EX: NO: DATE:

STUDY OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS AND

EQUIPMENT

Aim: To study electronic components and equipment such as resistor colour coding, usage of CRO and Multimeter Components Require : 1. Resistors 2. Oscilloscope 3. Multimeter T!eor": Resistor #o$our #o in%: Resistor colour coding is used to indicate the values or ratings of resistors. t is also used in capacitors and inductors. The advantage of colour coding is that essential information can !e mar"ed on small components of cylindrical shape #ithout the need to read tiny printing. Resistor values are al#ays coded in ohms. $and % is the first significant digit of component value. $and $ is the second significant digit. $and C is the decimal multiplier. $and & if present, indicates tolerance of value in percent 'no colour means 2()*. +or e,ample, a resistor #ith !ands of yellow, violet, red and gold #ill have first digit -'yello#*, second digit .'violet*, follo#ed !y 2'red* /eros0 -,.(( ohms. 1old signifies that the tolerance is 23). %ctual resistor value 4 -.(( 23) 5.

Resistor Co$our Co in%:

Resistor St&n &r Co$our Co e T&'$e Co$our $lac" $ro#n Red Orange 6ello# 1reen $lue 8iolet 1rey :hite 1old =ilver >one (&$ue Di%it ( 1 2 3 3 7 . 9 ; Mu$tip$ier
,1( ,1( ,1( ,1( ,1( ,1( ,1(
( 1 2 3 3 7 .

To$er&n#e 21) 22)

,1( 9 ,1( ,1( ,1(

; <1

2(.3) 2(.23) 2(.1) 2(.(3) 23) 21() 22()

,1(

<2

Os#i$$os#ope: %n oscilloscope 'sometimes a!!reviated CRO for cathode<ray oscilloscope* is electronic test equipment that allo#s signal voltages to !e vie#ed, usually as a t#o< dimensional graph of one or more electrical potential differences 'vertical a,is* plotted as a function of time or some other voltage 'hori/ontal a,is*. % typical oscilloscope is a rectangular !o, #ith a small screen, numerous input connectors and control "no!s and !uttons on the front panel. To aid measurement, a grid called the graticule is dra#n on the face of the screen. ?ach square in the graticule is "no#n as a division. The signal to !e measured is fed to one of the input connectors, #hich is usually a coa,ial connector such as a $>C or > type. n the simplest mode, the oscilloscope repeatedly dra#s a hori/ontal line called the trace across the middle of the screen from left to right. One of the controls, the time !ase control, sets the speed at #hich the line is dra#n, and is cali!rated in seconds per division. f the input voltage departs from /ero, the trace is deflected either up#ards or do#n#ards. %nother control, the vertical control, sets the scale of the vertical deflection, and is cali!rated in volts per division. The resulting trace is a graph of voltage against time. f the input signal is periodic, a nearly sta!le trace can !e o!tained @ust !y setting the time !ase to match the frequency of the input signal. +or e,ample, if the input signal is a 3( A/ sine #ave, then its period is 2( ms, so the time !ase should !e ad@usted so that the time !et#een successive hori/ontal s#eeps is 2(ms. This mode is called continual s#eep. To provide a more sta!le trace, modern oscilloscopes have a function called the trigger. :hen using triggering, the scope #ill pause each time the s#eep reaches the e,treme right side of the screen. The scope then #aits for a specified event !efore dra#ing the ne,t trace. The trigger event is usually the input #aveform reaching some user<specified threshold voltage in the specified direction 'going positive or going negative*. The effect is to resynchronise the time !ase to the input signal, preventing hori/ontal drift of the trace. n this #ay, triggering allo#s the display of periodic signals such as sine #aves and square #aves. Trigger circuits also allo# the display of no periodic signals such as a single pulses or pulses that dont recur at a fi,ed rate.

T&'u$&tion:

=l. >o.

