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MNT-301
Introduction to Quantum Computer

UNIT-3

Prepared By: Abhishek Sharma abhishek_hbd@yahoo.com

The integrated circuit (IC), manufactured by optical lithography

Silicon-based technology allows for the fabrication of electronic devices with high reliability and of circuits with near-perfect precision. In fact, the main challenges facing conventional IC technology are not so much in making the devices, but in interconnecting them and in managing power dissipation. IC miniaturization has provided the tools for imaging, manipulating, and modeling on the nanometer scale. These new capabilities have led to the discovery of new physical phenomena, which have been the basis for new device proposals. Advantages of nanodevices include low power, high-packing densities, and speed. While there has been significant attention paid to the physics and chemistry of nanometer-scale device structures, there has been less appreciation of the need for new interconnection strategies for these new kinds of devices. In fact, the key problem is not so much how to make individual devices, but how to interconnect them in appropriate circuit architectures.

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Introduction to Nanocomputer architecture

Nanotechnology holds the promise of putting a trillion molecular-scale devices in a square centimeter. How does one assemble a trillion devices per square centimeter? Moreover, this needs to be done quickly, inexpensively, and sufficiently reliably. What does one do with a trillion devices? If we assume that one can make them (and they actually work), how can this massive amount of devices be harnessed for useful computation? These questions highlight the need for innovative nanoelectronic circuit architectures. Recent accomplishments include the fabrication of molecular circuits that are capable of performing logic operations. So the Nanocomputer architecture is based on the QCA, single electron circuit, molecular circuit ets

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Quantum Dot Cellular Automata
For the purpose of quantum computing a molecular structural model has been proposed that utilizes quantum dots is termed as quantum cellular automata(QCA), in which four quantum dots in square array are placed in a cell such that electrons are able to tunnel between the dots but are unable to leave the cell. When two excess electrons are placed in the cell coulomb repulsion will force the electron to occupy dots on opposite corners. Two ground states are energetically equivalent and can be labeled logic 1and 0 respectively.
FIGURE :1 The two possible ground-state polarizations, denoted 0 and 1, of a four-dot QCA cell.

Flipping the logic state of one cell, for instance by applying a negative potential to a lead near the quantum dot occupied by an electron, will result in the next door cell flipping ground state in order to reduce coulomb repulsion .

In this way a line of QCA cells can be used to do computation.

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The QCA cellular architecture is similar to other cellular arrays such as cellular neural/nonlinear networks (CNN), in that they repeatedly employ the same basic cell with its associated near-neighbor interconnection pattern.

In short QCA is a proposed scheme for computing with cells of coupled quantum dots where coupling between the cells is given by their direct physical interactions(and not by wires).

The physical mechanism available for interactions in such field coupled architectures are electric (coulomb ) or magnetic interactions in conjunction with quantum mechanical tunneling.

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1.1 A quantum-dot cell

The quantum-dot cellular automata (QCA) scheme is based on a cell which contains four quantum dots as schematically shown in figure (a).

The quantum dots are represented by the open circles, which indicate the confining electronic potential. In the ideal case, each cell is occupied by two electrons (shown as solid dots).

Figure (a): Schematic diagram of a QCA cell consisting of five quantum dots and occupied by two electrons.

Principle of quantum dot cell: Tunneling Between dots & Coulomb interaction
between electrons

The two electrons experience their mutual Coulombic repulsion, yet they are constrained to occupy the quantum dots inside the cell.

So they placed by hopping between the dots, that configuration which corresponds to the physical ground state of the cell.

Two electrons will tend to occupy different dots on opposing corners of the cell because of the Coulomb energy associated with having them on the same dot or bringing them together closer.

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Polarization (P=+1 or P=-1): These two configurations may be interpreted as binary information, thus encoding bit values in the electronic arrangement inside a single cell.

The ground state of an isolated cell is a superposition with equal weight of the two basic configurations, and therefore has a net polarization of zero.

Figure (b): The two basic electronic arrangements in the cell, which can be used to represent binary information, P = +1 and P = 1.

