Transmission Line Applications of Directional Ground Overcurrent Relays Working Group D24 Report to the Line Protection Subcommittee

Draft F
September, 2010 Working Group Member ! Don Lukach "#hairman$, Rick %a&'or "(ice)#hairman$, *effre& +ar ch, ,en +ehren-t, Martin +e t, Mike +'o-er, Ran-& #re''in, Ran-& #unico, .''a Deron/a, 0ormann Fi cher, Dom Fontana, Rafae' Garcia, Gene 1enneberg, Me&er ,ao, Wa'ter Mc#annon, +ruce Mackie, *ohn Mi''er, Dean Mi''er, *im 23+rien, #ri tian Pa-uraru, Mani h Pate', .'e/an-ro Schnakof k&, Don Se4cik, Ste4e %urner, ,ar' 5immerman,

Introduction 6Mani h Pate'7

%hi report i prepare- for the Line Protection Subcommittee of Po8er S& tem Re'a&ing #ommittee on the app'ication of -irectiona' groun- o4ercurrent re'a& for tran mi ion 'ine 9 Groun- -i tance an- groun- o4ercurrent re'a& are mo t common re'a& u e- to protect tran mi ion 'ine again t groun- fau't 9 1o8e4er, 8hen fau't impe-ance i ignificant groun- -i tance re'a& are 'e en iti4e than groun- o4ercurrent re'a& an- often 8i'' not re pon- proper'&9 Groun- o4ercurrent re'a& can be et en iti4e enough to -etect high impe-ance fau't on tran mi ion 'ine 9 %hi report -i cu e fo''o8ing criteria to con i-er 8hen app'&ing groun- o4ercurrent re'a& for protection of tran mi ion 'ine again t high impe-ance fau't 9 Determination of re'a& etting an- coor-ination to en ure re'iabi'it& an- e'ecti4it& of protection & tem9 :ffect of geo'og& on groun- fau't current an- hence re'a& etting 9 :ffect of ing'e po'e tripping9 :ffect of & tem reconfiguration uch a rec'o ing an- maintenance outage 9 #on i-eration of 'ength of the protecte- 'ine9 ;mpact of contingencie a it can ignificant'& change f'o8 of fau't current on the & tem9 #on i-eration of mutua' coup'ing a it can ha4e ignificant impact on groun- fau't current 9 ;mpact of 4ariou groun- ource inc'u-ing their accurac& in & tem mo-e' +enefit of u ing a-apti4e capabi'it& of microproce or ba e- re'a& to enhance re'iabi'it& of protection & tem -uring & tem change 9 +enefit an- i ue of u ing negati4e e<uence current in tea- of =ero e<uence current to -etect groun- fau't 9

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Purpose

%hi report -i cu e the /u tification an- app'ication criteria for -irectiona' 2# re'a& for groun- fau't -etection a app'ie- for protection of tran mi ion 'ine 9 %hi report -oe not co4er po'ari=ation topic , pi'ot cheme etting practice , or re onance groun-ing9 3 Definitions

%hi report u e termino'og& that i con i tent 8ith other ;::: tan-ar- an- gui-e 9 0o ne8 term or -efinition are intro-uce-9 4 ummary

Sen iti4e groun- fau't protection i uti'i=e- to remo4e ha=ar- from the pub'ic an- protect e<uipment9 Whi'e tran mi ion fau't 8ith impe-ance are not a common a -i tribution fau't 8ith impe-ance, the e4erit& an- con e<uence of a tran mi ion fau't that i not -etecte- can be ignificant'& higher -ue to the higher energ& 'e4e' that are pre ent9 %he t&pe of groun-ing, & tem parameter , an- pecific fau't impe-ance -etermine the magnitu-e of groun- fau't 9 Fau't that contain impe-ance are re'ati4e'& 'o8 in current magnitu-e 8hen compare- to fau't that -o not contain appreciab'e impe-ance9 Such fau't can po e a cha''enge to -i tance re'a& -ue to e'ement co4erage i ue 9 Directiona' o4ercurrent groun- re'a& ma& be et en iti4e enough to -etect the e fau't , but a' o ma& a-4er e'& impact ecurit&9 %he ba'ance bet8een en iti4it& an- ecurit& i ba e- on in-i4i-ua' an- compan& preference 9 Limit e?i t on ho8 en iti4e a re'a& i a''o8e- to be et an- i tru'& part of the @artA of protecti4e re'a&ing9 ;n a--ition, microproce or re'a& pro4i-e a mean to -etect higher impe-ance fau't that e'ectro)mechanica' re'a& can not, b& u ing -ifferent a'gorithm 9 %hi a''o8 the protection engineer to et a more) en iti4e groun- protection function9 Metho- of etting the -irectiona' groun- o4ercurrent re'a& 4ar& among companie , 'ocation , etc9 2ne metho- et the pickup to a ma'' portion of a minima''&)-efine- fau't9 %hi metho- inherent'& a''o8 for -ifferent & tem con-ition an- contingencie a 8e'' a for fau't 8ith impe-ance, ho8e4er ma& not encompa the -e ire- en iti4it&9 .nother metho- ma& et the groun- re'a& for a fau't 8ith a et 4a'ue of impe-ance9 Regar-'e of the metho-, etting the groun- re'a& en iti4e enough to -etect fau't that groun- impe-ance e'ement -o not -etect i -e irab'e9 Due to the increa e- focu on en iti4it&, factor that norma''& ma& be -i counte- 8ithin genera' to'erance no8 become more important an- con i-eration for uch factor i re<uire-9 %he e factor inc'u-e the & tem mo-e', mutua' coup'ing, ma?imum & tem imba'ance -uring perio- of high 'oa- "e pecia''& for non)tran po e- 'ine $, in trument tran former accuracie , ing'e po'e tripping, rec'o ing an- contingencie 9

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. an a'ternati4e, negati4e e<uence o4ercurrent ha been ucce fu''& uti'i=e- to -etect unba'ance- fau't 9 +etter en iti4it& can be achie4e- b& app'&ing thi e'ementB ho8e4er, it can be more -ifficu't to coor-inate 8hen compare- to con4entiona' groun- o4ercurrent9 0egati4e e<uence o4ercurrent can pro4i-e a-e<uate fau't protection in part of the & tem that are poor'& groun-e- an- -uring contingencie that ma& re-uce a4ai'ab'e groun- fau't current9 %hi e'ement i et an- coor-inate- imi'ar to the groun- o4ercurrent e'ement9 %he & tem mo-e' mu t be a accurate a nee-e- to upport the en iti4it& of the re'a& etting 9 %ran mi ion 'ine nee- to be correct'& mo-e'e- inc'u-ing pecific cab'e t&pe , erie )compen ation, tructure t&pe, earth re i ti4it&, S;R, etc9 Mutua' coup'ing mu t be accurate'& mo-e'e- 8ith the correct orientation bet8een 'ine egment an- the correct mutua' coup'ing affect 9 Cn-er)bui't -i tribution 'ine ma& a' o nee- to be con i-ere-9 S& tem fau't -ata hou'- a' o be u e- to 4a'i-ate an- re4i e the mo-e' a nece ar&9 %he e'ection of the time -e'a& cur4e i a matter of preference9 1o8e4er, the groun- re'a& mu t coor-inate 8ith the -i tance e'ement an- other groun- o4ercurrent re'a& 9 ;n or-er to impro4e the e coor-ination re<uirement , trip time for 'ine)en- groun- fau't hou'- be 'o8er than =one t8o -e'a& time 8ith margin9 #oor-ination 8ith other imi'ar re'a& at remote termina' nee- on'& be effecti4e for fau't current 'e4e' -efine- b& the fau't impe-ance nature of the app'ication9 ! >91 >9191 Application Items #ompari on of groun- o4ercurrent re'a&ing 4 9 groun- impe-ance -i tance re'a&ing %ra-itiona' #ompari on