Resistance 8alue !y Colour Coding 'B*

Resistance 8alue !y Multimeter 'B*

Most oscilloscopes allo# the user to !ypass the time !ase and feed an e,ternal signal into the hori/ontal amplifier. This is called C<6 mode, and is useful for vie#ing the phase relationship !et#een to# signals, #hich is commonly done in radio and television engineering. :hen the t#o signals are sinusoids of varying frequency and phase, the resulting trace is called a Dissa@ous curve. Oscilloscopes may have t#o or more input channels, allo#ing them to display more than one input signal on the screen. Esually, the oscilloscope has a separate set of vertical controls for each channel, !ut only one triggering system and time !ase. Us&%e o) CRO: One of the most frequent uses of oscilloscopes is trou!leshooting malfunctioning electronic equipments. %n oscilloscope can graphically sho# signals0 #hereas a voltmeter can sho# totally une,pected voltage, a scope may reveal that the circuit is oscillating. n other cases, the precise shape of pulse is important. n electronic equipment, for e,ample, the connections !et#een stages 'e.g. electronic mi,ers, electronic oscillators, amplifiers* may !e Fpro!ed for the e,pected signal, using the scope as a simple signal tracer. f the e,pected signal is a!sent or incorrect, some preceding stage of the electronics circuit is not operating correctly. =ince most failures occur !ecause of a single faculty component, each measurement can prove that half of the stages of a comple, piece of equipment either #or" or pro!a!ly did not cause the fault. Once the faulty stage is discovered, further pro!ing can usually tell a s"illed technician e,actly #hich component has failed. Once the component is replaced, the unit can !e restored to service, or at least the ne,t fault can !e isolated. %nother use is to chec" ne#ly designed circuitry. Often a ne#ly designed circuit #ill suffer from design errors, !ad voltage levels, electrical noise etc.

Mu$timeter: % Multimeter is an electronic measuring instrument that contri!utes several functions in one unit. The most !asic instruments include ammeter, voltmeter, and ohmmeter. %nalog multimeters are sometimes referred to as Gvolt<ohmmetersH, a!!reviated as 8OM % multimeter is a handheld device and used to find !asic fault and for field service #or". t can measure to seven or eight and a half digit of accuracy. Current, voltage and resistance measurements are considered standard features for multimeter. % multimeter may !e implemented #ith an analog meter deflected !y an electromagnet, as a classic galvanometerI or #ith a digital display such as an DC& or vacuum fluorescent display. Modern multimeters are, e,clusively digital and identified !y the term &MM or digital multimeter. n such an instrument, the signal under test is converted to a digital voltage and an amplifier #ith an electronically controlled gain preconditions the signal. =ince the digital display directly indicates a quantity as a num!er, there is no ris" of error #hen vie#ing a reading. =imilarly, !etter circuitry and electronics have improved the meter accuracy. Older analog meters might have !asic accuracies of 23). Modern pota!le &MMs have accuracies as good as 2(.(23)

Result0 Thus the resistor colour coding, usage of CRO and multimeter are studied.

Pin Di&%r&ms:

AND *&te:

OR *&te:

NOT *&te:

EX: NO: DATE:

STUDY AND (ERIFICATION OF LO*IC *ATES

8

Aim: To verify the truth ta!le of the logic gates %>&, OR, >OT, >%>& J >OR using .-CC Cs. Components Require : C .-32'OR 1ate* C .-(9'%>& 1ate* C .-(-'>OT 1ate* C .-(('>%>& 1ate* C .-(2'>OR 1ate* &igital C trainer "it T!eor": Dogic gates are digital circuits #ith one or more input signals and only one output signal. 1ates are digital circuits !ecause the input and output signals are either lo# or high voltages. 1ates are often called logic circuits !ecause they can !e analysed using $oolean alge!ra. AND *&te: %n %>& gate can have t#o or more inputs !ut only one output. ts output can go to logic 1 if all its inputs are at the high state. The $oolean e,pression for a t#o input %>& gate is0 +4,.y

NAND *&te:
9

NOR *&te:

OR *&te: %n OR gate can have t#o or more inputs !ut only one output. ts output #ill !e at logic 1 if any or !oth of its inputs are at the high state.
10

The $oolean e,pression for a t#o input OR gate is0 +4,Ky

NOT *&te: % >OT gate has a single input and a single output. t is also called as an inverter. The output #ill !e at logic 1 if its input is at lo# state, other#ise its output #ill !e at logic (. Thus its output is the complement of its input.