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1.2 Cell-cell coupling: The two polarization states of the cell will not be energetically equivalent if other cells are nearby. The electrons are allowed to tunnel between the dots in the same cell, but not between different cells. Figure: shows two cells, where the polarization of cell 1 (P1) is determined by the polarization of its neighbor (P2 ). The polarization of cell 2 is presumed to be fixed at a given value. corresponding to a certain arrangement of charges in cell 2, and this charge distribution exerts its influence on cell 1, thus determining its polarization P1 . As shown in the figure, cell-1 is almost completely polarized even though cell-2 might only be partially polarized. For example, a polarization of P2=0.1 induces almost perfect polarization in cell 1, i.e. P1=0.99. In other words, even a small asymmetry of charge in cell-2 is sufficient to break the degeneracy of the two basic states in cell-1 by energetically favoring one configuration over the other.
1 2

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1.3 QCA Logic Simple QCA cell logic line where a logic input of 1 gives an logic output of 1.

This structure could be called a binary wire, where a 1 input gives a 1 output. All of the electrons occupy positions as far away from their neighbors as possible and they are all in ground state polarization.

Flipping the ground state of the cell on the left end will result in a domino effect, where each neighboring cell flips ground states until the end of the wire is reached.

Inverter Built From QCA Cells: The output is0 when the input is 1

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CORNER : Information can also flow around corners, as shown in figure Fan-Out :

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Majority Gate: The QCA topology that can produce AND & OR gates is called a majority gate, Where three input cells vote on the polarization of central cell .The polarization of central cell is then propagated as the output.

One of the input can be designated a programming input and determines whether the majority gate produces an AND or an OR. If the programming gate is a logic 1, then the result is OR while programming gate equal to logic 0 would produce a result of AND.
A 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 B 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 C 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 Output 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1

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In other words, majority gates may be viewed as programmable AND & OR gates and hence the functionality of the gates may be determined by the state of computation itself. Computing With QCA : For the purpose of quantum computation QCA array can be used. In a QCA array, cells interact with their neighbors via repulsion (i.e coulomb interaction) and no circuitry or wires are used to connect the interior cells with each other. This can over come the drawback of heat dissipation appears in conventional circuits. The information in a QCA array is contained in the physical ground state of the system. The two key features that characterize this new computing model are :
Computing with the ground state.

Edge driven computation.

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Computing With The Ground State: Consider a QCA array before the start of a computation . The array, left to itself, will have assumed its physical ground state. Presenting the input data i.e setting the polarization of the input cells, will deliver energy to the system, thus promoting the array to an excited state.

In the computation the array reaches the new ground-state configuration, according to the boundary conditions given by the fixed input cells.

The information is contained in the ground state itself only and not in how the ground state is reached i.e the dynamics of computation.

But the dynamics of the computation is important for the actual implementation purpose. There may be two approaches that can explain computation dynamics : The system is completely left to itself. The system is externally controlled.

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The system is completely left to itself: The natural tendency of the system to achieve the ground state may be used to drive the computation process. The interaction of cells (with each other and also with the system) present in the surrounding of the system try to relax the system from the excited state to the new ground state. The actual dynamics will be too complicated because the interactions are uncontrollable. There is also a drawback that the system may get stuck in meta stable states ,it implies that no fixed time in which a computation is completed. The system is externally controlled: Adiabatic computing : This is accomplished by rising or lowering the potential barrier within the cells in concert with clock signals. This change of potential barriers inhibits or allows the changes of the cell polarization. On this basis pipeline architectures have been proposed. This is accomplished by rising or lowering the potential barrier within the cells in concert with clock signals. This change of potential barriers inhibits or allows the changes of the cell polarization. On this basis pipeline architectures have been proposed.

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EDGE DRIVEN COMPUTATION: Edge-driven computation means that only the periphery of a QCA array can be contacted, which is used to write the input data and to read the output of the computation. No internal cells may be contacted directly.

This implies that no signals or power can be delivered from the outside to the interior of an array. All interior cells only interact within their local neighborhood. The absence of signal and power lines to each and every interior cell has obvious benefits for the interconnect problem and the heat dissipation.

The lack of direct contact to the interior cells also has profound consequences for the way such arrays can be used for computation. Because no power can flow from the outside, interior cells cannot be maintained in a far-from-equilibrium state. Because no external signals are brought to the inside, internal cells cannot be influenced directly.

These are the reasons why the ground state of the whole array is used to represent the information, as opposed to the states of each individual cell. In fact, edge-driven computation necessitates computing with the ground state.