Groun- o4ercurrent an- groun- tep -i tance are the mo t common groun- fau't -etection metho- in tran mi ion 'ine protection9 %he groun- o4ercurrent protecti4e e'ement re pon- to =ero) e<uence current9 .n unba'ance- three)pha e & tem cau e the =ero) e<uence current an- can originate from norma' 'oa- or fau't 9 %he ing'e 'ine)to)groun- fau't i mo t common, but -oub'e)'ine)to) groun- fau't can a' o occur9 Groun- o4ercurrent protecti4e e'ement pro4i-e effecti4e re i ti4e fau't co4erage ince the& can be et en iti4e enough to -etect man& re i ti4e groun- fau't 9 Groun- o4ercurrent e'ement are ea & to un-er tan- an- 4i ua'i=e9 %he& are ea & to et ince groun- fau't current are rea-i'& a4ai'ab'e from a fau't tu-& an- pickup current thre ho'are imp'e to -etermine from the fau't tu-& -ata9 %he groun- o4ercurrent e'ement i not genera''& affecte- b& 'oa- current, 8hich i t&pica''& ba'ance- an- thu , contain 'o8 groun- current magnitu-e 9 .' o, the groun- o4ercurrent

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e'ement i not affecte- b& pha e)to)pha e connecte- 'oa- , uch a -e'ta)8&e tran former 9 %he e'ement i a' o not affecte- b& 'o of 4o'tage con-ition 9 #on4er e'&, protection u ing groun- o4ercurrent e'ement ha e4era' 'imitation 9 Groun- o4ercurrent e'ement are affecte- b& change in the po8er & tem ource, thu are more u ceptib'e to 8i-e 4ariance in operation for & tem con-ition 9 +ecau e the tran mi ion & tem configuration change , the pickup etting ma& nee- to be re4ie8emore fre<uent'& than impe-ance etting 9 Groun- o4ercurrent e'ement are affecte- b& =ero) e<uence mutua' coup'ing of para''e' tran mi ion 'ine 8hich can either increa e or re-uce the en iti4it& in -etecting fau't 9 Whi'e the groun- o4ercurrent e'ement t&pica''& are not affecte- b& 'oa-, their et point ma& re<uire pickup thre ho'- to be et higher o a to not operate for the norma' & tem unba'ance, thu -ecrea ing en iti4it&9 %he groun- tep -i tance fau't -etection metho- in4o'4e a -i tance)ba e- mea uring function9 %hi function mea ure an apparent impe-ance or -i tance to the fau't, 8hich i ba e- upon the ratio of re'a& 4o'tage to re'a& current9 %he -i tance e'ement are re'ati4e'& ea & to et, ha a fi?e- reach that i not affecte- b& change in the & tem ource or non)homogeneit& cau e- b& une<ua' ource an- 'ine impe-ance ang'e 9 Di tance e'ement are re'ati4e'& immune to & tem unba'ance 9 %he main 'imitation of the groun- -i tance e'ement i it inabi'it& to -etect high)re i tance groun- fau't 9 %he 4o'tage mea ure- b& the groun- -i tance function i the um of the 'ine 4o'tage -rop to the fau't an- the 4o'tage -rop acro the fau't re i tance9 %he 4o'tage -rop acro the fau't re i tance can change -ue to current infee- from the other 'ine termina', 8hich act a a fau't re i tance amp'ifier9 .--itiona''&, the mho groun- -i tance e'ement are inf'uence- b& =ero) e<uence mutua' coup'ing, 8hich cau e the groun- -i tance mea urement to appear greater or 'e than the true -i tance to fau't impe-ance9 Groun- -i tance protection i un-eniab'& ea ier to app'& than groun- -irectiona' o4ercurrent protection for tran mi ion 'ine protection9 Di tance re'a& reach i immune to 4ariation in ource impe-ance, pro4i-ing a fi?e- impe-ance reach regar-'e of ource con-ition 9 Directiona' o4ercurrent protection reach, on the other han-, i impacte- b& ource impe-ance 4ariation , making it more -ifficu't to pro4i-e etting that 8i'' coor-inate 8ith up tream an-o8n tream protection un-er a'' con-ition 9 >9192 .pp'ication #ompari on +a e- on Geo'og& :ffect

Groun- -irectiona' o4ercurrent protection can pro4i-e better en iti4it& than groun- -i tance protection for impe-ance 'imite- groun- fau't 9 %hi can be an important i ue 8hen a e ing the t&pe of protection to app'& to a tran mi ion circuit in a pecific region9

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;mpe-ance 'imite- groun- fau't are more 'ike'& to occur in area 8ith poor oi' re i ti4it&9 Region 8ith an-& oi' or 8ith igneou rock formation great'& increa e the probabi'it& that groun- fau't 8i'' be re-uce- in magnitu-e becau e of higher impe-ance in the groun- return path9 Rock& an- an-& oi' con-ition a' o make it -ifficu't to pro4i-e 'o8 to8er footing re i tance9 1igh to8er footing re i tance contribute to higher groun- return path impe-ance for fau't , uch a in u'ator f'a ho4er, on tran mi ion to8er 9 1igh to8er footing re i tance a' o increa e to8er groun- potentia' ri e cau e- b& -irect or in-uce- 'ightning urge , 'ea-ing to a higher probabi'it& of in u'ator f'a ho4er cau e- groun- fau't 9 Region 8ith oi' 8here moi ture i more rea-i'& retaine- ten- to ha4e 'o8er oi' re i ti4it& an- make it ea ier to achie4e 'o8er to8er footing re i tance9 Like8i e, more popu'ate- area 8ith e?ten i4e -i tribution & tem groun-e- neutra' net8ork , un-ergroun- 8ater piping & tem , etc9, he'p to re-uce the fau't current return impe-ance path9 Di tance re'a& are better uite-, an- more 'ike'& to -etect a higher percentage of groun- fau't in the e region becau e of a 'o8er probabi'it& of encountering a fau't 8ith ignificant groun- path impe-ance9 >92 Determination of Pickup Setting

%he ro'e of -irectiona' groun- o4ercurrent re'a& , 8hen app'ie- to 'ine ha4ing groun-i tance protection, i to upp'ement the -i tance e'ement an- the high et in tantaneou o4ercurrent unit for fau't 8ith current 'e4e' 'imite- b& re i tance9 . uch, the pickup of thi protection i not t&pica''& ba e- on & tem con i-eration , uch a 'ine impe-ance or 'ine)en- fau't current 'e4e' 9 %he inc'u ion of =ero e<uence in tantaneou unit , 8ithin mo t app'ication of -irection compari on pi'ot cheme , pro4i-e e?ce''ent en iti4it& 8ithout ha4ing to be concerne- about fau't be&on- the protecte- 'ine9 1o8e4er, 8hen pi'ot re'a&ing i not a4ai'ab'e, the -irectiona' groun- o4ercurrent protection etting 4a'ue mu t take into account 4ariou cau e for tran mi ion 'ine =ero e<uence current f'o89 Setting 'e4e' mu t be a compromi e of ecurit& again t un-e irab'e trip for & tem unba'ance 4er u the -epen-abi'it& of tripping a'' fau't on the protecte- 'ine9 2ne metho- of e tab'i hing a pickup etting 'e4e' i to ba e the etting on the primar& current -etermine- b& mo-e'ing a 'ine)en- pha e)to)groun- fau't 8ith a gi4en amount of fau't re i tance a--e-9 %he inc'u ion of fau't re i tance, 8hich i t&pica''& a 4a'ue bet8een about 100 ohm an- D00 ohm , create a pickup etting that i ome8hat -epen-ent on ource impe-ance, but 4arie on'& a ma'' amount from app'ication to app'ication9 For 11>k( fau't u ing 200 ohm , 4a'ue are t&pica''& aroun- D00 amp 9 .nother metho- of -etermining the pickup i to mo4e the >10 coor-ination point to that of the >00 reach of the ne?t bu , thu en uring an acceptab'e coor-ination inter4a'9 When pickup 4a'ue of thi 'e4e' are app'ie-, it i po ib'e an- -e irab'e to -e'a& tripping for fu'' magnitu-e 'ine)en- pha e)to)groun- fau't to time that coor-inate 8ith the groun-i tance =one 2 re'a& trip time 9

