiel are stimulate 5 the ganglion cell is wea9ly stimulate or neutral8 #8 0f only the center is lit5 it is stimulate D if only the e ge is lit5 it is inhi#ite 8 c8 Therefore consi era#le ,rocessing occurs in the retina #efore an im,ulse is sent to the #rain8 *8 The bli"d #)'$ is an area where the o,tic ner2e ,asses through the retinaD it lac9s ro s an cones8 !8 )rotecting Vision an 4earing @,ealth Focus #o/A 18 )re2enting a Loss of Vision a8 The most fre>uent loss #lin ness is cause from reinal isor ers5 glaucoma5 an cataracts8 #8 3ia#etic retino,athy results in the #ursting of ca,illaries to the retina8 1A Careful #loo glucose le2el regulation may ,rotect them from ia#etic retino,athy8 c8 Macular egeneration results in thic9ene choroi s 2essels not functioning an estroying the cones8 8 1laucoma results when the rainage system of the eyes fail an flui #uil s u, an estroys ner2e fi#ers that are res,onsi#le for ,eri,heral 2ision8 e8 Cataracts are clou y s,ots on the lens of the eye an e2entually ,er2a e the whole lens8 1A 0n a ition5 men smo9ing 2. cigarettes or more a ay5 an women who smo9e more than 3" cigarettes a ay5 ou#le their ris9 of cataracts8 f8 A itional ,re2entati2e measures inclu e wearing large lens5 glass sunglasses to a#sor# ultra2iolet light8 28 )re2enting a Loss of 4earing 98

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a8 #8 c8 8 e8 f8 g8 h8 i8

0n the ear5 the mo#ility of ossicles ecreases with age8 0n a con ition calle otosclerosis5 new filamentous #one grows o2er the stirru,5 im,e ing its mo2ement8 1A The only reme y for this ty,e of con uction eafness is surgical treatment8 Age;associate ner2e eafness ue to stereocilia amage from e/,osure to lou noises is ,re2enta#le8 6oise a#o2e a le2el of *. eci#els coul result in amage to the hair cells of the organ of Corti8 The sterocilia an then the hair cells isa,,ear com,letely8 6oise that can result in hearing loss inclu es% lou music5 noisy in oor or out oor e>ui,ment5 motorcycles an recreational 2ehicles5 #urst of gunfire8 A itional causes of hearing loss can result from ta9ing me icines such as some anticancer rugs an certain anti#iotics8 Sym,toms inclu e tem,orary hearing loss5 a BfullC feeling in the ears5 muffle hearing5 or ringing in the ears8 )re2entati2e measures inclu e re ucing e/,osure to the noise5 wearing noise;re uction earmuffs5 wearing com,ressi#le ear,lugs8

4D04

Se"#e# '1 Heari"* a"d Bala"&e 18 The ear has two sensory functions% hearing an #alance @e>uili#riumA8 28 The sensory rece,tors for #oth are in the inner ear5 an each consists of hair cells with stereocilia that are sensiti2e to mechanical stimulationD they are +e&!a"'re&e)$'r#0

A8 Anatomy of the &ar 18 The human ear has three i2isions% an outer5 mi le5 an inner ear8 28 The '%$er ear consists of the ,inna @e/ternal fla,A an the au itory canal8 a8 The au itory canal o,ening is line #y fine hairs that filter air8 #8 Mo ifie sweat glan s in the au itory canal secrete earwa/ to guar against foreign matter8 38 The +iddle ear #egins at the $y+)a"i& +e+bra"e an en s at a #ony wall with mem#rane;co2ere o,enings @the o#al win"ow an the roun" win"owA8 a8 0t contains small #ones calle '##i&le#: malleus @hammerA5 incus @an2ilA5 an sta,es @stirru,A8 #8 The malleus a heres to the tym,anumD the sta,es touches the o2al win ow8 c8 The au"itory +eustachian) tube e/ten s from the mi le ear to the ,haryn/ to e>uali'e the insi e an outsi e air8 48 The i""er ear has three regions% the #e+i&ir&%lar &a"al#3 ve#$ib%le3 an &'&!lea0 "8 The cochlea resem#les a snail shell #ecause it s,irals8 B8 )rocess of 4earing 18 The ,rocess of hearing #egins when soun wa2es enter the au itory canal5 causing the ossicles to 2i#rate8 28 Soun is am,lifie a#out 2. times #y the si'e ifference #etween the tym,anic mem#rane an the o2al win ow8 38 The sta,es stri9es the mem#rane of the o2al win ow5 ,assing ,ressure wa2es to the flui in the cochlea8 48 Three canals are locate within the cochlea% #estibular canal, cochlear canal, an tympanic canal8 "8 The 2esti#ular canal connects with the tym,anic canal5 which lea s to the o2al win ow mem#rane8 $8 Along the #asilar mem#rane are hair cells whose stereocilia are em#e e in a tectorial membrane8 (8 The hair cells of the s,iral organ @'r*a" '1 C'r$iA syna,se with ner2e fi#ers of the cochlear @au itoryA ner2e8 *8 :hen the sta,es stri9es the mem#rane of the o2al win ow5 ,ressure wa2es mo2e from the 2esti#ular canal to the tym,anic canal an across the #asilar mem#rane5 an the roun win ow #ulges8 -8 The #asilar mem#rane 2i#rates u, an own #en ing the stereocilia of hair cells em#e e in the tectorial mem#rane8 1.8 This generates ner2e im,ulses in the cochlear ner2e that tra2el to the #rain stem8 118 :hen they reach the au itory areas of the cere#ral corte/5 this is inter,rete as soun 8 128 The s,iral organ is narrow at its #ase an wi ens at its ti,D each ,art is sensiti2e to ifferent ,itches8 138 6er2e fi#ers from each region @high ,itch #ase or low ,itch ti,A lea to slightly ifferent regions of the #rain5 ,ro ucing the sensation of ,itch8

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148 Soun 2olume is cause #y more 2i#rationD the increase stimulation is inter,rete as lou er soun intensity8 1"8 Tone is an inter,retation #y the #rain #ase on the istri#ution of the hair cells stimulate 8 C8 Sense of Balance 18 The sense of #alance is i2i e into% a8 r'$a$i'"al e<%ilibri%+ @angular or rotational mo2ement of the hea A5 an #8 *ravi$a$i'"al e<%ilibri%+ @2ertical or hori'ontal mo2ementA8 28 +otational e>uili#rium utili'es the semicircular canals8 a8 The semicircular canals are oriente at right angles to one another in three ifferent ,lanes8 #8 The enlarge #ase of each semicircular canal is calle an am,ulla8 c8 !lui flowing o2er an is,lacing a cu,ula causes the stereocilia of the hair cells to #en D the ,attern of im,ulses carrie #y the 2esti#ular ner2e to the #rain changes8 8 Continuous mo2ement of the flui in the semicircular canals causes 2ertigo motion sic9ness8 e8 By s,inning an sto,,ing5 we see a room still s,inD this in icates that 2ision is also in2ol2e in #alance8 38 1ra2itational e>uili#rium utili'es the %$ri&le an #a&&%le0 a8 A 2esti#ule or s,ace #etween the semicircular canals an the cochlea contains the utricle an the saccule8 #8 The utricle an saccule are small mem#ranous sacs5 each of which contains hair cells8 c8 4air cell stereocilia are em#e e within a gelatinous material calle the otolithic mem#rane8 8 Calcium car#onate granules @'$'li$!#A rest on this mem#rane8 e8 The utricle is sensiti2e to hori'ontal mo2ementsD the saccule res,on s #est to u,; own mo2ements8 f8 :hen the hea is still5 otoliths in the utricle an saccule rest on the otolithic mem#rane a#o2e the hair cells8 g8 As the hea #en s or the #o y mo2es5 otoliths are is,lace an the otolithic mem#rane sags5 #en ing the larger stereocilia @9inocilliumA of hair cells #eneathD this tells the #rain the irection of mo2ement8 38 Sensory +ece,tors in Other Animals 18 The la$eral li"e system of fish an am,hi#ians etects water currents an ,ressure wa2es8 28 )rimiti2e fishes ha2e the system on the surfaceD a 2ance fishes enclose it in a canal on the si e8 38 The lateral line rece,tor is a collection of hair cells with cilia em#e e in a mass of gelatinous material @cu,ulaA8 48 Static e>uili#rium organs calle statocysts are foun in cni aria5 mollus9s5 an crustacea8 "8 A small ,article calle a statolith stimulates cilia that generate im,ulses5 in icating the ,osition of the hea 8

Le&$%re E"ri&!+e"$ Idea#

E6)erie"&e Ba#e% Many of the au itory ,henomena escri#e here are rele2ant to most stu ents 2ia their en7oyment of music5 s,eech classes5 etc8 4owe2er5 the anatomy will re>uire some 2isual me ia8 Many will ha2e music ,laying e/,erience an #e familiar with ,itch5 etc85 #ut most will still a,,reciate au io trac9s of 2arious fre>uencies from #elow to a#o2e the a2erage hearing range8 This range narrows as you age an the instructor may not ha2e the range of most stu ents8 Most stu ents will ha2e ha e/,erience with 2ision an hearing tests
18 Com,are the 9in s of rece,tors in2ol2e in ,ercei2ing sensation with the 9in s of energy for each sensation8 Soun 5 smell an taste re>uire a molecular me iumD sight oes not8 The s,ee of light is fastest5 soun is relati2ely slower5 an smell an taste re>uire iffusion an contact with actual molecules8

28 &/amine the conce,t that ifferent rece,tors can #e stimulate to sen a message to the wrong area of the #rain5 which is the final inter,reter of the stimulus8 )ain is a ,articularly goo to,ic for iscussion5 since too much soun 5 light5 ,ressure5 heat5 col 5 etc85 can sen the message that there is ,ain8 Lou might also iscuss the fact that a #low to the hea may ma9e you Bsee starsC or a light5 e2en though the 2isual rece,tors are not stimulate 8 2-3

38 3iscuss color #lin ness as a genetic efect in the o,eration of the cones5 an as9 stu ents to try to etermine how it might arise8 Mention the relate ness of the ,hotosynthetic ,igment5 #acteriorho o,sin5 an as9 stu ents to etermine why a similar molecule woul #e in2ol2e in our 2isual a,,aratus an in the chemical that a#sor#s the energy of light in #acteria8 )ro7ection sli es can #e use in class for stu ents to test their color 2ision an the #lin s,ot in class8 48 0t is useful to ,oint out that some other animals ,ossess sensory organs an an a#ility to ,ercei2e stimuli ifferent from or #eyon those we can ,ercei2e5 inclu ing soun fre>uencies #eyon our range5 light wa2es #eyon our range5 an ,ro#a#ly magnetic fiel s8 6ot all ,eo,le ha2e the same sensiti2ity to light5 ,ain threshol 5 etc85 an most certainly we o not ,ercei2e the worl in a manner i entical to other s,ecies #ecause we o not ha2e the same sensory organs or ranges as other animals8 "8 The e/am,le of Bseeing starsC after a #low to the hea is one of many e/am,les that coul #e gi2en emonstrating that sensory ,erce,tion e,en s u,on where the ner2e im,ulse originates an where it arri2es in the #rain5 not on any istinct or uni>uely ifferent ner2e im,ulse8 $8 )ain is a seriously un errate sense5 although most stu ents woul initially state they woul ,refer to li2e without ,ain8 +elating the life of in i2i uals who lac9 the a#ility to feel ,ain may ,ro2i e some 2alue of this sense8 The sense of ,ain is critical to not turning a 7ar li too har an shre ing han tissues5 etc8 (8 The 2ision is95 a ty,e of ,rotractor hel to the forehea an a2aila#le as a human anatomy ,ro7ect from 4u##ar 5 allows a teacher to emonstrate the fo2ea an retina of a stu ent<s eye% sli ing a car from -. egrees to center5 a stu ent can only rea the letters on it5 or see color5 as it a,,roaches the center of 2iew8 *8 Lecture >uestion% :hat oes a street scene loo9 li9e at nightK &/ce,t for some color aroun a street lam, or store win ow or sign5 it is #lac9;an ;white8 :hyK This is one goo e/am,le of how the ifferent num#er of neurons has a 2isual effect we can Bsee8C -8 Lecture >uestion% 4ow far can you etermine stereosco,ic e,thK Most of us fail to ,ercei2e e,th #eyon 2. feet as the eyes are irecte nearly ,arallel8 This is also foun in focusing a camera8 1.8 The integration of 2ision e/am,le can #e carrie further than the te/t escri,tion% the integration allows us to focus on e ges8 :hen ro cells are stimulate 5 they also inhi#it those ro cells ne/t to them8 Therefore5 if the whole fiel is stimulate 5 the general integrate signal is su# ue 8 4owe2er5 a ro cell at an e ge is not inhi#ite #y the ro s ne/t to it that are in the ar9D thus its signal is less inhi#ite 8 Such ,rocessing ser2es to ,re;,rocess the in,ut an hel, us res,on to e ges or changes Bwhere the action is8C 118 Sli es are a2aila#le that show color ot ,atternsD stu ents with color #lin ness may #e una#le to rea 2arious num#ers #ase on contrasting color ots8 A B#lin s,otC e/ercise can #e ,hotoco,ie an han e outD stu ents can a 7ust the sheet so that staring at one ot5 a secon ot falls in the #lin s,ot an it isa,,ears as the min fills in with the white ,a,er #ac9groun ?again a emonstration that we ,ercei2e with our min #ase on ,ast learne e/,eriences8 128 )it 2i,ers ha2e an e/ten e an etaile 2ision into the infrare light s,ectrum where we 2-4

only generally feel heat8 This allows them to 2isuali'e #ir an mammal ,rey #y #o y heat at night in total ar9ness8 There is an assum,tion that humans are su,erior in all #o y system5 inclu ing senses8 But this is 7ust one of many cases where other animals can sense stimuli we cannot etect8 138 :e also ha2e stereo hearing an can etect irection of soun from 2aria#le lou ness if #oth ears are healthy8 148 Most stu ents will 9now that a og can hear higher fre>uencies than humans can hear8 0n a ition5 the human a#ility to hear the highest an lowest notes gra ually ecreases with age8 Therefore elementary school chil ren can hear lower an higher notes than college stu ents5 who in turn can hear a wi er range than an ol #iology ,rofessor5 unless they ha2e amage their hair cells with 2ery lou music8 1"8 Smells arouse memories #ecause they are irectly connecte to the lim#ic system8 Gnli9e most neurons5 these neurons o continually grow an regenerate5 although slowly8 Thus our sense of smell @an tasteA may change o2er our lifetime an chil ren who hate the taste of ,eas when young grow into a ults that li9e the taste8 1$8 The statolith system of crayfish uses a ,article from the en2ironment5 ,erha,s a san grain5 insi e a roun cham#er line with sensory hairs to etermine which irection is own8 This cham#er lining is she each time the crayfish molts an a new ,article must #e utili'e 8 +esearchers can raise crayfish in clean a>uariums where the only ,articles are iron filings8 After one molt5 the statolith ,article is now an iron filing an when researchers turn on an o2erhea electromagnet5 the crayfish imme iately in2ert an swim u,si e ownM Such an e/am,le reinforces this conce,t while emonstrating that researchers also ha2e fun8

Cri$i&al T!i",i"*
-%e#$i'" 10 There are a#out 15... ifferent o or rece,tor ,roteins an only three ty,es of cones for color8 :hy5 then5 o we not 7ust see three ifferent colors an smell 7ust a thousan o orsK A"#.er: An o or is a com,le/ of molecules that acti2ates a com#ination of cellsD this information is ,oole in the olfactory #ul#8 The #rain then etermines the ,attern of the ty,es of rece,tors acti2ate 8 !or colors5 2arious com#inations of cones are stimulate #y interme iate sha es of colorD the com#ine ner2e im,ulses are inter,rete in the #rain as a s,ecific color8 Both systems are somewhat li9e the limite num#er of ,iano 9eys that can ne2ertheless ,lay a much wi er range of chor s in com#inations8 -%e#$i'" 20 :hen the ear rum or tym,anic mem#rane is im,acte #y an e/ternal soun wa2e5 it mo2es less than a fraction of the iameter of the smallest atom8 4ow can such a small ,ressure wa2e #e etecte #y our neuronsK A"#.er: The se>uence of ossicles act as le2els to magnify the 2i#rations a#out 2. times #y the time they mo2e from the tym,anic mem#rane to the sta,es8 -%e#$i'" 40 A stu ent ,laces one han in hot water an the other han in col water8 After a 7ustment5 the stu ent ,laces #oth han s in a thir #owl of warm water an notes the han that was in col water now feels 2ery warm5 an the han that was in warm water now feels a little col although #oth han s are now in the same tem,erature of water8 :hat is ha,,eningK A"#.er: There are two ifferent sets of free ner2e en ings res,on ing8 Because there are more col ner2e en ings5 there are more of them that are now feeling warmer8 0f #oth hot an col feelings were generate #y a single ty,e of sensory ner2e that re,orte a cali#ration5 the sensations woul #e the same when #oth han s returne to the same

2-"

tem,erature of water8 -%e#$i'" 70 0f the ner2e im,ulse coming from the ,ain rece,tor in the s9in of the finger is the same as the in i2i ual ner2e im,ulse coming from the organ of Corti for hearing5 how o you account for the ifferent sensationsK A"#.er: &2en though a ner2e im,ulse has the same electrochemical charge coming from a ,ain rece,tor or from the organ of Corti5 the #rain is res,onsi#le for the ty,e of sensation felt an for the locali'ation of the sensation8 0f the im,ulse goes to the tem,oral lo#e of the cere#ral corte/5 we inter,ret that sensation as soun 8

Te&!"'l'*y 1r'+ M&Gra.;Hill

)lease consult your C'%r#e I"$e*ra$i'" G%ide for technology correlations for this cha,ter8

2-$

CHAPTER

4J

LOCOMOTION AN SUPPORT SYSTEMS

A com,arison of the i2ersity of animal s9eletal systems ,rece es an e/amination of the human musculos9eletal system8 The structure an function of whole muscles an muscle fi#ers are also etaile 5 as is the #iochemistry of muscle contraction8 A ,eath Focus #o/ is inclu e on BLou Can A2oi Osteo,erosis8C

C!a)$er O%$li"e
4J01 iver#i$y '1 S,ele$'"#
18 Three ty,es of s9eletons occur in the animal 9ing om8 28 A !ydr'#$a$i& s9eleton occurs in cni arians5 flatworms5 roun worms5 an anneli s8 38 An e6'#,ele$'" is foun in molluscs an arthro,o s5 res,ecti2ely8 48 An e"d'#,ele$'" is foun in s,onges5 echino erms5 an 2erte#rates8 A8 4y rostatic S9eleton 18 A flui ;fille gastro2ascular ca2ity or coelom can act as a !ydr'#$a$i& #,ele$'"0 28 0t offers su,,ort an resistance to the contraction of muscles for motility8 38 Many animals ha2e hy ros9eletons8 a8 4y ras use a flui ;fille gastro2ascular ca2ity to su,,ort tentacles that ra,i ly contract8 #8 )lanaria easily gli e o2er su#strate with muscular contractions of #o y walls an cilia8 c8 +oun worms ha2e a flui ;fille ,seu ocoelom an mo2e when their longitu inal muscles contract against it8 8 &arthworms are segmente with se,ta i2i ing the coelom into com,artmentsD circular an longitu inal muscles contract in each segment to coor inate elongation an contraction8 e8 Animals with e/os9eletons or en os9eletons mo2e selecte #o y ,arts #y means of muscular hy"rostats5 i8e85 flui containe within certain muscle fi#ers assists mo2ement of that ,art8 B8 &/os9eletons an &n os9eletons 18 An e6'#,ele$'" is an e/ternal s9eleton8 a8 Molluscs ha2e e/os9eletons that are ,re ominantly calcium carbonate @CaCO3A8 #8 0nsects an crustacea ha2e 7ointe e/os9eletons com,ose of chitin5 a strong5 fle/i#le5 nitrogenous ,olysacchari e8 c8 The e/os9eleton ,ro2i es ,rotection against amage from enemies an also 9ee,s tissues from rying out8 8 Although stiffness ,ro2i es su,,ort for muscles5 the e/os9eleton is not as strong as an en os9eleton8 e8 The clam an snail e/os9eletons grow with the animalsD their thic9 nonmo#ile CaCO3 shell is for ,rotection8 f8 The chitinous e/os9eleton of arthro,o s is 7ointe an mo2ea#le8 g8 Arthro,o s must molt when their e/os9eleton #ecomes too smallD a molting animal is 2ulnera#le to ,re ators8 28 Verte#rates ha2e an e"d'#,ele$'" com,ose of #one an cartilage that grows with the animal8 a8 The en os9eleton oes not limit the s,ace a2aila#le for internal organs an it can su,,ort greater weight8 #8 Soft tissues surroun the en os9eleton to ,rotect itD in7uries to soft tissue are easier to re,air8 c8 Gsually an en os9eleton has elements that ,rotect 2ital internal organs8 8 The 7ointe e/os9eleton of arthro,o s an en os9eletons of 2erte#rates allow fle/i#ility an hel,e arthro,o s an 2erte#rates coloni'e lan 8

4J02 T!e H%+a" S,ele$al Sy#$e+

18 28 38 S9eletons ,rotect organs% s9ull @#rainA5 2erte#ral column @s,inal cor A5 an ri# cage @heart an lungsA8 The large5 hea2y leg #ones su,,ort the #o y against the ,ull of gra2ity8 Leg an arm #ones ,ermit fle/i#le #o y mo2ement8

2-(

The flat #ones of the s9ull5 ri#s5 an #reast#one contain re #one marrow that manufactures #loo cells8 "8 All #ones store inorganic calcium an ,hos,horous salts8 A8 Bone 1rowth an +enewal 18 The ,renatal human s9eleton is cartilaginousD cartilage structures ser2e as Bmo elsC for #one construction8 a8 The cartilaginous mo els are con2erte to #ones when calcium salts are e,osite in the matri/5 first #y cartilaginous cells an later #y #one;forming cells calle '#$e'bla#$#0 #8 Con2ersion of cartilaginous mo els to #ones is calle en"ochon"ral ossification. c8 Some #ones @e8g85 facial #onesA are forme without a cartilaginous mo el8 28 3uring en ochon ral ossification5 there is a ,rimary ossification center at the mi le of a long #oneD latter secon ary centers form at the en s8 38 A cartilaginous growth ,late occurs #etween ,rimary an secon ary ossification centers8 48 As long as the growth ,late remains #etween the two centers5 #one growth occurs8 "8 The rate of growth is controlle #y hormones5 inclu ing growth hormone @14A an se/ hormones8 $8 &2entually ,lates #ecome ossifie an #one sto,s growingD this etermines a ult height8 (8 0n a ults5 #one is continually #eing #ro9en own an #uilt u, again8 a8 Bone;a#sor#ing cells @'#$e'&la#$#A #rea9 own #one5 remo2e worn cells5 an e,osit calcium in the #loo 8 #8 O#$e'bla#$# form new #one5 ta9ing calcium from the #loo 8 c8 Osteo#lasts #ecome entra,,e in the #one matri/ an #ecome osteocytes in the lacunae of osteons8 8 This continual re+'deli"* allows #ones to gra ually change in thic9ness8 e8 Osteoclasts also etermine the calcium le2el in the #loo D calcium le2el is im,ortant for muscle contraction an ner2e con uction an le2els are controlle #y the hormones )T4 an calcitonin8 *8 A ults nee more calcium in the iet than o chil ren to ,romote the wor9 of osteo#lasts8 B8 Anatomy of a Long Bone 18 A long #one illustrates the ,rinci,les of #one anatomy8 a8 A long #one consists of a central me ullary ca2ity surroun e #y &'+)a&$ b'"e0 #8 &n s are com,ose of #)'"*y b'"e surroun e #y a thin layer of &'+)a&$ b'"e an co2ere with hyaline cartilage8 c8 C'+)a&$ b'"e contains many '#$e'"# @4a2ersian systemsAD #one cells in tiny cham#ers @lacunaeA are arrange in concentric circles aroun central canals8 8 0entral canals contain #loo 2essels an ner2es8 e8 The lacunae are se,arate #y a matri/ that contains ,rotein fi#ers of collagen an mineral e,osits8 28 S)'"*y b'"e has numerous ,lates an #ars se,arate #y irregular s,aces8 a8 S,ongy #one is lighter #ut esigne for strengthD soli ,ortions of #one follow the lines of stress8 #8 Bone s,aces are often fille with red b'"e +arr'.3 a s,eciali'e tissue that ,ro uces #loo cells8 C8 The a6ial #,ele$'" lies at the mi line of the #o y an consists of the s9ull5 2erte#ral column5 sternum5 an ri#s8 18 The S9ull a8 The s9ull is forme #y the cranium an the facial #ones8 #8 6ew#orns ha2e mem#ranous 7unctions calle 1'"$a"el# that usually close #y the age of two8 c8 The #ones of the cranium contain #i"%#e#3 air s,aces line with mucous mem#rane that re uce the weight of s9ull an gi2e a resonant soun to the 2oice8 8 Two mastoi sinuses rain into the mi le earD +a#$'idi$i# is an inflammation that can lea to eafness8 e8 The &ra"i%+ is com,ose of eight #ones% a 1r'"$al3 two )arie$al3 an '&&i)i$al3 two $e+)'ral3 a #)!e"'id3 an an e$!+'id0 f8 The s,inal cor ,asses through the 1'ra+e" +a*"%+3 an o,ening at the #ase of the s9ull in the '&&i)i$al b'"e0 g8 &ach tem,oral #one has an o,ening that lea s to the mi le ear8 h8 The s,henoi #one com,letes the si es of the s9ull an forms the floors an walls of the eye soc9ets8 i8 The ethmoi #one is in front of the s,henoi 5 ,art of the or#ital wall5 an a com,onent of the nasal se,tum8 78 !ourteen 1a&ial b'"e# inclu e% +a"dible3 two +a6illae3 two )ala$i"e3 two 5y*'+a$i&3 two

48

2-*

la&ri+al3 two "a#al3 an v'+er0 98 The +a"dible or lower 7aw is the only mo2a#le ,ortion of the s9ullD it contains tooth soc9ets8 l8 The +a6illa forms the u,,er 7aw an the anterior of the har ,alateD it also contains tooth soc9ets8 m8 The ,alatine #ones ma9e u, the ,osterior ,ortion of the har ,alate an the floor of the nasal ca2ity8 n8 The 'ygomatic gi2es us our chee9#one ,rominences8 o8 6asal #ones form the #ri ge of the nose8 ,8 Other #ones ma9e u, the nasal se,tum which i2i es the nose ca2ity into two regions8 >8 The ears are elastic cartilage an lac9 #oneD the nose is a mi/ture of #one5 cartilage5 an fi#rous connecti2e tissue8 28 The Verte#ral Column an +i# Cage a8 The ver$ebral &'l%+" su,,orts the hea an trun9 an ,rotects the s,inal cor an the roots of the s,inal ner2es8 #8 The 2erte#ral column ser2es as an anchor for all of the other #ones of the s9eleton8 c8 Se2en &ervi&al ver$ebrae are locate in the nec98 8 Twel2e $!'ra&i& ver$ebrae are in the thora/ or chest8 e8 The l%+bar 2erte#rae are in the small of the #ac98 f8 One #a&r%+ is forme from fi2e fuse #a&ral 2erte#rae8 g8 One &'&&y6 is forme from four fuse &'&&y*eal 2erte#rae8 h8 6ormally5 the s,inal column has four normal cur2atures that ,ro2i e strength an resiliency in ,osture8 i8 Scoliosis is an a#normal si eways cur2atureD hunch#ac9 an sway#ac9 are also a#normal8 78 0nter2erte#ral is9s #etween the 2erte#rae act as a ,a ing to ,re2ent the 2erte#rae from grin ing against each other5 an to a#sor# shoc9 uring running5 etc8D they wea9en with age8 98 Verte#ral is9s allow motion #etween 2erte#rae for #en ing forwar 5 etc8 l8 The rib &a*e% all twel2e ,airs of ri#s connect irectly to the thoracic 2erte#rae in #ac9D se2en attach irectly to the sternum8 1A Three ,airs connect 2ia cartilage to the sternum at front8 2A The two ri#s totally unattache to the sternum are calle Bfloating ri#s8C 3A The ri# cage ,rotects the heart an lungs5 yet is fle/i#le enough to allow #reathing8 38 The A,,en icular S9eleton 18 The a))e"di&%lar #,ele$'" consists of the #ones within the ,ectoral gir le an u,,er lim#s an the ,el2ic gir le an lower lim#s8 28 The )e&$'ral *irdle an ar+# are s,eciali'e for fle/i#ilityD the )elvi& *irdle an le*# are #uilt for strength8 38 The com,onents of the ,ectoral gir le are only loosely lin9e #y li*a+e"$#0 a8 The cla#icle @Bcollar#oneCA connects with the sternum in front an the scapula @Bshoul er#la eCA in #ac98 #8 The sca,ula connects with the cla2icleD it is freely mo2a#le an hel in ,lace only #y muscles8 48 The humerus is the long #one of the u,,er armD its smoothly roun e hea fits into a soc9et of the sca,ula8 "8 The ra"ius is the more lateral of the #ones of the lower armD it articulates with the humerus at the el#ow 7oint5 a hinge 7oint5 an the ra ius crosses in front of the ulna for easy twisting8 $8 The ulna is the more me ial of the two #ones of the lower armD its en is the ,rominence in your el#ow8 (8 The many han #ones increase its fle/i#ility8 a8 The wrist has eight carpal bones which loo9 li9e small ,e##les8 #8 !i2e metacarpal bones fan out to form the framewor9 of the ,alm8 c8 The phalanges are the #ones of fingers an thum#8 *8 The )elvi& *irdle consists of two hea2y5 large co!al +hip) bones8 a8 The co/al #ones are anchore to the sacrumD together with the sacrum they form a hollow ca2ity that is wi er in females than in malesD it transmits weight from the 2erte#ral column 2ia the sacrum to the legs8 #8 The femur is the largest #one of the #o yD it is limite in the amount of weight that it can su,,ort8

2--

c8 The tibia has a ri ge calle the BshinCD its en forms the insi e of the an9le8 8 The fibula is the smaller of the two #onesD its en forms the outsi e of the an9le8 e8 Se2en tarsal bones are in each an9leD one recei2es the weight an ,asses it to the heel an #all of foot8 f8 The metatarsal bones form the arch of the foot an ,ro2i e a s,ringy #ase8 g8 The phalanges are the #ones of the toes5 which are stouter than the fingers8 &8 Classification of Hoints 18 Bones are 7oine at 7oints that are classifie as fi#rous5 cartilaginous5 or syno2ial8 28 Fibr'%# A'i"$#5 such as those #etween the cranial #ones5 are immo2a#le8 38 Car$ila*i"'%# A'i"$#5 such as those #etween the 2erte#rae5 are slightly mo2ea#leD the two hi,#ones are slightly mo2a#le #ecause they are 2entrally 7oine #y cartilage an res,on to ,regnancy hormones8 48 Sy"'vial A'i"$# are freely mo2a#le8 a8 Most 7oints are syno2ial 7oints5 with the two #ones se,arate #y a ca2ity8 #8 Li*a+e"$# are fi#rous connecti2e tissue that #in #one to #one5 forming a 7oint ca,sule8 c8 0n a B ou#le;7ointe C in i2i ual5 the ligaments are unusually loose8 8 The 7oint ca,sule is line with a syno2ial mem#rane that ,ro uces a lu#ricating syno2ial flui 8 e8 The 9nee re,resents a syno2ial 7oint8 1A Enee #ones are ca,,e #y cartilageD a crescent;sha,e ,iece of cartilage5 the meniscus5 is #etween the #ones8 2A Athletes who in7ure the meniscus ha2e torn this cartilage8 3A The 9nee 7oint also contains 13 flui ;fille sacs calle #ursae to ease friction #etween the ten ons an ligaments an ten ons an #ones8 4A 0nflammation of the #ursae is #ursitisD Btennis el#owC is a form of #ursitis8 "A The 9nee an el#ow are hinge 7ointsD the shoul er an hi, are #all;an ;soc9et 7oints8 f8 Syno2ial Hoints 1A Syno2ial 7oints are su#7ect to arthritis8 2A 0n rheumatoi arthritis5 the syno2ial mem#rane #ecomes inflame an thic9ene 8 3A The 7oint egenerates an #ecomes immo2a#le an ,ainful8 4A This is li9ely cause #y an autoimmune reaction8 "A 0n osteoarthritis from ol age5 the cartilage at the en s of #ones isintegratesD the #ones then #ecome rough an irregular8 !8 Lou Can A2oi Osteo,orosis @,ealth Focus #o/A 18 Osteo,orosis is a con ition in which the #ones are wea9ene ue to a ecrease in the s9eleton #one mass8 28 After the age of 4.=".5 the #one rea#sor,tion e/cee s #one formation5 an the total #one mass slowly ecreases8 38 Men ha2e a lower ris9 for osteo,orosis #ecause they ten to ha2e enser #ones an testosterone le2els o not #egin to significantly ecline until after the age of $"8 48 Consuming a e>uate ietary calcium throughout life is an effecti2e measure to ,re2ent osteo,orosis8 a8 3uring ,u#erty5 #oys an girls are recommen e to ta9e 152..=15".. mg of calcium ,er ay8 #8 Males an females re>uire 15... mg of calcium ,er ay until the age of $"8 "8 Consuming 2itamin 3 is also recommen e to ,re2ent osteo,orosis8 a8 Vitamin 3 hel,s the a#sor,tion of calcium8 #8 Although the #o y can synthesi'e 2itamin 3 from the sun5 ,eo,le in col er climates shoul fin alternate sources of 2itamin 38 $8 +egular ,hysical acti2ity5 such as wal9ing or 7ogging5 may also re uce the ris9 of osteo,orosis8 (8 )eo,le who may #e consi ere high ris9 shoul consi er ha2ing a #one ensity scan8 *8 There is hormone thera,y an me ication ,rescri#e to increase #one ensity8

4J04 T!e H%+a" M%#&%lar Sy#$e+

S9eletal muscle contraction assists homeostasis #y hel,ing maintain constant #o y tem,erature8 S9eletal muscle contraction also causes AT) #rea9 own5 releasing heat that is istri#ute a#out the #o y8 A8 Macrosco,ic Anatomy an )hysiology 18 S9eletal muscles are attache to the s9eleton #y $e"d'"# ma e of fi#rous connecti2e tissue8 18 28

3..