The $oolean e,pression for the inverter is0 + 4 , NAND *&te: t is the com!ination of %>& gate and >OT gate. t is also called as an universal gate. The output of this gate #ill go to logic ( iff all its inputs are at the high state. The $oolean e,pression for a t#o input >%>& gate is + 4 ',.y*L

11

NOR *&te:
t is the com!ination of an OR gate and a >OT gate. t is also called as an universal gate. The output of this gate #ill go to logic 1 iff all its inputs are at the lo# state.
12

The $oolean e,pression for a t#o input >OR gate is0 + 4 ', K y*L

Pro#e ure: 1. Connections are given as per the logic diagrams and the pin<out diagrams of the individual Cs. 2. =upply and ground connections are given to the Cs. 3. nputs are applied !y using the s#itches that provide the logic Aigh and Do# levels.

4. The outputs are o!served !y using the D?&s.

Resu$t:
Thus the logic gates %>&, OR, >OT, >%>& and >OR are studied and their truth ta!les verified.

CIRCUIT DIA*RAM :
13

EX: NO: DATE:

*ener&tion o) C$o#+ Si%n&$

14

AIM:

To generate a cloc" signal of 1MA/ 'square #aveform* !y an asta!le multivi!rator using C333 timer.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Equipments , Components 1. No#er =upply 2.Resistors 3.Capacitors -.CRO 3.&iode (%.; 7. C333

R&n%e '(<3(* 8 33((K33(43.73(M , 3.1K2.24..3M (.(1O+ (.1O+ '(<2(* MA/

Qu&ntit" 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

DESI*N:

Case (I) 1iven f 4 1MA/ and & 4(.3

1.-3 +requency of asta!le multivi!rator, f 4 'R % K R $ *C 1.-3 Then C 4 'R % K R $ *f R$ & 4 'R % K R $ * 4 (.3 (.3R% K(.3R$ 4 R$ R% 4 R$

15

TA-ULAR COLUMN:

%mplitude '8*

Timeperiod 'ms*

Output

MODEL *RAP.:

16

Det

C 4 (.1O+, R% 4R$ 4R f 4 'R %

1.-3

1.-3 K R $ *C

1.-3

f 4 2RC 4P1MA/ 4 2 Q (.1Q1( <7 Q R R 4 ..2Mohm Case (ii) 1iven f 4 1MA/ and & 4(.23 +requency of asta!le multivi!rator,

R$ & 4 R % K 2R $ 4 (.23

R% K2R$ 4 -R$ R% 4 2R$ Det C 4 (.1R+, R% 4 2R$

R$ 4 3.723Mohm R% 4..23Mohms

17

18

T.EORY: The 333 timers is a highly sta!le device for generating accurate time delay or oscillation. % single 333 timer can provide time delay ranging from microseconds to hours #hereas counter timer can have a ma,imum timing range of days. %n asta!le multi vi!rator is a square #aveform generator. +orcing the Op<amp to operate in the saturation region generates square #aveform. t is a free running symmetrical multivi!rator !ecause it does not require any e,ternal trigger PROCEDURE: 1. The connections are given as sho#n in the circuit diagram. 2. The square #aveform is o!tained at output pin of Op<amp. 3. >ote the amplitude J Time period of the of the #aveform J Nlot it in the graph. -. &uty cycle is calculated using the formula given.

RESULT: Thus C333 timer #as operated in asta!le mode to generate square #ave. Theoretical &uty cycle0 23) Nractical &uty cycle 0 <<<<<<<<<<<.