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. a etting check, fau't imu'ation hou'- inc'u-e a 'ine en- fau't 8ith en- c'o e- to a ure that the %2# e'ement etting i en iti4e enough to -etect thi fau't9 Refer to Figure >92919 %he fau't imu'ation hou'- take into con i-eration a'' contingent an- p'au ib'e configuration 8ith margin9 %he ;2# e'ement mu t not trip for thi 'ine en- fau't 8ith the remote en- c'o e-, but 8i'' mo t probab'& -etect thi fau't once the remote en- open , uch a 8ou'- occur -uring a e<uentia' trip9

Figure >9291 Setting #heck >9D Determination of Pickup %ime De'a&9

%he time -e'a& in an o4ercurrent re'a& app'ication pro4i-e coor-ination bet8een primar& an- backup protection9 ;n tran mi ion app'ication , the groun- time o4ercurrent "%2#$ re'a& i u e- a either the primar& groun- protection for the 'ine an-Eor a' o pro4i-e backup protection for groun- fau't on the remote a-/acent 'ine 9 . ho8n in Figure >9D91, for fau't F1, the time -ia' on the groun- time o4ercurrent re'a& at Sub tation L mu t be et to a''o8 the remote primar& protection at Sub tation R to operate fir t9 #oor-ination of the e re'a& i optimi=e- if the t&pe of in4er e cur4e that i e'ecte- i con i tent9 (er& ;n4er e characteri tic are mo t pre4a'ent an- ha4e pro4en to 8ork effecti4e'& on mo t app'ication 9 ;-ea''& a'' fau't 8ithin the 'ine =one of protection hou'- be c'eare- in tantaneou '&9 2n tran mi ion 'ine 8here communication a i te- trip cheme are not u e-, time -e'a& c'earing i una4oi-ab'e in mo t cenario 9 %o achie4e goo- coor-ination margin , it ma& be nece ar& to pro4i-e ufficient time -e'a& to a ure the abi'it& for -o8n tream -e4ice to coor-inate9 ;n a--ition, coor-ination bet8een ource i-e -e4ice an- the protecte- 'ine -e4ice mu t a' o be coor-inate-9 ;n the ca e of a fai'ure of the remote primar& protection, the 'oca' time -e'a&e- backup protection 8ou'- operate to interrupt the f'o8 of fau't current from the 'oca' termina'9 ;n remote ub tation that -o not ha4e an& t&pe of 'oca' backup protection, the groun- %2# on breaker . i pro4i-ing the backup protection for groun- fau't 9 %he time -ia' etting for breaker . hou'- be et to ha4e a trip time of the remote ub tation breaker + e?pectec'earing time p'u margin9 ;n remote ub tation 8ith 'oca' backup cheme, the groun- %2# time -ia' for breaker . hou'- be et to ha4e a trip time of the remote ub tation breaker + tota' c'earing time p'u margin9 Page F of 2>

For a c'o e)in groun- fau't at F1, re'a&ing at breaker + hou'- operate in tantaneou '&9 ;f the protection fai'ure cheme i 'oca', the groun- %2# time -ia' for breaker . hou'- be et to a''o8 Sub tation R protection fai'ure cheme to operate fir t9

Figure >9D91, Groun- Fau't near the Remote %ermina' %he proce for 4erif&ing coor-ination bet8een the 'oca' %2# re'a& an- the %2# re'a& protecting a 'ine from the remote bu hou'- take into con i-eration the in tantaneou trip app'ie- for protection of the remote 'ine9 ;f the coor-ination i 4erifie- u ing the pickup current of the remote 'ine ;2# re'a&, the re-uction in fau't current re u't in better margin bet8een the 'oca' an- the remote %2# re'a& an-, if the remote bu ha a--itiona' infeeource , further margin impro4ement 8i'' re u't9 %hi ame a-4antage can be gaine- if a groun- -i tance e'ement i app'ie- to the remote 'ine termina'9 %he coor-ination can be 4erifie- u ing a fau't 'ocate- at the ma?imum reach of the remote termina' =one 1 groun-i tance e'ement9 ;n Figure >9D91, con i-er a the groun- fau't F1 'i-e -o8n the 'ine9 ;n mo t ca e , the fau't current contribution from breaker . -ecrea e e?ponentia''& a compare- to the fau't current at breaker + -ue to the effect of infee- at Sub tation R9 .' o the operating time increa e e?ponentia''& if a @moreA in4er e characteri tic cur4e i u e- an- the fau't current 'e4e' i in the 'o8er mu'tip'e of pickup part of that cur4e9 ;f the remote ub tation i a 'ine in, 'ine out ub tation, cur4e e'ection i critica' a'ong 8ith time -ia' etting9 %hi can be i''u trate- in Figure >9D9D an- Figure >9D949

Figure >9D9D, Line in, Line out Page G of 2>

Chart Title
1000.0
Curve A Curve B

100.0

s l c y C n e m i T
10.0 1.0 1 10 100

Multiples of Pickup

Figure >9D94, %2# #ur4e For fau't at F1 in Figure >9D9D, the criterion in etting the time -ia' of the groun- %2# re'a& + at ub tation R i the ame a -e cribe- abo4e9 ;f there i not a groun- ource at Sub tation R, the time -ia' for re'a& . at Sub tation L mu t be et to coor-inate 8ith re'a& + at Sub tation R for fau't at F19 . i''u trate- in Figure >9D9D an- Figure >9D94, for a o'igroun- fau't at F1, the fau't current i 10 mu'tip'e of the pickup for both re'a& . an- +9 %he trip time for Re'a& + an- Re'a& . are D0 c&c'e an- 4> c&c'e , re pecti4e'&9 1o8e4er, poor e'ection of the cur4e t&pe for re'a& . an- re'a& + can 'ea- to mi coor-ination a ho8n in Figure >9D949 ;f the fau't at F1 i of re i ti4e t&pe an- the fau't current i 'e than > time mu'tip'e of the re'a& pickup, one can c'ear'& ee the mi coor-iantion for both re'a& 9 %herefore the re'a& . cur4e t&pe mu t be of imi'ar or @moreA in4er e characteri tic than that of re'a& +9 %he u e of groun- time o4ercurrent e'ement in con/unction 8ith groun- -i tance e'ement often pro4i-e the a--e- benefit of better en iti4it& for groun- fau't in the 'a t 10H to 20H of the 'ine9 5one 2 impe-ance e'ement t&pica''& u e -efinite time -e'a& regar-'e of fau't 'ocation9 For fau't in the 'a t part of the 'ine, the remote en- t&pica''& trip in tantaneou '&9 %hi remo4e the remote infee- an- a''o8 the groun- in tantaneou e'ement to po ib'& reach farther an- pee- up tripping9 Specia' con i-eration hou'- be taken into account 8hen coor-inating -irectiona' groun%2# re'a& or e'ement , e pecia''& if pi'ot cheme are not emp'o&e-9 %he ob/ect of the