:hen muscles contract5 they only shorten or ,ullD therefore5 s9eletal muscles must wor9 in a"$a*'"i#$i& )air#0 a8 One muscle of an antagonistic ,air #en s the 7oint an #rings a lim# towar the #o y8 #8 The other one straightens the 7oint an e/ten s the lim#8 38 0f a muscle is gi2en a ra,i series of stimuli5 it res,on s to the ne/t stimulus #efore com,letely rela/ing8 48 Muscle contraction summates until it reaches a ma/imal sustaine contraction5 calle $e$a"%#0 "8 &2en at rest5 muscles maintain tone #y some fi#ers contractingD this is essential to maintaining ,osture8 B8 Microsco,ic Anatomy an )hysiology 18 A whole s9eletal muscle consists of a num#er of +%#&le 1iber# in #un les8 28 &ach muscle fi#er is a cell with some s,ecial features8 a8 A ,lasma mem#rane calle the #ar&'le++a forms a T @$ra"#ver#eA #y#$e+0 1A Tra"#ver#e @TA $%b%le# ,enetrate own into the cell an contact with5 #ut o not fuse with5 the mo ifie en o,lasmic reticulum @the #ar&')la#+i& re$i&%l%+A8 2A &/,an e ,ortions or sacs of the sarco,lasmic reticulum are mo ifie for Ca2O ion storageD this encases hun re s an sometimes thousan s of myofi#rils8 #8 The +y'1ibril# are contractile ,ortions of fi#ers that lie ,arallel an run the length of the fi#er8 c8 A light microsco,e shows light an ar9 #an s calle striations8 8 An electron microsco,e shows that these striations of myofi#rils are forme #y ,lacement of ,rotein filaments within sarcomeres8 e8 The two ,rotein filaments are either thic9 @ma e of +y'#i"A or thin @ma e of a&$i"A8 f8 A #ar&'+ere has re,eating #an s of actin an myosin that occur #etween two F li"e# in a myofi#ril8 1A The 0 #an contains only actin filaments8 2A The 4 'one contains only myosin filaments8 38 Sli ing !ilament Mo el a8 As a muscle fi#er contracts5 sarcomeres within the myofi#rils shorten8 #8 As a sarcomere shortens5 actin filaments sli e ,ast the myosinD the 0 #an shortens an the 4 'one isa,,ears8 c8 Slidi"* 1ila+e"$ +'del: actin filaments sli e ,ast myosin filaments #ecause myosin filaments ha2e cross;#ri ges that ,ull actin filaments inwar 5 towar their a line8 8 The contraction ,rocess in2ol2es the sarcomere shortening although the filaments themsel2es remain the same length8 e8 AT) su,,lies the energy for muscle contraction8 f8 Myosin filaments #rea9 own AT) to form cross;#ri ges that attach to an ,ull the actin filaments towar the center of the sarcomere8 48 AT) a8 Muscle cells contain +y'*l'bi" that stores o/ygenD cellular res,iration oes not imme iately su,,ly all of the AT) nee e 8 #8 Muscle fi#ers rely on a su,,ly of store creatine ,hos,hate @,hos,hocreatineA5 a storage form of high;energy ,hos,hate8 c8 Crea$i"e )!'#)!a$e oes not irectly ,artici,ate in muscle contraction #ut regenerates AT) ra,i ly% creatine?) O A3) R AT) O creatine 8 This reaction occurs in the mi st of sli ing filaments an is s,ee y8 e8 :hen all creatine ,hos,hate is e,lete 5 an if O2 is in limite su,,ly5 fermentation ,ro uces a small amount of AT)5 #ut this results in a #uil u, of lactate8 f8 The #uil u, of lactate ,artially accounts for muscle fatigue an re,resents '6y*e" deb$8 g8 Lactate is trans,orte to the li2erD 2.N is com,letely #ro9en own to CO2 an 42O in aero#ic res,iration8 h8 The AT) gaine from this res,iration is then use to recon2ert *.N of the lactate to glucose8 i8 0n ,ersons who train5 the num#er of mitochon ria increases5 re ucing the nee for fermentation8 C8 Muscle 0nner2ation 18 Muscles are stimulate to contract #y motor ner2e fi#ers8 28 The "e%r'+%#&%lar A%"&$i'" is a region where an a/on #ul# is in close association with the sarcolemma of a muscle fi#er8 38 An a/on #ul# contains syna,tic 2esicles fille with the neurotransmitter acetylcholine8

28

3.1

48

:hen ner2e im,ulses tra2el own a motor neuron to the a/on #ul#5 2esicles merge with the ,resyna,tic mem#rane an acetylcholine molecules are release into the syna,tic cleft8 "8 Acetylcholine ra,i ly iffuses to an #in s with rece,tors on the sarcolemma8 $8 The sarcolemma generates im,ulse s,rea ing own the T tu#ule system to the sarco,lasmic reticulum where it triggers the release of Ca2O ions out amongst the myofilaments8 (8 The Ca2O ions then initiate muscle contraction8 *8 Ca2O ions #in to tro,onin5 which causes tro,omyosin threa s to shift ,osition8 -8 The change in the structure of tro,omyosin e/,oses the myosin hea s with AT) #in ing sites8 1.8 The myosin hea s function as AT)ase en'ymes5 s,litting AT) into A3) an )i8 118 After attaching to actin filaments5 the myosin cross;#ri ges #en forwar an the actin filament is ,ulle along8 128 :hile AT) an Ca2O ions are a2aila#le5 cross;#ri ges attachD as A3) an P are release 5 the cross; #ri ges change their ,ositions an cause a ,ower stro9e as filaments ,ull together8 138 :hen another AT) molecule #in s to the myosin hea 5 the cross;#ri ge etaches an the cycle #egins again8 148 :hen a ner2e im,ulse ceases5 acti2e trans,ort ,roteins in the sarco,lasmic reticulum ,um, calcium ions #ac9 into calcium storage sites an muscle rela/ation occurs8 1"8 :ithout AT)5 the myosis hea s can<t etach from actin5 nor can calcium #e ,um,e #ac9 into the sacro,lasmic reciculum5 an the muscles remain contracte 5 calle rigor mortis8

Le&$%re E"ri&!+e"$ Idea#

E6)erie"&e Ba#e% :hile the culture of s,orts will ma9e some conce,ts familiar to some stu ents5 there is some misun erstan ing of the nature of muscle an the role of creatine ,hos,hate8 0n many cases5 the chemistry #ac9groun of stu ents may not #e a e>uate to fully un erstan the ynamics of muscle contraction8
18

As9 why the e/os9eleton system an its internal musculature wor9 well for a small animal such as an insect #ut woul not #e feasi#le for an organism the si'e of a human8 6ote that humans ha2e #one cross sections sufficient to su,,ort in i2i uals of common height8 )eo,le who grow to o2er eight feet tall ha2e se2ere ,ro#lems with their #ac9 an leg #ones su,,orting the a e stress of that much architecture8 6ote how larger animals ha2e leg #ones with much larger cross sections5 or are a>uatic where the weight is #uoye 8 Therefore5 there is no ,ossi#ility of 4.;foot giants or s9yscra,er;si'e gorillas8 3iscuss the relati2e a 2antages an isa 2antages of an en os9eleton an an e/os9eleton8 3escri#e the ifferent structures of human #ones @long5 short5 flat5 an irregularA8 )ursue why it is im,ortant that there #e constant #rea9 own an re,lacement of #one tissue5 an iscuss the ,ro#lems encountere #y astronauts an cosmonauts5 who s,en long ,erio s in weightlessness5 where #one tissue eteriorates from lac9 of stimulation8 4i#ernating animals ha2e an a#ility to maintain #one tissue without this constant acti2ity8 &m,hasi'e the im,ortance of calcium in #one formation5 muscle contraction5 an #loo clotting5 with em,hasis on the ,ro#lems of osteo,orosis in ol er women an men8 )oint out the 2ariety of s9eletons in molluscs?with slugs ha2ing none5 snails ha2ing a coile shell5 clams an oysters ha2ing a #i2al2e shell5 an octo,uses ha2ing none8 The ,rotein com,onent in #ones can #e emonstrate #y remo2ing the calcium salts from a chic9en #one #y ,lacing it in acetic aci for a few ays ,rior to use8 0t #ecomes 2ery fle/i#le8 3.2

28 38 48

"8 $8 (8

*8

Bone is a 2ery acti2e tissue re>uiring a #loo su,,lyD #one surgery is among the #loo iest of o,erations8 Surgeons may actually retrie2e #loo from the surgical woun an filter out #one fragments to re;transfuse the #loo to the ,atient8 Lecture >uestion% 4ow can the femur of a chil #e har li9e an a ult<s5 yet the femur gra ually #ecomes #igger an #igger without e2er com,letely isassem#ling an starting o2er larger5 as we woul ha2e to o if re#uil ing a large #ric9 office #uil ing out of a small #ric9 house8 0f stu ents un erstan the conce,t of the osteo#lasts5 osteoclasts5 an cartilaginous is9 centers5 they can un erstan how #one can accom,lish this Be/,ansion of a #ric9 house8C Both hormones an ,hysical stress affect #one growth8 Lecture >uestion% :hy is a wal9ing cast often ,referre for ,atient reco2ery8 Lou can also relate this to astronauts losing #one mass while in weightlessness in s,ace ue to lac9 of stress on #ones8 There is a nee for #oth estrogen an calcium to ,re2ent osteo,orosis in ,ostmeno,ausal women5 a ilemma to ay when estrogen re,lacement thera,y may carry increase ris9 of #reast cancer8 A stu ent may as9 how can we stic9 out our tongue or how can our heart #eat5 in #oth cases without fle/or;e/tensor muscles o,erating across a #one hinge8 0n these cases5 we ha2e trans2erse muscle fi#ers that constrict the shortene muscle cells5 forcing them to elongate much as s>uee'ing a #alloon ma9es it lengthen8 Gntil recently5 te/t#oo9s often e/,laine the e/,ansion of the heart as ue to filling with #loo D #ut it e/,an s e2en if em,ty8 6ote for stu ents that many muscle names are forme from the names of the #ones at their origin an insertionD therefore to learn the muscles5 you nee to 9now the #ones an their ,rocesses8

-8

1.8

118

128

138

Cri$i&al T!i",i"*
-%e#$i'" 10 Most lan animals with e/os9eletons are smaller than the 2olume of a mouse5 an most 2erte#rates are larger than a mouse @marine in2erte#rates can #e somewhat #iggerA8 :hat 9ee,s an insect with an e/os9eleton from #eing as #ig as a horseK A"#.er: The ma7or factors are limitations to gas iffusion5 a#ility to su,,ort internal organs5 an necessity to molt8 1as must iffuse through o,enings in the e/os9eleton an #ecomes stagnant a short istance own a trachea8 Anchoring organs to a larger outsi e suit of armor ,ro2i es too little su,,ort an results in herniation uring fast mo2ements8 A har suit of armor must #e change as you grow5 an she ing a large suit lea2es a large5 un,rotecte soft #o y to secrete the ne/t shell8 -%e#$i'" 20 Bone gains its rigi ity from #ric9;har e,osits ami st li2ing cells8 Let we cannot #uil a large stone s9yscra,er from a small stone house without #rea9ing the house a,art8 Let our #ones grow from small har #ones to large har #ones without e2er #rea9ing a,art into soft 2ulnera#le tissue8 4ow is that accom,lishe K A"#.er: The #one tissue is simultaneously #uilt u, #y osteo#lasts an #ro9en own #y osteoclasts8 Because the ,rocess is #oth microsco,ic an ,iecemeal5 a small har structure can #ecome a large har structure without isassem#ling8 -%e#$i'" 40 :hy will an increase in the strength of a stimulus cause an increase in the force of contraction in a whole muscle #ut not in a single muscle fi#erK

3.3

A"#.er: A single muscle fi#er5 when stimulate #y a threshol stimulus5 will contract ma/imally @all;or;none lawA8 A whole muscle5 howe2er5 contains many muscle fi#ers5 an therefore the egree of contraction is e,en ent on the total num#er of fi#ers contracting8 :ith a greater strength of stimulus a#o2e a threshol le2el5 more fi#ers will contract until at the ma/imal stimulus5 all the fi#ers are contracting8 -%e#$i'" 70 0f a ,erson e/ercises to achie2e #igger muscles5 what effort must #e e/erte an what actually increases5 the si'e or the num#er of muscle cellsK A"#.er: Muscles must contract to ("N of ma/imum e/tension for e/ercise to #e effecti2e8 0ncrease muscle is ue to more myofi#rils within muscle fi#ers8

Te&!"'l'*y 1r'+ M&Gra.;Hill

)lease consult your C'%r#e I"$e*ra$i'" G%ide for technology correlations for this cha,ter8

3.4

CHAPTER

70

HORMONES AN EN OCRINE SYSTEMS

This cha,ter has #een entirely rearrange from the ,re2ious e ition8 The categories of hormones are escri#e as are the #iochemical acti2ities elicite #y the in i2i ual hormones8 &ach glan s< hormones are escri#e in i2i ually8 Many en ocrine;relate isor ers are escri#e 5 inclu ing a etaile iscussion of ia#etes mellitus8 A Science Focus #o/ iscusses B0solation of 0nsulin8C

Chapter Outline
7001 E"d'&ri"e Gla"d#
The en ocrine system functions ifferently from the ner2ous system8 An e"d'&ri"e #y#$e+ consists of glan s that coor inate #o y acti2ities through !'r+'"e#0 0n contrast to the e/ocrine glan s5 which ha2e ucts lea ing to other organs or outsi e the #o y5 the en ocrine glan s secrete their ,ro ucts into the #loo stream5 which eli2ers them throughout the #o y8 48 Chemical signals are use #etween in i2i uals5 #etween #o y ,arts5 an #etween cells8 "8 Both the ner2ous system an the en ocrine system rely on negati2e fee #ac9 mechanisms8 A8 4ormones Are Chemical Signals 18 Chemical signals are a means of communication #etween cells5 #o y ,arts5 or in i2i uals8 28 0n general5 they affect the meta#olism of the cells that ha2e rece,tors for them8 38 Most hormones act at a istance #etween #o y ,arts5 tra2eling through the #loo stream from the glan to the target cell8 48 Some hormones @e8g85 ,rostaglan ins5 growth factorsA are local hormones?they affect only neigh#oring cells8 "8 P!er'+'"e# are en2ironmental signals that act at a istance #etween in i2i ual organisms8 a8 :omen may synchroni'e their menstrual cycles with women who li2e in their househol 5 an a ,articular ,heromone release #y men may re uce ,remenstrual ner2ousness an tension in women8 B8 The Action of 4ormones 18 The Action of )e,ti e 4ormones 18 28 38

a8 The term )e)$ide !'r+'"e is use to inclu e hormones that are ,e,ti es5 ,roteins5 glyco,roteins5 an mo ifie amino aci s8
&,ine,hrine is a ,e,ti e hormone that #in s to a rece,tor ,rotein in the target cell<s ,lasma mem#raneD a relay system lea s to con2ersion of AT) to cyclic AM) @cAM)A8 c8 Cy&li& ade"'#i"e +'"')!'#)!a$e @&AMPA is ma e from AT)D it has one ,hos,hate grou, attache to a enosine at two locations8 8 )e,ti e hormones are the 1ir#$ +e##e"*er@ cAM) an calcium are the #e&'"d +e##e"*er0 e8 The ,e,ti e hormone oes not enter the cellD the secon messenger sets an en'yme casca e in motion8 28 The Action of Steroi 4ormones a8 Steroi hormones are li,i s an cross cell mem#ranes freelyD they o not #in to ,lasma mem#rane rece,tors8 #8 0nsi e the cyto,lasm or a nucleus5 steroi hormones @e8g85 estrogen5 ,rogesteroneA #in to a s,ecific rece,tor8 c8 The hormone;rece,tor com,le/ #in s to 36A5 resulting in acti2ation of genes @transcri,tionA that ,ro uce en'ymes @translationA8 8 Steroi s act more slowly than ,e,ti e hormones #ecause it ta9es more time to synthesi'e new ,roteins than to acti2ate en'ymes alrea y ,resent in cellsD howe2er5 their action lasts longer8 e8 Steroi hormones are ,ro uce in the a renal corte/5 the o2aries5 an the testes8 7002 Hy)'$!ala+%# a"d Pi$%i$ary Gla"d 18 The !y)'$!ala+%# regulates the internal en2ironment through the autonomic system8 a8 0t controls heart#eat5 tem,erature5 water #alance5 as well as glan ular secretions of the ,ituitary #8

3."

glan 8 The )i$%i$ary *la"d @hy,o,hysisA is connecte to the hy,othalamus #y a stal9li9e structure8 a8 0t is a#out 1 cm in iameter an lies 7ust #elow the hy,othalamus8 #8 0t is com,rise of two ,ortions% the ,osterior ,ituitary an the anterior ,ituitary8 A8 )osterior )ituitary 18 6eurons in the hy,othalamus calle neurosecretory cells ,ro uce a"$idi%re$i& !'r+'"e @A HA an '6y$'&i"3 which ,ass through a/on en ings in the )'#$eri'r )i$%i$ary an are store until release 8 28 A"$idi%re$i& !'r+'"e @A HA ,romotes rea#sor,tion of water from the collecting ucts in the 9i neys8 38 6er2e cells in the hy,othalamus etermine when the #loo is too concentrate D A34 is release an the 9i neys res,on #y rea#sor#ing water8 a8 As the #loo #ecomes ilute5 A34 is no longer release D this is a case of "e*a$ive 1eedba&,0 #8 0na#ility to ,ro uce A34 causes ia#etes insi,i us @watery urineA5 in which the in i2i ual ,ro uces co,ious amounts of urine an a resultant loss of ions from the #loo 8 48 O6y$'&i" is also ma e in the hy,othalamus an store in the ,osterior ,ituitary8 a8 O/ytocin stimulates uterine muscle contraction in res,onse to uterine wall ner2e im,ulses8 #8 0t also stimulates the release of mil9 from mammary glan s8 c8 This )'#i$ive 1eedba&, mechanism increases intensityD such ,ositi2e fee #ac9 oes not maintain homeostasis8 8 O/ytocin also may ,lay a role in the ,ro,ulsion of semen through the male re,ro ucti2e tract8 B8 Anterior )ituitary 18 Stimulation #y the hy,othalamus controls the release of anterior ,ituitary hormones through a ,ortal system consisting of two ca,illary systems connecte #y a 2ein8 28 The hy,othalamus ,ro uces !y)'$!ala+i&;relea#i"* an !y)'$!ala+i&;i"!ibi$i"* !'r+'"e# which ,ass to the anterior ,ituitary #y this ,ortal system8 a8 T!yr'id;relea#i"* !'r+'"e# release from the hy,othalamus act on cells in the anterior ,ituitary to stimulate the ,ro uction an secretion of a s,ecific hormone8 #8 T!yr'id;i"!ibi$i"* !'r+'"e# ,ro uce in an release from the hy,othalamus act on cells in the anterior ,ituitary to inhi#it the ,ro uction an secretion of a s,ecific hormone8 38 The anterior ,ituitary ,ro uces si/ ifferent hormones8 a8 Three of these anterior ,ituitary hormones affect other glan"s8 1A The $!yr'id;#$i+%la$i"* !'r+'"e @TSHA stimulates the thyroi to ,ro uce an secrete thyro/in8 2A Adre"'&'r$i&'$r')i& !'r+'"e @ACTHA stimulates the a renal corte/ to release cortisol8 3A G'"ad'$r')i& !'r+'"e# @follicle;stimulating hormone I!S4J an luteini'ing hormone IL4JA act on the gona s @o2aries an testesA to secrete se/ hormones8 #8 The other three hormones "o not affect other glan"s8 1A Pr'la&$i" @PRLA is ,ro uce in >uantity only after chil #irth8 28

aA )rolactin causes the mammary glan s to ,ro uce mil98 #A 0t also ,lays a role in car#ohy rate an fat meta#olism8
2A Mela"'&y$e;#$i+%la$i"* !'r+'"e @MSHA causes s9in color changes in fishes5 am,hi#ians5 an re,tiles with melano,hores5 s,ecial s9in cells8 3A Gr'.$! !'r+'"e @GH or somatotro,ic hormoneA

7004

aA 14 ,romotes s9eletal an muscular growth8 #A 14 acts to stimulate the trans,ort of amino aci s into cells an to increase the acti2ity of ri#osomes8 cA 14 ,romotes fat meta#olism rather than glucose meta#olism8 A Too little 14 uring chil hoo ma9es an in i2i ual a )i$%i$ary d.ar18 eA Too much forms a giantD life e/,ectancy is less #ecause 14 affects #loo glucose le2els an ,romotes ia#etes mellitus8 fA The o2er,ro uction of 14 in a ults results in a&r'+e*alyD since long #one growth is no longer ,ossi#le5 only the feet5 han s5 an face grow8 O$!er E"d'&ri"e Gla"d# a"d H'r+'"e#

A8 Thyroi an )arathyroi 1lan s

3.$

18 The $!yr'id *la"d is in the nec9 an attache to the trachea 7ust #elow the laryn/8 28 The )ara$!yr'id *la"d# are em#e e in the ,osterior surface of the thyroi glan 8 38 Thyroi 1lan
The thyroi glan is the largest en ocrine glan 8 The two hormones ,ro uce #y the many follicles of the thyroi glan #oth contain io ine8 1A T!yr'6i"e @T7A contains four io ine atoms8 2A Trii'd'$!yr'"i"e @T4A contains three io ine atoms8 c8 Lac9 of io ine causes enlargement of the thyroi @#i+)le *'i$erA8 1A Sim,le goiter is easily ,re2ente #y su,,lementing io ine inta9e in salt8 8 Thyroi hormones increase the meta#olic rateD there is no one target organ?all organs res,on 8 e8 C'"*e"i$al !y)'$!yr'idi#+ @cretinismA occurs in in i2i uals who ha2e suffere from low thyroi function since #irth8 1A Affecte in i2i uals are short an stoc9y an ha2e ha hy,othyroi ism since infancy8 2A Thyroi treatment hel,s #ut unless it is #egun in the first two months5 mental retar ation can occur8 f8 My6ede+a is hy,othyroi ism in a ultsD thyroi hormones can restore normal function8 g8 4y,erthyroi ism @1ra2es iseaseA occurs when the thyroi glan is enlarge or o2eracti2e8 1A The eyes ,rotru e #ecause of e ema in the eye soc9et tissueD this is calle e6')!$!al+i& *'i$er0 2A +emo2al or estruction of some thyroi tissue #y surgery or ra iation often cures the con ition8 h8 The thyroi glan also ,ro uces &al&i$'"i"0 1A Cal&i$'"i" lowers the calcium le2el in the #loo an increases e,osits in the #one #y re ucing osteoclasts8 2A Calcitonin is also necessary for #loo clotting8 3A 0f #loo calcium is lowere to normal5 the release of calcitonin is inhi#ite 8 4A Too low calcium le2els stimulate the release of )ara$!yr'id !'r+'"e @PTHA #y the ,arathyroi glan s8 48 )arathyroi 1lan s a8 )arathyroi glan s ,ro uce )ara$!yr'id !'r+'"e @PTHA8 1A Gn er the influence of )T45 the calcium le2el in #loo increases an the ,hos,hate le2el ecreases8 2A PTH stimulates the ab#'r)$i'" of Ca2O #y acti2ating 2itamin 35 the re$e"$i'" of Ca2O @an e/cretion of ,hos,hateA #y the 9i neys an de+i"erali5a$i'" of #one #y ,romoting the acti2ity of osteoclasts8 3A :hen the #loo calcium le2el reaches the right le2el5 the ,arathyroi glan s no longer ,ro uce )T48 4A 0f )T4 is not ,ro uce in res,onse to low #loo Ca2O5 $e$a"y results #ecause the Ca2O ,lays an im,ortant role in #oth ner2e con uction an muscle contraction8 #8 0n $e$a"y5 the #o y sha9es from continuous muscle contraction ue to the increase e/cita#ility of ner2es that fire s,ontaneously an without restD this con ition may #e ue to hy,o,arathyroi ism8 c8 0n hy,er,arathyroi ism5 the a#normally high #loo calcium le2els can cause the #ones to #e soft an fragile5 an the in i2i ual to #e ,rone to 9i ney stones8 8 )T4 an calcitonin are antagonistic hormones #ecause their action is o,,osite to one another5 an #oth hormones wor9 together to regulate the #loo calcium le2el8 B8 A renal 1lan s 18 Two adre"al *la"d# sit ato, the 9i neys8 28 &ach glan consists of two ,arts% an outer adre"al &'r$e6 an an inner adre"al +ed%lla0 38 The corte/ an me ulla ha2e no ,hysiological connection #etween them8 48 The hy,othalamus e/erts control o2er #oth ,ortions8 a8 6er2e im,ulses tra2el 2ia the #rain stem to the s,inal cor to sym,athetic ner2e fi#ers to the me ulla8 #8 The hy,othalamus uses ACT4;releasing hormone to control the anterior ,ituitary<s secretion of ACT48 "8 A renal hormones increase uring times of ,hysical an emotional stress8 $8 Both e)i"e)!ri"e an "'re)i"e)!ri"e are ,ro uce #y the a renal me ulla8 a8 #8

3.(

(8

Both hormones #ring a#out #o y changes corres,on ing to an emergency8 a8 The #loo glucose le2el rises an meta#olic rate increases8 #8 The #ronchioles ilate an #reathing rate increases8 c8 Bloo 2essels to the igesti2e tract an s9in constrictD those to the s9eletal muscles ilate8 8 The car iac muscle contracts more forcefully an the heart rate increases8

*8 The a renal corte/ hormones ,ro2i e a sustaine res,onse to stress8 a8 The a renal corte/ secretes two ty,es of hormones% glucocorticoi s an mineralocorticoi s8
1A 1lucocorticoi s hel, to regulate #loo glucose le2els8 2A Mineralocorticoi s regulate the le2els of minerals in the #loo 8 3A The a renal corte/ also secretes a small amount of #oth male an female se/ hormones in #oth se/es8 *lucocorticoi"s: C'r$i#'l is a #iologically significant glucocorticoi 8 a8 Cortisol ,romotes the #rea9 own of muscle ,rotein into amino aci s ta9en u, #y the li2er from the #loo 8 #8 Cortisol #rea9s own fatty aci s rather than car#ohy ratesD cortisol therefore raises #loo glucose le2els8 c8 Cortisol counteracts the inflammatory res,onseD it hel,s me icate arthritis an #ursitis8 a8 #8 The ,rimary target organ is the 9i ney where it ,romotes the rea#sor,tion of 6aO an the e/cretion of EO8 Mineralocorticoi secretion is controlle #y the re"i";a"*i'$e"#i";ald'#$er'"e #y#$e+0

-8

1.8 Mineralocorticoi"s: Ald'#$er'"e is the most im,ortant of the +i"eral'&'r$i&'id#0

1A Gn er low #loo 2olume an so ium le2els5 the 9i neys secrete renin8 2A The en'yme renin con2erts the ,lasma ,rotein angiotensinogen to angiotensin 0D this #ecomes angiotensin 00 #y a con2erting en'yme in the lungs8 3A Angiotensin 00 stimulates the a renal corte/ to release al osterone8 4A Angiotensin 0 constricts the arterioles irectlyD al osterone causes the 9i neys to a#sor# calcium8 "A :hen the #loo so ium rises5 water is rea#sor#e as the hy,othalamus secretes A34D #loo ,ressure then increases to normal8
c8 A$rial "a$ri%re$i& !'r+'"e @ANHA causes the e/cretion of so ium8 1A :hen the atria of the heart are stretche ue to increase #loo 2olume5 car iac cells release A648 2A A64 inhi#its the secretion of renin #y the 9i neys an the secretion of al osterone from the a renal corte/8 3A :hen so ium is e/crete 5 so is waterD the #loo 2olume an ,ressure then return to normal8

118 Malfunction of the A renal Corte/ a8 Low le2els of a renal corte/ hormones @hy,osecretionA result in Addi#'" di#ea#e0 1A :hen ACT4 is in e/cess5 li9e MS45 it can lea to the #uil u, of melanin an a #ron'ing of the s9in8 2A The lac9 of cortisol results in low glucose le2elsD a stresse ,erson has insufficient energy8 3A The lac9 of al osterone ro,s #loo so ium le2elsD a ,erson then has low #loo ,ressure an ehy ration8 4A Left untreate 5 A ison isease can #e fatal8 #8 4igh le2els of a renal corte/ hormones from hy,ersecretion result in C%#!i"* #y"dr'+e0 1A &/cess cortisol causes a ten ency towar ia#etes mellitus8 2A Muscular ,rotein then ecreases an su#cutaneous fat forms an o#ese trun9 #ut normal arms an legs8 C8 )ancreas 3.*

The ,ancreas lies trans2ersely in the a# omen #etween the 9i neys an near the uo enum8 The ,ancreas is com,ose of two ty,es of tissue8 a8 &/ocrine tissue ,ro uces an secretes igesti2e 7uices into the small intestine #y way of ucts8 #8 &n ocrine tissues calle )a"&rea$i& i#le$# @islets of LangerhansA ,ro uce insulin an glucagon8 38 All #o y cells utili'e glucoseD therefore5 its le2el must #e closely regulate 8 48 I"#%li" is secrete when the #loo glucose le2el is high after eatingD insulin has three actions8 a8 0nsulin stimulates li2er5 fat5 an muscle cells to ta9e u, glucose8 #8 0nsulin stimulates the li2er an muscles to store glucose as glycogen8 c8 0nsulin ,romotes #uil u, of fats an ,roteins an inhi#its their use as an energy source8 "8 Gl%&a*'" is secrete #etween meals in res,onse to low #loo glucose le2el8 a8 Li2er an a i,ose tissue are the main targets8 #8 A i,ose tissue cells #rea9 the fat into glycerol an fatty aci s8 c8 The li2er uses glycerol an fatty aci s as su#strates for glucose5 raising the #loo glucose le2els8 $8 3ia#etes Mellitus a8 iabe$e# +elli$%# is a fairly common isease where the #o y cells o not ta9e u, or meta#oli'e sugar8 #8 Bloo glucose le2el #ecomes high enough for the 9i neys to e/crete glucoseD therefore this is etecte #y a urine test8 c8 The li2er is not storing glucose as glycogen an cells are not utili'ing glucose for energy8 8 Since car#ohy rate is not #eing meta#oli'e 5 the #o y #rea9s own ,rotein an fat for energy8 e8 Eetones then #uil u, in #loo D the resulting re uce #loo 2olume an aci osis can lea to coma an eath8 f8 0n type G +insulin."epen"ent) "iabetes5 the ,ancreas oes not ,ro uce insulin8 1A A 2iral infection can cause cytoto/ic T cells to estroy ,ancreatic islets8 2A This is treate with a aily a ministration of insulinD an o2er ose or lac9 of eating results in hy,oglycemia8 3A The #rain also has constant sugar re>uirementsD low #loo sugar can result in unconsciousness8 4A An imme iate inta9e of sugar is a sim,le an effecti2e treatment8 (8 Of 1* million ia#etics in the G8S85 most ha2e type ; +noninsulin."epen"ent) "iabetes8 a8 This form of ia#etes usually occurs in o#ese an inacti2e in i2i uals of any age8 #8 The ,ancreas oes ,ro uce insulin #ut li2e muscle cells o not res,on to it8 c8 0nitially5 this is a result of cells lac9ing the rece,tors for insulin8 8 Gntreate 5 ty,e 00 ia#etes can ha2e serious sym,toms% #lin ness5 9i ney isease5 circulatory isor ers5 stro9es5 etc8 e8 A low fat iet an regular e/ercise hel,D oral rugs can ma9e cells more sensiti2e to insulin or stimulate higher le2els of insulin ,ro uction #y the ,ancreas8 38 0solation of 0nsulin @Science Focus #o/A 18 0n 1-2.5 ,hysician !re eric9 Banting eci e to try to isolate insulin8 28 4e eci e to try to tie off the ,ancreatic uct5 which he 9new woul lea to the egeneration only of the cells that ,ro uce igesti2e 7uices5 an not of the ,ancreatic islets where insulin is ma e8 38 4e an Charles Best wor9e an o#taine ,ancreatic e/tracts that i lower the #loo glucose le2el in ia#etic ogs8 48 A #iochemist was #rought in to ,urify the e/tract8 "8 0nsulin thera,y for the first human ,atient #egan in 1-225 an large;scale ,ro uction of ,urifie insulin from ,igs an cattle followe 8 $8 Banting5 an his ,rofessor Mcleo recei2e a 6o#el )ri'e for their wor9 in 1-238 (8 The amino aci se>uence of insulin was etermine in 1-"38 *8 0nsulin is ,resently synthesi'e #y using recom#inant 36A technology8 &8 Testes an O2aries 18 The $e#$e# locate in the scrotum function as gona s an ,ro uce a"dr'*e"# @e8g85 testosteroneA8 a8 Te#$'#$er'"e is the male se/ hormone8 #8 0t stimulates the e2elo,ment of male secon ary se/ characteristics% large 2ocal cor s5 ,u#ic hair5 etc8 c8 Testosterone is largely res,onsi#le for the se/ ri2e8 8 Ana#olic steroi s are su,,lemental testosterone or similar chemicals with serious si e effects8 e8 Testosterone also affects sweat glan s5 e/,ression of #al ness genes5 an other effects8

18 28

3.-

The o2aries5 locate in the ,el2ic ca2ity5 ,ro uce the female se/ hormones e#$r'*e"# an )r'*e#$er'"e0 a8 E#$r'*e"# secrete at ,u#erty stimulate the maturation of o2aries an other se/ual organs8 #8 &strogen is necessary for oocyte e2elo,ment8 c8 0t is res,onsi#le for the e2elo,ment of female secon ary se/ characteristics% a layer of fat #eneath the s9in5 a larger ,el2ic gir le5 etc8 8 &strogen an ,rogesterone are re>uire for #reast e2elo,ment an the regulation of the uterine cycle8 !8 )ineal 1lan 18 The )i"eal *la"d5 locate in the #rain5 ,ro uces +ela$'"i"5 ,rimarily at night8 28 The ,ineal glan an melatonin hel, esta#lish &ir&adia" r!y$!+#5 24;hour ,hysiological cycles8 38 The ,ineal glan may also #e in2ol2e in human se/ual e2elo,mentD chil ren in whom a #rain tumor has estroye the ,ineal glan e/,erience ,u#erty earlier8 18 Thymus 1lan 18 The $!y+%# *la"d is a lo#ular glan that lies 7ust #eneath the sternum in the u,,er thoracic ca2ity8 28 0t reaches its largest si'e an is most acti2e uring chil hoo D with age5 it shrin9s an #ecomes fatty8 38 Some lym,hocytes that originate in the #one marrow ,ass through the thymus an change into T lym,hocytes8 48 The thymus ,ro uces thymosins5 which ai in the ifferentiation of T cells an may stimulate immune cells8 48 Other 4ormones 18 Le)$i" is a ,e,ti e hormone secrete #y a i,ose tissue8 0ts main function is its role in the fee #ac9 control of a,,etiteD it can su,,ress a,,etite8 28 Ery$!r')'ie$i" @EPOA is a ,e,ti e hormone ,ro uce in the 9i neys8 0t stimulates the ,ro uction of re #loo cells an s,ee s u, their maturation8 38 Local hormones such as ,rostaglan ins are ,ro uce #y certain cells an act on neigh#oring cells8 a8 Pr'#$a*la"di"# are ,otent chemical signals which ha2e se2eral 9nown functions8 #8 They cause the contraction of uterine muscle5 an they me iate the effects of ,yrogens @chemicals #elie2e to affect the tem,erature regulatory center of the #rainA8 c8 Certain ,rostaglan ins re uce gastric secretions5 others lower #loo ,ressure8 8 As,irin re uces tem,erature an controls ,ain #ecause of its effect on ,rostaglan ins8

28

Le&$%re E"ri&!+e"$ Idea#

E6)erie"&e Ba#e% Many stu ents will ha2e an interest in this section ue to hormone in2ol2ement in se/ual e2elo,ment5 an awareness of some of the a#normalities that result from faulty hormone acti2ity8 A#use of steroi s an B#loo o,ingC may #e un erstoo #y many stu ents8 0t is li9ely5 though5 that there will #e more than a few misconce,tions concerning the ,ineal glan 5 melatonin an circa ian rhythms8 18 3escri#e the ifferences in actions of nonsteroi hormones 2ersus steroi hormones as a function of the 9in of chemicals in2ol2e 5 with ,e,ti es una#le to ,ass easily through the ,lasma mem#rane5 while li,i ;#ase steroi s easily iffuse through the ,lasma mem#rane8 28 &/,lain how nonsteroi an steroi hormones acti2ate ,roteins ,resent in the cyto,lasm5 as o,,ose to stimulating the ,ro uction of new hormones8 This affects the length of time re>uire for the res,onse an the sta#ility of the res,onse8 38 3iscuss the mechanism of control of some 9in s of en ocrine functions @i8e85 rece,tors in the hy,othalamus res,on to the ,resence or a#sence of the final hormone in the se>uence5 thus turning on or off the regulatory hormones that stimulate the anterior ,ituitary to release stimulatory hormonesA8 48 3iscuss how the ner2ous an en ocrine systems interact in regulating the homeostatic 31.

mechanisms of the #o y8 The inner2ation of the a renal me ulla an the action of the #rain as a glan ser2e to #lur the lines #etween what were once consi ere >uite ifferent control systems8 "8 The >uantity an uration of hormones5 as well as the time for fee #ac9 mechanisms to wor95 are im,ortant consi erations8 Lecture >uestion% 3oes a #loo reci,ient get a osage of hormones in a #loo transfusionK A male who recei2es a #loo transfusion from a female onor oes get some a itional estrogen in the ,lasma #ut the >uantity of #loo is a small ,ro,ortion of his total #loo 2olume5 an this ilute hormone le2el is not sustaine #ecause there are no o2aries ,ro ucing more estrogen8 4is own a renal glan s woul ,ro2i e more estrogens o2er time in his #loo stream naturally8 $8 Bloo ;#orne hormones wash throughout the #o y an are recogni'e #y target tissues only as they B,ass #y8C Stress that there is no intent or B,ur,osefulnessC in the mo2ement of chemicals #y ,hysical ,ro,erties8 4owe2er5 the close ,lacement an relate ca,illary circulation of some en ocrine organs to target tissues can s,ee the ,rocess8 (8 Classes generally co2er organ systems organ;#y;organ as if they were istinct o,erators on an assem#ly line8 4owe2er5 many organs must coor inate with others an hormones are a central ,art of this coor ination8 Lecture >uestion% :hat woul ha,,en if the gall #la er i n<t B9nowC when fat was mo2ing onwar from the stomach5 or the ,ro uction of #reast mil9 was not in some way associate with the contractions of the uterus in chil #irthK *8 :hy is the hy,othalamus an ,ituitary #urie so ee, an ,rotecte at the #ase of the #rainK :hy are so many critical functions controlle from this one centerK -8 Syntocin is a synthetic o/ytocinD note how this is a 2ery useful hormone when a ,hysician fin s that a ,regnancy is o2er ue an ,ro#lems of elaye chil #irth @e8g85 ,re;eclam,siaA #egin to escalate8 1.8 Stu ents may ha2e seen huge la#oratory rats with growth hormone irregularities8 There are a growing num#er of G8S8 stu ents an ,rofessors who are hea2ier than a2erage5 #ut otherwise Bnormal8C :hat sym,toms woul #e e/,ecte if this o#esity was hormonalK 118 A networ9 newscaster re,orting imme iately after the Cherno#yl nuclear ,lant isaster re,orte that citi'ens in northern &uro,e were ta9ing io ine ta#lets Bto ,re2ent ra ioacti2e io ine fallout from entering their #o y8C The newscaster got the reason wrongD stu ents who un erstan the use of io ine #y the thyroi for synthesis of hormones5 an the limite num#er of rece,tor sites5 an the e/cretion of sur,lus su#stances #y the 9i ney5 shoul #e a#le to i entify this error8 128 Case histories a#out 2arious en ocrine a#normalities can #e ,resente to a class to allow them to recogni'e a#normalities an iscuss the cause an treatment of the isease8 138 &m#ryologically5 the a renal me ulla is ifferentiate from tissues similar to ner2es8 Lecture >uestion% 3oes this ma9e sense5 consi ering the function of the a renal me ulla hormonesK Les5 since the action is much faster than most hormones8 Also5 the mo ern ,ers,ecti2e ,resente in this te/t5 where hormones are ,art of a continuum of en2ironmental signals5 ,uts this in a correct light8 Lecture >uestion% Cortisone has anti;inflammatory action an is useful for re ucing ee, inflammation5 as in Bell ,alsy5 etc8 Let the osage is gi2en ra,i ly an for only a #rief time8 :hy woul a ,hysician not want to #oost an maintain cortisone le2els o2er a longer timeK 311

Stu ents sometimes e uce wrongly that eating lots of sugar ma9es a normal ,erson ia#etic8 Lea stu ents through a re2iew of the com,ensating mechanisms in2ol2e while ca2alierly eating se2eral can y #ars8 0t is also ,ossi#le to carry in a urine sam,le an test for sugar in urineD although test results are 2isual #ut not easily ,ro7ecte on a screen5 they can #e re,orte #y eyesight8 A ing sugar to a normal sam,le can con2ert the test8 Lecture >uestion% :hy woul the me ical la# want a ,atient to a#stain from eating eight or more hours #efore a #loo sam,le is ta9enK

Cri$i&al T!i",i"*
-%e#$i'" 10 0f cortisol is goo at re ucing inflammation5 es,ecially of ee, tissues5 why isn<t it a commonly use o2er;the;counter long;term rug for the many inflammation ,ro#lems ,eo,le ha2e e2ery ayK
A"#.er: Cortisol is far more than an anti;inflammatory me ication8 0t ,romotes hy rolysis of muscle ,roteins to amino aci s that enter the #loo 8 0t increases #loo glucose le2els an shifts meta#olism to fatty aci s rather than car#ohy rates8 Therefore5 osages use for re ucing inflammation are carefully monitore an usually of short uration8 -%e#$i'" 20 6ot only oes the a renal corte/ secrete some estrogens5 the normal fat tissue also ,ro uces some estrogen8 :hy might a female Olym,ic athlete cease ha2ing a menstrual cycle uring strenuous training #efore a ma7or e2entK A"#.er: The hy,othalamus5 ,ituitary5 an uterus are res,on ing to the o2erall threshol le2el of estrogen in the system8 This is ,ro2i e #y a #ase le2el from the a renal corte/ an fat tissue5 with the cycling le2el of estrogen from the o2aries ,ro2i ing an a itional le2el that is etecte #y these fee #ac9 tissues8 :hen fat is ramatically re uce 5 the total le2el of estrogens?now coming only from the o2aries?is too low an ne2er cycles to high enough concentrations to trigger the tissues in2ol2e in the menstrual cycle8 -%e#$i'" 40 Biological controls are ,romote as a re,lacement for ,estici es #ecause insects e2entually e2elo, strains that are resistant8 4ormone tra,s are one form of #iological control where the se/ ,heromone is use to lure the males @usuallyA to a tra, that remo2es them from the mating ,o,ulation8 There is natural 2ariation in the male res,onse to ,heromones8 0s this #iological control immune from the resistance ,ro#lem that ,estici es face K A"#.er: 6o8 0n i2i uals that are less;attracte will a2oi the tra,s an #e the only ones to mateD therefore5 this lower attracti2eness will soon ,re ominate an #e a strain BresistantC to ,heromone tra,,ing8 A ,heromone may ha2e many com,onentsD only one is usually ,urifie an use in tra,s8

Te&!"'l'*y 1r'+ M&Gra.;Hill

)lease consult your C'%r#e I"$e*ra$i'" G%ide for technology correlations for this cha,ter8

