ABSTRACT

Fiber optics is one of the most advanced technologies which uses a simple basic
physics principle called Total Internal Reflection. The basic requirements for the
fibre optic communication are very easy and simple handling apparatus. There are
lots of advantages in communicating with this technology. The applications of
fibre optics cannot be explained within a day or in a bunch of sheets as there are
infinite applications for it. Though there are some disadvantages, it is cleared by
using latest technologies.
 Fibre optic communication

Fiber-optic communication is a method of transmitting information from one place to

another by sending pulses of light through an optical fiber.

Lets look at the fibre optic communication in detail.

Technology

Modern fiber-optic communication systems generally include an optical transmitter to

convert an electrical signal into an optical signal to send into the optical fiber, a cable
containing bundles of multiple optical fibers that is routed through underground conduits
and buildings, multiple kinds of amplifiers, and an optical receiver to recover the signal
as an electrical signal. The information transmitted is typically digital information
generated by computers, telephone systems, and cable television companies.

The main parts of the optical fiber communication are:

1) Transmitter, 2) Receiver, 3) Fibre, 4) Amplifier (Silicon waveguide)

1) Transmitter:-
A device that accepts an electrical signal as its input, processes this signal, and uses it to
modulate an opto-electronic device, to produce an optical signal capable of being
transmitted via an optical transmission medium

There is a variety of different aspects to any fibre optic transmitter. For any application,
the different specifications need to be examined to ensure that the particular fibre optic
transmitter will meet the requirements.

a) One of the major aspects to any fibre optic transmitter, is its power level. It is
obvious that the fibre optic transmitter should have a sufficiently high level of light
output for the light to be transmitted along the fibre optic cable to the far end. Some fibre
optic cable lengths may only be a few metres or tens of metres long, whereas others may
extend for many kilometres. In the case of the long lengths, the power of the fibre optic
transmitter is of great importance.

b) The type of light produced is also important. Light can be split into two
categories, namely coherent and incoherent light. Essentially, coherent light has a single
frequency, whereas incoherent light contains a wide variety of light packets all containing
different frequencies, i.e. there is no single frequency present. While some emitters may
appear to emit a single colour, they can still be incoherent because the light output is
centered on a given frequency or wavelength.

c) The frequency or wavelength of the light can also be important. Often fibre optic
systems will operate around a given wavelength. Typically the wavelength of operation is
given.
d) It is also necessary to consider the rate at which the transmitter can be modulated
as this affects the data rate for the overall transmission. In some instances low rate
systems may only need to carry data at a rate of a few Mbps, whereas main
telecommunications links need to transmit data at many Gbps.

Efficiency:-
The efficiency of an electro-optical transmitter is determined by many factors, but
the most important are the following: spectral linewidth, which is the width of the carrier
spectrum and is zero for an ideal monochromatic light source; insertion loss, which is the
amount of transmitted energy that does not couple into the fibre; transmitter lifetime; and
maximum operating bit rate

2) Reciever:-
The main component of an optical receiver is a photo-detector, which converts light into
electricity using the photoelectric effect. The photodetector is typically a semiconductor-
based photodiode. Several types of photodiodes include p-n photodiodes, a p-i-n
photodiodes, and avalanche photodiodes. Metalsemiconductor-metal (MSM)
photodetectors are also used due to their suitability for circuit integration in
regenerators and wavelength-division multiplexers.The optical-electrical converters are
typically coupled with a transimpedance amplifier and a limiting
amplifier to produce a digital signal in the electrical domain from the incoming optical
signal, which may be attenuated and distorted while passing through the channel. Further
signal processing such as clock recovery from data (CDR) performed by a phase-locked
loop may also be applied before the data is passed on.

Types of fibre optic transmitter

There are two main types of fibre optic transmitter that are in use today. Both of them are
based around semiconductor technology:
l Light emitting diodes (LEDs)
2 Laser diodes

3) Fiber:-

An optical fiber consists of a core, cladding, and a buffer (a protective outer coating), in
which the cladding guides the light along the core by using the method of total internal
reflection. The core and the cladding (which has a lower-refractive-index) are usually
made of high-quality silica glass, although they can both be made of plastic as well.