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coor-ination hou'- be to obtain the combination of the fa te t operation of the 'oca' re'a& being et "b& inc'u-ing a'' groun- ource $, an- the 'o8e t operation of the remote re'a& "b& remo4ing a 'arge groun- ource uch a a 'ine or autotran former$9 Where 'ine are pro4i-e8ith high pee- pi'ot protection, an outage of the e cheme can be con i-ere- a contingenc& in 'ieu of groun- ource remo4a'9 >94 Sing'e Pha e %ripping

. ing'e pha e trip an- rec'o e & tem i one 8hich trip on'& the fau'te- pha e on a ing'e pha e to groun- fau't an- trip a'' three pha e of the circuit breaker on a mu'ti)pha e fau't9 For a ing'e)pha e trip the & tem 8i'' automatica''& rec'o e the open pha e after a uitab'e time inter4a'9 ;f the ing'e)pha e fau't ha c'eare-, the & tem re et 9 ;f the ing'e)pha e fau't i ti'' pre ent, the & tem trip a'' three pha e of the breaker, an- make no further rec'o ing attempt 9 For a mu'ti)pha e fau't, the & tem ma& or ma& not automatica''& rec'o e, -epen-ing on the cheme programming an- the operating re<uirement of the e'ectric po8er & tem9 %he open inter4a' fo''o8ing a ing'e)pha e trip cau e the ame a &mmetrica' con-ition on the po8er & tem a an open)con-uctor fau't9 %he re u'ting negati4e an- =ero e<uence current an- 4o'tage 8i'' t&pica''& not be of ufficient magnitu-e to cau e the -irectiona' groun- -i tance re'a& on the t8o remaining pha e to operate, un'e the protecte- 'ine i 'ong an- hea4i'& 'oa-e-9 1o8e4er, an& -irectiona' groun- o4ercurrent re'a& on the 'ine 8i'' i-entif& the =ero e<uence current re u'ting from an open pha e con-ition a an interna' fau't becau e their current etting are t&pica''& en iti4e9 %he -irectiona' groun- re'a& ma& therefore pro-uce a continuou trip output -uring the ing'e pha e open inter4a', re u'ting in a re)trip of the breaker the in tant that the open pha e i rec'o e-9 For thi rea on, the -irectiona' groun- o4ercurrent re'a& "or re'a& e'ement in a mu'tifunction re'a&$ are -i ab'ein the ing'e pha e trip & tem 'ogic -uring the open pha e rec'o ing inter4a' an- re tore- to er4ice 8hen the open pha e i rec'o e-9 ;n ome ca e the characteri tic of the e'ectric po8er & tem ma& permit the current etting of the -irectiona' groun- o4ercurrent re'a& to be increa e- to a 'e4e' high enough to keep it from operating -uring the open pha e inter4a' but ti'' enab'e it to -etect the ma/orit& of ing'e pha e to groun- fau't on the & tem9 %he higher groun- fau't current etting ma& a' o a''o8 ome imp'ification of the cheme 'ogic becau e the -irectiona' grouno4ercurrent re'a& 8ou'- not ha4e to be -i ab'e- -uring the ing'e pha e open inter4a'9 1o8e4er, increa ing the current etting of the -irectiona' groun- o4ercurrent re'a& re-uce it effecti4ene a a en iti4e groun- fau't -etector, an- the a-4antage of a higher etting an- imp'er cheme 'ogic hou'- be carefu''& e4a'uate- again t the -i a-4antage re-uceen iti4it& to & tem groun- fau't 9

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>9>

:ffect of S& tem Reconfiguration

%he tran mi ion & tem i not a'8a& in the ame configuration -ue to e4era' factor , uch a rec'o ing an- maintenance outage 9 %he change to the & tem can impact groun- ource an- thu affect o4ercurrent groun- re'a& operation9 >9>91 :ffect of Rec'o ing

Rec'o ing i a pecia' ca e of a & tem configuration change, a it repre ent a non)t&pica' operating cenario 8here one termina' of the 'ine i c'o e- 8hi'e the other en- i open a ho8n in Figure >9>919 2n 'ine 8here pi'ot protection i not u e- or not a4ai'ab'e, in tantaneou -irectiona' groun- protection can co4er a ignificant percentage of the 'ine9 %he etting of the ;2# re'a& or e'ement i t&pica''& ba e- on the current that f'o8 for a remote termina' groun- fau't, 8ith a afet& margin "a mu'tip'ier of 192 or 19D i t&pica'$ app'ie- to a4oi- o4ertripping9 . rec'o e of a remote 'ine onto a c'o e)in fau't "8ith en- open or c'o e-$ i oftentime the e?terna' fau't imu'ation u e- to et the 'oca' termina' re'a&, a it ten- to force more groun- current through the termina' being et9 Remo4a' of remote groun- ource prior to fau't imu'ation hou'- be con i-ere- for t&pica' maintenance outage an- e?pecte- & tem reconfiguration -ue to fau't c'earing9

Figure >9>91 Rec'o ing 1 >9>92 Maintenance 2utage

Remo4a' of 'arge remote groun- ource -uring maintenance outage can ha4e the ame effect a that of rec'o ing9 %he re u't i that more groun- current 8i'' f'o8 from the 'oca' termina' thu impacting o4ercurrent etting 9 During norma' operation, 8ith a'' grounource in er4ice, the reach of the -irectiona' groun- re'a& 8i'' be horter, but i preferreto o4ertripping 8hen the ource i remo4e-9 >9F Line Length #on i-eration

%he 'ength of a tran mi ion 'ine p'a& an important ro'e in -etermining pickup 'e4e' anen iti4it& re<uirement for -irectiona' groun- o4ercurrent re'a&ing9 %ran mi ion 'ine 'ength i not on'& -efine- b& the ph& ica' 'ength but a' o b& the re'ati4e -ifference in hort) circuit current from a c'o e)in fau't to a 'ine)en- fau't9 %he -ifference in hort)circuit current i a function of the ource impe-ance re'ati4e to the 'ine impe-ance an- i referreto a the ource to 'ine impe-ance ratio "S;R$9 %he ;::: categori=e 'ine 'ength ba e- on S;R a fo''o8 ! Page 10 of 2>