312

CHAPTER

71

REPRO UCTIVE SYSTEMS

This cha,ter ,resents a com,lete stu y of animal re,ro uction5 with em,hasis on the anatomy an ,hysiology of human re,ro uction8 Sections on #irth control an infertility ,rece e an e/tensi2e escri,tion of the se/ually;transmitte iseases8 A ,eath Focus #o/ focuses on B)reim,lantation 1enetic 3iagnosis5C an another ,ealth Focus #o/ iscusses B)re2enting Transmission of ST3s8C

C!a)$er O%$li"e
7101 H'. A"i+al# Re)r'd%&e There are two ,atterns of re,ro uction% 18 Ase/ual?only one ,arent is in2ol2e an the offs,ring are i entical to the ,arent8 28 Se/ual?two ,arents are in2ol2e an the offs,ring are genetically uni>ue8 A8 Ase/ual +e,ro uction 18 S,onges ,ro uce ase/ual gemmules that e2elo, into new in i2i uals8 28 ,y"ra re,ro uce ase/ually #y #u ingD a new in i2i ual arises as an outgrowth @#u A of a ,arent8 38 6belia un ergoes an alternation of generations% an ase/ual colonial stage an a se/ual me usa stage8 48 !latworms can constrict into two hal2es5 each half #ecoming a new in i2i ual8 "8 !ragmentation followe #y regeneration is seen among anneli s5 s,onges5 an echino erms8 $8 Par$!e"'*e"e#i# is foun among some insects5 worms5 fish5 li'ar s5 an some other animalsD an unfertili'e egg e2elo,s into a com,lete in i2i ual8 (8 0n honey#ees5 the >ueen can fertili'e or not fertili'e the eggs5 ,ro ucing i,loi female wor9ers @if fertili'e A or ha,loi male rones @if unfertili'e A8 B8 Se/ual +e,ro uction 18 0n se/ual re,ro uction5 the egg of one ,arent is fertili'e #y the s,erm of the otherD most animals are ioecious @ha2ing se,arate se/esA8 28 4erma,hro itic organisms ,ossess #oth male an female organs8 a8 &arthworms un ergo cross;fertili'ation8 #8 Ta,eworms are ca,a#le of self;fertili'ation8 c8 Se>uential herma,hro itism5 or se/ re2ersal5 in2ol2es the changing of se/D a male wrass @a reef fishA has a harem #ut if the male ies5 the largest female #ecomes a male8 38 G'"ad# are organs s,eciali'e to ,ro uce gametes8 a8 S,onges are an e/ce,tion since their collar cells gi2e rise to s,erm an eggs8 #8 4y ras ,ro uce only tem,orary gona s in the fall when se/ual re,ro uction occurs8 c8 Animals in other ,hyla ha2e ,ermanent gona s8 48 There are two ty,es of gona s% $e#$e# ,ro uce s,erm an 'varie# ,ro uce eggs8 "8 &ggs an s,erm cells eri2e from germ cells that s,eciali'e early for this e2elo,ment8 $8 Other cells in the gona s su,,ort an nourish the e2elo,ing gametes or ,ro uce hormones for re,ro uction8 (8 Accessory organs form ucts an storage areas that ai in #ringing gametes together8 *8 Se/ually;re,ro ucing animals ha2e 2arious metho s to ensure that the gametes unite8 a8 A>uatic animals that ,ractice e/ternal fertili'ation must synchroni'e egg release8 #8 The lunar cycle is one trigger that cues animals #y ti es8 c8 4un re s of thousan s of ,alolo worms rise to the surface to release eggs uring a 2=4 hour ,erio 8 -8 C')%la$i'" is se/ual union to facilitate the rece,tion of s,erm #y a female8 a8 The ,enis is a male co,ulatory organ ty,ical of terrestrial malesD it e,osits s,erm into the female<s 2agina8 #8 Bir s lac9 a ,enis or 2aginaD they transfer s,erm from cloaca to cloaca8

313

!emale amselflie curls her a# omen forwar to recei2e s,erm ,re2iously e,osite in a ,ouch #y the male5 an co,ulation oesn<t occur8 C8 Life 4istory Strategies 18 Many a>uatic animals use e/ternal fertili'ationD eggs an s,erm 7oin outsi e the #o y in the water8 28 Terrestrial animals ten to ,ractice internal fertili'ationD eggs an s,erm 7oin insi e the female<s #o y8 38 Both ty,es of animals are usually 'vi)ar'%#@ they e,osit eggs in the e/ternal en2ironment8 48 0nsect eggs are ,ro uce in o2ariesD they mature an increase in si'e as a result of the accumulation of yol98 a8 Y'l, is store foo to #e use #y the e2elo,ing em#ryo8 #8 To ,re2ent insect eggs from rying out5 their eggshell has se2eral layers of ,rotein or wa/8 c8 0n insects5 small holes are left at one en to allow for the entry of s,erm8 "8 Some insects ha2e a s,ecial organ to store s,erm so the eggs can #e fertili'e later8 $8 A lar2al stage is often >uite ifferent in a,,earance an way of life from the a ult form8 a8 The larva is a#le to see9 its own foo to sustain itself until it #ecomes an a ult8 #8 Metamorphosis is a ma7or change in form that some animals un ergo uring e2elo,ment8 c8 0ncom,lete metamor,hosis lac9s a ,u,al stage an the nym,hs loo9 more li9e a ults8 8 Lar2al a>uatic forms can utili'e a ifferent foo source than the a ults8 e8 The #ilaterally symmetrical sea star lar2ae attach to a su#strate an #ecome ra ially symmetrical a ults8 f8 The free;swimming #arnacle lar2ae metamor,hose into sessile a ults with calcareous ,lates8 g8 The crayfish lac9s a lar2al stageD eggs hatch into tiny 7u2eniles with the same form as the a ults8 (8 +e,tiles an #ir s ,ro2i e their eggs with ,lentiful yol9D there is no lar2al stage8 a8 Com,lete e2elo,ment ta9es ,lace within a shell containing e6$rae+bry'"i& +e+bra"e#0 #8 The chorion is the outermost mem#rane that lies ne/t to the shell an functions in gas e/change8 c8 The amnion forms a water;fille sac aroun the em#ryo ensuring that it will not ry out8 8 A yol9 sac hol s yol9 which nourishes the em#ryo8 e8 The allantois hol s nitrogen waste ,ro ucts8 f8 A shelle egg frees an animal from any nee to re,ro uce in water an also hel,s it li2e com,letely on lan 8 *8 Bir s ten their eggs8 a8 6ewly hatche #ir s ha2e to #e fe #efore they e2elo, to where they can see9 foo on their own8 #8 )arent #ir <s re,ro ucti2e #eha2iors in2ol2e com,le/ hormone an neural regulation8 -8 0n oysters an sea horsesD the eggs remain insi e the #o y until they hatch fully; e2elo,e 8 1.8 1arter sna9es5 water sna9es5 an ,it 2i,ers also retain eggs until they hatch an gi2e #irth to li2e young8 118 Mammals are vivi)ar'%#3 ,ro ucing li2ing young8 a8 The nutrients nee e for e2elo,ment are constantly su,,lie #y the mother8 #8 Vi2i,arity re,resents the ultimate in caring for the 'ygote an the em#ryo8 c8 The e2olution of 2i2i,arity can #e seen in the ,rimiti2e mammals8 1A The e/ce,tions are the uc9#ill ,laty,us an the s,iny anteater5 which are egg;laying mammals8 2A Marsu,ials gi2e #irth to immature offs,ring that finish e2elo,ing within a ,ouch8 3A 0n all other mammals5 e2elo,ment occurs in a ,lacenta8 128 The )la&e"$a is a com,le/ organ com,rise of maternal an em#ryonic tissues8 a8 A ,lacenta e/changes O25 CO25 nutrients5 wastes5 etc85 #etween the fetal an maternal circulations8 #8 &2olution allowe em#ryos to e/change materials with the motherD this ma e the shell unnecessary8 7102 Male Re)r'd%&$ive Sy#$e+ 18 28 38 48 "8 )aire testes are sus,en e in the scrotal sacs of the scrotum8 The testes #egin e2elo,ment in the a# ominal ca2ity #ut escen into the scrotal sac uring e2elo,ment8 0f the testes o not escen 5 without surgery or hormonal thera,y5 sterility results8 The lower tem,erature of the scrotum is 2ital to normal s,erm ,ro uction8 S,erm ,ro uce in the testes mature within the e,i i ymi es8 a8 These are tightly coile tu#ules outsi e of the testes in which the s,erm un ergo maturation8 #8 The maturation time in the e,i i ymis is re>uire for the s,erm to e2elo, the a#ility to swim to

c8

314

the egg8 Once s,erm ha2e mature 5 they are ,ro,elle into the 2asa eferentia #y muscular contractions8 S,erm are store in #oth the e,i i ymi es an the 2asa eferentia8 :hen a male is se/ually arouse 5 the s,erm enter the urethra5 ,art of which e/ten s through the ,enis8 A 2asectomy is a surgical form of #irth control in which the 2asa eferentia are se2ere or #loc9e an s,erm cannot com,lete their 7ourney own the male re,ro ucti2e tract8 A8 Orgasm in Males 18 The )e"i# is a cylin rical co,ulatory organ use to intro uce s,ermato'oa into the female 2agina8 a8 The ,enis has a long shaft an an enlarge ti, calle the glans ,enis8 #8 The glans ,enis is normally co2ere #y a layer of s9in calle the fores9inD circumcision is the surgical remo2al of the fores9in soon after #irth8 c8 Three columns of s,ongy5 erectile tissue e/ten own the ,enile shaft8 8 3uring se/ual arousal5 ner2ous refle/es cause an increase in the arterial #loo flow to the ,enis8 e8 0ncrease #loo flow fills an isten s the erectile tissue5 an the ,enis stiffens an increases in si'e8 f8 These changes cause an erectionD failure to achie2e an erection is calle erectile ysfunction8 28 Se+e" @#e+i"al 1l%idA is thic95 whitish flui that contains s,erm an glan ular secretions8 a8 The seminal flui is forme #y the seminal 2esicles5 ,rostate glan 5 an #ul#ourethral glan s8 #8 The seminal 2esicles lie at the #ase of the urinary #la er8 1A &ach 7oins a 2asa eferensia to form an e7aculatory uct that enters the urethra8 2A They secrete into the e7aculatory uct a thic9 flui containing nutrients for use #y the s,erm8 c8 The ,rostate glan is locate 7ust #elow the urinary #la er an surroun s the u,,er ,ortion of the urethra8 1A 0t secretes a mil9y5 slightly al9aline solution that ,romotes s,erm motility an 2ia#ility8 2A 0n ol er men5 the ,rostate glan may #ecome enlarge an constrict the urethra8 3A )rostate cancer is also common in ol er men8 8 The #ul#ourethral glan s are locate #elow the ,rostate glan an on either si e of the urethraD they release mucus secretions that ,ro2i e lu#rication8 38 The urethra also con ucts urine from the #la er uring urination8 48 &7aculation results in the e/,ulsion of semenD this is achie2e at the ,ea9 of se/ual arousal8 "8 The first ,hase of e7aculation is emission8 a8 6er2e im,ulses from the s,ine trigger the e,i i ymi es an 2asa eferentia to contract8 #8 Su#se>uent motility causes the s,erm to enter the e7aculatory uctD seminal 2esicles5 the ,rostate glan 5 an the #ul#ourethral glan s release their secretions8 c8 A small amount of secretion from the #ul#ourethral glan s may lea9 from the en of ,enisD it functions to clean the urethra of aci #ut it may contain s,erm8 $8 The secon ,hase of e7aculation is e/,ulsion8 a8 +hythmical contractions at the #ase of the ,enis an within the urethral wall e/,el the semen in s,urts8 #8 +hythmical contractions are a release from myotonia5 or muscle tenseness5 an im,ortant se/ual res,onse8 (8 An erection lasts for a limite time an the ,enis generally returns to a flacci state following e7aculation8 *8 A refractory ,erio follows uring which stimulation oes not #ring a#out an erection8 -8 Or*a#+ is the ,hysiological an ,sychological sensations that occur at the clima/ of se/ual stimulation8 B8 The Testes 18 A longitu inal section shows com,artments calle lo#ules5 each of which contains one to three seminiferous tu#ules8 a8 Altogether5 seminiferous tu#ules ha2e a com#ine length of a#out 2". meters8 #8 0n a microsco,ic cross section5 tu#ules show cells un ergoing s,ermatogenesis5 a ,rocess of meiosis8 c8 The sustentacular @SertoliA cells su,,ort5 nourish5 an regulate s,ermatogenic cells8 28 Mature #)er+ @#)er+a$'5'aA ha2e three ,arts8 a8 The s,erm hea contains a nucleus co2ere #y an acrosome8 1A An acrosome is a ca,li9e co2ering o2er the anterior en of nucleusD it stores en'ymes to $8 (8 *8 -8

31"

,enetrate the egg8 2A A human egg is surroun e #y se2eral layers of cells an thic9 mem#raneD the en'ymes allow the s,erm to ,enetrate8 #8 The mi le ,iece contains mitochon ria wra,,e aroun microtu#ules of the flagellumD the mitochon ria ,ro2i e the energy for mo2ement8 c8 The tail also contains microtu#ules as com,onents of a flagellumD its mo2ement ,ro,els s,erm8 38 The e7aculate of a normal human male contains se2eral hun re million s,erm8 48 !ewer than 1.. e2er reach the 2icinity of an eggD an only one s,erm normally enters an egg8 C8 4ormonal +egulation in Males 18 The hy,othalamus has ultimate control of the testes< se/ual function through secreting of gona otro,ic;releasing hormone @1n+4A that stimulates the ,ituitary to ,ro uce gona otro,ic hormones8 28 There are two gona otro,ic hormones% follicle;stimulating hormone @!S4A an luteini'ing hormone @L4A foun in #oth males an females8 38 0n males5 !S4 stimulates s,ermatogenesis in the seminiferous tu#ules8 48 0n males5 luteini'ing hormone @L4A is also calle interstitial cell;stimulating hormone @0CS4AD it stimulates testosterone secretion #y interstitial cells of the testes8 "8 The seminiferous tu#ules also release the hormone inhi#in0 $8 The hy,othalamus;,ituitary;testis systems are in2ol2e in a negati2e fee #ac9 relationshi, that maintain a fairly constant ,ro uction of s,erm an testosterone8 (8 !unctions of Testosterone a8 Te#$'#$er'"e is the main se/ hormone in males8 #8 Testosterone is essential for the e2elo,ment of +ale #e&'"dary #e6 &!ara&$eri#$i&# that e2elo, at )%ber$y3 an for the maturation of s,erm8 1A 0t causes the tallness5 longer legs5 an #roa er shoul ers of males8 2A Testosterone causes the laryn/ an 2ocal cor s to enlarge5 thus causing a ee,er 2oice8 3A 0t is res,onsi#le for greater muscle strength of malesD some athletes ta9e su,,lemental ana#olic steroi s @that are natural or synthetic testosteroneA8 4A Testosterone causes males to e2elo, hair on the face5 chest5 an #ac98 "A Testosterone is also in2ol2e in triggering #al ness if #al ness genes are ,resent8 7104 Fe+ale Re)r'd%&$ive Sy#$e+ The female re,ro ucti2e system inclu es% o2aries5 o2i ucts5 uterus5 an 2agina8 The o2aries ,ro uce a secon ary ''&y$e each monthD the o2aries are locate in the ,el2ic ca2ity8 The o2i ucts @uterine tu#es5 fallo,ian tu#esA e/ten from the o2aries to the uterus8 a8 The o2i ucts are not attache to the o2aries8 #8 !ingerli9e ,ro7ections calle fim#riae swee, o2er the o2aries an waft in the egg when it eru,ts8 c8 This is the normal site for fertili'ationD the em#ryo is slowly mo2e #y ciliary mo2ement towar the uterus8 8 Tu#al ligation is a surgery in which o2i ucts are either #urne or cli,,e shut so that s,erm cannot reach the oocyte8 48 The %$er%# is a hollow5 thic9;walle muscular organ the si'e an sha,e of an in2erte ,ear8 a8 An em#ryo com,letes e2elo,ment #y em#e ing itself in uterine lining5 the e"d'+e$ri%+0 #8 The narrow en of the uterus is the &ervi60 c8 A small o,ening at the cer2i/ of the uterus lea s to the 2aginal canal8 "8 The 2agina is a tu#e at a 4"o angle with the small of the #ac98 a8 0ts mucosal lining lies in fol s an it can e/ten 5 as necessary in chil #irth8 #8 0t recei2es the ,enis uring co,ulation an also ser2es as the #irth canal8 A8 Orgasm in !emales 18 The e/ternal genitalia of women are 9nown collecti2ely as the v%lva0 a8 The mons ,u#is5 la#ia minora5 an la#ia ma7ora are to the si e of the 2aginal an urethral o,enings8 #8 At the front 7uncture of the la#ia minora is the clitoris8 1A This is homologous to the ,enis in males8 2A The clitoris has a short shaft of erectile tissue an is ca,,e #y a ,ea;sha,e glans8 3A 0t contains many sensory rece,tors that allow it to function as a se/ually sensiti2e organ8 c8 Orgasm in2ol2es the release of neuromuscular tension in the muscles of the genital area5 2agina5 18 28 38

31$

an uterus8 B8 The O2aries 18 The o2aries alternate in ,ro ucing one oocyte each month8 28 The o2aries ,ro uce the egg @'v%+A an the female se/ hormones5 e#$r'*e"# an )r'*e#$er'"e3 uring the o2arian cycle8 38 The O2arian Cycle a8 0n a longitu inal section5 an o2ary shows many cellular 1'lli&le#3 each containing an oocyte @eggA8 #8 As a follicle matures uring the 'varia" &y&le3 it e2elo,s from a ,rimary follicle to a secon ary follicle to a 2esicular @1raafianA follicle8 c8 As oogenesis is occurring5 a secon ary follicle contains a secon ary oocyte ,ushe to one si e of flui ;fille ca2ity8 8 The 2esicular follicle fills with flui until the follicle wall #alloons out on the surface an #ursts5 releasing a secon ary oocyte surroun e #y a 'ona ,elluci a an follicular cells8 e8 Ov%la$i'" is the ru,ture of the 2esicular follicle with the ischarge of the secon ary oocyte into the o2i uct8 f8 The secon ary oocyte com,letes a secon meiotic cell i2ision when fertili'ation occurs8 g8 Meanwhile5 the follicle e2elo,s into the cor,us l%$e%+@ if ,regnancy oes not occur5 the cor,us luteum #egins to egenerate in 1. ays8 48 )hases of the O2arian Cycle a8 The o2arian cycle is un er the control of gona otro,ic hormones% follicle;stimulating hormone @!S4A an luteini'ing hormone @L4A8 #8 The gona otro,ic hormones are not ,resent constantly #ut are secrete at ifferent rates uring the cycle8 c8 3uring the 1'lli&%lar )!a#e3 !S4 ,romotes the e2elo,ment of a follicle that secretes estrogens8 8 As the estrogen le2el in the #loo rises5 it e/erts fee #ac9 control o2er the anterior ,ituitary secretion of !S4D the follicular ,hase comes to an en 8 e8 &strogen le2els in the #loo rise5 causing the hy,othalamus to secret more 1n+4D this causes a surge in L4 secretion8 f8 The L4 surge then triggers o2ulation8 g8 The l%$eal )!a#e is the secon half of the o2arian cycle following o2ulation8 1A L4 ,romotes the e2elo,ment of the cor,us luteum5 which secretes large amounts of ,rogesterone8 2A As the #loo le2el of ,rogesterone rises5 negati2e fee #ac9 to the anterior ,ituitary<s secretion of L4 causes the cor,us luteum to egenerate8 3A As the luteal ,hase en s5 menstruation occurs8 C8 The Gterine Cycle 18 &strogens an ,rogesterone affect the en ometrium of the uterus to cause a cycle of e2ents 9nown as the %$eri"e &y&le0 28 An a2erage 2*; ay uterine cycle is i2i e into four sections8 a8 3uring ays 1="5 low le2els of estrogen an ,rogesterone in the #o y cause +e"#$r%a$i'"0 #8 3uring ays $=135 an increase ,ro uction of estrogens #y an o2arian follicle causes the en ometrium to thic9en an #ecome 2ascular an glan ular @,roliferati2e ,haseA8 c8 O2ulation usually occurs on ay 14 of the 2*; ay cycle8 8 3ays 1"=2* see increase ,ro uction of ,rogesterone #y the cor,us luteum that causes the en ometrium to ou#le in thic9nessD uterine glan s mature5 ,ro ucing a thic9 mucoi secretionD this is the secretory ,hase8 1A The en ometrium is now ,re,are to recei2e a e2elo,ing em#ryo8 2A 0f no ,regnancy occurs5 the ,rogesterone an estrogen le2els ecline an the cor,us luteum egenerates8 3A :ith low le2els of ,rogesterone5 the uterine lining also #egins to egenerate8 38 Me"#$r%a$i'" is the ,erio ic she ing of tissue an #loo from the en ometriumD this lining isintegrates an the #loo 2essels ru,ture8 a8 A flow of #loo an tissues ,asses out through the 2agina8 #8 The en'yme fi#rinolysin ,re2ents the #loo from clotting8 c8 The first menstrual ,erio 5 +e"ar&!e3 ty,ically occurs #etween the ages of 11 an 128 8 0f menarche oes not occur #y age 1$5 amenorrhea e/ists8

31(

1A )rimary amenorrhea is usually cause #y nonfunctional o2aries or e2elo,mental a#normalities8 2A Secon ary amenorrhea may #e cause #y weight loss or e/cessi2e e/ercise8 e8 Me"')a%#e3 when menstruation ceases #ecause the o2aries are no longer functioning5 usually occurs #etween the ages of 4" an ""8 1A Meno,ause is not com,lete until menstruation is a#sent for a year8 38 !ertili'ation an )regnancy 18 0f fertili'ation occurs5 the em#ryo #egins e2elo,ment as it tra2els own the o2i uct to the uterus8 28 The em#ryo #ecomes em#e e in the en ometrium se2eral ays following fertili'ation8 38 The )la&e"$a e2elo,s from #oth maternal an em#ryonic tissues8 a8 The ,lacenta functions to e/change gases an nutrients #etween the fetal an maternal circulation8 #8 There is normally no mi/ing of the #loo #etween the maternal an fetal circulations8 48 0nitially5 the ,lacenta ,ro uces !%+a" &!'ri'"i& *'"ad'$r')i" @HCGA which maintains the cor,us luteum8 "8 The cor,us luteum is maintaine #y the 4C1 until the ,lacenta ,ro uces its own ,rogesterone an estrogens8 $8 The ,rogesterone an estrogens ha2e two effects at this stage8 a8 They shut own the anterior ,ituitary so that no new follicles mature8 #8 They maintain the lining of the uterus so the cor,us luteum is not nee e 8 (8 There is no menstruation uring ,regnancy8 &8 &strogen an )rogesterone 18 &strogens maintain the normal e2elo,ment of the relate organs an are res,onsi#le for the secon ary se/ characteristics of females8 28 There is less #o y an facial hair5 an more fat #eneath the s9in ,ro2i es a more roun e a,,earance8 38 The ,el2ic gir le enlarges an the ,el2ic ca2ity is largerD therefore5 women ha2e wi er hi,s8 48 Both estrogen an ,rogesterone are re>uire for #reast e2elo,ment8 !8 The !emale Breast 18 The female #reast contains 1"=24 lo#ules5 each with a mammary uct8 28 The mammary uct #egins at the ni,,le an i2i es into numerous ucts which en in al2eoli @#lin sacsA8 38 The hormone ,rolactin is nee e for la&$a$i'" @mil9 ,ro uctionA to #egin8 48 )ro uction of ,rolactin is su,,resse #y the fee #ac9 inhi#ition that estrogens an ,rogesterone ha2e on the anterior ,ituitary uring ,regnancyD therefore5 it ta9es a cou,le of ays after eli2ery of a #a#y for mil9 ,ro uction to #egin8 "8 The #reasts ,ro uce a watery5 yellowish white flui @colostrumA similar to mil9 #ut containing more ,rotein an less fat5 an it is rich in 0gA anti#o ies ,ro2i ing some immunity to a new#orn8 $8 Breast cancer is the most common form of cancer in femalesD women shoul ha2e regular #reast chec9s an mammograms when recommen e 8

7107 C'"$r'l '1 Re)r'd%&$i'"

A8 Birth Control Metho s The most relia#le metho of #irth control is a#stinenceD it has the a 2antage of ,re2enting transmission of a se/ually transmitte isease8 18 Contrace,ti2e 0n7ections a8 Contrace,ti2e in7ections are now #eing e2elo,e ?,ossi#ilities inclu e 2accination against 4C1 or s,erm8 28 Morning;after )ills a8 These regimens either ,re2ent fertili'ation or sto, a fertili'e egg from im,lanting8 #8 )re2en is a 9it of four synthetic ,rogesterone ,illsD the me ication ma9es it ifficult for the em#ryo to im,lant in the en ometriumD it is consi ere *"N effecti2e8 c8 Mife,ristone5 also 9nown as +G;4*$5 causes the loss of an im,lante em#ryo8 1A 0t #loc9s the ,rogesterone rece,tors of the en ometrial cells8 2A :ithout functioning rece,tors for ,rogesterone5 the uterine lining sloughs off5 carrying the em#ryo with it8 3A Ta9en in con7unction with a ,rostaglan in to in uce uterine contractions5 it is -"N effecti2e8 B8 +e,ro ucti2e Technologies I"1er$ili$y is the ina#ility of a cou,le to achie2e ,regnancy after one year of regular5 un,rotecte intercourse8

31*

18

28 38 48

"8

(8 *8

Sometimes the causes of infertility may #e correcte #y me ication inter2ention so that cou,les can ha2e chil ren8 a8 0t is ,ossi#le for women to ta9e fertility rugsD these treatments may cause multi,le o2ulations an multi,le #irths8 0f una#le to ha2e chil ren5 many cou,les choose to a o,t chil ren8 Assiste re,ro ucti2e technologies @A+TA ha2e #een e2elo,e to increase the chance of ,regnancy8 a8 S,erm an For oocytes are retrie2e from the testes an o2aries5 an fertili'ation ta9es ,lace in a clinical or la#oratory setting8 Artificial 0nsemination #y 3onor @A03A 18 A s,erm sam,le is in7ecte into the 2agina8 28 0f the hus#an <s s,erm count is low5 many sam,les can #e com#ine 8 38 Artificial insemination from a onor is necessary when the hus#an lac9s 2ia#le s,erm8 48 Intrauterine insemination can #e coor inate with rugs use to stimulate the o2aries8 "8 :ith artificial insemination5 s,erm can #e sorte into those that are Z;#earing @,ro ucing a girlA or L;#earing @,ro ucing a #oyA8 0n Vitro !ertili'ation @0V!A 18 0n 0V!5 conce,tion occurs in la#oratory glassware8 28 Gltrasoun machines s,ot maturing follicles an a la,arosco,e is use to har2est the eggs using a nee le8 38 :hen s,erm an egg are com#ine in glassware5 they can #e transferre to the uterus after 2=4 ays8 48 :hile in glassware5 the new em#ryos can #e teste for genetic iseases8 $8 1amete 0ntrafallo,ian Transfer @10!TA 18 A *a+e$e is a se/ cell5 either a s,erm or an egg8 28 3ue to the low success rate of 0V! @1"=2.NA5 10!T imme iately ,laces the s,erm an egg in the o2i uct8 38 A 2ariation is to fertili'e the eggs in the la#oratory an then ,lace the 'ygotes in the o2i ucts8 Surrogate Mothers 18 :omen can #e contracte an ,ai to ha2e #a#iesD they are then surrogate mothers8 28 The s,erm an For egg can #e contri#ute #y the contracting ,arents8 0ntracyto,lasmic S,erm 0n7ection @0CS0A 18 A single s,erm is in7ecte into an egg8 28 This is use when a man has se2ere infertility ,ro#lems8 C8 )reim,lantation 1enetic 3iagnosis @,ealth Focus #o/A 18 )arents may want to etermine whether their offs,ring will #e free of a genetic isor er8 28 This testing can #e one #y etermining the genoty,e of the em#ryo8 38 !ollowing in 2itro fertili'ation @0V!A5 only em#ryos that will not ha2e the genetic isor ers of interest are ,lace in the uterus to continue e2elo,ing8 48 0t is ,ossi#le to test the oocyte if the isor er of concern is recessi2e8 a8 By testing the ,olar #o y for the recessi2e mutate allele5 those em#ryos are re7ecte 5 an only the oocyte that has the normal ominant alleles are ,lace in the uterus for e2elo,ment8 Se/ually transmitte iseases @ST3sA are cause #y organisms ranging from 2iruses to arthro,o s8 4umans cannot e2elo, lasting immunity to any ST3sD therefore5 ,rom,t me ical treatment shoul #e recei2e when e/,ose to an ST38 To ,re2ent ST3s5 a con om can #e use 8 0t is ifficult to cure ST3s cause #y 2irusesD treatment is a2aila#le for A03S an genital her,es8 ST3s cause #y #acteria @e8g85 gonorrhea5 chlamy ia5 an sy,hilisA are treata#le with anti#iotics8 18 Ac>uire immuno eficiency syn rome @A03SA is cause #y the !%+a" i++%"'de1i&ie"&y vir%# @HIVA8 40V attac9s the hel,er T cells that stimulate the acti2ity of B lym,hocytes to ,ro uce anti#o ies8 After an 40V infection #egins5 hel,er T cells ecline in num#er an a ,erson #ecomes more susce,ti#le to infections8 Sym,toms

710? Se6%ally Tra"#+i$$ed i#ea#e#

18 28 38 48 "8 A8 A03S 28 38 48

31-

B8

C8

38

&8

A03S has three stages of infection calle category A5 B5 an C a8 The category A stage may last a#out a year8 1A An in i2i ual is asym,tomatic #ut can ,ass on the infection8 2A 0mme iately after infection #ut #efore testing ,ositi2e5 a large num#er of infectious 2iruses are in the #loo 8 3A After testing ,ositi2e5 a ,erson may remain well for as long as he or she can maintain sufficient hel,er T cells @a#o2e ".. mm3A8 #8 The category B stage may last si/ to eight years8 1A Lym,h no es swell8 2A There is weight loss5 night sweats5 fatigue5 fe2er5 an iarrhea8 3A 0nfections such as thrush an her,es reoccur8 c8 The category C stage is full;#lown A03S8 1A 6er2ous isor ers an o,,ortunistic iseases @e8g85 an unusual ty,e of ,neumonia or s9in cancerA occur8 2A :ithout intensi2e me ical treatment5 an A03S ,atient usually ies #y a#out (=- years after infection8 3A A recent com#ination thera,y of se2eral rugs allows A03S ,atients in the Gnite States to li2e longer8 $8 Transmission a8 A03S is transmitte #y se/ual contact with an infecte ,erson @2aginal or rectal intercourse an oralFgenital contactA8 #8 6ee le sharing among intra2enous rug users is a high;ris9 #eha2ior8 c8 Transfusions of #loo or clotting factors are now a rare mo e of transmission an can #e screene 8 8 The largest increases in A03S cases now in2ol2e heterose/ual contact an intra2enous rug use8 e8 :omen now account for 1-N of all newly iagnose cases of A03S8 (8 Treatment a8 &2en though there is no cure for A03S5 a treatment calle highly acti2e antiretro2iral thera,y @4AA+TA is usually a#le to sto, 40V re,lication8 #8 4AA+T uses a com#ination of rugs that interfere with the life cycle of 40V8 c8 &ntry inhi#itors sto, 40V from entering a cell8 8 +e2erse transcri,tase inhi#itors @e8g85 AaTA interfere with the en'yme re2erse transcri,tase8 e8 0ntegrase inhi#itors ,re2ent 40V from inserting its own genetic material into that of the host8 f8 )rotease inhi#itors ,re2ent ,rotease from ,rocessing newly create ,oly,e,ti es8 1enital :arts 18 1enital warts are cause #y the human ,a,illoma2iruses @4)VsA8 28 Many carriers are asym,tomatic or they ha2e minimal sym,toms8 38 0f 2isi#le warts are remo2e 5 they may recur8 48 4)Vs are now associate with cancer of the cer2i/ as well as tumors of the 2ul2a5 2agina5 anus5 an ,enis8 "8 Some researchers #elie2e 2iruses are in2ol2e in -.=-"N of all cases of cancer of the cer2i/8 1enital 4er,es 18 1enital her,es is cause #y the her,es sim,le/ 2irus8 28 Ty,e 1causes col sores an fe2er #listersD ty,e 2 more often causes genital her,es8 38 0n i2i uals infecte with this ty,e of 2irus can #e asym,tomatic carriers8 48 Sym,toms inclu e ,ainful ulcers on the genitals5 fe2er5 ,ainful urination5 an swollen lym,h no es8 "8 &/,osure to her,es in the #irth canal can cause neurological isor ers an e2en eath in a new#ornD #irth #y cesarean section a2oi s this ,ossi#ility8 4e,atitis 18 4e,atitis A is usually ac>uire from sewage;contaminate rin9ing water #ut is also an ST3 contracte #y oralFanal contact8 28 4e,atitis B is s,rea in the same manner as A03S #ut is more infectiousD a 2accine is a2aila#le8 38 4e,atitis C is calle ,ost;transfusion he,atitis5 #ut it can #e transmitte through se/ual contact8 48 4e,atitis infections infect the li2er an can lea to li2er failure5 li2er cancer5 an eath8 Chlamy ia 18 Chlamy ia is name for the #acterium that causes it% 0hlamy"ia trachomatis8 28 6ew chlamy ial infections ha2e increase faster than any other ST38

"8

32.