Light is kept in the core of the optical fiber by total internal reflection. This causes the
fiber to act as a waveguide.
Types of fibre:-
Fibers which support many propagation paths or transverse modes are called
multi-mode fibers (MMF), while those which can only support a single mode are called
single-mode fibers (SMF). Multi-mode fibers generally have a larger core diameter, and
are used for short-distance communication links and for applications where high power
must be transmitted. Single-mode fibers are used for most communication links longer
than 550 metres (1,800 ft).

4) Amplifier:-
The transmission distance of a fiber-optic communication system has traditionally
been limited by fiber attenuation and by fiber distortion. By using opto-electronic
repeaters, these problems have been eliminated. These repeaters convert the signal into an
electrical signal, and then use a transmitter to send the signal again at a higher intensity
than it was before. Because of the high complexity with modern wave length-division
multiplexed signals (including the fact that they had to be installed about once every
20 km), the cost of these repeaters is very high.

An alternative approach is to use Silicon waveguide

Silicon waveguide:-
For every 50 miles or so the signal must be re-amplified, cleaned up and
re-launched. Light is dimmed by miles of fibre, and the crisp on-and-off pulses that
represent the ones and zeros of a digital signal become misshapen and fuzzy.
Now Cornell University researchers have demonstrated that all this can be done on a
single photonic microchip, according to a Cornell University press release. Previously the
researchers had demonstrated a light amplifier on a silicon chip using a process called
four-wave mixing, which could amplify an optical signal by ‘pumping’ with another
beam of light.
Four-wave mixing has been used to amplify light in devices made of optical fibre, but the
process requires tens of metres of fibre.
The Cornell researchers used silicon waveguides only a few hundred nanometres across
and 1.8 centimetres long embedded in a single silicon chip.
The tight dimensions of the waveguide, smaller than the wavelength of the light
travelling through it, forces two entering beams of light — the signal and the ‘pump’ —
to exchange energy. Some photons from the pump are converted to the same wavelength
as the signal, amplifying it, while others come out at a wavelength equal to twice the
pump wavelength minus the signal wavelength. That last effect can be used to convert a
signal from one wavelength to another.
The researchers found that pumping a pulsed signal with a continuous wave light beam at
another frequency amplifies the signal but doesn’t clean up the pulses.
However, if the arrangement is changed so that the light carrying the signal acts as the
pump, the output is both amplified and sharpened.
Disturbances

1) Attenuation.:-
Attenuation is a reduction in the transmitted power, has long been a problem for
the fiber optics community. The increase in data loss over the length of a fiber has
somewhat hindered widespread use of fiber as a means of communication. However,
researchers have established three main sources of this loss: a) absorption and
b) scattering

a) Absorption
Absorption occurs when the light beam is partially absorbed by lingering
materials, namely water and metal ions, within the core of the fiber as well as in the
cladding. Though absorption in standard glass fibers tends to increase between the critical
lengths of 700 and 1550 nanometers (nm) (Hecht, August 2000), almost any type of fiber
at any length will have light absorbed by some of the traces of impurities that inevitably
appear in all fibers. As the light signal travels through the fiber, each impurity absorbs
some of the light, weakening the signal; therefore, longer fibers are more prone to
attenuation due to absorption than shorter ones.

b) Scattering
Scattering, another significant aspect of attenuation, occurs when atoms or other
particles within the fiber spread the light. This process differs with absorption in that, for
the most part, foreign particles on the fiber are not absorbing the light, but the light signal
bounces off the particle rather than the fiber’s wall and spreads the signal in another
direction (Single-Mode, 2000).
For glass fibers, the foremost type of scattering is Rayleigh scattering, which somewhat
contrasts with the accepted definition of scattering. With this process, atoms or other
particles within the fiber fleetingly absorb the light signal and instantly re-emit the light
in another direction. In this way, Rayleigh scattering appears very much like absorption,
but it absorbs and re-directs the light so quickly that it is considered scattering (Hecht,
August 2000).
Both scattering and absorption are cumulative, in that they keep building up. Light is
absorbed and scattered continuously, so the signal at the end of the fiber is almost never
exactly the same signal as it was at the beginning. However, for the most part, the signal
loss is minimal and does not greatly hinder the communication.