a$ Short Line , S;R K 4 b$ Me-ium 'ine , 09> L S;R L 4 c$ Long 'ine , S;RL 09> For hort 'ine , there i 'itt'e -ifference bet8een the c'o e)in fau't an- 'ine)en- fau't 'e4e' 9 :4en a 'ine con i-ere- ph& ica''& 'ong cou'- be c'a ifie- a a hort 'ine if it ha a rea'ti4e'& high ource impe-ance that re u't in a 'arge S;R9 ;n tantaneou o4ercurrent e'ement that trip -irect'& hou'- not be u e- on hort 'ine becau e the -ifference in fau't current i in ufficient to -i criminate bet8een near)en- an- far)en- fau't 9 ;n tantaneou -irectiona' groun- o4ercurrent re'a&ing i , therefore, not a goo- choice for protection of hort 'ine un'e app'ie- in a pi'ot cheme9 Since the -ifference in fau't current i ma'' bet8een the t8o en- of a hort 'ine, the e'ection of time)o4ercurrent "%2#$ pickup, an- time)-ia' 8i'' be -epen-ent on coor-inating 8ith the up tream an- -o8n tream re'a&ing9 ;f margin are in ufficient for a-e<uate coor-ination, a communication a i te- cheme hou'- be con i-ere- o4er -irectiona' groun- o4ercurrent re'a&ing9 For me-ium 'ength 'ine , pickup en iti4it& ma& be re tricte- to 'e4e' that are con i tent 8ith urroun-ing re'a& in or-er to pro4i-e a-e<uate coor-ination9 C ing 'o8er pickup 'e4e' to impro4e en iti4it& cou'- re u't in a time)current characteri tic that ma& re u't in a @f'atA re pon e an- -ifficu't to coor-inate9 . an e?amp'e, Figure >9F91 -i p'a& coor-ination bet8een -irectiona' groun- o4ercurrent re'a& that are pro4i-ing backup protection for t8o 11> k( tran mi ion 'ine 8ith S;R 4a'ue in the range of 19> M 2909 +oth re'a& ha4e a DF0 . pickup an- there i a coor-ination margin of 09D0 econ- for a 'ine)engroun- fau't9 0ote that the time)current characteri tic pro4i-e an in4er e characteri tic up to their re pecti4e in tantaneou pickup 9 Figure >9F92 -i p'a& time)current characteri tic for the ame re'a& , but the pickup ha4e been re-uce- to 120 .9 %he re pecti4e timing that each re'a& operate for the 'ine)en- fau't con-ition ha been maintaine-, but the coor-ination margin i re-uce- to 091> econ- for the 'ine)en- groun- fau't con-ition9 With the en it4e pickup , the %2# portion of the cur4e i near'& f'at up to the in tantaneou pickup an-, therefore, -oe not a''o8 ufficient coor-ination9

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Figure >9F91, Stan-ar- %2# Pickup on Me-ium Length Line

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Figure >9F92, Sen iti4e %2# Pickup on Me-ium Length Line Long 'ine are t&pica''& ea ier to coor-inate -ue to the 'arge -ifference bet8een the near)enan- far)en- fau't current 9 .n in tantaneou e'ement can t&pica''& be et to co4er a 'arge portion of the 'ine, but en iti4e pickup 'e4e' for the time)o4ercurrent e'ement ma& re-uce performance an- ecurit&9 . an e?amp'e, a 2D0 k( 'ine, GF mi'e in 'ength can ha4e an a4ai'ab'e ing'e)'ine)groun- fau't current of 20,000 . for the near)en- con-ition but on'& G00 . for the far)en- con-ition9 .n e'ectromechanica' re'a& 8ith FE1 en iti4it& for the far)encon-ition 8ou'- ha4e a pickup of 'e than 120 .9 With a #% ratio of I00E>, a re'ati4e'& 'o8 tap i re<uire- 8hich re u't in a higher bur-en an- the po ibi'it& of #% aturation for the c'o e)in con-ition9 ;n genera', one hou'- a4oi- u ing the minimum tap on e'ectromechanica' groun- re'a& ince high econ-ar& current can re u't in poor re'a& performance9 Since mo t tran mi ion 'ine in the CS are not tran po e-, it i important to con i-er the imba'ance current that can e?i t9 Cn-er hea4& 'oa-ing, the =ero e<uence current can be ignificant -epen-ing on the con truction t&pe9 With e'ectromechanica' groun- o4ercurrent re'a& , the pickup mu t be et abo4e the ma?imum 'oa- imba'ance 8ith ufficient margin o that nui ance tripping -oe not occur9 %o enhance ecurit&, ome microproce or)ba ere'a& ha4e re traint e'ement that pro4i-e b'ocking of the -irectiona' e'ement 8hen the

Page 1D of 2>

percentage of =ero e<uence to po iti4e e<uence current i 'e than the pecifie- etting9 Cn-er hea4& 'oa-ing, the groun- current cou'- be in e?ce of the %2# groun- pickup, but 8ou'- be b'ocke- from operating -ue to the re traint e'ement9 Cn-er groun- fau't con-ition , the percentage of =ero e<uence to po iti4e e<uence i much higher an- the -irectiona' e'ement i no 'onger b'ocke- from operating9 >9G #ontingenc& .na'& i #on i-eration

Po8er & tem mo-ification -ue to 8itching, component repair, or maintenance can re u't in ub tantia' change to the anticipate- fau't current f'o8 that 8i'' be en e- b& re'a&ing -uring a fau't9 %he -uration of the e & tem change can be brief an- ma& not /u tif& a comp'ete etting reca'cu'ation or coor-ination tu-& imme-iate'& prior to the mo-ification9 %he effect of uch ing'e contingenc& temporar& change to the po8er & tem can be inc'u-e- in the initia' etting ca'cu'ation 9 %hi 8ou'- be particu'ar'& important 8ith re pect to the ana'& i of the en iti4it& of time o4ercurrent re'a& e'ement an- 8ith attention to in tant e'ement potentia''& re pon-ing to fau't occurring out i-e the inten-e- =one of protection9 . t&pica' metho- emp'o&e- for thi contingenc& ana'& i 8ou'- be to uti'i=e hort circuit ana'& i oft8are to outage net8ork e'ement e<uentia''& for the effect uch an outage ma& ha4e on the re'a&N re pon e to 4ariou fau't 9 %he choice of 8hich e'ement to outage can 4ar& b& etting phi'o oph& 8ith the goa' to 'ocate the contingencie that ha4e a ignificant impact 4er u the contingencie that cau e a minima' change to the <uantitie en e- b& the re'a&ing for a particu'ar fau't con-ition9 Fre<uent'& the e'ement a-/acent to the re'a& 'ocation 8i'' ignificant'& change time o4ercurrent re'a& e'ement en iti4it&9 ;t i a' o to be e?pecte- that outage a ociate- 8ith the remote en- of the protecte- e'ement ma& a''o8 higher 'e4e' of fau't current to f'o8 in an in tant o4ercurrent re'a& e'ement cau ing it to react to fau't out i-e it =one of protection9 Phi'o oph& regar-ing the outage of ignificant =ero e<uence current ource uch a autobank an- generator tep)up tran former can 4ar& -ue to the re pon e uch outage ma& initiate9 Some uti'itie ma& con i-er the outage of the e ignificant e'ement to be an e4ent that prompt the reca'cu'ation of nearb& re'a& etting or the uti'i=ation of pre)'oa-ea'ternate re'a& etting group in the re'a& 9 .nother contingenc& a i-e from a po8er & tem e'ement outage cou'- inc'u-e the groun-ing of a tran mi ion 'ine that i mutua''& coup'e- to the protecte- 'ine9 %hi t&pe of contingenc& can make a ignificant change to the net8ork fau't current -i tribution f'o8ing in the protecte- 'ine for both the in)=one fau't an- fau't out i-e the =one of protection9 >9G91 %ran mi ion P'anning Stan-ar%he -etermination of 8hat the 8or e ca e con-ition ma& be i a -ifficu't ta k9 .n e?ce''ent ource for -etermining 8hat contingenc& ana'& i to u e i the in-i4i-ua' uti'it&N p'anning tan-ar- or the 0:R# re'iabi'it& tan-ar- 9 Some uti'itie u e p'anning criteria of 0)1 for peak 'oa-ing con-ition an- 0)2 on off)peak con-ition 9 0)1 i ca''e- @one contingenc&A,