38 0t also causes cer2ical ulcerations which increase the ris9 of ac>uiring A03S8 48 0t also causes ,el2ic inflammatory isease @)03A8 "8 0f a #a#y is e/,ose at #irth5 inflammation of the eyes or ,neumonia can result8 !8 1onorrhea 18 1onorrhea is cause #y the #acterium Neisseria gonorrhoeae8 28 Male iagnosis is not ifficult% ty,ical sym,toms inclu e urination ,ain an a thic95 greenish yellow ischarge8 38 0n males an females5 latent infections lea to ,el2ic inflammatory isease @)03AD the 2asa eferentia or the o2i ucts #ecome infecte an inflame 8 48 As these tu#es heal5 they may #ecome ,artially #loc9e 5 resulting in sterility or infertility8 "8 0f a #a#y is e/,ose at #irth5 an eye infection can lea to #lin nessD therefore all new#orns are gi2en eye ro,s8 $8 1onorrhea ,roctitis is an infection of the anusD gonorrhea can infect the mouth5 throat5 tonsils5 heart5 an 7oints8 (8 )re2iously easily cure #y anti#iotics5 nearly 4.N of mo ern strains are now anti#iotic resistant8 18 Sy,hilis 18 Sy,hilis is cause #y the #acterium /reponema palli"um8 28 This isease has three stages ty,ically se,arate #y latent ,erio s8 a8 The ,rimary stage in2ol2es the a,,earance of a har chancre @ulcerate soreA8 #8 The secon stage in2ol2es the a,,earance of a rash all o2er the #o y5 inclu ing the ,alms an feet8 c8 The thir stage in2ol2es neurological an car iac isor ers8 1A An infecte in i2i ual may #ecome mentally retar e 5 #lin 5 wal9 with a shuffle5 or #ecome insane8 2A Large estructi2e ulcers @gummasA e2elo, on the s9in or within internal organs8 38 Sy,hilitic #acteria can cross the ,lacenta5 causing #irth efects or still#irth8 48 Gnli9e the other ST3s iscusse 5 there is a #loo test to iagnose sy,hilis8 "8 Tracing se/ual ,artners is 2ery im,ortant in controlling sy,hilis8 48 Two Other 0nfections 18 Ba&$erial va*i"'#i# is cause #y *ar"nerella #aginalis5 /richomonas #aginalis @a flagellate ,roto'oaA5 or 0an"i"a albicans @a yeastA8 28 The ,roto'oan infection causes a frothy5 foul;smelling ischarge with itching8 38 Tri&!'+'"ia#i# is most often transmitte through se/ual intercourse8 48 The 0an"i"a yeast infection causes a white5 cur y ischarge with itching8 "8 0an"i"a albicans is a normally;occurring organism in the 2aginaD yeast infections can result from ta9ing #irth;control ,ill or anti#iotics8 08 )re2enting Transmission of ST3s @,ealth Focus #o/A 18 Se/ual acti2ities transmit ST3s a8 :ays to ,re2ent the transmission of ST3s inclu e% 1A A#stain from se/ual intercourse8 2A +efrain from multi,le se/ ,artners or ha2ing relations with someone who has multi,le se/ ,artners8 3A +emem#er that the highest rate of increase of A03S is in heterose/uals8 4A Be aware that ha2ing relations with an intra2enous rug user is ris9y8 "A Gncircumcise males are more li9ely to #ecome infecte with an ST3 than a circumcise male8 $A A2oi anal;rectal intercourse8 28 Gnsafe se/ual ,ractices transmit ST3s a8 To re uce the ris9 of transmitting or contracting an ST3% 1A Always use a late/ con om uring se/ual intercourse8 2A A2oi fellatio @9issing an inserting of the ,enis into the ,artner<s mouthA an cunnilingus @9issing an insertion of the tongue into the 2aginaA8 3A Be cautious a#out the use of alcohol or any rug that may ,re2ent you from #eing a#le to control your #eha2ior8 38 3rug use transmits 4e,atitis an 40V a8 Sto, or o not start the ha#it of in7ecting rugs into your 2eins8 #8 Always use a new sterile nee le for in7ection or one that has #een cleane in #leach8

321

Le&$%re E"ri&!+e"$ Idea#

E6)erie"&e Ba#e% Stu ent e/,eriences in this su#7ect may #e 2arie #ut this is generally a high interest to,ic8 Gsually a science teacher stri2es to ,ro2i e as rich a multi;sensory an meaningful lecture as ,ossi#le5 inclu ing 2i eo of the actual anatomy as well as han s;on la# issections5 etc8 4owe2er5 stu ents in some communities may ha2e cultural reser2ations a#out 2iewing gra,hic nu ity on C35 2i eos5 or sli es8 More a#stract line illustrations in sli e or o2erhea trans,arencies may #e more ,olitically correct5 if less effecti2e8 An instructor must ma9e ecisions a,,ro,riate to the maturity of hisFher au ience8 This may #e more e,en ent u,on the classroom ra,,ort of the instructor than on uni2ersity le2el rules an aca emic free om8 18 3iscuss the ,rocess of internali'ation of re,ro uction as a re>uirement for life on lan 5 an e/amine the shelle eggs of re,tiles an #ir s5 the egg cases of insects5 an the internal e2elo,ment of the fetus in mammals8 3iscuss how each is a a,te to ,re2ent esiccation8 28 !emale stu ents may ha2e some e/,erience with male anatomy #ecause of #a#ysitting an ia,ering infants8 This ,ro2i es a legitimate e/,erience #ase for e/,laining the refle/i2e action of erection5 the nature of scrotal mo2ements for tem,erature regulation5 an other ,hysiology outsi e of any se/ual conte/t8 38 :hen the s,erm enters the egg5 the mitochon ria mi ,iece an ,arts of the tail are now 9nown to also enter8 4owe2er5 the s,erm mitochon ria are small in num#er an worn out5 an the egg cell mar9s them for estruction8 Thus5 all of a ,erson<s mitochon ria are still inherite from hisFher mother5 with some rare e/ce,tions8 48 )rior con2entional wis om le to statements that im,otence @failure to achie2e erectionA was nearly always a ,sychological ,ro#lem8 The wi es,rea effecti2eness of Viagra has altere this 2iew,oint #y re2ealing that much im,otence can #e #iochemically cure 8 6ote that Viagra is not an a,hro isiac5 #ut merely inhi#its an en'yme that #rea9s own c1M)D this in turn allows fuller e/,ansion of the erectile tissue8 The ner2ous stimulation must still #e ,ro2i e 8 "8 4ernias result whene2er organs ,rotru e through a #o y wall @stomach across the ia,hragm5 intestines along the femoral artery ,assageway5 or at the um#ilical region5 etc8A8 \uery why humans ha2e more ,ro#lems with inguinal hernias8 An o2erhea of how the intestines are loosely anchore #y mesentery from the bac may hel, stu ents un erstan why we are not fully a a,te to our recent u,right ,osture8 Stu ents may not com,letely un erstan the transfer of weight when we liftD stan ing on a scale while lifting a chair an tracing how the weight is transferre through our frame may hel, them un erstan the force on the 2iscera8 $8 There has #een a su#stantial ecline in #oth s,erm counts an the >uality of human s,erm o2er the last half centuryD this correlates with male anatomical a#normalities in a>uatic animals as well8 \uery as to why this might #e8 (8 Twinning is more common in the tro,ics where the life s,an is shorterD less common in northern &uro,e an Asia where the lifes,an has #een longer going #ac9 into ,rehistoric times8 Lecture >uestion% 4ow oes the 2ariation in rates of twinning show an e2olutionary #asisK @Sim,ly5 selection is for lea2ing the most offs,ring an where lifes,ans are short5 there is more ,ressure to #ear more chil ren earlier8A 322

*8 Once the hormone fee #ac9 system of the uterine cycle has #een escri#e 5 ,ose the lecture >uestion% :hat changes are nee e to maintain the lining an ,re2ent monthly o2ulation uring ,regnancy8 :hich chemicals i we nee to u,licate in the #irth control ,ill to simulate ,regnancyK -8 6ote that more women ha2e #reast re uction surgery than #reast enlargement8 The si'e ifference is ,rimarily a ifference in fat tissue an is unrelate to a e>uacy in nursing8 6ote that #reast re uction surgery is >uite common in men nowa ays8 1.8 The use of the 0G3 has ecrease greatly ue to worry o2er lia#ilityD the 0G3 irritates the en ometrium an its ,resence may #e a ris9 if a ,regnancy occurs8 118 There is a su#tle #ut im,ortant ifference #etween a contrace,ti2e5 which ,re2ents conce,tion5 an #irth control5 which controls 2ia#le #irths8 There is li9ewise a slight istinction #etween fertili'ation5 where the s,erm crosses the o2um mem#rane5 an conce,tion where the s,erm an egg nuclei fuse8 128 0n the last two eca es5 a strain of gonorrhea that can ,ro uce an en'yme penicillinase has #ecome common near ,ort military #ases5 ha2ing originate at )acific #ases where local ,rostitutes were regularly treate with ,enicillin8 Lecture >uestion% 4ow i this Bnatural selectionC of a resistant strain occurK :ee9ly use of ,enicillin for ,rostitutes5 to 9ee, them an their clients free of infection5 ,ro2i e the constant natural selection ,ressure to culture a resistant strain8

Cri$i&al T!i",i"*
-%e#$i'" 10 0n earlier history5 males 2olunteere to #e castrate to ser2e as eunuchs in the Chinese ,alace5 an young #oy singers li9ewise ,reser2e their high 2oice to sing BcastratoC in 0talian o,era8 0f this o,eration was con ucte #efore ,u#erty5 what ,hysiological an #o y changes woul occur5 an woul e7aculation #e ,ossi#leK A"#.er: +emo2al of the testes woul remo2e the o2erri ing source of testosterone an some estrogen woul #e ,resent from the a renals an from fat tissue8 )rimary se/ual characteristics of a ,re;,u#erty #oy woul remain8 4owe2er5 the 2oice #o/ woul not grow @,re2enting the ee,ening of 2oiceA an #o y ,ro,ortions @wi th of shoul ers an hi,s5 an layering of fatA woul #e somewhat more feminine8 Se/ ri2e woul #e re uce without testosterone #ut the ,hysiological mechanism of erection remains5 although any e7aculate woul #e free of s,erm8 -%e#$i'" 20 Many male an female re,ro ucti2e organs are e>ui2alent tissues5 e2elo,mentally from the same origin8 !rom your 9nowle ge of the tissues of the scrotum5 ,enis5 clitoris an la#ia5 which are li9ely Be>ui2alentCK A"#.er: Because they #oth contain erectile tissue5 the ,enis an clitoris are e>ui2alent8 The scrotum an the la#ia are also e>ui2alent @the central scar running u, the center of the scrotum Ithe ra,heJ is the fusion of the two si e tissueA8 -%e#$i'" 40 The ,ercentage of cases of infertility has gone u, recently8 Although en2ironmental factors may #e in2ol2e 5 a ,ortion of these are cases where the hus#an has normal healthy s,erm an the wife has normal o2aries ,ro ucing eggs8 :hat relationshi, might this ha2e to the e,i emic of se/ually transmitte iseasesK A"#.er: Se2eral of the ST3s5 ,articularly gonorrhea an chlamy ia5 lea to ,el2ic inflammatory isease an scar tissue formation in the o2i ucts8 This woul then #loc9 the s,erm from meeting the egg or #loc9 the much larger fertili'e egg from ,assing own the o2i uct to the uterus8

323

Te&!"'l'*y 1r'+ M&Gra.;Hill

)lease consult your C'%r#e I"$e*ra$i'" G%ide for technology correlations for this cha,ter8

324

CHAPTER

72

ANIMAL EVELOPMENT

This cha,ter e/,lores the to,ic of animal e2elo,ment8 Beginning with a stu y of the stages of early e2elo,ment5 the iscussion mo2es into e2elo,mental ,rocesses5 an then into human em#ryonic an fetal e2elo,ment8 The cha,ter conclu es with a iscussion of the ,rocess of #irth8 A ,ealth Focus #o/ iscusses B)re2enting an Testing for Birth 3efects8C

C!a)$er O%$li"e
7201 Early evel')+e"$al S$a*e#
18 Fer$ili5a$i'" re>uires that s,erm an egg interact to form a 'ygote8 a8 A human s,erm cell has three ,arts8

1A The hea contains a ha,loi nucleus co2ere #y a ca,li9e acrosome containing en'ymes5 allowing the s,erm to ,enetrate the egg8
2A A mi le ,iece contains AT);,ro ucing mitochon ria8 3A The tail is a flagellum that allows the s,erm to swim8 28 The ,lasma mem#rane of the egg is surroun e #y the -ona pelluci"a8 a8 The 'ona ,elluci a is surroun e #y a few layers of a hering follicular cells5 collecti2ely calle the corona ra"iata8 #8 These cells nourishe the egg when it was in a follicle of the o2ary8 38 !ertili'ation in2ol2es the following ste,s8 a8 Se2eral s,erm ,enetrate the corona ra iata an se2eral s,erm attem,t to ,enetrate the 'ona ,elluci a8 #8 One s,erm enters the egg an their nuclei e2entually fuse8 c8 After the s,erm hea #in s tightly to the 'ona ,elluci a5 the acrosome en'ymes igest an form a ,athway for the s,erm through the 'ona ,elluci a8 8 The hea 5 mi le ,iece5 an usually the tail enters the egg8 e8 )re2ention of polyspermy e,en s on changes in the egg ,lasma mem#rane when the s,erm touches the egg an e,olari'es the egg ,lasma mem#raneD this is calle !ast #loc98C f8 Vesicles in the egg calle cortical granules secrete en'ymes that turn the 'ona ,elluci a5 forming an im,enetra#le fertili'ation mem#raneD this is calle BSlow #loc98C g8 As soon as ,lasma mem#ranes of the s,erm an egg fuse5 the 'ona ,elluci a lifts away from the surface of the egg5 forming a moat that ,re2ents entrance of any other s,erm8 h8 The i,loi 'ygote forms when a nuclear en2elo,e surroun s the s,erm an egg chromosomes8 A8 &m#ryonic 3e2elo,ment 18 Cellular Stages of 3e2elo,ment a8 3e2elo,ment is all of the changes that occur uring the life cycle of an organism8 #8 An organism is an e+bry' uring the first stages of e2elo,ment8 c8 After fertili'ation5 a 'ygote un ergoes &leava*e5 cell i2ision without growth8 8 36A re,lication an mitosis occur re,eate ly5 an the cells get smaller with each i2ision8 e8 0n the lancelet5 the cell i2isions are e>ual in the resulting +'r%la0 f8 A ca2ity calle the bla#$'&'el e2elo,s forming a hollow #all calle the bla#$%la0 28 Tissue Stages of 3e2elo,ment a8 The tissue stages of e2elo,ment are early gastrula an late gastrula8 #8 The early *a#$r%la stage #egins with the in2agination of certain cells into the #lastocoel to form two of the three ,rimary germ layers8 c8 The outer layer of cells #ecomes e&$'der+@ ecto erm gi2es rise to the e,i ermis of the s9in5 the e,ithelial lining of the mouth an rectum5 an the ner2ous system8 8 The inner layer of cells #ecomes the e"d'der+ that gi2es rise to the e,ithelial lining of the igesti2e tract an the res,iratory tract5 associate glan s of the igesti2e an res,iratory system5 an the lining of the urinary #la erD a ,ore create #y in2agination is the bla#$')'re0 e8 The late gastrula has5 in a ition to ecto erm an en o erm5 a mi le layer of cells calle the +e#'der+0

32"

38

1A The out,oc9etings grow an fuse5 forming a two layere meso erm8 2A The s,ace #etween them is the coelom that contains the #o y organs8 3A The meso erm gi2es rise to the s9eleton5 the ermis of the s9in5 the s9eletal system5 the muscular system5 the e/cretory system5 the re,ro ucti2e system @inclu ing most e,ithelial liningsA5 an the outer layers of res,iratory an igesti2e systems8 f8 These *er+ layer# then e2elo, into those future organs8 Organ Stages of 3e2elo,ment a8 The newly forme meso erm cells along the main a/is coalesce to form a orsal notochor D it ,ersists in lancelets #ut is re,lace in frogs5 chic9s5 an humans #y the 2erte#ral column8 #8 The ner2ous system e2elo,s from the mi line ecto erm locate 7ust a#o2e the notochor 8 1A At first5 the cells on the orsal surface of the em#ryo thic9en5 forming the "e%ral )la$e0 2A Then neural fol s e2elo, on either si e of a neural groo2e which #ecomes the "e%ral $%be when the fol s fuse8 3A At this ,oint the em#ryo is calle a "e%r%la0 4A Later5 the anterior en of the neural tu#e e2elo,s into the brain5 the rest #ecomes the spinal cor"8 c8 Mi line meso erm cells that i not contri#ute to the formation of the notochor now #ecome two longitu inal masses of tissue8 1A The two tissue masses #ecome #loc9e off into somites8 2A The somites gi2e rise to segmental muscles in all chor atesD in 2erte#rates the somites also form the 2erte#ral #ones8

7202

evel')+e"$al Pr'&e##e#

3e2elo,ment re>uires growth5 ifferentiation5 an mor,hogenesis8 18 Cell%lar di11ere"$ia$i'" occurs when cells #ecome s,eciali'e in their structure an function8 28 M'r)!'*e"e#i# ,ro uces a change in the sha,e an form of a #o y ,artD this inclu es #oth early cell mo2ement an later ,attern formation8 A8 Cellular 3ifferentiation 18 &ach #o y cell contains a full set of chromosomesD therefore ifferentiation is not ue to ,arcele out genes8 28 Cells in the a ult #o y are $'$i)'$e"$@ each contains all of the instructions to form any s,eciali'e cell8 38 Since only muscle cells ,ro uce myosin5 only re #loo cells ,ro uce hemoglo#in5 an only s9in cells ,ro uce 9eratin5 there must #e ifferential gene e/,ression8 48 Two mechanisms?cyto,lasmic segregation an in uction?seem es,ecially im,ortant8 "8 Cyto,lasmic Segregation a8 3ifferentiation #egins long #efore we can recogni'e s,eciali'e cell ty,es8 #8 &ggs contain su#stances calle maternal eterminants that influence the course of e2elo,ment8 c8 Cyto,lasmic segregation ,arcels out the maternal eterminants as mitosis occurs an etermines how the 2arious cells of morula e2elo,8 8 &arly e/,eriments showe the cyto,lasm of a frog egg is not uniform in content8 e8 After the first clea2age of a frog em#ryo5 only a aughter cell that recei2es a ,ortion of the *ray &re#&e"$ e2elo,s into a com,lete em#ryo8 f8 4ans S,emann @6o#el )ri'e in 1-3"A foun ,articular chemical signals within the gray crescent turn on the genes that control e2elo,ment8 $8 0n uction an !rog &/,eriments a8 As e2elo,ment ,rocee s5 ifferentiation in2ol2es signals from neigh#oring cells8 #8 I"d%&$i'" is the a#ility of one tissue to influence the e2elo,ment of another tissue8 c8 Cell migration occurs uring gastrulationD one set of cells can influence the migratory ,ath of another set8 8 S,emann showe that the orsal li, of a #lasto,ore @,rimary organi'erA was necessary for e2elo,ment8 1A The cells closest to the ,rimary organi'er #ecome en o erm5 those farthest away #ecome ecto erm5 an the interme iate cells #ecame meso erm8 2A A molecular concentration gra ient li9ely acts as a signal to in uce germ layer ifferentiation8 e8 S,emann an 4il e Mangol wor9e on the orsal si e of the em#ryo where the notochor an the ner2ous system e2elo,8 1A The ,resum,ti2e notochor tissue in uces the formation of the ner2ous system when ,lace

32$

#eneath #elly ecto erm8 2A :arren Lewis foun that a e2elo,ing lens in uces the o,tic 2esicle to form the o,tic cu, in a frog em#ryo8 (8 0n uction in 0aenorhab"itis elegans a8 0aenorhab"itis elegans is a trans,arent worm5 1mm long an easily raise in )etri ishes or li>ui me ia8 #8 0t is herma,hro itic an self;fertileD therefore in uce recessi2e mutations a,,ear in the ne/t generation8 c8 0ts entire genome has #een se>uence 8 8 :orm e2elo,ment ta9es only three ays an an a ult worm contains only -"- cells8 e8 The estiny of each cell can #e followe in s,eciali'ation an 1a$e +a)# rawn8 f8 The anchor cell recei2es the most in ucers to #ecome the inner 2ul2aD neigh#oring cells recei2e less an #ecome the outer 2ul2a8 g8 :or9 with 0. elegans shows that in uction re>uires transcri,tional regulation of genes in a ,articular se>uence8 B8 Mor,hogenesis 18 Mor,hogenesis in Drosophila melanogaster @the fruit flyA a8 The first e2ent in successful e2elo,ment is the esta#lishment of the anteriorHposterior a!es8 #8 0n Drosophila eggs5 there is a greater concentration of #icoi ,rotein at one en 8 1A Bicoi means Btwo;taile CD a maternal mutation causes the egg to lac9 a hea an it has two tails8 2A By cloning the #icoi gene an using it as a ,ro#e5 m+6A was foun in a gra ient from anterior to ,osterior8 3A )roteins that influence mor,hogenesis are +'r)!'*e"#0 4A The #icoi gra ient switches on the e/,ression of segmentation genesD a gra ient has a range of effects8 c8 The Segmentation )attern 1A The #icoi gra ient #egins a casca e of segmentation genes8 2A By e/,osing flies to mutagens an then ma,,ing mutate genes5 they locate segmentation a#normalities8 3A The first genes acti2ate are gap genesD if mutate 5 they cause missing #loc9s of segments8 4A The pair.rule genes ensure 14 segmentsD a mutation re uces this to half8 "A Segment.polarity genes cause each segment to ha2e an anterior an ,osterior half8 $A Mor,hogen gra ients turn on genes #ecause they are transcri,tion factors that regulate which genes are acti2e in which ,arts of the em#ryo in what or er8 8 4omeotic 1enes 1A H'+e'$i& *e"e# control ,attern formation in animal mor,hogenesis8 2A 0n normal fruit fly e2elo,ment5 homeotic genes are acti2ate after the segmentation genes8 3A 4omeotic genes ha2e #een foun in many organismsD they all contain the same se>uence of nucleic aci s calle a !'+e'b'68 4A Because homeotic genes contain a homeo#o/ in mammals5 they are calle ,o! genes8 "A &ach homeo#o/ has a homeo omain5 a se>uence of si/ty amino aci s8 $A A homeo omain ,rotein ,ro uce #y one homeotic gene #in s to an turns on the ne/t homeotic gene5 an this or erly ,rocess etermines the o2erall ,attern of the em#ryo8 (A 4omeo#o/es are eri2e from an original nucleic aci se>uence that has #een conser2e #ecause of its im,ortance in regulation of animal e2elo,ment8 e8 A,o,tosis 1A A,otosis @,rogramme cell eathA is im,ortant in mor,hogenesis8 2A :hen a cell; eath signal is recei2e 5 an inhi#iting ,rotein #ecomes inacti2e5 allowing a cell; eath casca e to ,rocee 8

7204 H%+a"# E+bry'"i& a"d Fe$al evel')+e"$

18 3e2elo,ment co2ers e2ents from conce,tion @fertili'ation followe #y im,lantationA to #irth @,arturitionA8 a8 The time of #irth is calculate #y a ing 2*. ays to the start of last menstruation8 #8 Only a#out "N of #a#ies arri2e on the forecaste ate ue to so many 2aria#les8 4uman e2elo,ment is i2i e into em#ryonic an fetal e2elo,ment8

28

32(

The e+bry'"i& )eri'd3 uring months 1 an 2 of ,regnancy5 is when the ma7or organs are forme 8 #8 Fe$al devel')+e"$ is uring months 3=-5 uring which organ systems are refine 8 38 3e2elo,ment can also #e i2i e into trimesters8 a8 !irst trimester% em#ryonic an early fetal e2elo,ment occurs8 #8 Secon trimester% e2elo,ment of organs an organ systemsD the fetus is istinctly human at the en of the secon trimester8 c8 Thir trimester% the fetus grows ra,i ly an the organ systems #ecome functional8 48 &/traem#ryonic mem#ranes a8 &2olution of e6$rae+bry'"i& +e+bra"e# in re,tiles ma e e2elo,ment on lan ,ossi#le8 1A 0f an em#ryo e2elo,s in water5 the water su,,lies the o/ygen an ta9es away the wastes8 2A The surroun ing water ,re2ents esiccation an ,ro2i es a ,rotecti2e cushion8 3A !or an em#ryo on lan 5 these functions are ,erforme #y e/traem#ryonic mem#ranes8 #8 Chic9 e/traem#ryonic mem#ranes e2elo, from e/tensions of germ layers5 which s,rea o2er yol98 1A The &!'ri'" lies ne/t to the shell an carries on gas e/change8 2A The a+"i'" contains ,rotecti2e amniotic flui that #athes a e2elo,ing em#ryo8 3A The alla"$'i# collects nitrogenous wastes8 4A A y'l, #a& surroun s the remaining yol9 that ,ro2i es nourishment8 c8 4umans also ha2e these mem#ranesD their function is mo ifie for internal e2elo,ment8 1A The chorion e2elo,s into the fetal half of the ,lacenta8 2A A yol9 sac is the first site of #loo cell formation8 3A Allantoic #loo 2essels #ecome the um#ilical #loo 2essels8 4A The amnion surroun s the em#ryo an cushions it with amniotic flui 8 8 Therefore5 all chor ate animals e2elo, in water5 either in #o ies of water or within the amniotic flui 8 A8 &m#ryonic 3e2elo,ment 18 The !irst :ee9 a8 !ertili'ation occurs in the u,,er thir of the o2i uctD clea2age #egins as the em#ryo mo2es own this tu#e to the uterus8 #8 By the time the em#ryo reaches the uterus on the thir ay5 it is a morula8 c8 By the fifth ay5 the morula is transforme into a #lastocyst8 1A A bla#$'&y#$ is a hollow #all of cells5 resulting from clea2age8 2A The $r')!'bla#$ is an outer single layer of cells5 which later gi2es rise to the chorion8 3A The inner cell mass is the mass of cells from which the em#ryo5 an e2entually the fetus5 will e2elo,8 28 The Secon :ee9 a8 At en of the first wee95 an em#ryo #egins the ,rocess of im,lantation in the wall of the uterus8 #8 The tro,ho#last secretes en'ymes to igest away some of the tissue an #loo 2essels of the uterine wall8 c8 The tro,ho#last #egins to secrete !%+a" &!'ri'"i& *'"ad'$r')i" causing the cor,us luteum to #e maintaine 8 8 As the wee9 ,rogresses5 the inner cell mass etaches itself from the tro,ho#last5 an two more e/traem#ryonic mem#ranes form% the yol9 sac an amnion. e8 The yol9 sac forms #elow the em#ryonic is9D with no nutriti2e function in humans5 it is the site of #loo cell formation8 f8 As in chic9 e2elo,ment5 a human amnion an its ca2ity are where the em#ryo @an then the fetusA e2elo,s8 g8 0n humans5 amniotic flui insulates against any thermal changesD it also cushions an ,rotects the fetus from trauma8 h8 1astrulation occurs uring this wee9 resulting in the inner cell mass flattening into an e+bry'"i& di#,0 1A The em#ryonic is9 is com,ose of two cell layers% the ecto erm a#o2e an the en o erm #elow8 2A Once an em#ryonic is9 elongates to form the ,rimiti2e strea9 @similar to that foun in #ir sA5 a thir germ layer5 the meso erm5 forms #y in2agination of the cells along the strea98

a8

32*

i8 The tro,ho#last is reinforce #y meso erm an #ecomes the chorion8 The Thir :ee9 a8 The ner2ous system is the first organ system to #ecome 2isually e2i ent8 1A 0t a,,ears as a thic9ening along the entire orsal length of the em#ryoD in2agination occurs as the neural fol s a,,ear8 2A :hen the neural fol s meet at the mi line5 the neural tu#e is forme 8 3A After the notochor is re,lace #y the 2erte#ral column5 the ner2e cor is calle the s,inal cor 8 #8 The e2elo,ment of the heart #egins in the thir wee9 an continues into the fourth8 1A The right an left heart tu#es fuseD the heart #egins ,um,ing #loo 5 although the cham#ers are not fully forme 8 2A The 2eins enter this largely tu#ular heart ,osteriorly5 an the arteries e/it anteriorly8 3A Later the heart twists so that all of the ma7or 2essels are locate anteriorly8 48 The !ourth an !ifth :ee9s a8 A #ri ge of meso erm @the #o y stal9A connects the cau al @tailA en of the em#ryo with the chorion5 which has ,ro7ections calle &!'ri'"i& villi0 #8 The fourth e/tra em#ryonic mem#rane @the allantoisA is containe in this stal9D its #loo 2essels #ecome the um#ilical #loo 2essels8 c8 The hea an tail then lift u,5 an the #o y stal9 mo2es anteriorly #y constriction8 8 Once this ,rocess is com,lete5 the um#ilical cor is fully forme 8 e8 Lim# #u s a,,ear from which the arms an legs will later e2elo,8 f8 The hea enlarges an the sense organs #ecome more ,rominent8 g8 +u iments of the eyes5 ears5 an nose are e2i ent8 "8 The Si/th Through &ighth :ee9s a8 The e2elo,ing human #ecomes more humanli9e in a,,earance8 #8 As the #rain e2elo,s5 the hea achie2es its normal relationshi, with the #o y as a nec9 region e2elo,s8 c8 The ner2ous system is e2elo,e well enough to ,ermit refle/ actions @e8g85 the startle res,onse to touchA8 8 At the eighth wee95 the em#ryo is a#out 3* mm long an weighs no more than an as,irin ta#letD all organs are esta#lishe 8 B8 The Structure an !unction of the )lacenta 18 )ro2i ing gas5 nutrient an waste e/change5 the )la&e"$a #egins formation once the em#ryo is fully im,lante 8 28 Chorionic 2illi are treeli9e e/tensions of the chorion8 a8 Chorionic 2illi ,ro7ect into the maternal tissues8 #8 Later5 the chorionic 2illi isa,,ear in all areas e/ce,t where the ,lacenta e2elo,s8 38 By the tenth wee95 the ,lacenta is fully forme an has alrea y #egun to ,ro uce ,rogesterone an estrogen8 a8 3ue to the negati2e fee #ac9 control #y the hy,othalamus an anterior ,ituitary5 no new follicles mature8 #8 They maintain the lining of uterus an there is no menstruation uring ,regnancy8 48 The chorionic 2illi are surroun e #y maternal #loo sinusesD the maternal an fetal #loo o not mi/8 "8 &/change of molecules #etween the fetal an maternal #loo ta9es ,lace across the walls of the chorionic 2illi8 $8 CO2 an wastes mo2e across from the fetusD O2 an nutrients flow from the maternal si e8 (8 The um#ilical cor stretches #etween the ,lacenta an the fetus8 *8 Gm#ilical arteries trans,ort CO2 an other waste molecules to the ,lacenta for is,osalD the um#ilical 2ein trans,orts O2 an nutrient molecules from the ,lacenta to the rest of the fetal circulatory system8 -8 4armful chemicals can cross the ,lacenta8 a8 This is of ,articular concern uring the em#ryonic ,erio 5 when 2arious structures are first forming8 #8 &ach organ has a sensiti2e ,erio uring which a su#stance can alter the normal e2elo,ment8 c8 A ,regnant woman who ta9es thali omi e tran>uili'er #etween ays 2( an 4. is li9ely to ha2e an infant #orn with eforme lim#sD after this time ,erio 5 the infant is #orn normal8 C8 !etal 3e2elo,ment an Birth 38

32-

!etal e2elo,ment @months 3=-A in2ol2es an e/treme increase in si'eD the weight multi,lies $.. times8 The genitalia a,,ear in the thir month an gen er can #e i entifie anatomically8 A fetus soon ac>uires hair5 eye#rows5 eyelashes5 an nails8 !ine5 owny hair @lanugoA co2ers the lim#s an trun9D it later isa,,ears8 The s9in grows so fast that it wrin9lesD a wa/y 2erni/ caseosa ,rotects the s9in from the watery amniotic flui 8 $8 A fetus at first only fle/es its lim#s an no s its hea D later it mo2es its lim#s 2igorouslyD a mother feels mo2ements from the fourth month onwar 8 (8 After 1$ wee9s5 a fetal heart#eat is hear through a stethosco,e8 *8 A fetus #orn at 24 wee9s may sur2i2eD the lungs are still immature an often cannot ca,ture O2 a e>uately8 38 Stages of Birth 18 :hen the fetal #rain matures5 the hy,othalamus causes the ,ituitary to stimulate the a renal corte/ so that an rogens are release 8 28 The ,lacenta uses an rogens as ,recursors for estrogens that stimulate the ,ro uction of ,rostaglan in an o/ytocin8 38 The hormones estrogen5 ,rostaglan in5 an o/ytocin all cause the uterus to contract an e/,el the fetus8 48 The ,rocess of #irth @,arturitionA has three stages% ilation of the cer2i/5 #irth of the #a#y5 an e/,ulsion of the ,lacenta8 &8 )re2enting an Testing for Birth 3efects @,ealth Focus #o/A 18 One way to ,re2ent #irth efects is #y consuming a nutritious iet an a2oi ,otentially harmful su#stances5 ra iation5 an ,athogens8 a8 !or e/am,le5 women of chil #earing age are encourage to consume a e>uate amounts of the 2itamin folic aci in or er to ,re2ent neural tu#e efects such as s,ina #ifi a an anence,haly in their chil ren8 #8 The C3C recommen s that women of chil #earing age consume at least 4.. micrograms of folic aci e2ery ay through 2itamin su,,lements an fortifie foo s8 28 To re uce the ris9 of fetal alcohol syn rome @!ASA it is strongly recommen e not to consume alcohol while ,regnant8 a8 0t is also recommen e not to smo9e cigarettes or consume illegal rugs in or er to re uce the ris9 of #irth efects8 38 Some me ications can cause #irth efects in new#orns8 a8 0n the late 1-".s an early 1-$.s5 thali omi e was ,rescri#e as a slee,ing ,ill8 1A Thali omi e use resulte in thousan s of chil ren were #orn with fli,,er;li9e structures instea of lim#s8 2A Thali omi e was ,rom,tly ta9en off the mar9et8 #8 Between 1-3*=1-(1 3&S @ iethylstil#estrolA was ,rescri#e to ,re2ent ,remature la#or an miscarriage8 1A 3aughters of women who too9 3&S while ,regnant ha2e an increase ris9 of 2aginal an cer2ical cancer8 2A Sons of women who too9 3&S while ,regnant ha2e an increase fre>uency of noncancerous cysts of the e,i i ymis8 48 Viruses such as ru#ella or 40V cause infections in new#ornsD most new#orns ie8 "8 Z;rays can hin er cell i2ision an amage fetal 36A8 a8 0f an Z;ray is una2oi a#le5 notify the Z;ray technician so that the fetus can #e ,rotecte as much as ,ossi#le8

18 28 38 48 "8

Le&$%re E"ri&!+e"$ Idea#

E6)erie"&e Ba#e% 3e2elo,mental #iology is also ra,i ly e/,an ing5 ,erha,s secon only to new #rea9throughs in un erstan ing the #rain an ner2ous system8 Much of this cha,ter will #e critical to un erstan ing future contro2ersies concerning the use of fetal tissues5 efinition of when ,ersonhoo #egins @not a science >uestion5 #ut the correct statement of the >uestions B:hen oes life #eginKCA8 4owe2er5 chil #irth remains hi en from most stu ents< e/,eriences an the com,le/ities of e2elo,mental #iology research li9ewise will re>uire using me ia8 33.

18 3escri#e how cellular ifferentiation occurs as ifferent genes are turne on an off5 an how ifferent ,roteins an en'ymatic ,ro ucts are ,ro uce in the ifferent ty,es of cellsD re2iew the ifferences in 2arious 9in s of tissues an iscuss how issimilar cells coul come from a single 'ygote8 28 0llustrate how the clea2age ,rocess can go through many roun s of cell i2ision with no cell growth5 starting with the egg as the largest single cell8 3escri#e how some ifferentiation may #egin with the first cell i2ision8 38 &/amine why you coul consi er the yol9 of an egg to #e a single cell #ut why that really is not a reasona#le conclusion5 since the ma7ority of the yol9 is sim,ly nutrient material use #y the cellular ,art of the yol9 that goes through cell i2ision to form an em#ryonic ,late that will e2elo, into a chic98 6on;rural stu ents usually wrongly en2ision a chic9en egg as one cell5 assuming it e2elo,s #y clea2age of the whole egg un er the shellD most of the egg is store foo 5 an a fertili'e egg alrea y has $.5... cells e2elo,ing on the surface of the yol9 when the egg is finally lai 8 Bring in a fertili'e egg5 or use illustrations5 to show the microsco,ic e2elo,ment on the surface of the yol98 48 &m,hasi'e how a chic9 em#ryo has re>uirements other than the nutrients in the yol9 an how they are ealt with?such as o/ygen re>uirements @enters the shellA an remo2al of wastes @accumulate as uric aci in one of the e/traem#ryonic mem#ranes an are iscar e with the eggshellA8 "8 3iscuss how amniotic flui is use to e/amine a fetus for genetic efects5 since cells of the fetus are she from the s9in an from the res,iratory an urinary tracts into the flui 8 Also iscuss how chorionic 2illi can #e sam,le in ,renatal iagnosis8
$8 0t is true that a ,erson inherits all of his or her mitochon ria from his or her mother8 0t was originally thought that the ,rocess of fertili'ation e/clu es the mitochon ria #y lea2ing the mi ,iece an tail of the s,erm outsi e the egg mem#rane8 :e now 9now that the mi ,iece oes enter the egg #ut the few @a,,ro/imately 1..A mitochon ria are worn out an tagge with u#i>uitin for estruction8 The much larger num#ers of mitochon ria from the egg ,ro2i e all the cellular res,iration for the 'ygote an su#se>uent cells8

(8 Because 2ariations are not mentione 5 it is often assume that all males in the animal 9ing om ,ro uce s,erm with tails8 4owe2er5 some s,erm lac9 tails5 as is the case with the roun worm Ascaris5 an its amoe#oi s,erm carries in the mitochon ria uring fertili'ation8 *8 Stu ents may also as9 in this section how i entical an fraternal twins e2elo,8 They may also #e intereste in learning that the rate of twinning 2aries from high in tro,ical countries with short life e/,ectancies @o2er e2olutionary timeA to low in Asia an northern &uro,e with long life e/,ectancies8 -8 3e2elo,mental #iology is a com,le/ to,ic re>uiring un erstan ing of rather a#stract e/,erimental regimes5 9nowle ge of cell mem#ranes an communication chemistry5 an e/,erience seeing 2aria#ility in com,le/ em#ryonic systems8 1.8 6ote the critical role e/,erimental animals ,laye 5 #oth historically an currently5 in e2elo,mental #iology8 This inclu es am,hi#ian eggs for their trans,arent e2elo,ment5 fruit flies for the genetic connection an mani,ulation5 an the roun worm 0aenorhab"itis elegans for its iscrete cell num#er an full genome 7ust escri#e 8 118 The homeo#o/ conce,t is not sim,leD gra,hics ai in 2isuali'ing the se>uences in2ol2e in ,attern e2elo,ment an how they were ,reser2e across long ,erio s of e2olution8 331

128 1etting from one fertili'e egg cell to the many trillions of cells in an a ult may seem im,ossi#le5 es,ecially if com#ine with the fact that most cells i2i e only ". timesM 4owe2er5 cell i2ision is e/,onential growth at the ,ower of two5 an a #rief e,iso e of ou#ling will achie2e 2ery high num#ers in a short time8 138 There are e/ce,tions to continual re,lication of cells8 6er2e an muscle cells o not continue many re,lications after #irth8 Stem cells in #one marrow5 s9in5 an intestine o continue to re,licate more than other cells8 An the Bgerm lineC lea ing through the s,erm an egg of each in i2i ual who re,ro uces is ,art of an BimmortalC cell lineage8 0t is a ,eculiar #ut correct #iological ,ers,ecti2e to consi er in i2i ual organisms as tem,orary Bsu,,ort unitsC nurturing an immortal germ line8 This is also relate to the nonscientific >uestion ,ose of Bwhen oes human life #eginKC Shoul a stu ent ,ose this >uestion in class5 you can refer #ac9 to Virchow<s ,ro,osal that all cells come from ,re;e/isting cells5 an the wor9 of )asteur relati2e to s,ontaneous generation5 which is the #iologically efiniti2e answer since the cell lines of a 2ance organisms continue through s,erm an egg5 always continuous5 always li2ing8 The >uestion of when5 uring e2elo,ment5 B,ersonhoo C is assigne is a sociological an not a #iological >uestion8 Stu ents may #e aware of the 2arious ,olicies the G8S8 has ha regar ing fun ing of human fetal researchD their attitu es will influence future ,olicies8 148 There is a general wrong im,ression among ,eo,le that all of the fertili'e egg #ecomes the #a#y8 &/,eriments with mammal eggs @mouseA in icate that only three of the cells in a $4; cell stage em#ryo #ecome the fetus while $1 #ecome the em#ryo<s contri#ution to the ,lacenta8 Lecture >uestion% :hy is such a lo,si e istri#ution ma e so earlyK The nee for the ,lacenta is imme iate although short;li2e com,are to the fetus8
1"8 On 2ery rare occasions5 there is e2i ence that one ,erson is the result of two fuse in e,en ently fertili'e em#ryos8 The em#ryos woul normally ha2e im,lante se,arately an #ecome fraternal twins5 #ut when the cell masses are too close5 they fuse #efore im,lanting5 an e2elo, into one fetus8 The in i2i ual is #orn normal #ut is a mosaic of cells5 some regions e/,ressing features from one 'ygote5 some from the other8 The fact that they e2elo, into one normal ,erson reflects the a#ility of the cells to communicate with each other as they e2elo,8 1$8 !or emonstration in the classroom5 secure a ,lacenta from a local hos,ital8 !etal stages can #e o#ser2e from ,reser2e ,igs an chic9ens8 The ,ig uterus is ramatically ifferent in its esign for nurturing a litter8

Cri$i&al T!i",i"*
-%e#$i'" 10 0t is ,ossi#le to intermingle the em#ryos @at the *=$4 cell stageA of three miceD they cluster an #ecome one mouse @calle a BchimeraCA with ifferent ,arts showing the features of its si/ ifferent ,arentsM :hat oes this in icate relati2e to the in e,en ence of one in i2i ual cell as the smallest unit of lifeK A"#.er: 0f each fertili'e egg remaine an in e,en ent set of cells after it i2i e 5 they coul not res,on to each other to e2elo, into one mi/e organism8 This chimera shows that the em#ryos were chemically sensiti2e to the ,resence of other cells an #egan e2elo,ing in an organi'e manner res,on ing to each other8 -%e#$i'" 20 0n &astern &uro,e5 a mother with ty,e O #loo ga2e #irth to her #iological chil with ty,e AB #loo 8 Since this a,,ears im,ossi#le5 a chec9 of her ,arents re2eale that she was a chimera5 a fusion of two ifferent si#ling em#ryos that then e2elo,e as one in i2i ual #ut with two tissue ty,es8 0f her hus#an ha ty,e B #loo 5 what are her two tissue ty,es an how oes the science of em#ryology now ,lace a ca2eat on the mathematical ,ronouncements of genetics in ,aternity casesK A"#.er: 4er #loo stem cell line e2elo,e from the ty,e O 'ygote5 while her re,ro ucti2e organs e2elo,e from the ty,e A si#ling 'ygoteD she is a mosaic of these two8 Since a chimera is a 2ery remote ,ossi#ility5 #ut ne2ertheless

332

,ossi#le5 it #ecomes more ifficult to etermine ,aternity #y genetics without also e/amining the gran ,arents8

-%e#$i'" 40 :hen researchers use 2arious ,ure;#re strains of mice @#rown5 white5 #lac95 etc8A to form chimeral mice with many ,arents5 they cannot get more than three features to occur in the offs,ring mouse when they mi/ em#ryos at the $4;cell stage8 After many attem,ts5 they ha2e conclu e that only three cells of this $4;cell stage #ecome the fetal mouse an the other $1 #ecome ,lacenta8 :hy woul the istri#ution of mouse;2ersus;,lacenta cells not #e ".;". or e2en less for the ,lacentaK
A"#.er: The ,lacenta has a 2ery critical role to ,lay an must e2elo, earlyD #y the time of #irth5 its 7o# is one8 The ,lacenta must therefore e2elo, more ra,i ly an committing $1 or $4 cells is how the mammal em#ryo gets this hea start8