19

EX: NO: DATE:

Aim:

SOLDERIN* AND C.EC/IN* CONTINUITY

To practice soldering of plates and #ires Too$s Require : 1. =oldering iron 2. =older and 3. +lu, T!eor": So$ erin%: =oldering is the process of @oining thin metal plates or #ires made of steel, copper or !rass. t is very commonly used to @oin #ires in electrical #or" and mount electronic components on a circuit !oard. The @oining material used in soldering is called as solder or filler rod. %n alloy of tin and lead is commonly used as the solder. The flu, is used to clean the surface of the platesS#ires to !e soldered. %luminium chloride or /inc chloride is commonly used as flu,. % good soldering iron is a varia!le temperature setting type #ith interchangea!le irons and tips. The tip should !e removed regularly to prevent o,idation scale from accumulating !et#een the heating element and the tip. Pro#e ure: 1. The surface to !e soldered is cleaned and flu, applied. 2. The soldering iron is heated to the required temperature. The soldering iron melts the solder rod and a thin film of solder spreads over the surface to @oin the platesS#ires.

20

So$ erin% Simp$e E$e#troni# Components:

21

% printed circuit !oard 'NC$* consists of copper strips and pads !onded to a plastic !oard. The copper strip is the net#or" of interconnecting conductive path. Deads of components mounted on the !oard are inserted through holes on the !oard and the conductive copper. These leads are soldered to the copper at the end of the hole. f e,cessive heat is applied to copper, it may get lifted from the !oard or the components on the !oard get damaged. =oldering pencil gun of a!out 3( :atts is used to heat the @unction. The surface of copper !onded to the !oard should !e properly prepared and cleaned !efore soldering. +lu, is applied on circuits and component leads. Chec" the conductive strips and pads on the !oard !efore soldering. %void e,cess solder to prevent t#o copper paths from !ridging. :hen solder glo!ules form on the @unction area, remove them !y cleaning the soldering tip using a cloth. Chec"ing Continuity0 The continuity of a #ire conductor #ithout a !rea" has practically /ero ohms of resistance. Therefore, an ohmmeter may !e used to test continuity. To test continuity, select the lo#est ohm range. % #ire may have an internal !rea", #hich is not visi!le due to insulation, or the #ire may have a !ad connection at the terminals. Chec"ing for /ero ohms !et#een any t#o points tests the continuity. % !rea" in the conducting path is evident from the reading of infinite resistance. n a ca!le of #ires, individual #ires are identified #ith colours. Consider the figure, #here the individual #ires are not seen, !ut you #ish to find the #ire that connects to terminal %. This is done !y, chec"ing continuity of each #ire to terminal %. The #ire that has /ero ohms is the one connected to this terminal. Continuity of a long ca!le may !e tested !y temporarily short<circuiting the other ends of the #ires. The continuity of !oth #ires may !e chec"ed for /ero ohms. n a digital multimeter, a !eep mode is availa!le to chec" continuity. The connectivity !et#een the terminals is identified !y the !eep sound.

Resu$t: The electronic components are soldered and continuity of a circuit or #ire is chec"ed.

22

E$e#troni# Components

Resistor

C&p&#itor

PN Dio e

Tr&nsistor

23

Inte%r&te Cir#uit 0IC1

EX: NO: DATE:

Aim:

ASSEM-LIN* ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS ON

A PC- AND TESTIN*

To assem!le electronic components on a NC$ and test it Too$s Require : 1. =oldering iron 2. =older and 3. +lu, Components Require : 1. NC$ and 2. ?lectronic Components Pro#e ure: The electronic components are carefully assem!led as per the circuit design. The assem!ling of electronic components on a NC$ involves the follo#ing steps. Component Le& Prep&r&tion: Components such as capacitors have leads and are !ent carefully to mount on NC$. The lead !ending radius should !e appro,imately t#o times the diameter of the
24

lead. The !ent leads should fit into the holes perpendicular to the !oard, so that the stress on the component lead @unction is minimi/ed. =uita!le !ending tools may !e used for perfect !ending. Deads are !ent and assem!led on !oard in such a #ay that the polarity sym!ols are seen after mounting the component.