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an- i a norma' & tem 8ith one component out of er4ice, 8herea 0)2 i a norma' & tem 8ith t8o component out of er4ice9 Due to the 0orthea t +'ackout of 200D, 0:R# re<uire re'iabi'it& tan-ar- to be fo''o8e- for a'' 4o'tage greater than 100k(9 %he tan-ar- are u e- b& p'anner to -etermine & tem tabi'it& an- are %PL)001 "no contingenc&$, %PL)002 "0)1$, %PL)00D "0)2$ an- %PL)004 "0)2 e?treme$9 %PL)004 i e?ecute- on'& for pecia' ca e an- tu-ie a no mitigation or ca ca-ing fai'ure are a''o8e-9 %PL tan-ar- re<uire the & tem remain tab'e after an& e4ent 'i te- in the tan-ar-9 C ing a uti'it&N p'anning tan-ar- or the 0:R# re'iabi'it& tan-ar- to un-er tan- & tem configuration i a-4antageou in etting the groun- o4ercurrent re'a& 9 >9I Mutua' #oup'ing ; ue an- :ffect

When tran mi ion circuit run para''e' to each other an- in c'o e pro?imit& for part or a'' of their 'ength the& mutua''& coup'e -ue to the interaction of the magnetic f'u? pro-uce- b& each circuit9 Po iti4e, negati4e, an- =ero e<uence mutua' coup'ing i pre ent for a'' para''e' circuit but becau e po iti4e an- negati4e e<uence current genera''& account for on'& a ma'' fraction "genera''& 'e than GH$ of the e<uence current it i con i-ere- neg'igib'e for the purpo e of -etermining protection etting 9 ;n contra t, =ero e<uence mutua' coup'ing can account for ignificant'& higher e<uence current uch that it mu t be con i-ere- in protection etting 9 ;n the =ero e<uence net8ork, the =ero e<uence mutua' impe-ance can be a high a G0 percent of the e'f impe-ance of a circuit9 Figure >9I91 ho8 t8o configuration in 8hich t8o circuit are mutua''& coup'e- an- there are man& other configuration inc'u-ing the coup'ing bet8een mu'tip'e circuit an- circuit operating at -ifferent 4o'tage9 . 8ou'- be e?pecte- the further the eparation -i tance bet8een circuit the 'e coup'ing effect9 %he more the circuit are coup'e- "mi'e of coup'ing$ an- the higher the 4o'tage increa e the coup'ing effect9 :4en un-er bui't -i tribution circuit ha4e been kno8n to contribute ignificant amount of groun- fau't current9

+u .

52.+ ;2.+ 52#D 52M ;2#D "a$

+u +

+u #

+u D

Page 1> of 2>

+u + +u . 52.+
1 2 D

;2.+ 52M ;2.D "b$

+u D
4

52.D

Figure >9I91 Mutua' #oup'ing bet8een t8o circuit configuration Figure >9I91 c'ear'& -epict that the coup'ing bet8een circuit i not nece ari'& for the 'ength of either one of the circuit an- -oe not ha4e to tart at the termina' of one circuit9 When uch coup'ing e?i t , the =ero e<uence coup'ing effect can cau e groun- o4ercurrent re'a& prob'em on either circuit9 LetN take Figure >9I91"b$ a repre enting a t&pica' & tem configuration 8here the mutua' coup'ing can be e?pre e- a a mutua' impe-ance bet8een the t8o circuit coup'e- through a 1!1 ratio i-ea' tran former uch that the mutua' impe-ance bet8een the t8o circuit i harea ho8n in figure >9I929
+u + +u . 52.+ ) 52M ;2.+
? ?

52M 1!1 ;2.D +u D

52.D ) 52M

;2.D

Figure >9I92 Mutua' coup'ing repre entation bet8een t8o circuit 9

+u + +u . 52M ;2.+ O;2.D

52.+ ) 52M ;2.+ 52.D ) 52M ;2.D +u D

Figure >9I9D :<ui4a'ent net8ork circuit for circuit "b$ in Figure >9I91

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Figure >9I9D i imp'& a -ifferent 8a& of -epicting the ame circuit9 For thi e?amp'e, 8hen the mutua' coup'ing bet8een the e t8o circuit i trong groun- fau't on one circuit can ha4e ignificant impact on the o4ercurrent protection on the other circuit9 %he fau't current a een b& the re'a& at a bu 8i'' increa e a the fau't i 'i- -o8n the coup'e- 'ine -ue to the mutua' coup'ing affect9 Referring to Figure >9I94, the intent i to et the in tantaneou groun- o4ercurrent re'a& at +u .9 Line +# i para''e' to Line .# an- mutua''& coup'e- for ome of it 'ength9 Fau't are be p'ace- on Line +# an- @ 'i-A -o8n the 'ine from one en- to the other en-9 Different metho- can be u e- to et the in tantaneou e'ement at +u ., uch a taking the afet& margin time the remote bu fau't "8ith or 8ithout infee- ource out$ or taking the afet& margin time S2%F 4a'ue "8ith or 8ithout infee- ouce out$9

+u + +u #

Fau't

+u .

Fig9 >9I94 Mutua' #oup'ing :?amp'e %he proper etting i to fin- the ma?imum fau't 'e4e', uch a 8ith tronge t ource out of er4ice at the remote bu , an- to u e the ma?imum mutua''& coup'e- fau't9 0ote, ho8e4er, that 8ith increa e- margin, the in tantaneou e'ement reach ma& be ignificant'& re-uce-9 ;f the mutua' coup'ing affect i not un-er too-, the in tantaneou e'ement can either o4erreach or be et too en iti4e9 +oth con-ition can re u't in un-e ire- operation 9 %ab'e >9I91 pro4i-e the input for an e?amp'e of a mi operation -ue to mutua' coup'ing not taking into con i-eration9 %he fau't current are at the 'oca' termina'9 #'o e)in 14,D0J. Remote +u GFI . Line :n0e?t +u 4,>1J. II4. %ab'e >9I91 Fau't #urrent Remote %ermina' 1,FIG.

%he etting criteria u e- for the in tantaneou unit 8a to et the re'a& about 19> time the remote bu fau't current, 19>PGFIQ11>2.9 %he other criterion 8a to et the re'a& no higher than 09FG time the 'ine en- fau't current, or 09FGP4>1JQD02I.9 %o en ure the re'a& -i- not operate for e?terna' fau't , the remote bu an- 'ine en- fau't out of remote termina' 8ere a' o re4ie8e-9 C ing the ame margin , an appropriate etting 8ou'- be abo4e 2>D0. "19>P1FIG$ but be'o8 D02I amp 9 . etting of 2F00. 8a cho en an- 8a 8ithin the e margin 9 . 'ine fau't occurre- on an a-/acent 'ine an- the an- non)fau'te- 'ine trippe- on groun- o4ercurrent9 1a- the engineer performe- a 'i-ing fau't in the imu'ation program, he Page 1G of 2>

8ou'- ha4e ob er4e- that a fau't at appro?imate'& >F percent of the 'ine pro-uce- a fau't current of 2I00., or enough to operate the groun- in tantaneou o4ercurrent re'a&9 >9J .-apti4e #apabi'it&