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Single Electron Circuit

A single electron circuit (SEC) consists of electronic devices (like transistor,

diodes etc) whose working is based on the State change of device due to presence or absence of a single electron. Single electron transistors (SETs) can be used (in principle) in circuit to the conventional silicon FETs , MOSFETs . But there are practical problem in using SETs as logic devices in conventional circuit architectures. One of the main problem related to the presence of charges in the surrounding circuitry, which change the SET characteristics in an uncontrollable way because the SET is sensitive to the charge of one electron, So Solution of above problem is: the whole surrounding circuitry must be of same nature i.e it must use all single electron devices.

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Design: As schematically shown in Figure, the basic building block for SEC logic family consists of three conducting islands, where the middle island is slightly shifted off the line passing through the centres of the edge island. Electrons are allowed to tunnel through small gaps between the middle and edge islands but not directly between the edge islands (due to their larger spatial separation). Let us assume that each cell can be occupied by one additional electron and that a clock electric field is applied that initially pushes this electron onto the middle island (the direction of this clock field is perpendicular to the line connecting the edge islands). Now that the electron is located on the central island, the clock field is reduced, and the electron eventually changes direction. At some point in time during this cycle, it will be energetically favourable for the electron to tunnel- off of the middle island and onto one of the edge islands. If both islands are identical, the choice of island will be random. However, this symmetry can be broken by a small switching field that is applied perpendicular to the clock field and along the line of the edge cells. This control over the leftright final position of the electron can be interpreted as one bit of binary information; the electron on the right island might mean logical 1 and the left island logical 0.

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Molecular Circuit
Chemical self-assembly processes look promising since they (in principle), allow vast amounts of devices to be fabricated very cheaply. (1) But, there are key problems the need to create complex circuits for computers appears to be ill suited for chemical self-assembly, which yields mostly regular (periodic) structures; and (2) the need to deal with very large numbers of components and to arrange them into useful structures is a hard problem (NP-hard problem). Molecular circuit is a architectures for Nanoprocessor systems, which integrated on the molecular scale. There are some approach to built molecular circuit First One approach to molecular electronics is to build circuits in analogy to conventional silicon-based electronics. The idea is to find molecular analogs of electronic devices (such as wires, diodes, transistors, etc.) and then to assemble these into molecular circuits.

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Second: Another idea of a switch (and related circuitry) at the molecular level is the (mechanical) concept of an atom relay, which was proposed by Wada and coworkers. The atom relay is a switching device based upon the controlled motion of a single atom. The basic configuration of an atom relay consists of a (conducting) atom wire, a switching atom, and a switching gate. The operation principle of the atom relay is that the switching atom is displaced from the atom wire due to an applied electric field on the switching gate (off state of the atom relay). Memory cell and logic gates (such as NAND and NOR functions) based on the atom relay configuration have been proposed and their operation was examined through simulation.

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Transistor: A popular group of molecules, that can work as the semiconducting channel material in a molecular transistor, is the oligopolyphenylenevinylenes (OPVs) that works by the Coulomb blockade mechanism when placed between the source and drain electrode in an appropriate way. Fullerenes work by the same mechanism and have also been commonly utilized.

Wires: The sole purpose of molecular wires is to electrically connect different parts of a molecular electrical circuit. As the assembly of these and their connection to a macroscopic circuit is still not mastered, the focus of research in single molecule electronics is primarily on the functionalized molecules: molecular wires are characterized by containing no functional groups and are hence composed of plain repetitions of a conjugated building block. Among these are the carbon nanotubes that are quite large compared to the other suggestions but have shown very promising electrical properties.

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Bra-ket Notation

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Quantum superposition
The superposition principle plays the most important role in all consideration of quantum information and in most experiments of quantum mechanics. Double slit experiment: The essential ingredients of double slit experiment are a source, a double slit assembly and an observation screen on which we observe interference fringes. According to

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Q-bits
QUBIT: qbit is stands for quantum bit; it is the basic unit of information in a quantum computer same as bit which is the basic unit of information in classical computer. In a quantum computer, a number of elemental particles such as electrons or photons can be used with either their charge or polarization acting as a representation of 0 and/or 1. Each of these particles is known as a qubit; the nature and behavior of these particles (as expressed in quantum theory) form the basis of quantum computing. Bit Vs Qbit: A bit is the basic unit of computer information. Regardless of its physical realization, a bit is always understood to be either a 0 or a 1. An analogy to this is a light switch- with the off position representing 0 and the on position representing 1. A qubit has some similarities to a classical bit, but is overall very different. Like a bit, a qubit can have two possible valuesnormally a 0 or a 1. The difference is that whereas a bit must be either 0 or 1, a qubit can be 0, 1, or a superposition of both.