25

Component Mountin%: Components are mounted on one side of the !oard and leads are soldered on the other side of the !oard. The components are oriented !oth hori/ontally and vertically !ut uniformity in reading directions must !e maintained. The uniformity in orientation of diodes, capacitors, transistors, Cs etc. is determined at the time of NC$ design. Components dissipating more heat should !e separated from the !oard surface. M&nu&$ Assem'$" o) Components: The components to !e assem!led on a NC$ are arranged conveniently. The !oard to !e assem!led is held in a suita!le frame and the components are "ept in trays or !ins. The insertion tools, if required, must !e "ept in the easy reach of the #or"er. The #or" is divided depending on num!er of parts to !e assem!led and the si/e of each part. The num!er of different components to !e assem!led for one #or"er should not !e more than 2(. Inspe#tion &n Testin%: The components assem!led on the NC$ are tested !efore they are soldered to the !oard. t is a common practice to have the assem!led !oards chec"ed prior to soldering. %n assem!ly inspector is located at the end of the assem!ly line for inspection. The inspection includes verifying component polarity, orientation, value and physical mounting.
26

So$ erin% &n Le& Cuttin%: The components are soldered on the NC$. The e,cess lead is cut after soldering. The performance and relia!ility of the solder @oints are !est if lead cutting is carried !efore soldering so that the lead end gets protected. Ao#ever, this is not practiced in hand soldering.

27

PC- C$e&nin%: The soldered NC$ may have contaminants that could cause trou!le during the functioning of the circuit. The contaminants include flu, and chips of plastics, metals, and other materials. Aence, the NC$ must !e cleaned !efore use. % #ide range of cleaning media is availa!leI usually chemicals such as acetone and alcohols are used.

28

Resu$t: The electronic components are assem!led on NC$ and are tested.

Cir#uit i&%r&m :0 .&$) 2&3e re#ti)ier 2it! #&p&#itor1

29

EX: NO: 4 DATE:

Aim:

MEASUREMENT OF RIPPLE FACTOR FOR .ALF56A(E AND FULL56A(E RECTIFIER

To study half<#ave and full<#ave rectifiers and measure the ripple factors #ith and #ithout capacitor filter. App&r&tus Require : S$7 No7 i* ii* iii* iv* Component N&me CRO Multimeter N> Uunction &iode Transformer > -((. 23( 8olts S 13 T ( T13 8olts, 2(( m% v* vi* vii* viii* Resistor Capacitor $read!oard Connecting :ires -.(5 -.( O+ S 23 8 < < 1 1 1 %s required R&n%e '( T 2( MA/* Qu&ntit" Require 1 1 1 1

T!eor":

30

The process of converting %C voltage and current to &irect current is called rectification. %n electronic device that offers a lo# resistance to current in one direction and a high resistance in the other direction is capa!le of converting a sinusoidal #aveform into a unidirectional #aveform. &iodes have this characteristic, #hich ma"es it a useful component in the design of rectifiers. n order to achieve a constantSpure &C voltage at the output, filtering should !e done to the pulsating &C output of the rectifier. The output varies #ith the variation in %C mains. Aence a voltage regulator is used to maintain the output voltage at the same value.

Mo e$ *r&p!:

Input 6&3e Form

.&$) 6&3e Re#ti)ier Output

31

Fu$$ 6&3e Re#ti)ier Output

&iodes are used in a rectifier circuit to convert %C into &C. :hen only one half of the %C cycle is rectified, it is "no#n as half<#ave rectification. :hen !oth the half cycles are rectified, it is "no#n as full<#ave rectification. Pro#e ure: .&$) 6&3e Re#ti)ier: 'i* 6it!out C&p&#itor )i$ter:
1. Test your transformer0 1ive 23(v, 3(A/ source to the primary coil of the transformer and o!serve the %C #aveform of rated value #ithout any distortion at

the secondary of the transformer. 2. Connect the half #ave rectifier as sho#n in figure.
3. Measure the 8dc J 8ac using &C and %C 8oltmeters.