-%e#$i'" 70 :hat triggers #reast mil9 ,ro uction an why coul n<t it 7ust #e tie to #egin at the en of a -;month ,regnancy cycleK
A"#.er: 4igh le2els of estrogen an ,rogesterone uring ,regnancy su,,ress the anterior ,ituitary ,ro uction of ,rolactin8 After #irth occurs5 the ro, in these hormones allows the ,ituitary to ,ro uce ,rolactin an this triggers mil9 ,ro uction8 0f mil9 ,ro uction was merely triggere #y a cloc9 mechanism at the en of a -;month ,regnancy5 there woul #e no mil9 ,ro uce for a ,remature infant or too early ,ro uction for a long;term ,regnancyD this fee #ac9;hormone system synchroni'es #irth an mil9 ,ro uction8

Te&!"'l'*y 1r'+ M&Gra.;Hill

)lease consult your C'%r#e I"$e*ra$i'" G%ide for technology correlations for this cha,ter8

333

PART

VIII

BEHAVIOR AN ECOLOGY

Beha2ior ,rece es ecology #ecause #eha2ior un er,ins many of the interactions of organisms within ecosystems8 The #eha2ior cha,ter has an e/,erimental a,,roach that ,ro2i es meaningful e/am,les8 The ecology cha,ters a ress tra itional ecology an en2ironmental concerns8 Some instructors #egin the #iology course with this to,ic8

43 Animal Beha2ior
44 4" 4$ 4( )o,ulation &cology Community an &cosystem &cology Ma7or &cosystems of the Bios,here Conser2ation of Bio i2ersity CHAPTER

74

BEHAVIORAL ECOLOGY

The genetic #asis of #eha2ior is iscusse in the conte/t of e2elo,ment of #eha2ioral ,atterns5 en2ironmental influences5 an e2olutionary a a,ti2eness8 To,ics iscusse inclu e Bnature 2s8 nurture5C con itioning5 a a,ti2e mating #eha2iors5 socio#iology5 an animal communication8 Two Science Focus #o/es e/,lore B3o Animals 4a2e &motions5C an BSe/ual Selection in Male Bower#ir s8C

C!a)$er O%$li"e
7401 I"!eri$a"&e I"1l%e"&e# Be!avi'r
Be!avi'r is any action that can #e o#ser2e an escri#e 8 The nature 2ersus nurture >uestion as9s to what e/tent #oth our genes @natureA an en2ironmental influences @nurtureA affect #eha2ior8 A8 &/,eriments That Suggest Beha2ior 4as a 1enetic Basis 18 Se2eral s,ecies of lo2e#ir s iffer in the way the #uil nests8 28 4y,othesis% if the #eha2ior for o#taining an carrying nesting material is inherite 5 then hy#ri s might show interme iate #eha2ior8 a8 :hen two s,ecies of lo2e#ir s were mate 5 the hy#ri #ir s ha ifficulty carrying nesting material8 #8 These stu ies su,,orte the hy,othesis that #eha2ior has a genetic #asis8 18 28

38 &/,eriments with the garter sna9e @/hamnophis elegansA were con ucte to etermine if foo ,reference ha2e a genetic #asis8
a8 #8 c8 8 48 0nlan ,o,ulations are more a>uatic an fee on frogs an fishD they refuse to fee on slugs8 Coastal ,o,ulations are more terrestrial an fee on slugs8 The hy#ri new#orn garter sna9es ha2e an interme iate acce,tance of slugs8 :or9 with smell rece,tors an tongue flic9s showe that ,hysiological ifferences un erlie the #eha2ior8 &/,eriments with 4umans a8 Twin stu ies in the humans ha2e #een use to ,ro#e the nature;2ersus;nurture >uestion8 #8 The stu ies with twins su,,ort the hy,othesis that at least certain ty,es of #eha2ior are ,rimarily influence #y nature8 Beha2ior of the marine snail Aplysia shows en ocrine in2ol2ement in #eha2ior8 a8 !ollowing co,ulation5 the slug e/tru es long strings of eggs an uses its hea mo2ements to attach the eggs to roc9s8 #8 Scientists isolate an egg;laying hormone @&L4A that causes the animal to lay eggs e2en if it has not mate 8 c8 &L4 is a small ,rotein of 3$ amino aci s that e/cites the re,ro ucti2e tract an causes egg

B8 &/,eriments That Show Beha2ior 4as a 1enetic Basis

18

334

28

e/,ulsion8 8 +ecom#inant 36A stu ies isolate the &L4 gene an showe it controls the egg;laying #eha2ior8 Maternal #eha2ior in mice acti2ate #y gene fosB. a8 :hen mothers first ins,ect their new#orn5 2arious sensory information tra2el to the hy,othalamus8 #8 The sensory information causes fosB alleles to #e acti2ate an ,ro uct a ,rotein8 c8 This ,rotein changes the neural circuitry within the hy,othalamus5 which manifests itself in goo #eha2ior8 8 Mice that lac9 goo maternal #eha2ior also lac9 fosB alleles8 Fi6ed a&$i'" )a$$er"# @FAP#A were #elie2e to #e #eha2iors that were always ,erforme the same way5 an they were elicite #y a sign stimulus8 Many #eha2iors formerly thought to #e fi/e action ,atterns are foun to ha2e e2elo,e after ,ractice8 Lear"i"* is efine as a ura#le change in #eha2ior #rought a#out #y e/,erience8

7402

T!e E"vir'"+e"$ I"1l%e"&e# Be!avi'r

18 28 38

48 3eer gra'ing on the si e of a #usy highway5 o#li2ious to traffic5 is an e/am,le of ha#ituation8

A8 0nstinct an Learning

18 Laughing gull chic9s #eg foo from ,arents #y ,ec9ing at the ,arents< #ea9sD howe2er5 their accuracy im,ro2es with ,ractice8 28 The chic9s first ,ec9 at any #ea9 mo elD later they only ,ec9 at mo els resem#ling the ,arents8 38 This interaction #etween chic9s an ,arents a,,ears to #e a !A)8
B8 0m,rinting 18 I+)ri"$i"*3 another form of learning5 in2ol2es a sensiti#e perio"8

a8 Chic9s5 uc9lings5 an goslings follow the first mo2ing o#7ect they see after hatching @usually their motherA8 #8 A sensiti2e ,erio is the only ,erio uring which a ,articular #eha2ior such as im,rinting, e2elo,s8
C8 Social 0nteractions an Learning 18 Song Learning a8 Song learning in #ir s in2ol2es a sensiti#e perio" when an animal is ,rime to learnD songs hear outsi e this ,erio ha2e no effect8 #8 :hen ,ro2i e with an a"ult tutor5 #ir s learne other s,ecies< songs5 in icating that social interactions assist in learning8 38 Associati2e Learning 18 A change in #eha2ior that in2ol2es an association #etween two e2ents is terme a##'&ia$ive lear"i"*8 28 Classical Con itioning a8 0n &la##i&al &'"di$i'"i"*3 the ,aire simultaneous ,resentation of two ifferent ty,es of stimuli causes an animal to form an association #etween them8 #8 This suggests that an organism can #e traine @con itione A to associate any res,onse with any stimulus8 c8 Gncon itione res,onses are those that occur naturallyD con itione res,onses are those that are learne 8 38 O,erant con itioning a8 0n o,erant con itioning5 a stimulus;res,onse connection is strengthene 8 #8 This resulte from reinforcing a ,articular #eha2ior8 c8 !8 S9inner was famous for his stu ies in o,erant con itioning5 always rewar ing animals for the ,ro,er res,onse8 &8 Orientation an Migratory Beha2ior 18 Mi*ra$i'" is long; istance tra2el from one location to another8 a8 Loggerhea sea turtles hatch on a !lori a #each an then tra2el across the Atlantic Ocean to the Me iterranean8 #8 Monarch #utterflies fly from 6orth America to Me/ico so they can continue #ree ing8 28 Migration re>uires 'rie"$a$i'"3 which is the a#ility to tra2el in a ,articular irection5 such as south in

33"

the winter an north in the s,ring8 a8 Many #ir s use the sun uring the ay or the stars at night to orientate themsel2es8 38 &/,erience #ir s can "avi*a$e3 or #e a#le to change their irection in res,onse to other en2ironmental clues that tell them they are currently hea e in the wrong irection8 !8 Cogniti2e Learning

Animals also learn through imitation an insight8 I"#i*!$ lear"i"* occurs when an animal su enly sol2es a ,ro#lem without any ,rior e/,erience with the ,ro#lem8 18 3o Animals 4a2e &motionsK @Science Focus #o/A 18 Scientists #elie2e they ha2e sufficient ata to suggest that at least other 2erte#rates an For mammals ha2e feelings5 inclu ing fear5 7oy5 em#arrassment5 7ealousy5 anger5 lo2e5 sa ness5 an grief8 28 0guanas ten to stay where it is warm8 a8 :armth rises the iguanas< #o y tem,erature an increase in heart rate8 #8 These #iological res,onses are those associate with emotions in humans8 38 +esearchers ha2e foun a high le2el of o,amine in the #rain when rats ,lay5 an the o,amine le2el increases e2en when rats antici,ate the o,,ortunity to ,lay8 48 Stu ying animal emotions may #est #e left to fiel researchD la#oratory animals may #e too stresse to ,ro2i e con2incing ata on emotions8
7404 A"i+al C'++%"i&a$i'" 18 Some animals are largely solitary an 7oin with a mem#er of the o,,osite se/ only to re,ro uce8 28 Others ,air5 #on 5 an coo,erate in raising offs,ring8 38 S'&ie$y mem#ers are organi'e in a coo,erati2e manner e/ten ing #eyon se/ual or ,arental #eha2ior8 A8 Communicati2e Beha2ior 18 C'++%"i&a$i'" is an action #y a sen er that influences the #eha2ior of a recei2er8 28 :hen the sen er an recei2er are mem#ers of the same s,ecies5 signals will #enefit #oth the sen er an the recei2er8 38 Chemical Communication a8 These signals are chemicals @e8g85 ,heromones5 urine5 an fecesA an ha2e the a 2antage of wor9ing #oth night an ay8 #8 A )!er'+'"e is a chemical release to cause a ,re icta#le reaction of another mem#er of the same s,ecies8 c8 !emale moths attract males with tail glan ,heromonesD cats mar9 territory with urine5 etc85 an antelo,e mar9 twigs with eye glan secretions8 48 Au itory Communication a8 A%di$'ry @soun A &'++%"i&a$i'" has a 2antages8 1A 0t is faster than chemical communication8 2A 0t is effecti2e #oth night an ay8 3A 0t can #e mo ifie #y lou ness5 ,attern5 uration5 an re,etition8 #8 Male cric9ets ha2e calls for re,ro uction8 c8 Bir s ha2e 2arious songs for istress5 courting5 an mar9ing territories8 8 :hale songs ha2e si/ #asic themes for se/ual an grou, i entification8 e8 Only humans can ,ro uce many ifferent soun s an assem#le them in many ifferent ways8 f8 6onhuman ,rimates are limite to a#out 4. istinct 2ocali'ations with limite meaning8 g8 Chim,an'ees using artificial language cannot a 2ance #eyon the le2el of a 2;year;ol chil 8 h8 Chim,s a,,ear inca,a#le of using language to reason or of using grammar8 "8 Visual Communication a8 Visual signals are most often use #y s,ecies that are acti2e uring the ay8 #8 Contests #etween males ma9e use of threat ,ostures an may ,re2ent fighting8 c8 3efense an courtshi, is,lays are e/aggerate an always ,erforme in the same way so the meaning is clear8 8 Vi#%al &'++%"i&a$i'" allows animals to signal others of their intentions without the nee to ,ro2i e any au itory or chemical messages8 $8 Tactile Communication

33$

a8 Tactile communication occurs when one animal touches another8 #8 1ull chic9s ,ec9 at the ,arent<s #ea9 in or er to in uce the ,arent to fee them8 c8 A male leo,ar nu''les the female<s nec9 to calm her an to stimulate her willingness to mate8 8 4oney#ees use tactile communication to im,art information a#out the en2ironment8
7407 Be!avi'r# T!a$ I"&rea#e Fi$"e## 18 Be!avi'ral E&'l'*y assumes that #eha2ior is su#7ect to natural selection8 A8 Territoriality 18 A $erri$'ry is an animal<s home range where they can #e foun uring the course of the ay5 an will efen for their e/clusi2e use8 28 Terri$'riali$y in2ol2es the ty,e of #eha2ior nee e to efen a ,articular territory8

38 1i##ons maintain territories #y lou singing8 48 3efen ing territories e/erts a lot of energyD the efen er may also #e woun e 8
The ')$i+al 1'ra*i"* +'del states that it is a a,ti2e for foraging #eha2ior to #e as energetically efficient as ,ossi#le8 a8 !or e/am,le5 shore cra#s eat interme iate;si'e mussels #ecause the net energy gain was more than if they ate larger;si'e mussel B8 +e,ro ucti2e Strategies 18 Some animals5 such as gi##ons5 are +'"'*a+'%#@ they ,air #on 5 an #oth male an female hel, with the rearing of the young8 28 Most other ,rimates are )'ly*a+'%#@ males mono,oli'e multi,le females8 38 A limite num#er of ,rimates are )'lya"$!r%#0 a8 Tamarins li2e together in grou,s of one or more families in which one female mates with more than one male8 48 Se/ual selection refers to a a,ti2e changes in males an females that lea to an increase a#ility to secure a mate8 3A 0n males5 this may result in an increase a#ility to com,ete with other males for a mate8 4A !emales may select a mate with the #est fitness @a#ility to ,ro uce sur2i2ing offs,ringA5 there#y increasing her own fitness8 C8 Se/ual Selection in Male Bower#ir s @Science Focus #o/A 18 Male #ower#ir s create ela#orate nests @or #owerA to attract female #ower#ir s uring mating season8 28 :hen a female #ower#ir a,,roaches the male #owe#ir <s #ower5 the male #egins his courtshi, is,lay of fluffing his feathers5 an fla,,ing his wings to the #eat of a call8 38 0f the female enters the #ower an crouches5 the two #ower#ir s mate8 48 The male #ower#ir s< is,lays are highly intense an aggressi2e an it scares off some females8 "8 A stu y in Australia loo9e at the a#ility of male #ower#ir s res,on ing to female #ower#ir signals #y gi2ing their highest;intensity courtshi, is,lays for females who crouche the fastest an are least li9ely to #e startle 8 $8 The stu y foun that males who mo ulate their is,lays more effecti2ely in res,onse to female signals are more successful in courting females8 (8 Male res,onsi2eness to female signals may #e an im,ortant ,art of successful courtshi, in many s,ecies8 "8

38 Societies
18 28 38 48 The ,rinci,les of e2olutionary #iology can #e a,,lie to the stu y of social #eha2ior in animals8 0t is #ase on a re,ro ucti2e cost;#enefit analysis of the 2alue of li2ing in a society8 There are #oth #enefits an costs to li2ing in a social grou,8 Only if the #enefits5 in terms of re,ro ucti2e success5 outweigh the isa 2antages will societies e2ol2e8 a8 A 2antages to li2ing in a social grou, might inclu e hel, to a2oi ,re ators5 to raise young5 an to fin foo 8 1A A grou, of im,alas has more eyes to see a,,roaching ,re ators5 etc8 2A Many fish mo2ing ra,i ly in a school can istract a ,re ator8 3A The trum,et manuco e @a #ir A ,air #on s for lifeD #oth se/es are nee e to raise the young8 4A :ea2er #ir s form giant colonies to ,rotect them from ,re ators8

33(

"A )rimate mem#ers signal the grou, when they fin a #ountiful fruit tree8 $A Lions wor9ing together can ca,ture larger ,rey5 such as a 'e#ra or #uffalo8 #8 There are also isa 2antages to li2ing in a social grou,8 1A 3isagreements occur #etween mem#ers o2er the #est fee ing ,laces an resting sites8 2A Among re eer5 su#or inate females are at a isa 2antage in ,ro ucing more ,rolific sons8 3A )rimate grooming may #e necessary to 9ee, them healthy since ,arasites s,rea easily in grou,s8 &8 Altruism Versus Self;0nterest

18 Al$r%i#+ is efine as #eha2ior that has the ,otential to ecrease the lifetime re,ro ucti2e success of the altruist5 while #enefitting the re,ro ucti2e success of another mem#er of the society8 28 !itness5 7u ge #y re,ro ucti2e success5 may e/,lain altruistic #eha2ior8 38 1enes can #e ,asse irectly from ,arents to offs,ring8 48 1enes are also ,asse #y relati2esD an in i2i ual hel,ing a relati2e sur2i2e an re,ro uce ,asses on the in i2i ual<s genes8 "8 Direct selection is a a,tation to the en2ironment ue to the re,ro ucti2e success of an in i2i ual8 $8 In"irect selection5 also calle ,i" #ele&$i'"3 in2ol2es a a,tation to the en2ironment ue to the re,ro ucti2e success of an in i2i ual<s relati2es8 (8 Thus5 the i"&l%#ive 1i$"e## of an in i2i ual inclu es ,ersonal re,ro ucti2e success ,lus that of its close relati2es8
*8 0n social insects5 altruism is e/treme an is e/,laine on the #asis that it hel,s re,ro ucing si#lings sur2i2e8

a8 Only the >ueen among an army ant colony re,ro ucesD the three castes of ants ha2e gi2en u, re,ro ucing8 #8 0n social #ees an was,s5 the >ueen is i,loi #ut the rone is ha,loi D therefore sterile female wor9ers are ("N relate to their nest mates #ut woul #e only ".N relate to their own offs,ring if they re,ro uce D thus5 it is an a 2antage to care for the >ueen an her offs,ring8
-8 Male chim,an'ees in Africa i not interfere with each other<s matings #ecause they share genes8 1.8 +eci,rocal Altruism a8 0n some s,ecies5 #ir offs,ring from one clutch of eggs may stay at the nest to hel, ,arents rear an fee the ne/t #atch of offs,ring8 #8 !or !lori a scru# 7ays5 the num#er of fle glings ,ro uce #y an a ult ,air ou#le when they ha hel,ers8 c8 Mammal offs,ring also hel, their ,arentsD African 7ac9als raise 184 ,u,s aloneD with hel,ers they raise 38$8

8 The a#o2e are e/am,les of re&i)r'&al al$r%i#+: an animal hel,s or coo,erates with another animal with no imme iate #enefit5 #ut the animal that was hel,e will re,ay the e#t at a later time8

Le&$%re E"ri&!+e"$ Idea#

E6)erie"&e Ba#e% Stu ents to ay generally ha2e re uce e/,eriences ,ersonally 2iewing the #eha2ior of out oor wil lifeD o#ser2ations of ,ets5 omestic5 an 'oo animals are unli9ely to ,ro2i e meaning to the many conce,ts co2ere in this cha,ter8 Still ,hotos li9ewise ,ro2i e a limite un erstan ing of the classic conce,ts escri#e here8 18 3iscuss why #eha2ior can #e assume to #e a a,ti2e an e2ol2ing5 as e/em,lifie #y the #eha2ior of #lac9;crowne gulls in remo2ing eggshells or #y the nest;#uil ing #eha2ior of woo ;hoo,oes8 33*

28 3arwin was une/,ecte ly ahea of his time in e/ten ing his i eas on natural selection from mor,hology to #eha2ior8 To ay5 we ta9e #eha2ior as an e2olutionary ,henomenon as logical5 #ut rea ing from his early wor9 can gi2e a sense of his insightfulness8 38 3iscuss how im,rinting #eha2ior woul #e useful in #oth offs,ring an ,arents in s,ecies such as uc9s an geese5 where there are numerous offs,ring that are mo#ile u,on hatching8 Shoul we e/,ect that 9in of im,rinting in a her mammal @such as a wil horse or antelo,eA or a humanK 48 3iscuss why it woul #e a 2antageous to a female mouse to a#ort a ,regnancy when her mate in the ,regnancy is is,lace #y a new male8 "8 &/am,les of other wor9 with Aplysia may gi2e stu ents an un erstan ing of why this snail is useful as a Bla# ratC for research wor9 that tries to associate #eha2ior with ner2e ,hysiology8 :hile it is ,ossi#le to e/,lain the ,ro,erties of a #uil ing #y e/amining its #ric9s5 it is not always ,ossi#le to ,re ict the ,ossi#le emergent ,ro,erties #y stu ying a #ric9 alone?this is the ,ro#lem with ,re icting #eha2iors from stu ying ner2es an neurons alone8 $8 Lecture >uestion% A cuc9oo lays an egg in another #ir <s nestD its larger offs,ring ,resent a larger ga,e an are thus fe more foo #y the a o,ti2e ,arents8 :hy can<t the host #ir s e2ol2e a efense against this cuc9oo chic9 #eha2iorK (8 3arwin is often stereoty,e as merely the author of the natural selection mechanism of e2olution8 4owe2er5 se/ual selection is a conce,t originating with Charles 3arwin @an he wrote #oo9s on the earthworm<s role in soil formation an emotions an facial e/,ressionsA8 3iscussions on re,ro ucti2e strategies an ,arental in2estment may interest some stu ents in further rea ings in socio#iology8 *8 6ote that 3arwin<s theory of natural selection is often re uce incorrectly to Bsur2i2al of the fittestC in an image of a og;eat; og worl 5 all com,etition an no coo,eration8 0t is more correctly generali'e as re,ro uction of the fittest5 an that allows more room for coo,eration an sociality if the #eha2ior im,ro2es sur2i2al of genes common to those who BsacrificeC or coo,erate8 -8 0f a 'oo is locate near#y5 ta9e a fiel tri, an an #eha2ior among ifferent animals8 etermine the 2arious forms of communication

1.8 3iscuss the ifference #etween genuine altruism in humans5 where in i2i uals ha2e gone to war an ie on #ehalf of unrelate com,atriots5 2ersus animal BaltruismC that a,,ears to always #e tie to securing some a 2antage for the in i2i ual<s genes in Bcalculate selfishness8C 118 As9 stu ents to relate to whom they ha2e hel,e in the ,ast% hungry relati2es or strangers8 Most human societies are set u, so we gi2e fa2or to near relati2es8 :hy might this #e genetically selecte K

33-

128 3iscuss the contro2ersies inherent in socio#iology5 the theory that human #eha2ior can #e e/,laine #ase on ,hysiology an e2olution8 Some scientists are reluctant to consi er that antisocial #eha2ior may #e an in#orn ,art of human nature8 As9ing for o,inions will ,ro#a#ly generate a lengthy iscussion8
138 3iscuss metho s use in human society an inter,ersonal relations to re uce or o2ercome aggression8 Stu ents shoul thin9 a#out how they #eha2e with frien s an with strangers5 an what they woul consi er aggressi2e or su#missi2e #eha2ior8

Cri$i&al T!i",i"*
-%e#$i'" 10 3arwin<s finches were escri#e in the earlier e2olution cha,ter8 One finch was calle the Bwoo ,ec9er finchC #ecause it woul use a twig to ,ry out gru#s from holes in trees8 6ot all finches of this s,ecies e/hi#it the #eha2ior5 an most fle glings o not8 0n a ition5 there is some 2ariation in how the woo ,ec9er finches han le the BtoolCD some toss it away after each try while others carry it as with nesting material8 0s this #eha2ior innate or learne K 0s it 7ustifie to state that the #ir is thin9ing the same thoughts that we woul #e thin9ing if we were trying to ,ry out a morsel of foo K
A"#.er: The #eha2ior is most li9ely learne 5 although ,erha,s a mo ification of the nest;#uil ing instinct that all nesting #ir s ha2e8 0n ications that the #eha2ior is learne inclu e not all mem#ers of the s,ecies e/hi#it the #eha2ior5 younger mem#ers o not @suggesting some learning time is in2ol2e A5 an there is consi era#le 2ariation in the #eha2ior an most innate #eha2iors are fairly rigi 8 0t is a#solutely certain that the #ir is not mentally 2er#ali'ing the same BthoughtsC as we woul if we were attem,ting the tas98 -%e#$i'" 20 Consi er the hy,othetical situation of ha2ing to eci e whether to sa2e a rowning ,erson8 Lou are not a goo swimmer5 so the chance of yourself rowning is one;in;ten8 :e will ,ro,ose an Baltruism geneC that ,romotes this #eha2ior8 Since there is a 1F1.th chance of ying5 the chance that this gene will #e ,asse on e,en s on how closely relate the ,erson is you are sa2ing8 To 9ee, the gene in our ,o,ulation o2er time5 an recalling #asic genetics ,rinci,les5 shoul we 7um, in to sa2e a si#ling @#rother or sisterA5 a cousin5 a niece or ne,hew5 a stranger5 etc8K A"#.er: Lou woul share on a2erage half your genes with a si#lingD therefore5 the 1F2 chance of sa2ing the gene is greater than the 1F1.th chance of ying?thus you shoul sa2e a si#ling8 4owe2er5 each time an e/ternal ,arent is in2ol2e in the lineage5 the li9elihoo of carrying the altruistic gene ro,s #y half8 Thus it is still a 2antageous to sa2e a rowning relati2e that is 1F4 or 1F* relate D any relati2e more istantly relate is less li9ely to ha2e the altruistic gene than you are li9ely to rown an lose the gene5 an the gene woul li9ely #e lost8 -%e#$i'" 40 :hy shoul a ominant male #a#oon mo2e to the front of his troo, to efen the females an young when this ,laces him in greater anger of #eing 9ille #y the challenging lionK A"#.er: There is some anger to en ing his e/istenceD howe2er5 this #eha2ior shoul result in e2en more of his genes #eing ,asse on #y sa2ing these genes in his offs,ring8

Te&!"'l'*y 1r'+ M&Gra.;Hill

)lease consult your C'%r#e I"$e*ra$i'" G%ide for technology correlations for this cha,ter8
CHAPTER

77

POPULATION ECOLOGY

This cha,ter ,resents a com,rehensi2e sur2ey of ,o,ulation ecology8 0nclu e are iscussions of 34.

,o,ulation emogra,hics5 mathematical mo els of ,o,ulation growth5 an ways in which ,o,ulation si'es are regulate 8 An &cology Focus #o/ iscusses B:hen a )o,ulation 1rows Too Large8C

C!a)$er O%$li"e
7701 S&')e '1 E&'l'*y 18 E&'l'*y is the stu y of the interactions of organisms with other organisms an with the ,hysical en2ironment8 28 &cology stu ies how en2ironmental factors etermine the istri#ution an a#un ance of ,o,ulations8 38 &cology an e2olution are relate #ecause ecological interactions are natural selection ,ressures that ha2e long;term effects8 48 A !abi$a$ is the ,lace where an organism e/ists8 "8 A )')%la$i'" is a grou, of the same s,ecies occu,ying a certain area8 $8 A &'++%"i$y consists of all ,o,ulations at one locale @e8g85 a coral reef ,o,ulationA8 (8 An e&'#y#$e+ contains the community organisms an a#iotic factors @e8g85 energy flow5 chemical cyclingA8 *8 The bi'#)!ere is the layer on &arth where li2ing organisms can li2e8 -8 Mo ern ecology is #oth escri,ti2e an ,re icti2e5 with a,,lications to wil life management5 agriculture5 an many other ,ro#lems8 7702 e+'*ra)!i&# '1 P')%la$i'"# e+'*ra)!y is the statistical stu y of a ,o,ulation5 e8g85 its ensity5 istri#ution5 an rate of growth8 A8 3ensity an 3istri#ution 18 The )')%la$i'" de"#i$y is the num#er of in i2i uals ,er unit area8 28 The )')%la$i'" di#$rib%$i'" is the ,attern of is,ersal of in i2i uals across an area8
38 Re#'%r&e# are nonli2ing an li2ing com,onents of an en2ironment that su,,ort li2ing organisms8

48 Li+i$i"* 1a&$'r# are those en2ironmental as,ects that ,articularly etermine where an organism li2es8 a8 Such factors inclu e o/ygen su,,ly5 light a2aila#ility5 s,ace5 tem,erature5 an ,reci,itation amounts8 "8 3istri#ution can #e ue to bi'$i& @li2ingA factors8 a8 Biotic factors can #e illustrate #y re 9angaroos that are limite to inlan Australia #y the grasses that grow there8 $8 0lumpe", ran"om, an uniform are terms use to escri#e ,atterns of istri#ution8 a8 0n certain cases5 the ,attern of istri#ution can change as the organisms un er consi eration matureD thus5 istri#ution ,atterns are not necessarily constant8 (8 Other factors5 such as territoriality5 see is,ersal5 etc85 can influence istri#ution ,atterns8 B8 )o,ulation 1rowth 18 The ra$e '1 "a$%ral i"&rea#e 8r9 is e,en ent on the num#er of in i2i uals #orn e2ery year an the num#er of in i2i uals that ie e2ery year8 @0t is assume that immigration an emigration are e>ual an are thus not consi ere 8A 28 The highest ,ossi#le rate of natural increase for a ,o,ulation when resources are unlimite is calle its bi'$i& )'$e"$ial3 an it e,en s on the following% a8 Gsual num#er of offs,ring ,er re,ro uction8 341

#8 Chances of sur2i2al until age of re,ro uction8 c8 4ow often each in i2i ual re,ro uces8 8 Age at which re,ro uction #egins8
38 Mortality )atterns

a8 A &'!'r$ is all mem#ers of a ,o,ulation #orn at the same time8 #8 S%rviv'r#!i) is the ,ro#a#ility of new#orn in i2i uals of a cohort sur2i2ing to ,articular ages8 c8 A sur2i2orshi, cur2e5 o#taine #y ,lotting the num#er of in i2i uals sur2i2ing at each age5 is characteristic of each s,ecies8 1A 0n the Ty,e 0 sur2i2orshi, cur2e5 most in i2i uals li2e out their life s,an an ie of ol age @e8g85 humans in well; e2elo,e countriesA8 2A 0n the Ty,e 00 sur2i2orshi, cur2e5 in i2i uals ie at a constant rate across their lifes,an @e8g85 #ir s5 ro ents5 an ,erennial ,lantsA8 3A 0n the Ty,e 000 sur2i2orshi, cur2e5 most in i2i uals ie early in life @e8g85 fishes5 in2erte#rates5 an ,lantsA8
48 Age 3istri#ution

a8 A ,o,ulation contains three age grou,s% ,rere,ro ucti2e5 re,ro ucti2e5 an ,ostre,ro ucti2e8 #8 Because ,o,ulations iffer accor ing to what ,ro,ortion of the ,o,ulation falls into each grou,5 three ifferent a*e #$r%&$%re dia*ra+# are ,ossi#leD an age structure iagram is a re,resentation of the num#er of in i2i uals in each age grou, in a ,o,ulation8 1A A ,yrami sha,e in icates the ,o,ulation has high #irthratesD the ,o,ulation is un ergoing e/,onential growth8 2A A #ell sha,e in icates that ,rere,ro ucti2e an re,ro ucti2e age grou,s are more nearly e>ual5 with the ,ostre,ro ucti2e grou, #eing smallest ue to mortalityD this is characteristic of sta#le ,o,ulations8 3A An urn;sha,e iagram in icates the ,ostre,ro ucti2e grou, is largest an the ,rere,ro ucti2e grou, is smallest5 a result of the #irthrate falling #elow the eath rateD this is characteristic of eclining ,o,ulations8 4A 0nformation o#taine from these gra,hs is use to etermine ,ast an future history of a ,o,ulation8 7704 P')%la$i'" Gr'.$! M'del# 18 There are two ,atterns of ,o,ulation growth8 a8 0n a ,attern calle #e+el)ari$y3 organisms re,ro uce once an cease to grow as a ultsD they e/,en energy in re,ro uction an then ie8 #8 0n a ,attern calle i$er')ari$y3 organisms re,ro uce throughout their lifetime5 which in2ests energy in their future sur2i2al8 28 Some organisms o not e/actly fit these two ,atterns8 a8 A,hi s can switch #etween se/ual an ase/ual re,ro uction accor ing to the season8 #8 Annual ,lants can re,ro uce #oth #y see s an #y 2egetati2e e/tensions8 A8 &/,onential 1rowth 18 The H;sha,e growth cur2e e,icts e6)'"e"$ial *r'.$!3 an it has two ,hases8 a8 0n the la* )!a#e3 growth is slow #ecause the ,o,ulation is small8 #8 0n the e6)'"e"$ial *r'.$! )!a#e3 growth is accelerating8 28 A mathematical e>uation can #e use to calculate the e/,onential growth an si'e for 342

any ,o,ulation that has iscrete generations8 38 :ith e/,onential growth5 the num#er of in i2i uals a e each generation increases as the total num#er of females increases8 48 !or e/,onential growth to continue unchec9e 5 each mem#er of the ,o,ulation has to ha2e unlimite resources8 "8 As the ,o,ulation increases in si'e so o the effects of com,etition #etween mem#ers5 ,re ation5 ,arasites5 an isease8 B8 Logistic 1rowth 18 :hen growth encounters en2ironmental resistance5 ,o,ulations e/,erience l'*i#$i& *r'.$!3 an the growth cur2e has a characteristic sigmoi al or S;sha,e cur2e8 28 0n a ition to the lag phase an e!ponential growth phase5 there is a "eceleration phase where the rate of ,o,ulation growth slows5 an a stable e%uilibrium phase with little if any growth5 #ecause #irths e>ual eaths8 38 This cur2e is calle BlogisticC #ecause the e/,onential ,ortion of the cur2e woul ,lot as a straight line as log of N8 48 A mathematical e>uation calculates logistic growth8 "8 &n2ironmental resistance results in the eceleration ,hase an the sta#le e>uili#rium ,haseD ,o,ulation is at the carrying ca,acity of the en2ironment8 $8 Carrying Ca,acity a8 The &arryi"* &a)a&i$y @ A is the ma/imum num#er of in i2i uals of a s,ecies that can #e su,,orte #y the en2ironment8 #8 The closer ,o,ulation si'e gets to the carrying ca,acity5 the greater is the en2ironmental resistance8 c8 :hen 6 is small5 a large ,ortion of the carrying ca,acity has not #een utili'e 5 #ut as 6 a,,roaches E5 ,o,ulation growth slows #ecause I N is nearing 'ero8 I 8 !or e/am,le5 o2er;fishing ri2es a ,o,ulation into the lag ,hase8 e8 0t is #est to maintain esira#le ,o,ulations in the e/,onential ,hase of the logistic growth cur2e8 f8 !armers can re uce the carrying ca,acity for a ,est #y alternating rows of ifferent cro,s8 7707 Re*%la$i'" '1 P')%la$i'" Si5e 18 The H;sha,e an S;sha,e growth cur2e mo els o not always ,re ict real ,o,ulations8 a8 0n the winter moth5 many eggs i not sur2i2e the winter an e/,onential growth i not occur8 #8 The growth cur2e of a rein eer her intro uce to St8 )aul 0slan in Alas9a o2ershot its carrying ca,acity an crashe 8 A8 !actors That +egulate )o,ulation 1rowth 18 Some ,o,ulations are consi ere to #e regulate ,rimarily #y de"#i$y;i"de)e"de"$ 1a&$'r#@ these are also consi ere a#iotic factors8 a8 The num#er of organisms ,resent oes not affect the influence of the factor8 #8 The amage to a ,o,ulation from5 for e/am,le5 a flash floo oes not change with or e,en on the num#er of organisms ,resent8 c8 Thus5 ensity;in e,en ent factors show no correlation with the si'e of the ,o,ulation8 28 )o,ulations regulate #y de"#i$y;de)e"de"$ 1a&$'r# are affecte #y the num#er of 343

organisms ,resent8 a8 (re"ation, parasitism, an competition are consi ere ensity; e,en entD the more these organisms crow together5 the more amaging are the foo shortages5 the ,arasites5 an the ,re ators8 #8 Thus5 ensity; e,en ent factors ha2e some effect relati2e to the si'e of the ,o,ulation8 38 Other consi erations a8 0ntrinsic factors @e8g85 anatomy5 ,hysiology5 #eha2iorA can also influence ,o,ulation si'e% territoriality5 recruitment5 immigration5 an emigration8 #8 )o,ulations can sometimes show e/treme fluctuations in si'e an growth rates in s,ite of e/trinsic an intrinsic regulating mechanisms?such wil fluctuations with no recurring ,attern are terme chaos8 770? Li1e Hi#$'ry Pa$$er"# 18 )o,ulations 2ary on ,articulars such as% a8 Fe&%"di$y?the num#er of #irths ,er re,ro uction8 #8 Ma$%ri$y?the age of re,ro uction8 c8 Pari$y?the num#er of e,iso es of re,ro uctions8 A8 The logistic ,o,ulation mo el ,re icts two main life history ,atterns8 10 r;Sele&$i'" a8 S,ecies that un erwent selection to ma/imi'e their rate of natural increase are categori'e as r;selecte 8 #8 These ,o,ulations are often opportunistic species5 an ten to #e coloni'ers8 c8 Their strategy for continue e/istence is #ase on in i2i uals ha2ing the following traits% 1A small si'e5 2A short life s,an5 3A mature fast5 4A ,ro uce many offs,ring5 an "A engage in little care of offs,ring8 8 Such organisms rely on ra,i is,ersal to new unoccu,ie en2ironments8 20 ;Sele&$i'" a8 S,ecies that hol their ,o,ulations fairly constant near the carrying ca,acity are calle I;selecte 8 #8 Such ,o,ulations are e%uilibrium speciesD they are strong com,etitors5 ten to #e s,ecialists rather than coloni'ers5 an may #ecome e/tinct when their e2ol2e way of life is isru,te @e8g85 the gri''ly #ear5 !lori a ,anther5 etc8A8 c8 Their o2erall strategy for continue e/istence is #ase on ha2ing the following traits% 1A large si'e5 2A long life s,an5 3A slow to mature5 4A ,ro uce few offs,ring5 an "A e/,en consi era#le energy in care8 38 Most ,o,ulations cannot #e characteri'e as either r; or I;strategistsD they ha2e interme iate characteristics8 B8 :hen a )o,ulation 1rows Too Large @&cology Focus #o/A 18 A#out 1.. years ago the white;taile eer ,o,ulation across the eastern Gnite States 344

was less than "..5...5 an now5 it is o2er 2.. million eer8 28 The increase in ,o,ulation si'e can #e attri#ute to the lac9 of ,re ators8 a8 4unting is tightly controlle 5 or #anne altogether8 #8 6atural ,re ators such as wol2es an mountain lions are a#sent from most regions8 38 0n areas where the eer ,o,ulations ha2e #ecome too large5 the eer suffer from star2ation as they e,lete their own foo su,,ly8 48 The large eer ,o,ulation also causes economic loss ue to loss of agriculture5 forestry5 an e2en insurance claims ue to eer;2ehicle collisions8 "8 3eer o2er,o,ulation also harms other s,ecies8 a8 0n areas where there are many eer5 there are fewer un erstory ,lants8 #8 The num#er of song#ir s5 insects5 s>uirrels5 mice5 an other animals eclines with an increasing eer ,o,ulation8 $8 Some states are wor9ing on effecti2e eer management ,lans8 a8 Te/as lan owners can set asi e a ,ortion of their ,ro,erty for a eer her 5 an in return5 can charge ,eo,le for the o,,ortunity to hunt on their lan 8 770B H%+a" P')%la$i'" Gr'.$! 18 The human ,o,ulation is now in an e/,onential ,art of a H;sha,e growth cur2e8 28 :orl ,o,ulation increases the e>ui2alent of one me ium;si'e city @21$5...A ,er ay an (- million ,er year8 38 The d'%bli"* $i+e is the length of time for a ,o,ulation si'e to ou#le5 now "3 years8 48 aero ,o,ulation growth is when the #irthrate e>uals the eath rate an the ,o,ulation si'e remains stea y8 "8 The worl ,o,ulation may le2el off at *5 1.8"5 or 1482 #illion5 e,en ing on the ecline in net re,ro ucti2e rate8 A8 More;3e2elo,e Versus Less;3e2elo,e Countries 18 The more e2elo,e countries un erwent a de+'*ra)!i& $ra"#i$i'" from 1-".= 1-("D their growth rate is now low8 a8 The more devel')ed &'%"$rie# @M C#A @e8g85 &uro,e5 6orth America5 Ha,an5 etc8A ha2e low ,o,ulation growth an ,eo,le en7oy a goo stan ar of li2ing8 #8 Le## devel')ed &'%"$rie# @L C#A @e8g85 countries in Africa5 Asia5 an Latin AmericaA are those in which ,o,ulation growth is e/,an ing ra,i ly an the ma7ority of ,eo,le li2e in ,o2erty8 c8 L3C growth rate ,ea9e at 28"N #etween 1-$.=1-$"D it has #een eclining slowly to a#out 18$N8 8 e+'*ra)!i& $ra"#i$i'" is a ecline in eath rate followe #y eclining #irthrateD it results in slower growth5 a#out .81N8 28 The less e2elo,e countries @L3CsA are now un ergoing emogra,hic transition8 38 Most of the e/,losi2e growth will occur in Africa5 Asia5 an Latin America unless a8 family ,lanning or #irth control are strengthene 5 #8 the esire for more chil ren is re uce 5 an c8 the onset of chil #earing is elaye 8 B8 Age 3istri#utions 18 Age structure iagrams i2i e ,o,ulations into% e,en ency5 re,ro ucti2e5 an ,ostre,ro ucti2e8 28 Re)la&e+e"$ re)r'd%&$i'"5 or each cou,le ha2ing 7ust two chil ren5 will still cause ,o,ulation growth to continue ue to the age structure of the ,o,ulation8 34"