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Quantum

superposition

refers

to

the

quantum

mechanical property of a particle to occupy all of its possible quantum states simultaneously. Due to this property, to completely describe a particle one must include a description of every possible state and the probability of the particle being in that state.

In above figure second row shown the qbit representation of decimal 5. Third row shows the qbit may represent superposition of decimal 4 and decimal 5.

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Prepared By: Abhishek Sharma abhishek_hbd@yahoo.com

Since the Schrdinger equation is linear, a solution that takes into account all possible states will be a Linear combination of the solutions for each individual state. This mathematical property of linear equations is known as the superposition principle. Representation of qbit: As is the tradition with any sort of quantum states, Dirac, or bra-ket notation, is used to represent them. This means that the two computational basis states are conventionally written as and (pronounced "ket 0" and "ket 1"). Qbit states: A pure qubit state is a linear superposition of those two states. This means that the qubit can be represented as a linear combination of |0> and |1>.

where and are probability amplitudes and can in general both be complex numbers. When we measure this qubit in the standard basis, the probability of outcome |0> is | |2 and the probability of outcome |1> is | |2.

Because the absolute squares of the amplitudes equate to probabilities, it follows that and must be represented by the equation:

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Rough

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state space of a single qubit register can be represented geometrically by the Bloch sphere

The possible states for a single qubit can be visualised using a Bloch sphere (see diagram). Represented on such a sphere, a classical bit could only be at the "North Pole" or the "South Pole", in the locations where and are respectively. The rest of the surface of the sphere is inaccessible to a classical bit, but a pure qubit state can be represented by any point on the surface. For example, the pure qubit state swould lie on the equator of the sphere, on the positive y axis. The surface of the sphere is two-dimensional space, which represents the state space of the pure qubit states. This state space has two local degrees of freedom. It might at first sight seem that there should be four degrees of freedom, as and are complex numbers with two degrees of freedom each. However, one degree of freedom is removed by the constraint. Another, the overall phase of the state, has no physically observable consequences, so we can arbitrarily choose to be real, leaving just two degrees of freedom. It is possible to put the qubit in a mixed state, a statistical combination of different pure states. Mixed states can be represented by points inside the Bloch sphere.

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Kind of operations: There are various kinds of physical operations that can be performed on pure qubit states.

Unitary transformation: These correspond to rotations of the Bloch sphere. Standard basis measurement: It is an operation in which information is gained about the state of the qubit. With probability | |2, the result of the measurement will be and with probability | |2, it will be. Measurement of the state of the qubit is measured, is changed to

alters the values of and . For instance, if the state

1 (up to phase) and is changed to 0. Note that a measurement of a qubit state entangled with another quantum system transforms a pure state into a mixed state.

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Physical representation

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Single qbit transformation (Quantum GATE)

Beam splitter

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The beam splitter splits the laser into two separate beams and also recombine s the beams after they strike the mirrors.

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Phase Shifter

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Quantum GATE

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Controlled GATE
So we have discussed only single qbit gates, that is, which involve one bit only. Of greatest importance of q computation applications are two qubit gates, where the evolution of one bit is conditional upon the state of the other qubit, so the simplest of these gates is the quantum controlled NOT gate. the controlled NOT gate (or CNOT) acts on 2 qubits, and performs the NOT operation on the second qubit only when the first qubit is |1> , and otherwise leaves it unchanged. It is represented by the matrix. The action of quantum controlled NOT gate can be described by:

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Controlled Not GATE can be represented by matrix

Controlled U GATE: if U is a gate that operates on single qubits with matrix representation

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QUANTUM CIRCUIT MODEL
In quantum information theory, a quantum circuit is a model for quantum computation in which a computation is a sequence of quantum gates. And This structure is referred to as an n-qubit register. 1. 2. 3. Proposed Models of quantum computation Quantum Dot Cellular Automata Quantum Gate Array Quantum Turing Machine

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Quantum gate array Important feature of computer is that they can be programmable so in case of programmable quantum computer device would have to have the features that It should consist of a fixed gate array with a data register and program register. And the array should work in such a way that the state of the program register emcodes the unitary operator u that is applied to the state of data register.