-. Calculate the Ripple factor 3. Compare the theoretical ripple factor #ith the practical ripple factor. 0ii1 6it! #&p&#itor: 1. Connect the half #ave rectifier #ith filter circuit as sho#n in fig. 2. %ssume r4 1() of ripple pea"<to<pea" voltage for R4 3(( . Calculate C using the formula r 4 1S2 3fRC
32

3. Connect CRO across load. -. Meep the CRO s#itch in ground mode and o!serve the hori/ontal line and ad@ust it to the C<a,is. 3. =#itch the CRO into &C mode and o!serve the #aveform. Fu$$ 2&3e Re#ti)ier: 0i1 6it!out C&p&#itor: 1. Test your transformer0 1ive 23(v, 3(A/ source to the primary coil of the transformer and o!serve the %C #aveform of rated value #ithout any distortion at the secondary of the transformer. 2. Connect the full #ave rectifier as sho#n in figure.

3.

Measure the 8dc J 8ac using &C and %C 8oltmeters.

-. Calculate the Ripple factor 3. Compare the theoretical ripple factor #ith the practical ripple factor. 'ii*6it! #&p&#itor:
1. To plot ripple pea"<to<pea" voltage 8s. dc to choose C a ripple factor of (.13

is assumed.
2. To get a varia!le load resistance a num!er of 3(( , 3: of resistance are to !e

connected in parallel. Aence

dc

4 8dc S'> C 3((*. :here > is num!er of 3((

resistances connected in parallel. 3. Nlot the graph

dc

8s ripple pea" to pea".

-. The a!ove steps are repeated for the various values of capacitance.

33

Resu$t:

Thus the Aalf<#ave and +ull<#ave rectifiers, #ith and #ithout filters are constructed and their ripple factors are o!tained.

.&$) A

er:

Trut! T&'$e )or .&$) A A en 0A1 (

er: Au%en 0-1 (

34

Sum 0S1 (

C&rr" 0C1 (

( 1 1

1 ( 1

1 1 (

( ( 1

ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENT EX: NO: 8 DATE:

Aim: To design and construct a half adder and a full adder using suita!le logic gates and to verify their truth ta!le Components Require : C .-32'OR 1ate* C .-(9'%>& 1ate* C .-97'?C<OR 1ate* &igital C trainer "it T!eor": .&$) A er

.ALF ADDER , FULL ADDER

% Com!inational circuit that performs the addition of t#o !inary digits is called a half adder. :hen t#o single !it data are added, the result can have a ma,imum of
35

t#o !its i.e. the sum !it and a carry !it. Thus this circuit needs t#o !inary inputs and t#o outputs. The inputs are designated as addend and augend. The $oolean e,pression for sum and carry are0 =um, = 4 %$L K %L$ =4%$ Carry, C 4 %.$ #here % J $ are the input varia!les and = J C are the output varia!les. Thus to get the output sum an COR gate is used. To get the output carry an %>& gate is used.

Fu$$ A

er

Trut! T&'$e )or Fu$$ A A en

er C&rr"5in
36

Au%en

Sum

C&rr"5 out

0A1 ( ( ( ( 1 1 1 1

0-1 ( ( 1 1 ( ( 1 1

0Cin1 ( 1 ( 1 ( 1 ( 1

0S1 ( 1 1 ( 1 ( ( 1

0Cout1 ( ( ( 1 ( 1 1 1

37

Fu$$ A

er

% Com!inational circuit that performs the addition of three !its is called as a full adder. The circuit consists of three inputs and t#o outputs. The input varia!les denote the augend, addend and carry from the previous stage. =um and carry are the outputs. The $oolean e,pressions for the outputs are0 =EM, = 4 % $ Cin C%RR6, Cout4'% $*.Cin K %.$ :here , and y are the addend J augend and / is the carry from the previous stage i.e. the third input. Pro#e ure: 1. Connections are given as per the logic diagram. 2. =upply and ground connections are given to all the Cs according to their pin diagrams. 3. nputs are applied !y using s#itches and the outputs are o!served !y using D?&s.

-. The truth ta!le for the given function is verified for all the input com!inations.

Resu$t: Thus the half adder and full adder circuits are designed #ith their truth ta!les verified.
38