38 Mere re,lacement oes not ,ro uce 5er' )')%la$i'" *r'.$! @no increase in ,o,ulationA #ecause more women enter re,ro ucti2e years than lea2e them8 48 The L3Cs ha2e a higher growth rate #ecause of a youthful age structure an more women entering re,ro ucti2e ages than lea2ing8 "8 The M3Cs ha2e a low growth rate #ecause of a sta#ili'e age structure8 C8 )o,ulation 1rowth an &n2ironmental 0m,act 18 &n2ironmental 0m,act @&808A a8 Both the growing ,o,ulations of L3Cs an the high consum,tion of M3Cs stress the en2ironment8 #8 An a2erage American family5 in terms of consum,tion an waste ,ro uction5 is e>ual to thirty ,eo,le in 0n ia8 c8 M3Cs account for one;fourth the worl ,o,ulation #ut ,ro2i e -.N of the ha'ar ous waste ,ro uction8 8 +esource consum,tion affects the cycling of chemicals an contri#utes to ,ollution an e/tinction of s,ecies8 e8 Conser2ation #iology see9s sustaina#le ,ractices to ,re2ent mass e/tinction of s,ecies8

Le&$%re E"ri&!+e"$ Idea#

E6)erie"&e Ba#e% Many stu ents will confuse the ecological ,rinci,les ,resente here with Ben2ironmentalismC which also inclu es sociology5 law5 ,olitical actions5 etc8 0n a ition5 many will carry in ,reconcei2e attitu es an moral inter,retations towar consumerism5 #irth control5 an the role of economic growth8 18 &/,onential growth can #e illustrate #y a se>uence where one #acterium merely s,lits into two each half hour8 :hile the se>uence #uil s slowly at first5 it soon e/,lo es into huge num#ers8 Lou can relate the legen of the 2i'ier who su,,ose ly in2ente chess5 as9ing merely for grains of wheat5 one on the first chess s>uare5 two on the secon 5 four on the thir 5 for $4 s>uares]a huge num#er an more wheat than was in the 9ing om8 @The num#er is >uite large I2$4=1J8A This ra,i growth cur2e is 2ery im,ortant an useful in growing 2ats of (enicillium5 etc8 28 1rowth cur2es ha2e 2ery ,ractical a,,lications8 )harmaceutical com,anies grow cultures of ,enicillin5 etc8 in large 2ats8 They start them with inoculum an ,ro2i e a huge amount of foo 5 stir5 #uffer wastes5 etc8 Lecture >uestion% At what ,oint in a growth cur2e woul a com,any want to Bhar2estC the ,enicillin mol K 6ote that it will e2entually crash from waste #uil u,8 38 3emonstrate the ifference #etween an e/,onential growth cur2e #ase on a logarithmic scale 2ersus an arithmetic scale8 0nstructors may want to further correlate the relationshi, #etween ifferent ty,es of ,o,ulations @i8e85 large 2ersus small;si'e organisms5 num#er of offs,ringA with sur2i2orshi, cur2es8 48 Math e>uations are not automatically e2i ent to all stu entsD actual num#ers shoul #e ,lugge in an se2eral trials run with each formula so stu ents can gras, that as N a,,roaches I, growth is ramatically re uce 8 "8 As9 stu ents for other e/am,les of r;strategists an I;strategists8 6atural an human istur#ance fa2ors many wee s,ecies8 :hich strategist can #est ta9e imme iate a 2antage 34$

of a new cro, monocultureK As9 why ,re ators @I;strategistsA ta9e longer to catch u, with ,ests8 0f an insectici e is s,raye eliminating #oth ,ests an ,re atory insects5 why is the following insect infestation from resistant s,ecies usually worseK :hy o resistant ,re ators not e2ol2e as ra,i lyK $8 More than most #iological fiel s @e/em,ting e2olutionA5 ecology #rings together 2arious cha,ters of the te/t#oo9 #eginning with the chemical elements5 the organelles of a cell5 cells5 cell res,iration5 ,hotosynthesis5 re,ro uction5 genetics5 le2els of organi'ation @tissues5 organs5 systems5 in i2i ualA5 s,ecies5 ,o,ulations5 an culminating in the ecosystem @#iotic an a#iotic com,onentsA8 (8 Lecture >uestion% !or a farmer trying to ,re ict how much amage will occur to cro,s5 which mo el of community structure woul ma9e it easiest to ,re ict future out#rea9s5 #iotic or a#ioticK @The a#iotic5 with insects< num#ers e,en ent u,on their own a#iotic limitations5 woul #e easier to ,re ict than community interactions8A *8 Lecture >uestion% :hich woul su,,ort a larger community of organisms5 in richness an i2ersity% a larger islan or a smaller islan K
-8 6ote that mainlan China has an effecti2e one;chil ,olicy @e/ce,t in rural areasA #ut the ,o,ulation continues to grow ue to #etter health care an the increase in women entering re,ro ucti2e years8 As a result5 the )+C increase the age for a marriage certificate u, to 24=2*5 e,en ing on the region8 \uery stu ents whether they coul Fshoul wait that long to get marrie 8 Can they thin9 of any other effecti2e way to cur# ,o,ulation growthK 6ote that ,eo,le in e2elo,e China agree that the ,o,ulation must #e limite an that the system must #e fair8

1.8 Biology ma7ors will continue onwar to stu y o,,ortunistic an e>uili#rium s,ecies as r; an I;selecte s,ecies5 res,ecti2ely in more a,,lie situations8 This conce,t is im,ortant in un erstan ing why insectici es that 9ill off #oth harmful r;selecte ,ests an I;selecte #eneficial insect ,re ators soon fail5 #ecause the r;selecte ,ests ha2e a ,otential to re#oun faster after e2ol2ing resistance8
118 The r an I conce,t also in2ol2es energy flowD organisms can only s,en their Benergy ollarC once5 for many small young or for a few large young that re>uire care8 This is the reason that B#ig fierce animals are rareC an why ,olar #ears o not ha2e thousan s of young8

128 Lecture >uestions% :hy are e/otic ,ests often more serious ,ro#lems when they enter a new continent than they were B#ac9 homeKC :hat is ha,,ening when we ,lant an e/otic in our gar en an it cannot sur2i2e outsi e the gar en without our care an Bwee ingCK As9 for the answer in terms of growth ,otential8 138 3iscuss the ,olitical resistance to the i eas ,resente in this cha,ter5 as ,eo,le in the more e2elo,e countries @M3CsA refuse to gi2e u, their #eha2iors of high consum,tion an as those in the less e2elo,e countries @L3CsA want a #etter life for themsel2es8 :e focus on L3Cs e/,loiting their en2ironment #ut consi er that they see us as ha2ing gone through this stage earlierD is it not their turn to #ecome e2elo,e K The conse>uences of a sustaina#le worl ,hiloso,hy will im,inge irectly on stu ents< lifestyle ecisions8 Lecture >uestion% As stu ents5 are you willing to ,ay more so ,ro ucts inclu e the cost of their is,osalK :hat are the conse>uences of not mo2ing to sustaina#le ,racticesK 148 Consi er the arguments raise #y citi'ens of L3Cs an of M3Cs a#out how to re uce the ,ro#lems of increasing ,o,ulation an ,ollution an of ecreasing natural resources8 )ro,ose ways to re uce all these ,ro#lems through international coo,eration8 34(

Cri$i&al T!i",i"*
-%e#$i'" 10 :hy can<t an organism #e ecologically su,erior #y ha2ing #oth a high rate of re,ro uction @r;strategistA an #e #ig an ha2e a long life5 ,arental care5 etc85 of a I;strategistK A"#.er: &nergy is li9e moneyD you can<t s,en it twice8 An organism that ,laces all its energy into many offs,ring has little energy left to ma9e them #ig8 An a lion that ,uts its calories into ma9ing well; e2elo,e cu#s cannot ma9e thousan s of them8 -%e#$i'" 20 0n a es,erate attem,t to control ,o,ulation growth5 the )eo,le<s +e,u#lic of China esta#lishe a one;chil ,olicy8 6e2ertheless5 although the ,olicy was effecti2e es,ecially in the larger cities an e ucate ,o,ulations5 the ,o,ulation continue to grow8 Therefore5 China also elaye the issuance of marriage certificates until age 2" or ol er8 :hy i the one;chil ,olicy not imme iately re uce the ,o,ulation an how oes the elay in marriage age hel,K A"#.er: A sur,lus of many earlier female chil ren was entering re,ro ucti2e age in e/cess of those women who were aging #eyon re,ro uction8 0n a ition5 hygiene an me ical im,ro2ements were lowering the eath rate8 0ncreasing the age at which cou,les are allowe to marry hol s off the surge in young re,ro ucti2e women8 0n s,ite of this austere ,olicy that #rings re,ro uction #elow Bre,lacementC le2els5 China<s ,o,ulation will continue to rise for another eca e8 -%e#$i'" 40 :hy are many ,o,ulations not istri#ute e2enlyK

A"#.er: +esources5 such as foo 5 shelter or suita#le ha#itat5 may not #e istri#ute e2enly8 Organisms may not migrate e2enly nor are foun ers e2erywhere a2aila#le8 -%e#$i'" 70 3o a mouse an a human ha2e the same #iotic ,otentialK A"#.er: 6o8 4umans an mice 2ary in the num#er of offs,ring ,er re,ro uction5 the age until re,ro uction5 the sur2i2al of young5 an the rate of re,eate re,ro uction8 -%e#$i'" ?0 0f we ,lant a monoculture of corn5 why o corn ,ests in2a e from the fence rows an #ecome more estructi2e when there are also insect ,re ators in the fence rowsK A"#.er: The ,ests are r;selecte an can re,ro uce ra,i lyD the ,re ators are E;selecte an re,ro uce slowly8

Te&!"'l'*y 1r'+ M&Gra.;Hill

)lease consult your C'%r#e I"$e*ra$i'" G%ide for technology correlations for this cha,ter8

34*

CHAPTER

7?

COMMUNITY AN ECOSYSTEM ECOLOGY

This cha,ter escri#es the 2arious ty,es of sym#iotic relationshi,s that e/ist in #iological communities8 Many theories escri#ing the communal interactions5 an much terminology is inclu e 8 A num#er of lan mar9 stu ies lea ing to 2arious theories are escri#e 8 An &cology Focus #o/ iscusses B0nteractions an Coe2olution5C an two Science Focus #o/s inclu e5 B0slan Biogeogra,hy )ertains to Bio i2ersity5C an BO'one Shiel 3e,letion8C

C!a)$er O%$li"e
7?01 E&'l'*y '1 C'++%"i$ie#
A &'++%"i$y is a grou, of ,o,ulations that interact with one another in the same en2ironment8 18 Communities 2ary in si'e an may ha2e #oun aries that are ifficult to etermine8 28 A fallen log su,,orts a community #ut a ,assing #ir can eat one of its mem#ers8 38 A forest may a,,ear istinct #ut it gra ually fa es into the surroun ing areas8 A8 Community Structure 18 The #)e&ie# ri&!"e## of a community is a listing of the s,ecies within a communityD it oes not re2eal the relati2e a#un ance of organisms8 a8 !or e/am,le5 a coniferous forest has a ifferent com,osition from a tro,ical rain forest in s,ecies of ,lants an animals8 28 S)e&ie# diver#i$y of a community inclu es not only a listing of the s,ecies in the community5 #ut also the a#un ance of each s,ecies8 a8 The greater the i2ersity5 the greater the num#er an the more e2en the istri#ution of the s,ecies8 #8 A forest with 3$ ,o,lar trees an 41 American elms is more i2erse than a forest with ($ ,o,lar trees #ut only one American elm8 B8 Community 0nteractions 18 A !abi$a$ is where an organism li2es an re,ro uces in the en2ironment8 28 The e&'l'*i&al "i&!e is the role an organism ,lays in its community5 inclu ing its ha#itat an its interactions with other organisms8 a8 The fun"amental niche is the range of con itions un er which it can sur2i2e an re,ro uce8 #8 The reali-e" niche is the set of con itions un er which it e/ists in nature8 38 1eneralist s,ecies @e8g85 raccoons5 roaches5 humansA ha2e a #roa range of niches8 a8 They ha2e a sur2i2al a 2antage when en2ironmental con itions are a,t to change8 48 S)e&iali#$ #)e&ie# @e8g85 ,an as5 s,otte owls5 freshwater ol,hinsA ha2e a narrow range of niches8 a8 They ha2e a sur2i2al a 2antage in sta#le en2ironments8 "8 C'+)e$i$i'" occurs when ifferent s,ecies utili'e a resource @e8g85 light5 nutrientA that is in limite su,,ly8 $8 0f the resource is not in limite su,,ly5 there is no com,etition8 (8 Lot9a an Volterra @1-2.sA e2elo,e a formula% com,etition fa2ors one s,ecies an can eliminate the other8 *8 1ause grew two s,ecies of (aramecium in one test tu#eD only one sur2i2e if they were grown together8 -8 C'+)e$i$ive e6&l%#i'" )ri"&i)le: no two s,ecies can in efinitely occu,y the same niche at the same time8 1.8 O2er time5 either one ,o,ulation re,laces the other or the two s,ecies e2ol2e to occu,y ifferent niches8 118 0f it a,,ears two s,ecies occu,y the same niche5 there must #e slight ifferencesD 1ause foun two s,ecies of ,aramecium coe/iste if one fe on #acteria at the #ottom of the tu#e an the other fe on sus,en e #acteria8 128 Re#'%r&e )ar$i$i'"i"* occurs when s,ecies shift nichesD they no longer irectly com,ete8 a8 Three s,ecies of 1al_,agos 0slan finches ha2e three si'es of #ea9s for small5 me ium5 an large see s8 #8 :hen s,ecies li2e on se,arate islan s5 their #ea9 si'es are interme iateD when they li2e together5 their #ea9 si'es are i2ersifie D this is &!ara&$er di#)la&e+e"$0

34-

!i2e s,ecies of war#lers in the same tree s,ent time in ifferent tree 'ones to a2oi com,etitionD they ha ifferent niches8 8 Swallows5 swifts5 an martins fly in mi/e floc9s eating aerial insects #ut ha2e ifferent nesting sites5 etc8 e8 The a#o2e e/am,les are e uce from alrea y com,lete ,artitioning8 f8 Hose,h Connell stu ie the com,etition occurring in #arnacles that consistently shift to match shoreline ti al 'ones8 1A By remo2ing the larger Balanus #arnacles from the lower 'one5 the smaller #arnacles easily mo2e in8 2A The smaller #arnacle is more resistant to rying outD #ut the larger one can o2ergrow it8 C8 )re ator;)rey 0nteractions 18 Preda$i'" occurs when one organism @)reda$'rA fee s on another @)reyA8 28 0n a #roa sense5 it inclu es not only single ,re ator;,rey 9ills5 #ut also filter fee ing whales that strain 9rill5 ,arasitic tic9s that suc9 #loo 5 an e2en her#i2orous eer that eat lea2es8 38 )re ator;)rey )o,ulation 3ynamics a8 Some ,re ators re uce the ensities of their ,rey8 1A :hen 1ause reare the ,roto'oans (aramecium cau"atum an Di"inium nasutum together in culture5 Di"inium ate all the (aramecium an then ie of star2ation8 2A :hen ,ric9ly;,ear cactus was intro uce to Australia from South America5 it s,rea wil ly without com,etition on the esertD a natural ,re ator moth from South America was intro uce an the cactus an moth ,o,ulations ,lummete ramatically8 #8 6atural ,re ator;,rey relationshi,s allow ,ersistent ,o,ulations of #oth ,re ator an ,rey ,o,ulations5 though #oth may fluctuate o2er time8 1A Often a gra,h of ,re ator;,rey ,o,ulation ensities shows regular ,ea9s an 2alleys with the ,re ator ,o,ulation lagging slightly #ehin the ,reyD two reasons are ,ossi#le8

c8

aA The #iotic ,otential of the ,re ator may #e great enough to o2erconsume the ,reyD the ,rey ,o,ulation eclines an the ,re ator ,o,ulation then follows8 #A Or the #iotic ,otential of the ,rey is una#le to 9ee, ,ace an the ,rey ,o,ulation o2ershoots the carrying ca,acity an suffers a crash8
The Classic Case of the Snowshoe 4are an the Cana ian Lyn/ a8 Careful recor s of ,elts of #oth animals for o2er a century ha2e emonstrate regular fluctuations8 #8 To test whether the lyn/ or hare foo su,,ly was causing the cycling5 three e/,eriments were one8 1A A hare ,o,ulation was gi2en a constant su,,ly of foo an ,re ators were e/clu e D the cycling cease 8 2A The hare ,o,ulations were gi2en a constant foo su,,ly #ut ,re ators were not e/clu e D the cycling continue 8 3A )re ators were then e/clu e #ut no e/tra foo was a e D the cycling continue 8 c8 The inter,retation of these results is that #oth a hare foo cycle an a ,re ator;hare cycle com#ine to ,ro uce the o2erall effect8 8 The grouse ,o,ulation also cycle5 ,erha,s #ecause the lyn/ switches to grouse when the hare ,o,ulations eclineD thus ,re ators an ,rey o not normally e/ist as sim,le two;s,ecies systems8 38 )rey 3efenses 18 )rey ha2e e2ol2e a 2ariety of anti,re ator efenses8 28 )lant a a,tations for iscouraging ,re ation inclu e% a8 shar, s,ines5 #8 tough leathery lea2es5 c8 ,oisonous chemicals in their tissues5 an 8 chemicals that act as hormone analogues to interfere with insect lar2al e2elo,ment8 48

38 Animals ha2e efenses that inclu e% a8 &a+'%1la*e for concealmentD this also re>uires #eha2ior @stillnessA5 #8 cry,tic coloration to #len into the surroun ings5 c8 fright of the ,re ator5 3".

8 warning coloration5 an e8 2igilance an association with other ,rey for #etter warning8
&8 Mimicry 18 Mi+i&ry occurs if one s,ecies @the mimicA resem#les another s,ecies @the mo elA ,ossessing an anti,re ator efense8 28 Batesian mimicry3 name for 4enry Bates5 is a form of mimicry in which one s,ecies that lac9s efense mimics another that has successful efenses8 38 Mellerian mimicry5 name for !rit' Meller5 is where se2eral ifferent s,ecies with the ,rotecti2e efenses mimic one another @e8g85 stinging insects all share same #lac9 an yellow color #an sA8 !8 Sym#iotic +elationshi,s 18 Sym#iosis is a close relationshi, #etween mem#ers of two ,o,ulations8 28 )arasitism a8 Para#i$i#+ is similar to ,re ationD the )ara#i$e eri2es nourishment from the !'#$0 #8 Viruses are always ,arasiticD ,arasites occur in all 9ing oms of life8 c8 &n o,arasites are small an li2e insi e the host8 8 &cto,arasites are larger an remain attache to the #o y of hosts #y s,eciali'e organs or a,,en ages8 e8 Many ,arasites ha2e two hosts8 1A The ,rimary host is the main source of nutrition8 2A The secon ary host may ser2e to trans,ort @2ectorA the ,arasite to other hosts8 f8 )arasites are s,ecific an re>uire certain s,ecies as hosts8 38 Commensalism a8 0n &'++e"#ali#+3 one s,ecies #enefits an the other is neither harme nor #enefitte 8 #8 0t is ifficult to etermine true commensalism #ecause it is ifficult to ensure that the host is not harme 8 c8 Barnacles secure a home #y attaching themsel2es to the #ac9s of whales an the shells of horseshoe cra#s8 8 +emora fish attach themsel2es to the #ellies of shar9s5 securing a free ri e an the remains of the shar9<s meals8 e8 &,i,hytes @S,anish mossA grow in the #ranches of trees to recei2e light #ut ta9e no nourishment from the tree8 f8 Clownfish li2e within the tentacles of sea anemones for ,rotection8 g8 Some relationshi,s are so loose that it is ifficult to 9now if they are true commensalism8 1A Cattle egrets fee near cattle #ecause the egrets flush insects as they gra'e8 2A Ba#oons an antelo,es forage together for a e ,rotection8 48 Mutualism a8 0n +%$%ali#+5 #oth s,ecies #enefit8 #8 Mutualism can #e foun among organisms in all 9ing oms of life8 c8 &/am,les inclu e the following% 1A Bacteria in the human intestinal tract are ,ro2i e with some of our foo #ut also ,ro2i e us with 2itamins8 2A Termites can only fee on woo #ecause their gut contains the ,roto'oa that igest cellulose8 3A Mycorrhi'ae are sym#iotic associations #etween the roots of fungal hy,hae an ,lants8 4A !lowers an insect ,ollinators re,resent a shift from insects eating ,ollen to eating nectar8 "A Lichens are ma e of algae that ,ro uce foo an fungi that ,reser2e water5 although the algae can sur2i2e alone8 8 Classic &/am,le of the Ant an the Acacia Tree 1A 0n tro,ical America5 the #ullhorn acacia ,ro2i es a home for ants in its hollow thorns8 2A The acacia also ,ro2i es ants with foo from its nectaries5 an ,rotein in no ules calle Beltian #o ies8 3A 0n return5 the ant ,rotects the ,lant from her#i2ores an other ,lants that might sha e it8 4A :hen ants on an e/,erimental tree were 9ille with insectici e5 the tree also ie 8 f8 Cleaning Sym#iosis 1A Crustacea5 fish5 an #ir s act as cleaners to a 2ariety of 2erte#rate clientsD this is calle cleaning symbiosis8 2A Large fish in coral reefs line u, at cleaning stations an wait their turn to #e cleane #y small

3"1

18 other8

fish8 3A The ,ossi#ility of fee ing on host tissues as well as on ecto,arasites com,licates this case of mutualism8 0nteractions an Coe2olution @&cology Focus #o/A 18 C'ev'l%$i'" occurs when two s,ecies a a,t in res,onse to selecti2e ,ressure im,ose #y the 28

Sym#iotic associations are es,ecially ,rone to the ,rocess of coe2olution8 a8 An e/am,le of coe2olution is #etween flowers an their ,ollinators8 !lowers ,ollinate #y animals ha2e features that attract them8 #8 Another e/am,le of coe2olution occurs #etween ,re ators an ,rey8 1A Cheetahs s,rint forwar to catch ,rey5 an ga'elles that are fast enough a2oi ca,ture8 O2er generations5 a fast running s,ee may ,ut selecti2e ,ressure on the ,re ator for an a a,tation to the ,rey<s efense mechanism8 c8 Coe2olution can also ta9e form as the relationshi, #etween ,arasite an host8 1A :hen snails of the genus Succinea are ,arasiti'e #y worms of the genus @eucochlori"ium5 they are eaten #y #ir s8 As worm matures5 they in2a e the snail<s eyestal9s5 ma9ing them resem#le e i#le cater,illars8 The #ir s then eat the snails5 an the ,arasites release their eggs8 48 0slan Biogeogra,hy )ertains to Bio i2ersity @Science Focus #o/A 18 +o#ert MacArthur an &8 O8 :ilson e2elo,e the general theory of islan" biogeography8 28 6ear#y islan s ha2e more s,ecies #ecause immigration is easier8 38 Larger islan s ha2e more s,ecies #ecause a large islan has more resources8 48 B0slan sC can also inclu e ,atches of forest surroun e #y cro,lan 5 housing e2elo,ments5 etc8 a8 The spatial heterogeneity mo"el escri#es the patchiness of an en2ironment8 #8 The greater the num#er of ha#itat ,atches5 the greater the i2ersity8 "8 Stratification is an increase in 2ertical li2ing s,acesD a tree cano,y ,ro2i es a high;rise ha#itat an 2ertical ,atchiness8 $8 An e>uili#rium ,oint is reache when the rate of s,ecies immigration matches the rate of s,ecies e/tinction8 (8 An e>uili#rium ,oint can #e ynamic with many s,ecies arri2ing an e,arting5 or stea y unless istur#e 8 7?02 C'++%"i$y evel')+e"$ Communities change o2er #oth short an long inter2als of time ue to continental rift5 glaciation5 etc8 A8 &cological Succession 18 E&'l'*i&al #%&&e##i'" is a change in2ol2ing a series of s,ecies re,lacements in a community following a istur#ance8 28 (rimary succession #egins in a ha#itat lac9ing soilD this might occur following a 2olcanic eru,tion8 38 Secon"ary succession #egins when soil is alrea y ,resent #ut it has #een istur#e an returns to a natural state5 as in an a#an one cornfiel 8 a8 0n the first years5 wil grasses an other )i'"eer #)e&ie# @,lants that are in2a ers of istur#e areasA in2a e8 #8 Soon se ges an shru#s in2a e8 c8 Later5 there is a mi/ture of shru#s an trees8 48 0n 1-1$5 Clements ,ro,ose the clima!.pattern mo"el of succession% that succession lea s to a clima/ community that is characteristic for an area8 a8 A &li+a6 &'++%"i$y has a community com,osition that e,en s on climate8 1A 3ry climates e2entually ,ro uce eserts8 2A :et climates ,rocee to forests8 3A 0nterme iate moisture will result in grasslan s5 shru#s5 etc8 4A Soils will also influence the e2elo,ing community8 #8 &ach stage facilitates the occurrence of the ne/t stage @calle the facilitation mo"elA8 1A Shru#s cannot grow on unes until the une grass has e2elo,e the soil8 2A Therefore the grass;shru#;forest must occur se>uentially8 "8 The inhibition mo"el challenge Clements<s 2iew of succession8 a8 Colonists hol onto their s,ace an inhi#it the growth of other ,lants until the colonists ie8 #8 3eath releases resources that allow ifferent5 longer;li2e s,ecies to in2a e8

3"2

The tolerance mo"el ,ro2i es yet another 2iew of succession8 a8 Sheer chance may etermine which see s arri2e firstD in this case5 the successional stages may merely reflect the maturation time8 #8 Trees merely ta9e more time to e2elo,D howe2er5 #oth facilitation an inhi#ition of growth may #e ta9ing ,lace8 (8 All mo els are ,ro#a#ly in2ol2e an succession may not often reach the same final ,otential natural community8 7?04 y"a+i&# '1 a" E&'#y#$e+ 0n an e&'#y#$e+3 ,o,ulations interact among themsel2es an with the ,hysical en2ironment8 A8 Autotro,hs 18 A%$'$r')!# ca,ture energy @e8g85 sunlightA an use it5 along with inorganic nutrients5 to ,ro uce organic com,oun sD therefore they are also calle )r'd%&er#0 28 )hotosynthetic organisms ,ossess chloro,hyll an carry on ,hotosynthesis8 a8 Algae are the main ,ro ucers in freshwater an marine en2ironments8 #8 1reen ,lants are the main lan ,hotosynthesi'ers8 38 Chemoautotro,hs are #acteria that o#tain energy from the o/i ation of inorganic com,oun s such as ammonia5 nitrites5 an sulfi esD they synthesi'e car#ohy rates an are foun in ca2e communities an ocean e,ths8 B8 4eterotro,hs 18 He$er'$r')!# nee a source of ,reforme organic nutrients an consume tissues of other organismsD they are calle &'"#%+er#0 28 Herbiv're# are animals that fee irectly on green ,lants8 38 Car"iv're# are animals that eat other animals8 48 O+"iv're# can fee u,on a 2ariety of organisms5 inclu ing ,lants an animalsD humans are omni2ores8 "8 e&'+)'#er# are non,hotosynthetic #acteria an fungi that e/tract energy from ea matter5 inclu ing animal wastes in the soil5 an ma9e nutrients a2aila#le8 $8 Some animals @e8g85 earthwormsA fee on etritusthe ecom,osing ,ro ucts of organisms?these organisms are calle de$ri$iv're#0 C8 &nergy !low an Chemical Cycling 18 All ecosystems are e,en ent u,on solar energy flow an finite ,ools of nutrients8 28 Most ecosystems cannot e/ist without a continual su,,ly of solar energy8 38 &nergy flow in an ecosystem is a conse>uence of two fun amental laws of thermo ynamics8 a8 The first law of thermo ynamics states energy can neither #e create nor estroye D it can only #e change from one form of energy to another8 #8 The secon law of thermo ynamics states when energy is transforme from one form to another5 there is always some loss of energy from the system5 usually as low gra e heat8 38 &nergy !low

$8

18 The com,le/ tro,hic @fee ingA relationshi,s that e/ist in nature are calle 1''d .eb#0
28 38 48 "8 $8 (8 A gra'ing foo we# #egins with lea2es5 stems5 an see s eaten #y her#i2ores an omni2ores8 A etrital foo we# #egins with etritus5 followe #y ecom,osers @inclu ing #acteria an fungiA8 3etrital foo chains are connecte to a gra'ing foo chain when consumers of a gra'ing foo chain fee on the ecom,osers of the etrital foo chain8 0n some ecosystems5 more energy may mo2e through the etrital foo we# than mo2es through the etritus foo we#8 A 1''d &!ai" re,resents a single ,ath se>uence of organisms that form lin9s8 A $r')!i& level is a fee ing le2el of one or more ,o,ulations in a foo we#D those organisms in an ecosystem that are the same num#er of foo chain ste,s from the energy in,ut into the system% a8 !irst tro,hic le2el?,rimary ,ro ucers8 #8 Secon tro,hic le2el?all the ,rimary consumers8 c8 Thir tro,hic le2elMall the secon ary consumers5 etc8 A#out 1.N of the energy at a ,articular tro,hic le2el is incor,orate into the ne/t tro,hic le2el8 a8 Thus5 15... 9g @or 9cal in an energy ,yrami A of ,lant material con2erts to 1.. 9g of her#i2ore tissue5 which con2erts to 1. 9g of first carni2ores5 which can su,,ort 1 9g of secon le2el carni2ores8 #8 This ra,i loss of energy is the reason foo chains ha2e from three to four lin9s5 rarely

*8

3"3

fi2e8 c8 This ra,i loss of energy is also the reason there are few large carni2ores8 -8 An e&'l'*i&al )yra+id shows this tro,hic structure of an ecosystem as a gra,h re,resenting #iomass5 organism num#er5 or energy content of each tro,hic le2el in a foo we#8 1.8 The #ase of the ,yrami re,resents the ,ro ucer tro,hic le2el5 an from there the consumer tro,hic le2el is stac9e 5 with the a,e/ re,resenting the highest consumer tro,hic le2el8 118 A ,yrami of num#ers is #ase on the num#er of organisms in each tro,hic le2el8 128 A ,yrami of bi'+a## is #ase on the weight @#iomassA of organisms at each tro,hic le2el at one timeD this eliminates si'e of the organisms as a factor8 a8 Gsually a large mass of ,lants su,,orts a me ium mass of her#i2ores an a small mass of carni2ores8 #8 4owe2er5 at one ,oint in time at seashores5 her#i2ores can ha2e greater #iomass fee ing on algae that re,ro uce fast #ut are eaten5 ,ro ucing an in2erte ,yrami D o2er long time ,erio s5 the #iomass is a normal ,yrami 8 138 One ,ro#lem is where to fit in the ecom,osersD a large ,ortion of energy #ecomes etritus in many ecosystems8 &8 Chemical Cycling 18 Bi'*e'&!e+i&al &y&le# are the ,athways #y which chemicals circulate through the #iotic an a#iotic com,onents of an ecosystem8 28 Some cycles are ,rimarily gaseous cycles @car#on an nitrogenAD others are se imentary cycles5 @,hos,horusA8 38 A reser#oir is that ,ortion of &arth that acts as a storehouse for the element8 48 An e!change pool is the ,ortion of the en2ironment from which ,ro ucers ta9e chemicals5 such as the atmos,here or soil8 "8 The biotic community is the ,athway through which chemicals mo2e through foo chains8 !8 The :ater Cycle 18 A $ra"#1er ra$e is efine as the amount of a su#stance that mo2es from one com,onent of the en2ironment to another within a s,ecifie ,erio of time8 28 0n the .a$er or !ydr'l'*i& &y&le5 freshwater e2a,orates an con enses on &arth8 38 The eva)'ra$i'" of water from the oceans lea2es #ehin saltsD uring &'"de"#a$i'"3 a gas is e/change into a li>ui ?2a,ori'e fresh water rises into the atmos,here an returns to &arth in the form of )re&i)i$a$i'"0 48 )reci,itation that ,ercolates into the &arth forms a water ta#le at the surface of the groun water8 "8 An a>uifer is an un ergroun storage of fresh water in ,orous roc9 tra,,e #y im,er2ious roc98 $8 !reshwater ma9es u, a#out 3N of the worl <s su,,ly of water an is consi ere a renewa#le resource8 (8 4owe2er5 freshwater #ecomes una2aila#le when consum,tion e/cee s su,,ly or is so ,ollute that it is not usa#leD when water with rawal from a>uifers e/cee s re,lenishment5 it is calle Bgroun water mining8C 18 The Car#on Cycle 18 Both terrestrial an a>uatic organisms e/change car#on io/i e with the atmos,here?this is calle the &arb'" &y&le0 28 On lan 5 ,hotosynthesis remo2es CO2 from the atmos,hereD res,iration then returns CO2 to the atmos,here8 38 CO2 from the air com#ines with water to ,ro uce #icar#onate @4CO3A5 which is a source of car#on for a>uatic ,ro ucers5 ,rimarily ,rotists8 48 Similarly5 when a>uatic organisms res,ire5 the CO2 they release com#ines with water to form #icar#onate ions @4CO3;A8 "8 The reser2oir for the car#on cycle is largely com,ose of organic matter5 calcium car#onate in shells5 an limestone5 as well as fossil fuels8 $8 The transfer rates #etween ,hotosynthesis an res,iration @inclu ing ecayA are a#out e2en8 (8 Because we #urn fossil fuels an forests5 there is now more CO2 entering the atmos,here than is remo2e 8 *8 CO25 nitrous o/i e5 an methane are *ree"!'%#e *a#e# that contri#ute to the rise in &arth<s tem,erature5 a ,henomenon calle *l'bal .ar+i"*0 -8 The a#o2e gases an water 2a,or increase the *ree"!'%#e e11e&$ that hol s heat ne/t to the &arth8 1.8 The increase heat may cause more clou s that in turn increase glo#al warming8

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118 Com,uter mo els cannot incor,orate all 2aria#lesD ,re ictions are for 18"=48"oC increase #y 21..8 128 )ossi#le results may inclu e glaciers melting5 sea le2els rising5 a re istri#ution of ry an wet regions5 an an increase in s,ecies e/tinctions8 48 The )hos,horus Cycle 18 0n the )!'#)!'r%# &y&le5 weathering ma9es ,hos,hate ions @)O4 an 4)O42A a2aila#le to ,lants that ta9e u, ,hos,hate from the soil8 28 Some of this ,hos,hate runs off into a>uatic ecosystems where algae incor,orate it into organic molecules #efore it is entra,,e in se iments8 38 )hos,hate that is not ta9en u, #y algae is incor,orate into se iments in the oceans8 48 Se iment ,hos,hate only #ecomes a2aila#le when geological u,hea2al e/,oses se imentary roc9s8 "8 )hos,hate ta9en u, #y ,ro ucers is incor,orate into a 2ariety of organic com,oun s8 $8 Animals eat ,ro ucers an incor,orate some of the ,hos,hate into ,hos,holi,i s5 AT)5 an nucleoti es of 36AD howe2er what is in teeth5 #ones5 an shells oes not ecay for long ,erio s8 (8 3ecay of organisms an ecom,osition of animal wastes e2entually ma9es ,hos,hate ions a2aila#le again8 *8 A2aila#le ,hos,hate is generally ta9en u, >uic9lyD it is usually the limiting nutrient in most ecosystems8 -8 4uman Acti2ities an the )hos,horus Cycle a8 4umans #oost the su,,ly of ,hos,hate #y mining ,hos,hate ores for fertili'ers5 etergents5 etc8 #8 +un;off of animal wastes from li2estoc9 fee lots an commercial fertili'ers from cro,lan as well as ischarge of untreate an treate munici,al sewage can all a e/cess ,hos,hate to near#y waters8 c8 E%$r')!i&a$i'" is the name of this o2er;enrichment that lea s to algal #loomsD when the algae ie off5 ecom,osers use u, all of the o/ygen an this can cause a massi2e fish 9ill8 08 The 6itrogen Cycle 18 6itrogen gas @62A is (*N of the atmos,here5 yet nitrogen eficiency can limit ,lant growth8 28 0n the nitrogen cycle5 ,lants cannot incor,orate 62 into organic com,oun s an they therefore e,en on the 2arious ty,es of #acteria to ma9e nitrogen a2aila#le to them8 38 Ni$r'*e" 1i6a$i'" occurs when 62 is con2erte to a form that ,lants can use8 a8 Other nitrogen;fi/ing #acteria5 li2ing in no ules on the roots of legumes5 ma9e re uce nitrogen an organic com,oun s a2aila#le to a host ,lant8 #8 Some cyano#acteria in water an the free;li2ing #acteria in soil are a#le to re uce 62 to ammonium @644O A8 c8 )lants ta9e u, #oth 644O an nitrate @6O3A from the soil8 8 After ,lants ta9e u, 6O35 it is en'ymatically re uce to 644O that is then use to synthesi'e amino an nucleic aci s8 48 Ni$ri1i&a$i'" is the ,ro uction of nitrates @6O3A8 a8 6itrogen gas is con2erte to 6O3 in the atmos,here when cosmic ra iation5 meteor trails5 an lightning ,ro2i e the high energy for nitrogen to react with o/ygen8 #8 6itrifying #acteria con2ert 644O to 6O38 c8 Ammonium in the soil is con2erte to 6O3 #y nitrifying #acteria in the soil in a two;ste, ,rocess that oes not e,en on nitrogen gas8 1A !irst5 nitrite;,ro ucing #acteria con2ert 644O to nitrite @6O3A8 2A Then5 nitrate;,ro ucing #acteria con2ert 6O2 to 6O38 "8 e"i$ri1i&a$i'" is con2ersion of 6O3 to nitrous o/i e @62OA an 628 a8 There are enitrifying #acteria in #oth a>uatic an terrestrial ecosystems8 #8 3enitrification counter#alances nitrogen fi/ation5 #ut not com,letelyD more nitrogen fi/ation occurs8 $8 4uman Acti2ities an the 6itrogen Cycle a8 )ro uction of fertili'ers an #urning of fossil fuels a s three times the nitrogen o/i es to the atmos,here as normal8 #8 A&id de)'#i$i'" occurs when nitrogen o/i es an sulfur o/i es com#ine with water 2a,or in the atmos,here8 H8 O'one Shiel 3e,letion @Science Focus #o/A 18 0n the stratos,here5 o'one forms the '5'"e #!ield3 which a#sor#s most of the ultra2iolet @GVA rays of