So we can say that Quantum gate array are fixed gate arrays acting on data register and program register, together with a final fixed projective measurement on the composite system.

Suppose that we are given a quantum system prepared in the same state q and an operator O by specifying its expansion in a basis of the space of operators so our task is to compute the expectation value of O in the state q. Hence Quantum gate array is a programmable circuit that evaluates such expectation values by measuring the polarization of single qubit. Inputs of such circuits are data register, program register and auxiliary qubit.

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QUANTUM TURING MACHINE: Turing machine is an idea of computing machine, which moved from one state to another using a precise finite set of rules given by finite table and depending on a single symbol it read from a tape. First turing machine which was a hypothetical computer consist of the following : An infinite tape on which symbol may be read or written. The machine travels right or left along the tape following a program . At each step the machine writes to the tape , travels either left or right and changes states , according to a set of internal states. The set of symbols and set of internal states are both finite states.

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Application of quantum mechanical system

Quantum CRYPTOGRAPHY Cryptography is the method of hiding the secrate information. It is the greek word which means hidden secrate. There are two main tasks of cryptography Encryption Decryption Encryption is the method of converting information from a readable state to nonsense while decryption is the method of converting the nonsense to the readable state. The user retain the ability to decrypt the data or information by the key which is generated at the time of encryption and therefore by the use of encryption, the user can avoid unwanted person being able to read it. The quantum cryptography describes the use of quantum mechanical effects like quantum communication and quantum computing to perform cryptographic task or to break cryptographic systems. The well known example of quantum cryptography are the use of quantum communication to secure exchange the key which is known as quantum key distribution and the use of quantum computes that would allow the breaking of various popular public-key encryption.

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Quantum mechanical computations for simulation: The Quantum Mechanical computation systems can also be used on a very large scale molecular systems to reduce the noise using self consistent field method where, self consistent field method is the method which is used in simulation of molecules to minimize the energy so that the noise can be minimized. In a large molecular system we cannot perform the simulation or computing task because the energy value of the large molecules is high and therefore with high energy value the large quantity of noise is also present in the system. PROPAGATOR: In quantum mechanics and quantum field theory, the propagator gives the probability amplitude for a particle to travel from one place to another in a given time, or to travel with a certain energy and momentum. Propagators are used to represent the contribution of virtual particles on the internal lines of Feynman diagrams.

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Let us take an example for quantum mechanical system application: propagate and cryptography

Suppose there are two users John and Mick, and John wants to send the secrete information to Mick, then John will first encrypt the data from readable state to nonsense by using a key which is send via a quantum communication route to Mick.

This quantum communication route is known as propagator. After that the John send the nonsense through any chipper media to Mick. After receiving the nonsense Mick will decrypt the information with the help of that key.

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Superdense coding
Suppose Alice wishes to send Bob two classical bits of information. Superdense coding is a way of achieving this task over a quantum channel, requiring only that Alice send one qubit to Bob. Alice and Bob must initially share the Bell state

Suppose Alice is in possession of the first qubit and Bob the second qubit. Alice performs one of four 1-qubit gates, depending on the 2 classical bits she wishes to communicate to Bob.

For convenience, we remind you again of the definitions of the Pauli gates:

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If Alice wishes to send the bits 00 to Bob, she does nothing to her qubit (or equivalently, applies the identity gate I).

If she wishes to send 01, she applies the X gate to her qubit. If she wishes to send 10, she applies the Z gate; and if she wishes to send 11, she applies Z X (i.e. she applies the X gate followed by the Z gate).

The following list summarizes the resulting joint 2-qubit state in each case:

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The outcome of the Bell measurement reveals to Bob which Bell state he possesses, and so allows him to determine with certainty the two classical bits Alice wanted to communicate to him. The superdense coding protocol is illustrated in Figure 5.1.

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