.-apti4e capabi'itie of microproce or ba e- re'a& are a too' that can be u e- to optimi=e -irectiona' o4ercurrent etting 9 Re'a& e'ement etting or 'ogic can be automatica''& a'terein re pon e to change in the po8er & tem9 2perationa' 8itching of circuit breaker , b&pa 8itche , or motor operate- -i connect "M2D$ 8itche can change the po8er & tem uch that a'ternate etting 8ou'- be u efu'9 .'ternate etting cou'- a' o be beneficia' 8hen the groun- ource trength in the area i affecte- b& either a generator or tran former outage9 +ecau e an& of the e change affect the fau't current that can be een b& the re'a&, changing the etting can enhance the re'iabi'it& of the protection & tem9 . a re u't, optima' etting are pro4i-e- to the re'a& ba e- upon actua' & tem operating con-ition rather than 8or t ca e con-ition 9 . coup'e -o8n i-e to thi approach are that the re'a& 8i'' be temporari'& out of er4ice 8hi'e etting are automatica''& change-, an- re'a& prob'em that cou'- occur -uring the etting change proce cou'- be -ifficu't to -etect9 ;t 8a mentione- that generator or tran former outage can ignificant'& impact the amount of groun- fau't current in an area9 ;n fact, generator an- tran former are the mo t inf'uentia' po8er & tem e'ement 8ithin a 'oca' area that can affect groun- fau't current9 %he ne?t ection e'aborate on the importance of thi ub/ect9 >910 Groun- Source ; ue 9

>91091 S& tem Mo-e' When performing groun- fau't ana'& i , it i important to 4erif& the accurac& of the & tem mo-e' an- groun- fau't ource in the imme-iate area9 :rror can ea i'& be o4er'ooke- anthere can be a ten-enc& to p'ace b'in- faith 8ith the mo-e' an- -e4e'op etting that are ba e- on inaccurate fau't 4a'ue 9 %he M(. rating an- impe-ance of tran former that pro4i-e a ource of groun- fau't current hou'- be 4erifie- again t ub tation one)'ine -ra8ing 9 Win-ing connection an- & tem groun-ing hou'- a' o be 4erifie- again t the ub tation -ra8ing 9 #'o e attention hou'- be pai- to the accurac& of three)8in-ing tran former an- auto)tran former 8ith -e'ta tertiar& 8in-ing 9 PSR# WG DF i -e4e'oping a report that -i cu e mo-e' 4a'i-ation9 >91092 S& tem Groun- Source an- their importance to8ar- the contribution of fau't current9 "0ormann Fi cher$ With the gro8ing inf'uence of 8in- an- -i tribute- generation in the po8er & tem it ma& be a goo- time to e?amine 8hat inf'uence the e ha4e on the fau't current an- fau't current -i tribution in a po8er & tem9 ;n thi ection 8e are particu'ar'& intere te- in ho8 the non con4entiona' ource affect the magnitu-e of the groun- fau't current in the po8er & tem,

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-uring a groun- fau't con-ition o that proper co)or-ination bet8een groun- o4ercurrent -e4ice can be maintaine-9 %o -o thi 'et u u e an e?amp'e & tem a ho8n in Fig ?919

Fig x.1 A sketch of a simplistic power system 9 For a groun- fau't at the 'ocation ho8n in Fig9?91 8e can -ra8 the =ero e<uence -iagram a ho8n in Fig?929,

Fig x.2. Sketch of the zero sequence impedance of the simplistic power system 0o8 a 8e kno8 the -i tribute- ource can be 8itche- in an- out of the & tem -epen-ing on the generation re<uirement of the po8er & tem, the con4entiona' ource 8i'' be con i-ere- a being in circuit for the purpo e of thi -i cu ion9 LetN ee 8hat effect the -i tribute- ource ha4e9 0ote, the -i tribute- ource ha4e a re'ati4e high po iti4e an- negati4e e<uence impe-ance 8hen compare- to the con4entiona' ource "in other 8or- , the& contribute 4er& 'itt'e to the o4era'' fau't current 8hether the& are in or out of er4ice an- a uch 8e can ignore them$, but the& ha4e a re'ati4e'& 'o8 impe-ance in the =ero e<uence, becau e of the 8&eE-e'ta tran former u e- to connect them to the gri-, therefore the& ha4e to e con i-ere- in the =ero e<uence circuit9 %hi mean that the magnitu-e of ;0%ota' i -epen-ent on 8hether the -i tribute- ource i in or out of er4ice9 %he more -i tribute- ource that are in er4ice the 'o8er the o4era'' impe-ance of the =ero e<uence circuit therefore the higher the magnitu-e of ;0%ota'9 #on i-er a'' the groun- ource to be in er4ice for the fir t ca e "Fig ?9D$, an- a uming that 5(ariab'e LL 5Fi?e- " a'' -i tribute- ource tran former are in er4ice$ %hi mean 8e 8i'' ha4e

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the ma?imum groun- fau't current for a ing'e 'ine to groun- fau't "'o8e t =ero e<uence impe-ance$ From the current -i tribution point of 4ie8 it mean that ;0Right 8i'' much 'arger than ;0L:F%9 %he re u't of 8hich i that 4er& 'itt'e =ero e<uence current 8i'' f'o8 through the fi?eimpe-ance of the & tem9 Meaning that protecti4e -e4ice u e- for a groun- fau't protection 8i'' ha4e a re-uce- operating <uantit&, or tate- another 8a&, if a >1 groun- o4ercurrent e'ement 8a u e- for protection itN time to operate time 8ou'- be increa e- or it ma& e4en fai' to ee the fau't9

Fig x.3. he zero sequence impedance of the simplistic power system with all distri!uted sources in ser"ice. For the econ- ca e a ume that t8o of the -i tribute- ource are out of er4ice " Fig ?94$ an- that 5(ariab'e Q 5Fi?e- , %herefore ;0L:F% Q ;0Right, , note that ;0%ota' -ecrea e- 9 1o8e4er the -ecrea e in ;0%ota' i 'e than the change in the ratio of 5(ariab'e 4 5Fi?e- thi mean that the magnitu-e of ;0L:F% increa e a the number of -i tribute- ource -ecrea e e4en though the tota' =ero e<uence fau't current ;0%ota' -ecrea e 9

Fig x.#. he zero sequence impedance of the simplistic power system$ with two of the three distri!uted sources out of ser"ice. What the abo4e te'' u i that -i tribute- generation ource not on'& inf'uence the magnitu-e of the fau't current the& a' o inf'uence the -i tribution of the =ero e<uence current9