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28

38

48 "8 $8 (8

the sun so that fewer rays stri9e the &arth8 GV ra iation can cause some harmful effects8 a8 0t causes mutations that can lea to s9in cancer an ma9e the eye lens e2elo, cataracts8 #8 GV ra iation can a 2ersely affect our immune system5 ma9ing use more susce,ti#le to infection8 c8 GV ra iation im,airs cro, an tree growth an s9ills algae an 9rill that are at the #ase of many foo we#s8 0n the 1-*.s5 scientists #ecame concerne that o'one e,letion was occurring worl ;wi e an most serious a#o2e the Antarctic e2ery s,ring8 a8 O'one holes ha2e also #een etecte a#o2e the Arctic5 an within northern an southern latitu es5 where many ,eo,le li2e8 The cause of o'one e,letion was foun to #e chlorine atoms @ClA5 which can estroy u, to 1..5... molecules of o'one #efore settling #ac9 to the &arth<s surface8 Chlorine atoms entere the stratos,here from the #rea9 own of &!l'r'1l%'r'&arb'"# @CFC#A8 a8 The #est;9nown C!C is !reon5 which is a coolant foun in refrigerators an air con itioners8 #8 C!Cs are also use in cleaning agents an in styrafoam inflation5 insulation5 an ,a ings8 The Gnite States sto,,e the ,ro uction of C!Cs in 1--"5 an since then the amount of Clorine atoms in the stratos,here has starte to ecline8 4owe2er5 currently there are more ,olar clou s @which contri#ute to o'one e,letionA than ,re2iously thought8 a8 As the surface of the &arth warms5 ue to glo#al warming5 less heat rera iates into the stratos,here8 #8 0t is s,eculate that once ,olar stratos,heric clou s #ecome twice as ,ersistent5 there coul still #e an o'one loss of 3.N8

Le&$%re E"ri&!+e"$ Idea#

E6)erie"&e Ba#e% Many stu ents will #e familiar with a #ac9yar gar en an 9now what ha,,ens when it is left untille 8 4owe2er5 others will re>uire me ia to illustrate this conce,t5 as well as the coral reef commensals an 9eystone ,re ators8 Gn erstan ing of the e/otics an 9eystone s,ecies may also re>uire illustration8 The 'e#ra mussel ,ro#lem will #e recogni'e #y stu ents in the &ast an Mi west8 The African honey#ee ,ro#lem will #e familiar to stu ents along the southern G8S8 #or er8 18 Gse local e/am,les to escri#e how any two s,ecies in the same community must occu,y at least slightly ifferent niches8 0n the G8S8 Mi west5 corn has many insect her#i2ores% corn earworm5 corn stem #orer5 an corn rootworm8 4ow can they all sur2i2e in the same fiel K 28 3iscuss how organisms that ha2e a host;,arasite relationshi, must actually coe2ol2e8 :hy woul there necessarily #e a relationshi, #etween the ,hylogenies wor9e out for loons an loon liceK :hat is the fate of a loon louse if its only host goes e/tinctK One way to hel, etermine s,ecies relationshi,s5 such as among #ir s5 is to e/amine the relationshi, of the ,arasites that #a#y #ir s get from their ,arents in the nest8 38 3iscuss isease as a ,arasitic relationshi, #etween the host an the isease;,ro ucing organism5 an consi er the Bnew iseases5C such as A03S5 which 9ill the host5 as o,,ose to a isease such as a col 5 which oes not8 48 The e2olution of 2iral an #acterial iseases can also #e e/,laine as a case of cycling8 The num#ers of in i2i uals who come own with the current strain of influen'a ,ea9s5 then most are resistant until another strain e2ol2es8 &/,lain how this iffers in time an mechanism from ,re ator;,rey cycling8

3"$

"8 !re eric9 Clements saw the changes in 2egetation that occurre in 6e#ras9a following a torna o or ,rairie fire5 #ut he was the first to see a ,attern to it an call the ,henomenon Bsuccession8C 4is error was in consi ering the community a Bsu,er;organismC that acte as a grou,8 This might #e a goo ,lace to #riefly iscuss the recent 1aia hy,othesis that is sometimes use to ,romote the whole worl as a su,er;organism8 Currently scientists are e#ating the same issue% is the whole more than the sum of its ,artsK $8 Successional changes are often in res,onse to human;ma e istur#ance8 0n ee 5 there is little 2irgin tim#erlan or ,rairie left in the Gnite States8 6early all of &uro,e an ,o,ulate China re,resent surfaces that ha2e #een intensely culti2ate for centuries8 Animals li9ewise are hea2ily res,onsi#le for the se>uence of succession5 through ,lowing of soil5 istri#ution of see s5 etc8 The term Bclima/C is #eing re,lace with the term B,otential natural communityC to reflect the ifference #etween the current istur#e community an what might ,otentially #e ,resent in the a#sence of the human acti2ity5 without allu ing to a su,er; organism effect8 (8 Lecture >uestion% !or a farmer trying to ,re ict how much amage will occur to cro,s5 which mo el of community structure woul ma9e it easiest to ,re ict future out#rea9s5 interacti2e or in i2i ualisticK The in i2i ualistic mo el5 with insects< num#ers e,en ent u,on their own a#iotic limitations5 woul #e easier to ,re ict than community interactions8 *8 !re eric9 Clements first escri#e succession of plant communities an went on to iscuss ,lant communities as a su,erorganism that mo2e in to re,lace earlier communities an was self;healing8 1leason o,,ose this 2iew an conten e succession was a ,lant;#y;,lant struggle for resources that e2entually resulte in a community change8 MacArthur in2estigate this in the fiel an ,ro2e 1leason correct8 This is of current interest #ecause the conce,t of 1aia is often ,resente in a similar Bworl is a su,erorganism an is self; healingC manner8 -8 Succession is usually ,resente as a se>uence of changes in plant communities an consumer animals are 7ust left to follow along #ehin 8 Victor Shelfor escri#e the succession of the 0n iana la9eshore unes inclu ing insect life8 +ecent wor9 has shown animals to #e critical in is,ersing most ,lants an in soil formation8 1.8 Lecture >uestions% :hy are e/otic ,ests often more serious ,ro#lems when they enter a new continent than they were B#ac9 homeCK :hat is ha,,ening when we ,lant an e/otic in our gar en an it cannot sur2i2e outsi e the gar en without our care an Bwee ingCK 118 3iscuss the laws of thermo ynamics an why there is not recycling of energy as there is of chemicals in an ecosystem8 Clarify the conce,t of Bheat eathC or that all energy e2entually issi,ates away8 128 3iscuss why the store energy in a foo we# can #e re,resente as a ,yrami an why the largest energy le2el an usually the largest #iomass are all locate on the ,ro ucer le2el5 #ut not necessarily the largest num#er of in i2i uals8 4umans har2est #iomass regularly when mowing a lawn5 har2esting hay5 commercially fishing5 etc8 138 :atching weather ma,s ,ro2i es a 2iew of ,art of the water cycle8 Most water molecules originate as water e2a,orate from the )acific Ocean @west coastA or Cari##ean @central G8S8 an east coastA an ha2e staye aloft si/ to nine ays8 148 Some stu ents will fin it ifficult to thin9 of too much of a nutrient as #eing an ecological 3"(

,ro#lem5 as in ,hos,horus an eutro,hication8 Many may not ha2e #een e/,ose to the smelly stagnant ,on 5 an 2isuals may not a e>uately escri#e the situation8 Calling on classmates to escri#e such en2ironments may hel, con2ey the con itions8 1"8 Big cycles re>uire #ig 2isuals in or er to 9ee, trac9 of the system an how it returns8 1enerally5 a cru e iagram that is starte #y the instructor from scratch on a #lac9#oar or o2erhea is su,erior to an elegant fully; e2elo,e 2isual ,ro7ecte Bwhole;clothC% stu ents are hesitant to try to co,y own the com,le/ com,lete iagrams an miss an im,ortant learning e/,erience from following through the #uil u, of the cycle iagram8
1$8 Clarify that the greenhouse effect is a ,ro2en ,henomenon that is not in is,ute an is measura#le in e2ery ay life in greenhouses or e2en a warm car on a col winter ay8 1lo#al warming is a contro2ersial ,olitical to,icD the increase in a2erage glo#al tem,eratures is ,re icte #y some scientists5 >uestione #y others8 &2en among those who #elie2e that a2erage glo#al tem,eratures are increasing5 there is e#ate a#out whether this is a natural interglacial fluctuation or if it is cause #y human acti2ities8

Cri$i&al T!i",i"*
-%e#$i'" 10 :hen researchers re,eat the two ,arameciumFonly one true me ium e/,eriment to test the only; one;s,ecies;in;a;niche hy,othesis5 often either one can #e the sur2i2ing s,ecies?it is not always the same s,ecies that ominates8 :hy might this #e trueK A"#.er: :hile the en2ironment an me ia are uniform5 the s,ecies themsel2es ha2e re,ro ucti2e cycles an ifferent meta#olic wastes8 Starting the com,etition e/,eriment at ifferent stages in each organism<s cycle coul ,lace one at a isa 2antage8 0n a ition5 ifferent num#ers of each s,ecies or ,ro,ortions use at the #eginning coul ti, the #alance either way as ifferent wastes are e/crete 8 -%e#$i'" 20 +o ents in Vietnam li2e with the ,lague #acteria without getting sic9D ro ents in 0n ia are mo erately resistant an ro ents in &uro,e are 9ille ra,i ly8 0n contrast5 ,eo,les of &uro,ean origin may #ecome ill with tu#erculosis #ut rarely ie of it5 while the same #acterial tu#erculosis is a much more 2irulent isease in Asia8 Me ical researchers #elie2e that ,lague historically originate in southeast Asia #ut tu#erculosis was only recently intro uce into Asia8 :hyK A"#.er: 0f a isease an a host ha2e ha long ,erio s of time together5 susce,ti#le in i2i uals ha2e #een eliminate or left far fewer offs,ring while resistant hosts ha2e sur2i2e an left more offs,ring8 Therefore5 the current ,atterns of resistance re2eal the time ,erio the host an ,arasite ha2e #een together8 Actually5 there are also historical recor s for the more recent intro uction of tu#erculosis to Asia8 -%e#$i'" 40 :hy woul succession to ay ,erha,s not lea to the same clima/ community that Clements first saw a century agoK A"#.er: Succession is a change in li2ing communities o2er time5 etermine #y the #uil u, of soil an com,etition for resources such as light5 water5 an nutrients5 an #ase on the a2aila#le soil5 see #an95 an ,lant is,ersal systems8 0t is #ase on the a2aila#le s,ecies that are a#le to withstan the local ,hysical an climatic con itions8 )rimary succession #egins on #are roc9 an re>uires much time for ,ioneer ,lants to #uil u, the soil layer to allow grasses5 shru#s5 an e2entually forests to grow8 Secon ary succession #egins with soil alrea y ,resentD it usually has #een mo2e #ac9 to an early stage #y floo 5 fire5 culti2ation5 glaciers5 etc85 an can ra,i ly mo2e to a clima/ community if see s are a2aila#le8 0f the mo ern istur#ances ha2e greatly altere the microclimate5 the soil5 or other factors5 then the ,otential natural community may ne2er #e reache #ecause the community no longer has the organisms or tolerance to return to the earlier clima/ community8 -%e#$i'" 70 0n the case of the #a ;tasting monarch #utterfly an the goo ;tasting 2iceroy that is a Batesian mimic5 what ha,,ens if there is a larger num#er of mimicsK 4ow woul this iffer in the case of a Mullerian mimicK A"#.er: The effecti2eness of the mimicry relies on ,re ators learning the mo el is #a tasting or stings5 etc8 The

3"*

orange;an ;#lac9 2iceroy is harmless #ut achie2es ,rotection #y resem#ling the #a ;tasting monarch8 0f the Batesian mimic @2iceroyA #ecomes too common5 it waters own the effecti2eness of the warning ,atternD too many #ir s li9e eating the ma7ority of 2iceroys they catch8 4owe2er5 a Mullerian mimic also has anti;,re ator efenses an co,ies others with similar warning coloration5 there#y strengthening the effect of the warning coloration8

-%e#$i'" ?0 Su,,ose that an a2erage stu ent weighs 1.. ,oun s8 4e or she was #orn at ,ro#a#ly near to se2en ,oun s8 :here i the e/tra -3 ,oun s come from5 an minimally how much foo ha to #e eaten to ,ro uce those new tissuesK A"#.er: The a itional weight was a e #y ingesting ,lant an animal tissues an using the energy in the chemical #on s an the molecules to #uil new tissues8 :ith a rough efficiency of 1. ,ercent5 o2er -3. ,oun s of foo woul #e re>uire to #uil these tissues5 with some going to form the tissues5 some ,ro2i ing meta#olic energy5 an most #eing lost8 -%e#$i'" B0 China is 2ery crow e with a#out the same lan mass as the G8S8 #ut with fi2e times more ,eo,le an less farmlan 8 Therefore5 there is much effort ,lace on intensi2e culti2ation of cro,s to fee ,eo,le5 an any loss of grain to com,etitors is a threat to the ,o,ulation8 3uring the B1reat Lea, !orwar C it was o#ser2e that song#ir s occasionally ate 9ernels of rice or millet from the rying floors8 The ,o,ulation was ,resse into ecimating the song#ir ,o,ulations to sa2e this source of human foo 8 :hy was this effort counter,ro ucti2e an why i it contri#ute to the resulting famineK A"#.er: Cro,s are ,art of a foo we#5 not a foo chain8 The #ir s eat insects as well as a few grains of rice8 The insects consume far more grain than o song#ir s8 &limination of the song#ir s allowe the insect ,o,ulations to e/,an ramatically5 an this cause a far more serious cro, loss8 @0n reality5 ,oor weather5 floo ing5 an other factors also contri#ute to the resulting famine8A -%e#$i'" C0 :hy is it im,ortant to ma9e the istinction that Bmatter cycles in ecosystems #ut there is a continual nee for energyCK A"#.er: Chemical cycling #egins when ,ro ucers ta9e in inorganic nutrients from the ,hysical en2ironment8 4er#i2ores fee irectly on the green ,lants5 which are fe u,on #y carni2ores an or omni2ores8 The ecom,osers #rea9 own etritus to the inorganic matter that can #e use again #y the ,ro ucers8 &nergy flows through an ecosystem #ecause all the energy content of organic foo e2entually is lost to the en2ironment as heat8 0t #egins when ,ro ucers a#sor# solar energy to ma9e foo for themsel2es an in irectly for the other ,o,ulations of the ecosystem8 -%e#$i'" D0 4ow is the ,hos,horus cycle ifferent from other cycles an why is it consi ere a limiting nutrientK A"#.er: A limite amount of ,hos,horus is with rawn from se imentary roc9 #y natural an human ,rocesses8 )hos,horus oes not cycle through the atmos,here8 The limite a2aila#le ,hos,horus oes su,,ly AT)5 nucleic aci s5 an #one an teeth ,hos,horus5 all of which again #ecome a2aila#le when an organism ecom,oses8 Since there is no e/change ,ool an with rawal from se iments in minor cycling of ,hos,horus in the #iotic community ma9es ,hos,horus a nutrient that may #e eficient an limit the growth of organisms8

3"-

Te&!"'l'*y 1r'+ M&Gra.;Hill

)lease consult your Course 0ntegration 1ui e for technology correlations for this cha,ter8

3$.

0,A(/&'

4$

MAHO+ &COSLST&MS O! T4& B0OS)4&+&

This cha,ter e/,lores the #ios,here5 an iscusses the effects of climate on the #ios,here5 an the 2arious geogra,hic areas in2ol2e in the #ios,here8 An &cology Focus #o/ e/amines B:il life Conser2ation an 36A5C an another iscusses B&l 6ifo;Southern Oscillation8C Much terminology is ,resente @climatology5 geogra,hy5 etc8A8

C!a)$er O%$li"e
7B01 Cli+a$e a"d $!e Bi'#)!ere 18 Cli+a$e is the ,re2ailing weather con itions in a region o2er time8 28 Climate is ,rimarily ictate #y tem,erature an rainfall which is influence #y two factors% a8 2ariations in solar ra iation ue to the tilt of the s,herical &arth5 an #8 other effects such as to,ogra,hy an whether a #o y of water is near#y8 A8 &ffect of Solar +a iation 18 The &arth is a s,hereD the sun<s rays are more irect near the e>uator an s,rea out near the ,oles8 28 The tro,ics are therefore warmer than tem,erate areas8 38 The tilt of the &arth<s a/is as it rotates a#out the sun causes one ,ole to #e more irectly e/,ose to sunlight8 48 Col air is hea2y an sin9sD hot air is lighter an rises8 a8 Therefore if the &arth were stan ing still5 e>uatorial air woul rise an mo2e towar the ,oles8 #8 This woul re,lace hea2y ,olar air that sin9s an flows towar the e>uator5 now a low ,ressure area8 c8 0n a worl that stoo still5 this woul ,ro uce high win s mo2ing towar the ,oles an surface win s mo2ing towar the e>uator8 "8 The &arth<s +otation 4as an &ffect a8 The wet e>uatorial air loses its moisture as it rises an cools near the e>uator8 #8 By the time it mo2es 3.o to the north5 the air escen s5 reheats5 an is ryD this is a 'one of eserts8 c8 Because of the &arth<s rotation5 from the e>uator to 3.o north an south5 surface win s #low from east;southeast in the Southern 4emis,here an from the east; northeast in the 6orthern 4emis,here ma9ing east coasts wet8 8 Between 3.o an $.o north an south5 strong win s calle the ,re2ailing westerlies #low from west to east8 e8 The west coasts of continents in these latitu es are wet as is the )acific 6orthwest8 f8 :ea9er ,olar easterlies #low from east to west #etween $.o north or south an the res,ecti2e ,oles8 g8 The &arth<s rotation5 continents5 an oceans alter the three circulation cells #etween the e>uator an ,oles8 B8 Other &ffects 18 T')'*ra)!y is the ,hysical features or BlayC of the lan 8 28 Mountains cause rain an rain sha ows8 3$1

a8 Air #lowing u, o2er a mountain range rises an coolsD the win war si e therefore recei2es more rainfall8 #8 The leewar si e of the mountain range recei2es ry airD it is in a rai" #!ad'.0 c8 The 4awaiian 0slan s e/,erience o2er (". cm of rain on the win war si e #ut only a2erage ". cm in the rain sha ow8 8 The western si e of the Sierra 6e2a a Mountains is lushD the eastern si e is a semi esert8 38 Coastal Bree'es a8 Since the lan heats u, an cools own faster than oceans5 it causes a aily ,attern8 #8 0n the ay5 lan heats u, an warm air risesD then cool sea #ree'es #low inlan to re,lace the rising air8 c8 At night5 the lan cools first an the col air sin9s an #lows out to sea8 48 Monsoon Climates a8 The 0n ia an south Asia climate ha2e a +'"#''" climate an generates wet ocean win s for almost half the year8 #8 The lan heats more ra,i ly than the waters of the 0n ian Ocean uring s,ring8 c8 The ifference in tem,erature causes a gigantic circulation of air with warm air rising an cooler air continuously coming in from the ocean to re,lace it8 8 As the warm air rises5 it loses its moisture an the monsoon season #egins8 "8 The Bla9e effectC a8 :inter Arctic win s #lowing across the 1reat La9es #ecome warm an moisture la en8 #8 :hen these win s rise an lose their moisture5 a large amount of snow falls8 7B02 Terre#$rial E&'#y#$e+# A8 Biome 3istri#ution 18 The #ios,here is i2i e into large #iogeogra,hic units calle bi'+e#0 28 A #iome has a ,articular mi/ of ,lants an animals a a,te to li2e un er certain en2ironmental con itions8 38 The a2erage tem,erature an rainfall influences where the ifferent #iomes are foun on the surface of the &arth8 48 Climate5 an mainly solar ra iation an to,ogra,hy5 is the ,rinci,le eterminant of the istri#ution of #iomes8 "8 A latitu e tem,erature gra ient is also seen when we consi er altitu eD the rain forest= eci uous forest=coniferous forest=tun ra se>uences are also seen when ascen ing a mountain8 a8 The mountain coniferous forest is a +'"$a"e &'"i1er'%# 1're#$0 #8 The tun ra near the ,ea9 is an al)i"e $%"dra0 B8 Tun ra 18 The Ar&$i& $%"dra encircles the &arth south of the ice;co2ere ,olar seas in the 6orthern 4emis,here8 28 Arctic tun ra co2ers 2.N of the &arth<s lan surfaceD it is col an ar9 much of the year8 38 The tun ra recei2es a#out 2. cm of rainfall annuallyD this woul constitute a esert #ut the melting snow ,ro2i es water uring summer an 2ery little e2a,orates8 48 Only the to,most layer of &arth thawsD the )er+a1r'#$ #eneath is always fro'en8 3$2

"8 Trees are not foun in the tun ra #ecause a8 the growing season is too short5 #8 their roots cannot ,enetrate the ,ermafrost5 an c8 trees cannot #ecome anchore in the #oggy soil of summer8 $8 0n the summer5 the groun is co2ere with se ges an short;grasses with ,atches of lichens an mosses8 (8 3warf woo y shru#s flower an see >uic9ly while there is sunlight for ,hotosynthesis8 *8 Only a few animals a a,te to col li2e in the tun ra year;roun @e8g85 lemming5 ,tarmigan5 an mus9;o/A8 -8 3uring the summer5 the tun ra contains many insects5 #ir s5 an migratory animals @e8g85 shore #ir s5 waterfowl5 cari#ou5 rein eer5 an wol2esA8 C8 Coniferous !orests 18 Conifer forests are foun in three locations% taiga5 montane coniferous forests5 an tem,erate coniferous forests8 28 Tai*a is coniferous forest e/ten ing across northern &urasia an 6orth America8 38 6ear a mountain to, is a similar conifer forest calle a montane coniferous forest8 48 On the )acific Coast from Cana a own to California is ,art of the tem,erate rain forest8 "8 Conifer forests contain great stan s of s,ruce5 fir5 hemloc95 an ,ineD these trees ha2e thic9 ,rotecti2e lea2es or nee les an #ar98 $8 The nee leli9e lea2es can withstan the hea2y weight of snow8 (8 There is a limite un erstory of ,lantsD the floor is co2ere #y low;lying mosses an lichens #eneath the layer of nee les8 *8 Bir s har2est the see s of conifersD #ears5 eer5 moose5 #ea2er5 an mus9rat li2e aroun the cool la9es an streams8 -8 Ma7or carni2ores inclu e wol2es5 wol2erines5 an mountain lions8 1.8 The $e+)era$e rai" 1're#$ along the )acific Coast has the largest trees in e/istence5 some as ol as *.. years8 38 Tem,erate 3eci uous !orests 18 Te+)era$e de&id%'%# 1're#$# are foun south of the taiga in eastern 6orth America5 eastern Asia5 an much of &uro,e8 28 Climate in these areas is mo erate with a relati2ely high annual rainfall @("=1". cmA8 38 The seasons are well; efine with a growing season that ranges #etween 14. an 3.. ays8 48 The trees of a eci uous forest @e8g85 oa95 #eech5 an ma,leA ha2e #roa lea2es which they lose in the fall an grow again in the s,ring8 "8 &nough sunlight ,enetrates the cano,y to su,,ort a well; e2elo,e un erstory com,ose of shru#s5 a layer of her#aceous ,lants5 an a groun co2er of mosses an ferns8 $8 Stratification #eneath the cano,y ,ro2i es a 2ariety of ha#itats for insects an #ir s8 (8 3eci uous forest contains many ro ents that ,ro2i e foo for #o#cats5 wol2es5 an fo/es8 *8 3eci uous forest also contains eer an #lac9 #ears8 -8 Com,are to the taiga5 the winters are mil er an allow many am,hi#ians an re,tiles to sur2i2e8 3$3

1.8 Minerals are washe into the groun an e2entually #rought #ac9 u, #y ee, roots of trees8 &8 :il life Conser2ation an 36A @&cology Focus #o/A 18 After 36A analysis5 scientists isco2ere that $.N of loggerhea turtles rowning in the nets an hoo9s of fisheries in the Me iterranean Sea were from #eaches in the southeastern Gnite States8 a8 More than half of the young turtles li2ing in the Me iterranean Sea ha hatche from nests in !lori a5 1eorgia5 an South Carolina8 28 36A se>uencing from Alas9an #rown #ears showe that there are two ty,es of #rown #ears in Alas9a8 a8 One ty,e of #ear5 who only resi es in the A miralty5 Baranof5 an Chichagof islan s @ABC islan sA may #e im,ortant wil life conser2ation effort8 #8 The logging in ustry has e/,resse interest in logging the ABC islan s8 c8 The new 36A analysis may ha2e ,rotecte the ABC #ear<s ha#itat8 38 Another e/am,le of 36A se>uencing was an e/,eriment iscretely con ucte at sushi restaurants in Ha,an8 a8 Scientists isco2ere that of the 1$ ,ieces of whale sushi they e/amine 5 many were from whales that are en angere or ,rotecte un er an international moratorium on whaling8 48 36A se>uencing is now #eing use in wil life crimes in the Gnite States an 122 other countries8 &8 Tro,ical !orests 18 Tro,ical rain forests are foun in South America5 Africa5 an the 0n o;Malayan region near the e>uator8 28 The climate is warm @2.o=2"o CA an rainfall is ,lentiful with a minimum of 1-. cm ,er year8 38 This is ,ro#a#ly the richest #iome5 #oth in num#er of s,ecies an in their a#un ance8 48 A tro,ical rain forest has a com,le/ structure5 with many le2els of life8 "8 Although there is animal life on the groun @e8g85 ,acas5 agoutis5 ,eccaries5 an arma illosA5 most of the animals li2e in the trees8 $8 0nsects are a#un ant in tro,ical rain forestsD the ma7ority ha2e not #een i entifie 8 (8 Termites are critical in the ecom,osition of woo y ,lant material8 *8 Various #ir s ten to #e #rightly colore 8 -8 Am,hi#ians an re,tiles are re,resente #y many s,ecies of frogs5 sna9es5 an li'ar s8 1.8 Lemurs5 sloths an mon9eys fee on fruits8 118 The largest carni2ores are cats @e8g85 7aguars in South America an leo,ar s in Africa an AsiaA8 128 E)i)!y$e# are air ,lants that grow on other ,lants8 a8 They ha2e roots of their own to a#sor# moisture an minerals leache from the cano,y8 #8 Others catch rain an e#ris in hollows of o2erla,,ing leaf #ases8 c8 Common e,i,hytes are relate to ,inea,,les5 orchi s5 an ferns8 138Tro,ical forests in 0n ia5 Southeast Asia5 :est Africa5 :est 0n ies5 an Central an South America are seasonal8 a8 They ha2e eci uous trees that she lea2es in the ry seasonD layers of un ergrowth are #elow8 3$4

#8 Certain of these forests contain ele,hants5 tigers5 an hi,,o,otami8 148 A year;long growing season an high tem,eratures mean ,ro ucti2ity is high8 1"8 But the warm5 moist climate that su,,orts high ,ro ucti2ity also ,romotes ra,i recycling of litter8 1$8 The soil is calle laterite an the iron an aluminum o/i es gi2e it a re color an a #ric9 te/ture when it #a9es in the hot sun8 1(8 Conse>uently the soil is relati2ely ,oor #ecause the nutrients are ra,i ly cycle into the #iomassD this ma9es a ,oor agricultural soil8 !8 Shru#lan s 18 S!r%bla"d is ominate #y shru#s with small #ut thic9 e2ergreen lea2es coate with a thic95 wa/y cuticle5 an with thic9 un ergroun stems that sur2i2e ry summers an fre>uent fires8 28 Shru#lan is foun more along the coasts in South America5 western Australia5 central Chile5 an aroun the Me iterranean Sea8 38 The ense shru#lan in California5 where the summers are hot an 2ery ry5 is cha,arral8 a8 This Me iterranean;ty,e shru#lan lac9s an un erstory an groun litter an is highly flamma#le8 #8 See s of many s,ecies re>uire heat an the scarring action of fire to in uce germination8 48 :est of the +oc9y Mountains is a col esert region ominate #y sage#rush an e,en ent #ir s8 18 1rasslan s 18 Gra##la"d# occur where rainfall is greater than 2" cm #ut is insufficient to su,,ort trees8 28 0n tem,erate areas with rainfall #etween 1. an 3. inches a year5 grasslan is the clima/ communityD it is too wet for esert an too ry for forests8 38 6atural grasslan s once co2ere o2er 4.N of the &arth<s lan surface8 48 Most grasslan s now grow cro,s5 es,ecially wheat an corn8 "8 1rasses generally grow in ifferent seasonsD therefore some grasslan animals migrate an groun s>uirrels hi#ernate when there is little grass8 $8 The $e+)era$e *ra##la"d# inclu e the +ussian ste,,es5 South American ,am,as5 an 6orth American ,rairies8 (8 Tall;grass ,rairie occurs where moisture is not sufficient to su,,ort trees8 *8 Short;grass ,rairie sur2i2es on less moisture an is #etween a tall;grass ,rairie an esert8 -8 Animal life inclu es mice5 ,rairie ogs5 an ra##its an the animals that fee on them% haw9s5 sna9es5 #a gers5 coyotes5 an fo/es8 1.8 )rairies once containe large her s of #uffalo an ,ronghorn antelo,e8 118 Sava""a# are tro,ical grasslan s that contain some trees8 a8 The sa2anna occurs in regions where a relati2ely cool ry season is followe #y a hot5 rainy one8 #8 The sa2anna contains the greatest 2ariety an num#ers of her#i2ores @e8g85 antelo,es5 'e#ras5 wil e#eests5 water #uffalo5 rhinoceroses5 ele,hants5 an giraffesA8 c8 Any ,lant litter not consume #y gra'ers is attac9e #y termites an other ecom,osers8 3$"

8 Termites also #uil towering nests an ten fungal gar ens8 e8 The sa2anna su,,orts a large ,o,ulation of carni2ores @e8g85 lions5 cheetahs5 hyenas5 an leo,ar sA8 48 3eserts 18 e#er$# usually occur at latitu es a#out 3.o #oth north an south of the e>uator8 28 3eserts ha2e an annual rainfall of less than 2" cm #ecause incoming escen ing win s lac9 moisture8 38 Lac9ing clou co2er5 the esert ays are hot an the nights are col 8 48 The Sahara an a few other eserts are nearly e2oi of 2egetation8 "8 Most ha2e a 2ariety of ,lants5 all a a,te to heat an scarcity of water @e8g85 succulentsA8 $8 Animal life inclu es many insects5 re,tiles such as li'ar s an sna9es5 running #ir s @e8g85 roa runnerA5 ro ents @e8g85 9angaroo ratA5 an a few larger #ir s an mammals such as haw9s an coyotes8 7B04 A<%a$i& E&'#y#$e+# 18 A>uatic ecosystems are classifie as freshwater @inlan A or saltwater @marineA8 28 :etlan s near the sea ha2e mi/e fresh an saltwater an are #rac9ish8 38 Seawater e2a,orates an then ,reci,itates an flows through la9es an ,on s5 streams an ri2ers5 an groun water8 a8 The to, of the saturation 'one efines the .a$er $able0 #8 1roun water sometimes occurs in un ergroun layers calle a>uifers8 48 /e$la"d# are areas that are wet for at least ,art of the yearD they are generally classifie #y their 2egetation8 "8 Mar#!e# are wetlan s that are fre>uently or continually inun ate #y waterD they are characteri'e #y the ,resence of rushes5 ree s5 an other grasses8 $8 B'*# are wetlan s that a characteri'e #y aci ic waters5 ,eat e,osits5 an s,hagnum mossD they recei2e most of their water from ,reci,itation an are nutrient;,oor8 (8 :an ering streams are often channeli'e into straight channelsD this eliminates storage for floo control8 *8 The elimination of wetlan s remo2es uni>ue ha#itat for fish5 waterfowl5 an other wil life8 -8 :etlan s also filter to/ic wastes an use e/cess nutrients8 A8 La9es 18 La9es are freshwater #o ies classifie #y their nutrient status8 a8 Oligotro,hic @nutrient;,oorA la9es ha2e low organic matter an therefore low ,ro ucti2ity8 #8 &utro,hic @nutrient;richA la9es are highly ,ro ucti2e from natural nutrients or agricultural runoff8 c8 &utro,hication occurs when a e nutrients change an oligotro,hic la9e to eutro,hicD this ,rocess is calle e%$r')!i&a$i'"0 28 0n the tem,erate 'one5 ee, la9es are stratifie in summer an winter8 a8 &,ilimnion is the surface layer warme from solar ra iationD it soon #ecomes nutrient;,oor #ut ,hotosynthesis 9ee,s o/ygen le2els high8 #8 At the thermocline5 there is an a#ru,t ro, in tem,erature8 c8 The hy,olimnion is the lower col regionD it #ecomes e,lete in o/ygen #ut is nutrient rich from etritus falling from a#o2e8 8 The less ense e,ilimnion floats on the hea2ier col hy,olimnionD this ,re2ents 3$$

mi/ing8 38 !all an S,ring O2erturns a8 0n the fall5 the u,,er e,ilimnion waters #ecome cooler than the hy,olimnion8 #8 This causes the surface water to sin9 an ee, water to rise8 c8 This 1all 'ver$%r" continues until the tem,erature is uniform8 8 0n the winter5 ice forms on to, #ecause ice is lighterD this ,ro2i es an insulating co2er an organisms can li2e through a harsh winter in this mo erate water8 e8 0n s,ring5 the ice melts an the cooler water on to, sin9s #elow the warmer water on the #ottom8 f8 After the #)ri"* 'ver$%r"3 water returns to a more uniform tem,erature an sun warms the surface8 g8 !ish an other a>uatic life are a a,te to the strata an seasonal changesD for instance5 col water fish mo2e ee,er in the summer8 B8 Life aones 18 )lan9ton inclu es freshwater an marine microsco,ic organisms that freely rift in fresh or saltwater8 28 P!y$')la",$'" are the ,hotosynthetic ,lan9ton5 inclu ing algae8 38 F'')la",$'" are animals that fee on ,hyto,lan9ton8 48 The littoral -one is shallow an closest to shoreD ,lants root in this 'one an har#or some animals8 "8 The limnetic -one is the o,en sunlit layer of #o y of a la9eD it contains ,lan9ton5 a few insect lar2ae5 an fish8 $8 The profun"al -one is that ,ortion of a la9e #elow any significant sunlight ,enetrationD it contains 'oo,lan9ton an fishes that fee on the e#ris that falls from a#o2e8 (8 The benthic -one is at the soil;water interface with the #ottom; welling organismsD it inclu es worms5 mollus9s5 an crustaceans8 C8 Coastal &cosystems Bor er the Oceans 18 An e#$%ary is a ,artially enclose #o y of water at the en of a ri2er where the fresh water an sea water mi/8 a8 6ot many organisms are tolerant of this mi/ of fresh ri2er water an salty ti al water8 #8 !or organisms suite to the ra,i changes in salinity5 estuaries ,ro2i e a#un ant nutrients8 c8 &stuaries are a nutrient tra, since nutrients are 1A eli2ere #y the ri2er5 2A #rought in from the sea #y ti es5 an 3A release from ecaying 2egetation8 8 &stuaries are a nursery estimate as s,awning an rearing o2er half of all marine fishes8 28 Seashores are constantly #om#ar e #y ti al seas8 a8 The li$$'ral 5'"e is #etween high an low ti e an is co2ere an unco2ere aily8 #8 The u,,er littoral is co2ere #y #arnacles8 c8 The mi ,ortion har#ors #rown algae that may o2erlie #arnacles8 8 The lower ,ortion has oysters an mussels attache to roc9 #y #yssal threa sD 2arious snails hi e in cre2ices or seawee 8 3$(

e8 Below the littoral 'one5 seawee s are the main ,hotosynthesi'ers an are anchore to roc9s #y hol fasts8 f8 San y #eaches ha2e no anchor hol sD therefore ,ermanent #each organisms are #urrowing or tu#e;li2ing8 38 Oceans 18 Shallow ocean waters @calle the euphotic -oneA contain a greater concentration of organisms than the rest of the sea8 a8 This contains a greater concentration of organisms than are in the oceanic ,ro2ince8 #8 0t is a more ,ro ucti2e ,art of the ocean #ecause of the concentration of sunlight an nutrients8 c8 0t ,ro2i es the #ase of the foo we# lea ing to commercially 2alua#le fishes @e8g85 herring5 co 5 an floun erA8 8 C'ral ree1# are areas of #iological a#un ance foun in shallow5 warm waters 7ust #elow the surfaceD there is much concern a#out future sur2i2al of coral reefs since they are 2ulnera#le to en2ironmental changes5 tem,erature shifts5 salinity5 an light a2aila#ility8 28 The )ela*i& divi#i'" inclu es the neritic an oceanic ,ro2inces8 a8 The neritic ,ro2ince lies o2er the continental shelf8 #8 The epipelagic -one e/ten s from the surface to the ma/imum e,th that ,hotosynthesis significantly occurs8 1A 0t oes not ha2e a high concentration of ,hyto,lan9ton #ecause it lac9s nutrients8 2A 4owe2er5 the num#ers of ,ro ucers in this 'one still su,,ort a large assem#ly of 'oo,lan9ton5 which su,,ort large num#ers of other marine organisms5 when the entire ocean is consi ere 8 3A The e,i,elagic animals inclu e mac9erels5 tunas5 an shar9s8 c8 The mesopelagic -one e/ten s #elow ma/imum e,th at which ,hotosynthesis significantly occurs8 1A This 'one is ominate #y carni2ores a a,te to the a#sence of light @e8g85 luminescent shrim,s5 s>ui s5 an fishesA8 2A Organisms here ten to #e translucent or re colore 8 8 The bathypelagic -one is in a#solute ar9ness e/ce,t for an occasional flash of #ioluminescent light8 1A Animals here are carni2ores an sca2engers8 2A This le2el su,,orts a 2ariety of 2ery strange carni2ores8 e8 The abyssal plain is locate on an imme iately a#o2e the a#yssal ,lane8 1A This is a region of e/treme col an intense ,ressure8 2A 0t contains a etrital foo we# in which the etriti2ores @e8g85 s,onges5 worms5 tu#e worms5 sea cucum#ers5 sea lilies5 an sea urchinsA com,rise the first tro,hic le2el8 3A Starfishes5 cra#s5 #rittle stars5 an some #ottom; welling fish occu,y the u,,er tro,hic le2els8 4A Hydr'$!er+al ve"$# are areas where seawater ,ercolates through crac9s8 a8 The water is heate to a#out 3".oC8 #8 This causes sulfate to react with water to form hy rogen sulfi e @42SA8 3$*

c8 Chemosynthetic #acteria o#tain energy #y o/i i'ing hy rogen sulfi e8 &8 Ocean Currents 18 Moisture that e2a,orates into the air carries the heat use to e2a,orate it with it8 28 :ater is warm at the e>uator an col at the ,oles ue to the istri#ution of the sun<s rays8 38 Air ta9es on the tem,erature of the water #elow an warm air mo2es from the e>uator towar the ,oles8 48 Therefore5 the oceans ma9e win s #low8 "8 Oceans hol heat or remain cool longer than lan masses8 $8 :in s generate ocean currents ue to friction at the ocean surface8 (8 Since ocean currents are #oun e #y lan 5 they mo2e in a circular ,ath5 countercloc9wise in the 6orthern 4emis,here an cloc9wise in the Southern 4emis,here8 *8 Ocean currents ta9e heat from the e>uator to the ,olar regions8 a8 The 1ulf Stream #rings warmer tro,ical Cari##ean water to the east coast of 6orth America an to u,,er western &uro,e8 #8 :ithout the 1ulf Stream5 1reat Britain woul #e as col as 1reenlan 8 c8 A ma7or Atlantic Ocean current warms the eastern coast of South America8 8 The 4um#ol t Current in the )acific flows towar the e>uator off the west coast of South America8 -8 U).elli"*# occur when col nutrient;rich water rises to su,,lant warm nutrient;,oor water8 a8 The 4um#ol t Current #rings rich nutrients northD this su,,orts rich marine life an the fisheries of )eru an northern Chile8 #8 Sea#ir s e,osit ro,,ings @guanoA on lan where it is a ma7or source of ,hos,horus mining8 c8 :hen the 4um#ol t Current is not as cool as usual5 u,welling oes not occur5 stagnation results5 fisheries ecline5 an climate ,atterns change glo#allyD this is calle an El;NiQ';S'%$!er" O#&illa$i'"0 !8 &l 6ifo;Southern Oscillation @&cology Focus #o/A 18 &l 6ifo;Southern Oscillation @&6SOA refers to a se2er weather change #rought on #y an interaction #etween the atmos,here an the ocean currents8 28 Or inarily5 the southeast tra e win s mo2e along the coast of South America an turn east #ecause of the &arth<s aily rotation on its a/is8 a8 The win s #ring warm ocean waters from east to west8 #8 There is also an u,welling of nutrient;rich col water from the e,ths of the ocean5 resulting in a large )eru2ian har2est of ancho2ies8 c8 The warm ocean waters also #ring monsoon rain to 0n ia an 0n onesia8 38 3uring an &l 6ifo5 the northeast an southeast tra e win s slac9en8 a8 There is no u,welling5 an ancho2y har2est ,lummets8 #8 :aters from the east may ne2er reach the west8 c8 :in s lose moisture in the mi le of the )acific5 rather than the 0n ian Ocean8 8 3rought occurs in 0n ia5 0n onesia5 Africa5 an Australia8 48 Some ,arts of the Gnite States #enefit from an &l 6ifo8 a8 The 6ortheast is warmer than usual8 #8 !ewer hurricanes hit the east coast8 c8 Torna oes ecrease in the Mi west8 3$-