2) Dispersion
Three Types of Dispersion

i) Material Dispersion
Dispersion in optical fibers can be categorized into three main types. The first is material
dispersion, also known as chromatic dispersion. This type of intramodal dispersion
results from the fact that the refractive index of the fiber medium varies as a function of
wavelength (Keiser, 1983). Since neither the light source nor the fiber optic cable is 100
percent pure, the pulse being transmitted becomes less and less precise as the light’s
wavelengths are separated over long distances (Thoughts, 2000). The exact same effect
occurs when a glass prism disperses light into a spectrum.

ii) Wave-guide Dispersion

Wave-guide dispersion, another type, is very similar to material dispersion in that
they both cause signals of different wavelengths and frequencies to separate from the
light pulse (Keiser, 1983). However, wave-guide dispersion depends on the shape,
design, and chemical composition of the fiber core. Only 80 percent of the power from a
light source is confined to the core in a standard single-mode fiber, while the other 20
percent actually propagates through the inner layer of the cladding. This 20 percent
travels at a faster velocity because the refractive index of the cladding is lower than that
of the core (Keiser, 1983). Consequently, signals of differing frequencies and
wavelengths are dispersed and the pulse becomes indistinguishable. An increase in the
wave-guide dispersion in an optical fiber can be used in order to counterbalance material
dispersion and shift the wavelength of zero chromatic dispersion to 1550 nanometers.
Engineers used this concept to develop zero-dispersion-shifted fibers designed to have
larger wave-guide dispersion (see Figure 2). Developers doped the core with erbium in
order to increase the difference between the refractive indices of the cladding and the
core, thus enlarging wave-guide dispersion (Lerner, 1997).

iii) Modal Dispersion

The third and final significant type of dispersion is related to the fact that a pulse
of light transmitted through a fiber optic cable is composed of several modes, or rays, of
light instead of only one single beam; therefore, it is called modal dispersion (Thoughts,
2000). Since the rays of the light pulse are not perfectly focused together into one beam,
each mode of light travels a different path, some short and some long. As a result, the
modes will not be received at the same time, and the signal will be distorted or even lost
over long distances (Thoughts, 2000).
Solitons, or stable waves, could quite possibly be the ultimate solution to
dispersion, but this phenomenon is still being carefully studied and tested (Lerner, 1997).
However, other dispersion compensation devices are in commercial use today. For
example, erbium-doped fibers, as discussed earlier, and wavelength-division multiplexing
(WDM) effectively shift most systems to 1550 nanometer at zero dispersion (Hecht, July
2000). Although high-performance WDM systems have been developed from novel fiber
designs, the dispersion slope and the mode-field diameter of the fiber are still producing
complications. New fiber designs, such as reduced-slope fibers, have low dispersion over
a very wide range because the slope of dispersion is less than 0.05 ps/nm2-km, which is
significantly lower than standard fibers (Hecht, July 2000). New concepts and designs
are continually being developed to reduce dispersion in optical fibers.
Advantages:-
1) Extremely high bandwidth
In an optical fibre system, a greater volume of information can be carried
out. The rate of transmission of information is directly proportional to the
frequencies. The light has higher frequencies than the radio or microwave
frequencies. And also we can send much number of lights of different
frequencies in a single fiber. Hence it is better than radio and microwave.
2) Ease of handling:-
The cross section of the optical fibre is about 100 micrometers, whereas
wires are bigger in size and weigh more. Fibres are quite flexible and
strong.
3) Cheap:
Optical fibers are cheaper. As it is made from silicon which is available
abundantly, it is cheaper.
4) Non hazardous:-
A wire communication could, accidentally short circuit high voltage and
produce spark and can ignite the inflammable gase present in that
environment. It is not possible in optical fibre as it is an insulator.
5) Optical fibres are immune to EMI and RFI
In optical fibres, information is carried out through photons which are
immune to external noise, Electro Magnetic Interference (EMI) and Radio
Frequency Interference (RFI).
6) Optical reduce the reduce cross talk possibility:-
The light wave propagating in the fibre is entirely trapped and cannot leak
out. Similarly the light outside cannot couple into the fibre from outide.
Because of this feature , cross talk susceptibility is greatly reduced.
7) Optical fibres have low loss per unit length:-
The transmission per unit length of an optical fibre is very less i.e.,
4 dB/km whereas it is 2 dB/km for cables.
8) Resistance:-
Optical fibre are resistant to heat, light,corrosion, radiationetc.,
9) Grounding:-
It does not require any grounding whereas the copper wire needs.
10) Security
It has higher security and there is no way to tap the signal in the optical
fibre.

Application
1) Medical application

a) ophthalmology:-
A laser beam guided by an optical fibre is used to reattach detached retinas
and to correct defects in vision.
b) Cardiology:-
In cardiology, laser angioplasty is expected to do away with the ballon
angioplasty and bypass surgery. A special catheter is developed for the
 removal of blocks in the veins. The catheter consists three channels-one is
for visualization, the second for delivering laser power and an open tube to
flush or suck the debris.

2) Military application

a) An aircraft, a ship or a tank needs tons of copper wires for wiring of the
communication equipment, control mechanisms, instrument panel illumination
etc. Use of fibres in place of copper wires reduces much weight and also
maintains true communication silence to the entry.
b) Fibre guided missiles are pressed into service during the resent wars. Sensors are
mounted on the missile which transmit video information through the fibre to a
ground control van and receive commands from the van again,. The control van
continuosly monitors the course of the missile and if necessary corrects it to
ensure that the missile precisely hits the target.
3) Entertainment application:-
A coherent optical fibre bundle is used to enlarge the image displayed on a TV
screen. Conventional optical projection system ifs bulky and expensive.

4) Fibre optic sensors:-

A fiber optic sensor is a sensor that uses optical fiber either as the sensing
element ("intrinsic sensors"), or as a means of relaying signals from a remote
sensor to the electronics that process the signals ("extrinsic sensors"). Fibers have
many uses in remote sensing. Depending on the application, fiber may be used
because of its small size, or the fact that no electrical power is needed at the
remote location, or because many sensors can be multiplexed along the length of a
fiber by using different wavelengths of light for each sensor, or by sensing the
time delay as light passes along the fiber through each sensor. Time delay can be
determined using a device such as an optical time-domain reflectometer.

a) Pressure sensor
It is used to determine the pressure applied on the fiber using dispersion in
the fiber. Here it acts as active sensor.
b) Temperature sensor
It is used to calculate the temperature applied on it. Here it acts as passive
sensor. In this two well connected fibre with one end coated with silicon
is used. When the light is passed it travels twice. Due to absorption of
silicon depends on temperature the amount of light absorbed is calculated
and the temperature is also calculated.
c) Pollution Dector:-
A smoke and pollution detector can be built using the optical fibres. A
beam of light radiating from one end can be connected by the optical fibre.
If foreign particles are present in the region between the two fibres, they
scatter light. The variation in intensity of the light is collected by the
second optical fibre reveals the presence of foreign particles.
 5) Communication application
If we use LAN system to connect all the systems in a bank or
industry it may cost lot if it is large. Whereas it cost less if use
optical fibre instead.It ios also easy to manage and maintain
it.Moreover the speed is very high wjen compared to parallel
connection of wires
Telephone cables connecting various countries come under the
category of long-haul system.A 6600km long submarine
transatlantic telephone cable is commisioned under the
international cooperation in 1980. Many such projects are
completed since then.
Disadvantages:-
1) It is difficult to join two optical fibres, rather than cable wires.
2) Care should be taken while introducing the light waves into fibre such
that the angle of incidence should be greater than the critical angle.
3) The disadvantages of fiber optic systems include problems with the
relative newness of the technology, the relatively expensive cost, and the
lack of component and system standardization.

However, these disadvantages are already being eliminated because of increased

use and acceptance of fiber optic technology.
Prepared by:

S.Balaji – 80808133007 – itzbala99@yahoo.com

T.Ananth – 80808133002 – itzanath99@yahoo.com
Second year E.C.E.,
Jayaram College of Engineering and Technology,
Trichy.

Refernce:

Mr.E.Gopinath M.Sc,M.Phil.
www.wkipedia.com
www.tpub.com
www.library.thinkquest.org
www.radioeletronics.com
www.howstufworks.com