"8 !ollowing &l 6ifo5 normal con itions occur5 which is 9nown as La 6ifa8 $8 As climate changes5 the se2erity of &l 6ifos remains somewhat un,re icta#le8

Le&$%re E"ri&!+e"$ Idea#

E6)erie"&e Ba#e% )ro#a#ly few stu ents ha2e tra2ele wi ely in the wil erness areas5 although most will ha2e some e/,erience with a 2ariety of local mo ifie en2ironments5 from gar ens to farm fiel s to city an state ,ar9s8 Therefore5 2isuals5 sli es5 or 2i eos of ifferent #iomes will allow stu ents some a,,reciation of the i2ersity of these areas @although it is wise to a2oi turning the whole class session into a tra2elogueA8 Because stu ents will ha2e a iffering array of #ac9groun e/,eriences5 as9ing stu ents to contri#ute rele2ant e/,eriences may hel, when com,aring the ifferences in #iomes8 18 3iscuss why it woul #e reasona#le to call the ee, ocean a esert area8 28 The lists of ,lants an animals for each #iome are not two se,arate collections8 Tie in the conce,t of the foo chain @or we# or ,yrami A in the ocean or la9e en2ironment an how the ,lan9ton are the #ase of the nutritional interactions8 Although the ,layers are ifferent s,ecies5 all #iomes generate o/ygen5 remo2e car#on io/i e from the air5 an is,ose of etritus8 :e are loo9ing for the B#ig ,ictureC in #iomes5 the un erlying ,rocesses at wor95 rather than 7ust listing ifferent menus of organisms8 38 Com,are the ifferent #iomes accor ing to altitu e an latitu e with res,ect to the i2ersity of organisms8 &/,lain how organisms that fit into the same niche on two a 7acent mountains are more li9ely to #e ifferent s,ecies than are organisms s,rea o2er a #roa range of latitu e8 @The reason for this woul #e the isolation im,ose #y altitu e that is not ,resent with latitu e8A 48 0f glo#al warming occurs5 the shifts in local climate will cause some long;term changes in #iotic communities8 The clues to those changes are in the climatic ,arameters ,resente here5 although a forest is not going to #ecome a grasslan o2ernight8 This ,ro2i es o,,ortunity for some s,eculation #ase on ecology8 "8 !ew stu ents ha2e ,ro#a#ly #een swimming in a natural ,on 8 4owe2er5 if they ha2e5 they ha2e ,ro#a#ly allowe their feet to sin9 while they were floating5 an felt the col er 'oneD this is the tem,erature ro, calle the thermocline8 4owe2er5 the com,le/ity of the fall an s,ring turno2er re>uires 2isuals for #oth the ,hysical ,ro,erties of waterFice an the se>uence of changes8 $8 :ater in a terrestrial en2ironment usually means an increase in organisms8 Therefore it is ifficult to relate to some stu ents how a wet mi ;ocean en2ironment can #e essentially a B esertC in the sense of har#oring few ,lants an animals8 Soil has nutrients an nee s water8 Mi ocean ,elagic regions ha2e water #ut nee nutrients8 (8 !orest ser2ice ,u#lications ,ro2i e the calorie;in,ut of sunlight for each ten egrees north latitu e5 with 2ariations for slo,e an seasons5 an total annual calories8 The calorie in,ut nearest your location hel,s ,ro2i e stu ents with a mathematic #asis for calculating the calorie in,ut of light that su,,orts foo chains5 climatic factors5 etc8 *8 :hat is the ifference #etween a )ennsyl2ania eci uous forest an a Eansas grasslan if they are essentially at the same latitu eK 3(.

-8

3iscuss the ,ro#lem of ,re icting how far the African honey #ee will mo2e northwar into the Gnite States8 +esearchers facing this >uestion in2estigate how high u, the eastern slo,e of the An es the #ee coul sur2i2e5 an then com,are it with the e>ui2alent tem,erature; ay;line for the Gnite States8

1.8 Stu ents< e/,eriences with local regional #iomes may #e lac9ing8 3e,en ing u,on location5 fiel tri,s may #e ,ossi#le to a esert5 ,rairie5 estuary5 saltmarsh5 shore of an ocean or ri2er8 118 The greater richness of ,rairie soils5 com,are to tem,erate or tro,ical forests is not intuiti2e an will re>uire some iscussion of root e,th5 turno2er rates5 etc8 128 3iscuss estuaries as another e/am,le of the Be ge effectC where more s,ecies e/ist at the e ge of a forest than in the grasslan or ee, forest aloneD the estuary is the e ge of fresh an saltwater communities8
138 Stu ents who ha2e raise ,et fish may #e aware of ifferences in o/ygen re>uirements8 Most will 9now that trout cannot sur2i2e in a farm ,on 5 #ut that gol fish5 car, an catfish can withstan stagnant @,oorly o/ygenate A water8 3ee, ocean en2ironments are #eyon the e/,erience of most stu entsD without fiel tri,s5 films or 2i eos are im,ortant in hel,ing stu ents 2isuali'e this strange en2ironment8

Cri$i&al T!i",i"*8
-%e#$i'" 10 :hen ,ioneers cleare the early Mi western an 1reat )lains regions for agriculture5 some animals such as cougar5 #ear5 wolf an tur9ey were e/tir,ate 8 0n mo ern times5 when we try to re;intro uce some of the s,ecies that once successfully li2e here5 the intro uctions fail8 Setting asi e ,olitical o#7ections5 why o these normal mem#ers of these #iomes no longer sur2i2eK A"#.er: 0t is no longer the same #iome of the 1(..s an 1*..s8 Many roa s cross the countrysi e5 fences an agriculture cho, u, the BnaturalC areas5 an the istri#ution of foo 5 es,ecially for the larger carni2ores5 may not #e sufficient or accessi#le to the animals8 There are also #eha2ioral re>uirements that may not #e met #y noisy trans,ortation systems an near#y encroaching su#ur#s8 -%e#$i'" 20 :hy oes an ant in the soil on the south si e of your house not li2e in the same weather con itions that you ,ercei2e outsi eK A"#.er: The tem,erature is most e/treme at the surface5 an is less e/treme as you go own in the soil8 0n a ition5 the sunlight reflecting off the south si e of a house will ma9e that microclimate warmer @an therefore rierA5 7ust as the sha e north si e will #e cooler an wetter8 -%e#$i'" 40 The 1reat )lains region is often calle the B#rea #as9et of the worl C #ecause it su,,lies a hea2y yiel of the worl <s cro,s5 es,ecially wheat8 :hy are the soils of this ,rairie so much more ,ro ucti2e than the soils of forests5 if forests re,resent a wetter climateK A"#.er: The whole ,lant #o y of an annual grass5 from roots to #la es5 ies an Bturns o2erC after one year5 while the tissues of a tree are tie u, in trun95 roots5 an stems for centuries5 with only a small ,ortion falling as ea lea2es on the surface each fall8 Therefore5 grasslan soil hori'ons ha2e a much thic9er to,soil or A hori'on8

3(1

-%e#$i'" 70

:hat is the ifference #etween the #ios,here an a #iomeK

A"#.er: The #ios,here is the ,art of &arth where organisms are foun 5 whether in the water5 lan 5 or air8 The largest communities on lan are calle #iomes5 such as the eserts5 tun ra5 an grasslan s8 -%e#$i'" ?0 0f life was solely e,en ent u,on the amount of sunlight for ,ro uction of ,lant tissue5 the &arth woul #e #an s of lush 2egetation aroun the e>uator with iminishing #an s to the north an south8 0t is not com,letely li9e this8 :hyK A"#.er: The secon ma7or factor is moisture8 Moisture is istri#ute une2enly ue to to,ogra,hy5 an win an ocean currents8 As a result5 there are eserts at the e>uator an 2ariations in 2egetation elsewhere #ase on a com#ination of these two ma7or factors8 -%e#$i'" B8 4ow oes tem,erature an altitu e influence the ,ro ucti2ity of #iomesK

A"#.er: As one tra2els from the e>uator to the 6orth )ole5 a tro,ical rain forest is first o#ser2e followe #y a tem,erate eci uous forest5 a taiga5 an the tun ra8 The location is influence #y tem,erature8 The same #asic se>uence of #iomes is also seen tra2eling from the #ottom to the to, of a mountain8 As the altitu e increases5 the tem,erature ecreases8 4owe2er5 the soil con itions an amount of rainfall are also im,ortant for growth8 -%e#$i'" C0 :hat is the ma7or an uni>ue ecological feature of hy rothermal 2entsK

A"#.er: Because the foo chain #egins with chemosynthetic #acteria li2ing off of o/i i'ing hy rogen sulfi e5 this is the one foo we# that is not initiate #y light energy an ,hotosynthesis8

Te&!"'l'*y 1r'+ M&Gra.;Hill

)lease consult your C'%r#e I"$e*ra$i'" G%ide for technology correlations for this cha,ter8

3(2

0hapter

4(

Conser2ation of Bio i2ersity

The te/t conclu es with a cha,ter on conser2ation of #io i2ersity8 The material a resses the loss of #io i2ersity5 the causes of e/tinction5 an mo ern conser2ation techni>ues8 An &cology Focus #o/ loo9s at BO2ere/,loitation of Asian Turtles8C This cha,ter shoul elicit much classroom iscussion8

C!a)$er O%$li"e
7C01 C'"#erva$i'" Bi'l'*y a"d Bi'diver#i$y
18 28 38 C'"#erva$i'" bi'l'*y is a new isci,line stu ying as,ects of #io i2ersity in or er to conser2e natural resources8 Conser2ation #iology in2ol2es #oth scientific conce,ts an their a,,lication to ,ractical ,ro#lems8 0t su,,orts four ethical ,rinci,les8 a8 Bio i2ersity is esira#le for #oth the #ios,here an for humans8 #8 &/tinctions ue to human actions are un esira#le8 c8 The com,le/ interactions in ecosystems su,,ort #io i2ersity an are therefore esira#le8 8 Bio i2ersity from e2olutionary change has 2alue #y itself regar less of any ,ractical #enefit8 &stimates 2ary #ut at least 1.=2.N of all s,ecies now li2ing will most li9ely #ecome e/tinct in 2.=". years8 Bi'i"1'r+a$i&#5 the collecting an analy'ing of #iological information5 is use in the stu y of conser2ation #iology8 Bio i2ersity is the 2ariety of life on &arthD it is generally escri#e as the num#er of s,ecies of the 2arious grou,s of organisms8

48 "8

A8 Bio i2ersity
18

28 Most estimates ,lace the num#er of s,ecies li2ing on earth as #etween 1. an ". million s,eciesD most are yet to #e foun an escri#e 8 38 A $!rea$e"ed #)e&ie# is one that is li9ely to #ecome an e"da"*ered #)e&ie# @in anger of imme iate e/tinctionA in the foreseea#le future
48 "8 Bio i2ersity also inclu es genetic i2ersity5 community i2ersity5 an lan sca,e i2ersity8 Ge"e$i& diver#i$y hel,s maintain re,ro ucti2e 2itality an assists a a,tation8 a8 The 1*4$ ,otato #light in 0relan was ue to too little genetic i2ersity8 #8 1-22 saw a similar So2iet wheat failure8 c8 !lori a ha an out#rea9 of citrus can9er in 1-*4 ma e worse #y limite genetic 2ariation8 8 Such limite genetic 2ariation creates the ris9 of e/tinction in natural ,o,ulations8 $8 C'++%"i$y diver#i$y refers to the 2ariation in s,ecies com,osition in a community8 a8 3ifferent communities ha2e ifferent s,eciesD therefore ifferent communities a to s,ecies i2ersity8 #8 Attem,ts to sa2e 7ust one s,ecies are shortsighte when the community itself is threatene 8 c8 3isru,ting a community can threaten many s,ecies8 (8 La"d#&a)e diver#i$y incor,orates a num#er of interacting ecosystems% ,lains5 mountains5 ri2ers5 etc8 within one la"d#&a)e8 a8 !ragmente lan sca,es re uce re,ro ucti2e ca,acity5 foo a2aila#ility5 an affect seasonal #eha2ior8 *8 3istri#ution of Bio i2ersity a8 Bio i2ersity is not e2enly istri#ute D sa2ing some areas sa2es more s,ecies than sa2ing others8 #8 Bio i2ersity is highest in the tro,ics an eclines towar the ,oles on lan 5 in fresh water5 an in the ocean8 c8 Bi'diver#i$y !'$#)'$# contain unusually large concentrations of s,eciesD hots,ots co2er only a#out 184N of &arth<s lan area #ut contain 44N of the higher ,lant s,ecies an 3"N of the terrestrial 2erte#rate s,ecies8 8 Ma agascar5 the Ca,e of South Africa5 an the 1reat Barrier +eef of Australia are all #io i2ersity

3(3

e8

hots,ots8 Bio i2ersity frontiers such as the rain forest cano,ies an the ee, sea #enthos ha2e more s,ecies than formerly sus,ecte 8

7C02 Val%e '1 Bi'diver#i$y A8 3irect Value

Me icinal Value a8 Most G8S8 ,rescri,tion rugs were originally eri2e from li2ing organisms8 #8 The rosy ,eriwin9le from Ma agascar ,ro2i es chemicals that treat the two cancers% leu9emia an 4o g9in isease8 c8 Base on the ,ast rate of rug isco2ery5 there are ,erha,s 32* more rugs li9ely to #e foun in tro,ical rain forests with g14( #illion 2alue8 8 !ungi an soil #acteria ha2e ,ro2i e ,enicillin5 tetracycline5 an stre,tomycin8 e8 The nine;#an e arma illo is the only other animal to contract human le,rosyD this allowe research to fin a cure8 f8 The #loo of horseshoe cra#s contains limulus amoe#ocyte lysate that 9ee,s ,acema9ers free of #acteria8 28 Agricultural Value a8 :heat5 corn5 an rice cro,s are uniformD when e2astate #y ,ests5 the wil strains they came from are a source of genes for isease resistance8 #8 :hen rice cro,s were e2astate #y a 2irus in Africa5 it was necessary to locate a wil rice ,lant that was resistant an #ree the gene into the high yiel rice8 c8 Biological ,est controls are economically im,ortant re,lacements when ,ests are ,estici e; resistant8 8 Most flowering ,lants are ,ollinate #y animals @e8g85 #ees5 was,s5 #utterflies5 #ir s5 #ats5 etc8A8 e8 The honey#ee is a multi;facete e/am,le8 1A 3omesticate #ees ,ollinate o2er g1. #illion worth of foo cro,s annually8 2A Tracheal mites ha2e wi,e out more than 2.N of commercial honey#ees in the G8S8 3A Any ho,e for a resistant #ee e,en s on wil #eesD wil #ee ,ollinators ,ro2i e a g481 to g$8( #illion ser2ice each year8 38 Consum,ti2e Gse Value a8 The culti2ation of cro,s an omestication of animals @farmingA ha2e #een successful enter,rises8 #8 4owe2er5 fishing of wil s,ecies has not yet #een re,lace #y a>uaculture8 c8 4ar2esting wil fruits5 2egeta#les5 s9ins5 fi#ers5 #eeswa/5 seawee 5 an hunting meat are im,ortant to many ,eo,les8 8 Calculations show that the tim#er har2este from the natural en2ironment in the )eru2ian Ama'on is of less 2alue than har2est of tree fruits an ru##er ,ro uction8 B8 0n irect Value 18 Biogeochemical Cycles a8 Bio i2ersity contri#utes to the water5 car#on5 nitrogen5 an ,hos,horus cycles of our ecosystem8 #8 :e e,en u,on normal cycles to ,ro2i e fresh water5 remo2e car#on io/i e5 etc8 c8 Technology cannot artificially create these cycles in ,lace of the ecosystem8 28 :aste 3is,osal a8 3ecom,osers #rea9 own organic matter an other wastes into nutrients use #y ,ro ucers8 #8 3ecom,osition in nature is more economical an com,lete than sewage treatment8 c8 Biological communities ,urify water an #rea9 own ,ollutantsD Cana a estimates this wetlan 2alue at g".5... ,er hectare8 38 )ro2ision of !resh :ater a8 Most terrestrial organisms5 inclu ing humans5 nee freshwater ecosystems8 #8 3esalination ,lants cost four to eight times the a2erage cost of water ta9en from the water cycle8 c8 !orests are Bs,ongesC that hol an release water o2er timeD the 2alue of marshlan outsi e of Boston5 Massachusetts5 is estimate at g(25... ,er hectare #ase on its a#ility to re uce floo s8 48 )re2ention of Soil &rosion a8 0ntact ecosystems naturally retain soil an ,re2ent erosion8 #8 3eforestation results in silt that fills reser2oirs an enu es hillsi esD a am in )a9istan is filling much faster ue to silt8 c8 Silt from eforestation also smothers mangro2e an coastal ecosystems an ruins fisheries8 18

3(4

+egulation of Climate a8 Trees ,ro2i e #oth sha e an natural Bair con itioning8C #8 1lo#ally5 tro,ical rain forests act as a sin9 for car#on io/i eD when trees are #urne the CO2 is release #ac9 into the atmos,here8 c8 CO2 is a greenhouse gas an contri#utes to glo#al warmingD not all life may #e a#le to a 7ust to the climate change8 $8 &cotourism a8 0n the G8S85 1.. million ,eo,le s,en a total of g4 #illion a year on fees5 tra2el5 lo ging5 an foo in or er to en7oy natural en2ironments8 #8 Acti2ities inclu e s,ort fishing5 #oating5 hi9ing5 #ir watching5 whale watching5 etc8 C8 Bio i2ersity an 6atural &cosystems 18 Massi2e changes in #io i2ersity im,act ecosystems an the a#ility to ,ro2i e the a#o2e 2alues8 28 +esearch in icates that high i2ersity im,ro2es the efficiency of ecosystems8 a8 Minnesota grasslan ,lots with more s,ecies ha lower inorganic soil nitrogen8 #8 California ,lots with more i2ersity ha greater o2erall resource usage8 c8 6et ,rimary ,ro ucti2ity increase as i2ersity increase at all tro,hic le2els8 8 Com,uter mo eling ,re icts 3.N more ,hotosynthesis with nine ifferent tree s,ecies rather than one single s,ecies8 38 A itional research may etermine the effects of en2ironmental change5 in2asion5 ,athogens5 an fragmentation8

"8

7C04 Ca%#e# '1 E6$i"&$i'"

15**. threatene an en angere s,ecies were e/amine for the cause of their status8 a8 4a#itat loss was in2ol2e in *"N of cases8 #8 An alien @e/otic or intro uce A s,ecies was in2ol2e in nearly ".N8 c8 )ollution was a factor in 24N8 8 O2ere/,loitation occurre in 1(N8 e8 3isease was in2ol2e in 3N8 28 As an e/am,le5 the ecline in macaws is the result of tim#er an mining acti2ities5 an hunting for foo an ,et tra e8 A8 4a#itat Loss 18 +ain forest estruction follows a ,attern8 a8 A highway is constructe into the forest interior8 #8 Small towns5 in ustry5 an roa s then #ranch off into the forest8 c8 Settlers5 often su#si i'e 5 #urn the trees an raise cro,s on the three;year su,,ly of nutrients8 8 After the lan egra es5 the farmers must mo2e to another ,ortion of forest8 28 Coastal egra ation is ue to high human ,o,ulations that li2e along the shore8 38 Alrea y $.N of coral reefs are estroye or near estructionD all coral reefs coul isa,,ear in 4. years8 48 4"N of 0n onesia<s mangro2e forests ha2e alrea y #een estroye 8 "8 :etlan s5 estuaries5 an seagrass #e s are #eing ra,i ly estroye 8 B8 &/otic S,ecies 18 E6'$i& #)e&ie#3 or alien s,ecies5 are intro uce acci ently or eli#erately into new ecosystems8 28 6atural ecosystems ha2e e2ol2e with their nati2e organisms in #alance8 38 Migration out of ecosystems is #loc9e #y #arriersD howe2er5 humans circum2ent these #arriers #y 2arious means8 a8 0oloni-ation of &uro,ean ,ioneers #rought the an elion as a sala green an they intro uce ,igs to 6orth America8 #8 ,orticulture an" agriculture ha2e resulte in some e/otic ,lants li9e 9u 'u @a 2ine from Ha,anA esca,ing into the countrysi e8 c8 Acci"ental transport ue to glo#al tra e carrie the &uro,ean 'e#ra mussels in #allast water to the G8S8 where it now s>uee'es out nati2e mussels8 48 Alien s,ecies isru,t foo we#sD an o,ossum shrim, intro uce into Montana la9es le to less foo for eagles an gri''ly #ears8 "8 &/otics on 0slan s a8 0slan s are es,ecially susce,ti#le to isru,tion #y intro uction of e/otics8 18

3("

1A :hen myrtle trees from the Canary 0slan s were intro uce to 4awaii5 sym#iotic #acteria ga2e them a com,etiti2e e ge o2er nati2e trees8 2A The #rown tree sna9e intro uce to 1uam has re uce ten #ir s,ecies to the ,oint of e/tinction8 3A On the 1al_,agos 0slan s5 #lac9 rats ha2e re uce the giant tortoiseD goats an feral ,igs ha2e harme cactus an con2erte forest to grasslan 8 4A Mongooses intro uce into 4awaii to control rats ha2e ,reye on nati2e #ir s8 C8 )ollution 18 P'll%$i'" is any en2ironmental change that a 2ersely affects the li2es an health of li2ing things8 28 )ollution is irectly the thir main cause of e/tinctions an can lea to isease5 the fifth main cause of e/tinction8 38 Aci 3e,osition a8 Automo#ile e/haust an sulfur io/i e from ,ower ,lants form aci s when com#ine with water 2a,or in the air8 #8 These aci s return to &arth as aci rainFsnow or ry e,osition8 c8 Although sulfur an nitrogen o/i es are emitte in one locale5 e,osition occurs elsewhere across #oun aries8 8 Aci e,osition causes trees to wea9en5 9ills small in2erte#rates an ecom,osers5 an 9ills the life in northern la9es8 48 &utro,hication a8 La9es are stresse #y e/cess nutrients from sewage treatment an agricultural runoff8 #8 Algae grow in a#un ance an then ie offD the #acterial ecom,osers then use u, all of the o/ygen an 9ill the fish8 "8 O'one 3e,letion a8 The o'one shiel is a layer of o'one @O3A in the stratos,here5 some ". 9m a#o2e &arth<s surface8 #8 0t a#sor#s most of the harmful ultra2iolet @GVA ra iation5 ,re2enting it from reaching &arth<s surface8 c8 The cause of o'one e,letion traces to chlorine @Cl;A atoms that come from the #rea9 own of C!Cs8 8 !reon is a common C!C that was use in refrigerators an air con itioners8 e8 O'one shiel e,letion will lea to e,ression of the human immune system5 im,aire cro, an tree growth5 an eath of ,lan9ton8 $8 Organic Chemicals a8 A wi e 2ariety of organic chemicals is ,ro uce an enters the en2ironment8 #8 6onyl,henols are use in ,lastics5 s,ermici es5 cosmetics5 etc8D such chemicals mimic the effects of hormones8 c8 Salmon switch e2elo,ment #etween fresh an salt water #ut this chemical ,re2ents a a,tation in 2.=3.N of young fish8 (8 1lo#al :arming a8 Gl'bal .ar+i"* refers to an e/,ecte increase in the a2erage tem,erature in the 21st Century8 #8 1reenhouse gases @name for their a#ility to tra, heat li9e greenhouse glassA contri#ute to warming% 1A car#on io/i e @CO2A is ,ro uce #y #urning fossil fuelsD an 2A methane @C44A is ,ro uce #y animal guts5 oil an gas wells5 an floo e rice ,a ies8 c8 3ata collecte worl wi e show a rise in greenhouse gases8 8 Com,uter mo els ,re ict rising a2erage tem,eratures8 1A The glo#al climate a,,ears to ha2e risen since the in ustrial re2olution8 2A Some com,uter mo els ,re ict a rise of from 18"o C to 48"o C #y 2.$.8 e8 As oceans warm5 tem,eratures in ,olar regions woul li9ely rise to a greater egree than other areas8 f8 1laciers woul melt an sea le2els woul riseD a one meter rise woul inun ate 2.=".N of coastal wetlan s8 g8 +egions of suita#le climate for s,ecies woul shift ra,i ly5 ,ro#a#ly faster than ,lants coul migrate8 h8 Coral reefs woul suffer from high tem,erature ri2ing off algae an the higher water B rowningC them8

3($

38 O2ere/,loitation 18 Overe6)l'i$a$i'" occurs when remo2al of in i2i uals from the wil ,o,ulation rastically re uces their num#ers8 28 +arity causes a ,ositi2e fee #ac9 cycle% the fewer s,ecimens left5 the more 2alua#le they are8 38 There are many cases of o2ere/,loite organisms8 a8 B+ustlersC ig u, rare cacti to sell to gar eners8 #8 )ara9eets an macaws are sol to ,et stores8 c8 Tro,ical fish are har2este using ynamite an cyani e that 9ill many more8 8 Si#erian tigers are hunte for hi es8 e8 +hinoceros horn is groun u, as me icine8 f8 &le,hant tus9 i2ory is use for 7ewelry8 48 !ish stoc9s are #eing e,lete #y o2erfishing8 a8 The G868 !oo an Agricultural Organi'ation consi ers 11 of 1" ma7or oceanic fishing areas Bo2ere/,loite 8C #8 )urse;seine fishing surroun s tuna8 c8 4uge trawling nets ca,ture #ottom; welling fishD this has #een calle the marine e>ui2alent of clear;cutting trees8 "8 O2erfishing ,erch an herring cause a ecline in seals an sea lionsD orca 9iller whales ha to switch to eating sea ottersD sea otters ate the sea urchins that fe on 9el, an without sea otters5 the urchins ecimate the 9el, #e s8 &8 O2ere/,loitation of Asian Turtles @&cology Focus #o/A 18 Terrestrial tortoises an freshwater turtles are collecte an tra e for human consum,tion an other uses8 28 The tra e starte in Bangla esh an has now s,rea worl wi e8 38 Most of the wil caught turtles an tortoises are alrea y en angere 5 an this ,ractice has 2irtually wi,e out many ,o,ulations8 48 One of the main ifficulties in regulating the tra e of these animals is the lac9 of 9nowle ge a#out the range5 natural history5 an conser2ation nee s8 "8 0t is essential that nations an states with wil turtle ,o,ulations ensure that their omestic legislation is a e>uate in ,rotecting the future of these animals8 $8 Another threat inclu es the release of these turtles into new areas an s,rea ing isease8

7C07 C'"#erva$i'" Te&!"i<%e# A8 4a#itat )reser2ation

18 28 38 Bio i2ersity hots,ots merit ,reser2ation first8 0n Ma agascar tro,ical rain forests5 -3N of ,rimates5 --N of frog s,ecies5 an o2er *.N of ,lant s,ecies are en emic @uni>ue an nati2eA8 :hen ,ey#$'"e #)e&ie#3 s,ecies that influence the 2ia#ility of a community although their num#ers might not #e high5 are lost5 their e/tinction lea s to other e/tinctions8 a8 Bats ,ollinate an is,erse see s of tro,ical treesD loss of the #ats lea s to loss of the trees8 #8 1ri''ly #ears is,erse #erry see s in their ung5 9ee, ,rey ,o,ulations healthy5 an turn o2er soil8 A 1la*#!i) #)e&ie# is one treasure for its #eauty5 cuteness5 etc8 &/am,les are ,an as5 ol,hins5 tigers5 etc8 Meta,o,ulations a8 Me$a)')%la$i'"# are su# i2i e into se2eral small5 isolate ,o,ulations ue to ha#itat fragmentation8 #8 A #'%r&e )')%la$i'" li2es in a fa2ora#le ha#itat an has a higher #irth than eath rate8 c8 Si", )')%la$i'"# ha2e eath rates that e>ual or e/cee #irth rates8 8 :hen trying to sa2e a s,ecies5 it is #est to ,re2ent it from mo2ing into a sin9 ha#itat8 a8 #8 c8 Organisms li9e gri''ly #ears utili'e many ecosystemsD sa2ing 7ust one system woul not sa2e the s,ecies8 Sa2ing i2erse ecosystems connecte #y corri ors in2ol2es national forests5 refuges5 an ,ri2ate lan 8 Lan sca,e ,rotection for one s,ecies hel,s ,rotect othersD the gri''ly range o2erla,s 4.N of Montana<s 2ascular ,lants of s,ecial concern8

48 "8

$8 Lan sca,e 3ynamics

8 The & ge &ffect 3((

1A The ed*e of a ha#itat is ifferent from the interiorD the smaller the ,atch5 the more e ge ,ro uce 8 2A !orest e ges are #righter5 warmer5 rier5 win ier5 an they ha2e more 2ines8 3A !orest nesting song#ir s ha2e less success at the e geD cow#ir s are nest ,arasites at the e ge8

B8 4a#itat +estoration
18 28 Re#$'ra$i'" e&'l'*y see9s scientific ways to return ecosystems to their former state8 +estoration in2ol2es three ,rinci,les8 a8 +estoration shoul #egin imme iately #efore the remaining fragments are lost8 #8 Techni>ues that mimic natural ,rocesses shoul #e use @i8e85 controlle #urning5 #iological ,est control5 etc8A8 c8 The goal is #%#$ai"able devel')+e"$ where the resulting ecosystem shoul #e a#le to maintain itself8 The &2ergla es a8 The &2ergla es is a natural wet sawgrass ,rairie with cy,ress or har woo islan s8 #8 &arly settlers raine the lan to the south an esta#lishe a i9e aroun the fee er la9eD water was also channele to ,re2ent floo ing8 c8 The water su,,lie #y natural cycles of wet an ry seasons has #een re,lace #y ischarges from conser2ation la9es time for ,u#lic con2enience8 8 The resulting a#normal water su,,ly has e2astate the &2ergla es ecologyD #ir ,o,ulations are ramatically re uce 5 etc8 e8 +estoration in2ol2es ,ro2i ing a natural seasonal flow of water to the &2ergla es8 f8 Sustaina#le e2elo,ment in2ol2es switching agriculture to sugarcane an rice an esta#lishing an e/ten e #uffer 'one with interconnecte marshes8

38

Le&$%re E"ri&!+e"$ Idea#

E6)erie"&e Ba#e% The a,,lication of ecological ,rinci,les to en2ironmental ,ro#lems mi/es soli ecological ,rinci,les with sociology an ,olitics8 Many stu ents o not see a istinction #etween ecology an en2ironmentalism an there is su#stantial misun erstan ing of the ifferencesD many stu ents will #ring highly emotional o,inions to this to,ic8 The iscussion of chemistry5 en angere s,ecies5 e/otic releases5 an case histories can #e ,resente in clear factual fashionD those areas of uncertainty an s,eculation5 as in the com,uter mo eling #ehin glo#al warming ,re ictions5 are clearly la#ele as such an honest treatment of this cha,ter will go far to e;fusing stu ent s9e,ticism8 !ew G8S8 stu ents will #e aware of the e/tent of ,ollution that can e/ist in some tro,ical an e2elo,ing countriesD testimony from foreign stu ents in class can hel, relate these con itions8 18 Contrast the earlier usage of Bconser2ationC which was more limite to conser2ing soil an other resources5 an which ha an elegant natural ,hiloso,hy #asis5 with the mo ern an com,le/ efinition of conser2ation #iology gi2en here8 28 &/tinction occurre millions of times #efore humans ha any influence5 as is e2i ent from the fossil recor 8 6ote5 howe2er5 that it is the rate of mo ern e/tinctions that is e/ce,tional8 38 4a2e stu ents consi er an early ,ioneer who tre99e the lan sca,e an iscar e all BtrashC without recyclingD how e2astating was thisK Then consi er o2er 2*. million current resi ents who o not recycle all trash5 an the resultant estruction cause #y lan fills5 ,ollution5 etc8 Such a com,arison hel,s em,hasi'e that ,o,ulation num#ers are a critical factor in the human im,act8 &/am,les of cities such as Singa,ore an 4ong Eong5 where housing an trans,ortation are engineere an e2erything is recycle can #e use as e/am,les for our ,ossi#le future8
48 3iscuss the means that are #eing use to re uce o2er,o,ulation5 ,ollution5 an rain forest estruction in less

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e2elo,e countries5 such as ,aying these countries to ,rotect their en2ironmentD as9 stu ents how they woul try to eal with these ,ro#lems5 which are a ,art of their future8

"8 arly ,ioneers in the Gnite States also e/,loite our eastern forests with slash;an ;#urn ,racticesD this was ,art of our history an how we came to #e a e2elo,e nation8 There are few 2irgin tim#erlan s left8 As9 stu ents if it is the G8S8<s uty to as9 other countries not to e2elo, through the same stages8

Cri$i&al T!i",i"*
-%e#$i'" 10 An e/otic organism is #rought in to your geogra,hic region an the ,o,ulation e/,lo es5 out; com,eting the natural nati2e organisms8 0t has s,rea #eyon any a#ility to era icate it an is now a ,ermanent resi ent8 4owe2er5 it is not a ,ro#lem #ac9 in its homelan where its num#ers are minor8 :hat can #e oneK A"#.er: 0ts success here may #e relate to ha2ing esca,e natural ,re ators or iseases in its homelan 8 Many e/otics can #e controlle #y im,orting the a,,ro,riate ,arasites5 etc8 But only after 2ery careful research has in icate that the ,arasite will not itself #ecome a new ,ro#lem for nati2e organisms8 -%e#$i'" 20 BAll we ha2e to o is etermine what resources an animal nee s to stay ali2e an ,reser2e them8C 0s this statement correct relati2e to ensuring the future of a s,eciesK A"#.er: 6o8 The organism is ,art of a community of com,le/ com,onents8 0t may #e e,en ent u,on another organism5 a 9eystone s,ecies8 There may #e a minimal num#er necessary to #ree 8 The ha#itat re>uirements may #e larger than what one s,ecimen uses8 -%e#$i'" 40 A nati2e wil animal s,ecies is #eing foun in smaller an smaller ,o,ulations8 :hat factors might #e in2ol2e K A"#.er: The ma7or cul,rit is usually ha#itat loss8 The intro uction of e/otics s,ecies may also ,ro2i e a com,etitor or new ,re ator8 )ollution5 o2ere/,loitation5 an isease may #e factors8 -%e#$i'" 70 sa2e K Tro,ical rain forests ,lay a ma7or role in the #ios,here8 :hy shoul the tro,ical rain forests #e

A"#.er: The tro,ical rain forests shoul #e sa2e to @aA ,reser2e #io i2ersity5 @#A sa2e soil5 @cA ,ro2i e homes for in igenous ,eo,le5 @ A ,re2ent climate changes an ,ollution5 an @eA ,reser2e ,lants useful to us8

Technology from McGraw-Hill

)lease consult your C'%r#e I"$e*ra$i'" G%ide for technology correlations for this cha,ter8

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