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>911

0egati4e Se<uence 24ercurrent

+oth the a-4antage an- the -i a-4antage of u ing negati4e e<uence o4ercurrent to -etect unba'ance- fau't con-ition i that fau't can often be more en iti4e'& -etecte- b& negati4e than b& =ero e<uence current9 1o8e4er, negati4e e<uence o4ercurrent can be more -ifficu't to proper'& coor-inate 8ith other & tem protection than =ero e<uence9 Some & tem con-ition , uch a poor'& groun-e- tran mi ion & tem ten- to fa4or u ing of negati4e e<uence9 >91191 2perating :'ement C age Groun- current i much more common'& u e- a a re'a& operating <uantit& than negati4e e<uence current for unba'ance- con-ition 9 1o8e4er, negati4e e<uence current can be he'pfu' 8hen u e- a a re'a& operating e'ement un-er a 'imite- et of con-ition , uch a on part of the & tem that are 8eak or poor'& groun-e- "'o8 a4ai'ab'e groun- current ource $9 :4en if the Anorma'A & tem pro4i-e an a-e<uate groun- fau't ource, certain contingencie ma& re-uce a4ai'ab'e groun- current to the point 8here an a-e<uate operating <uantit& i no 'onger pro4i-e-9 2ne e?amp'e in4o'4e- a main bu outage -uring con truction on a poor'& groun-e- an- 8eak part of the & tem9 With the bu out of er4ice, the potentia' tran former for the -i tance re'a& 8ere a' o out of er4ice9 Pha e fau't current 8a rough'& the ame 'e4e' a 'oacurrent, o negati4e e<uence 2# re'a& 8ere u e- to pro4i-e protection9 .nother e?amp'e i 8ith a uti'it& that a--e- a D4> k( 'ine into a 2D0 k( ub tation, connecte- through t8o D4>E2D0 k( autotran former 9 %he a4ai'ab'e pha e fau't current 8ere appro?imate'& the ame a the ma?imum tran former rating , o that pha e 2# e'ement a backup protection 8ere of <uite 'imite- u efu'ne 9 1o8e4er, negati4e e<uence 2# e'ement pro4i-e- ati factor& protection for unba'ance- fau't 9 Whi'e the abo4e e?amp'e i''u trate the 4ariet& of app'ication , the tu-ie nee-e- to coor-inate negati4e e<uence 2# e'ement 8ith other 2# e'ement are not ignificant'& -ifferent than coor-inating groun- or pha e 2# e'ement >91192 Sen iti4e Line Protection %he W:## Re'a& Work Group i 8riting a 8hite paper on the ub/ect of proper'& app'&ing en iti4e negati4e e<uence o4ercurrent operating e'ement 9 %he "-raft$ paper 617 -ea' 8ith -irectiona' o4ercurrent e'ement ba e- on negati4e e<uence 4o'tage po'ari=e- -irectiona' e'ement an- negati4e e<uence o4ercurrent e'ement for -etection of tran mi ion 'ine groun- fau't genera''& app'ie- in communication)ai-e- protection cheme 9 >9119291 1ea4& Loa- on a 0on)%ran po e- Line Cne<ua' mutua' coup'ing inherent to a non)tran po e- 'ine re u't in -ifferent pha e impe-ance an- i one cau e of unba'ance- 'oa- current f'o89 %hi unba'ance- current ha

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negati4e an- =ero e<uence component 9 For mo t 'ine configuration , 'oa- f'o8 through a non)tran po e- 'ine pro-uce more negati4e e<uence than =ero e<uence current9 1igh magnitu-e po8er f'o8 "or three pha e fau't current f'o8 -uring an e?terna' fau't$ ma& pro-uce ufficient negati4e e<uence current to operate en iti4e'& et negati4e e<uence o4ercurrent e'ement an- negati4e e<uence -irectiona' e'ement uper4i ion e'ement 9 Protection at the en-ing 'ine termina' mea ure tota' & tem p'u 'ine negati4e e<uence 4o'tage an- current 9 %hi 4o'tage i re'ati4e'& ma'', o #(% error "e pecia''& pha e ang'e error$ can be fair'& ignificant, 8hich can re u't in in-ication of a for8ar- fau't "negati4e e<uence po'ari=ing 4o'tage 'ag operating current$9 ;f the negati4e e<uence current e?ceethe pickup etting 8hi'e the for8ar- -irectiona' e'ement a ert , the protection ma& mi operate9 Sen iti4it& of the negati4e e<uence -irectiona' e'ement uper4i ion mu t be et greater than the ma?imum negati4e e<uence current f'o8 at the highe t po ib'e po8er tran fer 'e4e'9 %hi hou'- be ea i'& achie4ab'e for mo t 8e'' groun-e- tran mi ion & tem 9 1o8e4er, in a poor'& groun-e- tran mi ion & tem, it ma& not be po ib'e to obtain the -e ireen iti4it& an- remain ecure for a'' 'oa- con-ition 9 ;n thi ca e, one o'ution i to increa e the po iti4e e<uence re traint factor etting, 8hich re-uce the en iti4it& of the negati4e e<uence -irectiona' e'ement uper4i ion a po iti4e e<uence current "i9e9 'oa-$ increa e 9 %hi re u't in on'& a 'ight re-uction in en iti4it& -uring norma' & tem operation an- a greater re-uction in en iti4it& -uring a & tem contingenc&, uch a the 'o of a para''e' 'ine, 8hich re u't in a higher 'oa- ituation9 >9119292 Sub)harmonic Fre<uencie :?cite- +& a Fau't on a Serie #ompen ate- Line . fau't on a erie capacitor compen ate- 'ine can generate tran ient o ci''ation ha4ing a ub)harmonic fre<uenc& -etermine- b& the re'ati4e 4a'ue of 'ine erie in-uctance ancapacitance, 8hich can appear on 'ine 'ocate- a-/acent to a fau'te- 'ine9 +ecau e microproce or re'a& -o not comp'ete'& fi'ter out the e ub)harmonic o ci''ation , puriou operation of negati4e e<uence e'ement can occur re u'ting in tripping of a non)fau'te- 'ine9 %he re'a& en iti4it& of the protection can u ua''& be et ufficient'& high to o4erri-e the e o ci''ation 9 1o8e4er, 8here high en iti4it& i re<uire-, one metho- to pre4ent mi operation i to -e'a& the 4er& en iti4e negati4e e<uence -irectiona' o4ercurrent e'ement to ri-e through the tran ient o ci''ation perio- an- re'& on other 'e en iti4e e'ement to pro4i-e the re<uire- protection operating pee-9 >911929D %appe- Di tribution Sub tation %ran former

De'ta)connecte- tran former 8in-ing trap =ero e<uence current that f'o8 -uring grounfau't on the 'o8 4o'tage i-e of the tran former9 For thi ca e, there i no nee- to coor-inate tran mi ion 'ine =ero e<uence o4ercurrent e'ement 8ith 'o8 i-e protection 9 1o8e4er, 'ine protection negati4e e<uence o4ercurrent e'ement mu t be coor-inate- 8ith 'o8 i-e protection 9

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>9119D

%appe- Loa- .ffect

%here are ituation in 'e popu'ate- region 8here tran mi ion 'ine are u e- to er4e i o'ate- -i tribution ub tation a 8e'' a tran ferring energ& from po8er p'ant to ma/or 'oa- center 9 Where thi i -one it i common to app'& three 8in-ing tran former in the -i tribution ub tation , 8&e M 8&e 8in-ing 8ith a -e'ta tertiar& 8in-ing9 .n e?amp'e 8ou'- be to u e a 2D0k( tran mi ion 'ine to er4ice a D49>k( -i tribution & tem9 %he 4o'tage of the tertiar& 8in-ing , 8hich in man& ca e i not brought out of the tran former tank, 4arie from one tran former to another an- i not re'e4ant to thi -i cu ion9 %here are no tran mi ion 'ine breaker at the -i tribution ub tation 9 ;n ome ca e the fau't interrupting -e4ice , that connect the tran former to the 'ine , ha4e rating 8hich re<uire the tran mi ion & tem to be effecti4e'& groun-e-9 Due to the 'ength of the tran mi ion 'ine to be effecti4e'& groun-e- at the tappe- -i tribution ub tation 'ocation the neutra' on the high i-e 8in-ing are o'i-'& groun-e-9 %he tran former are a' o bui't 8ith gra-ient in u'ation on the high i-e 8in-ing 8hich make the groun-ing of the high i-e neutra' a re<uirement9 %he tran former are ource to the =ero e<uence net8ork9 Some configuration ha4e mu'tip'e tran former tappe- off of one tran mi ion 'ine9 %he tappe-i tribution ub tation tran former re-uce the magnitu-e of =ero e<uence current for pha e to groun- fau't on the 'ine that i upp'ie- from the tran mi ion 'ine termina' 9 . a re u't of thi the 'ine re'a& at the termina' u ing =ero e<uence current are impaire- in -etecting the 'ine pha e to groun- fau't 9 Since the 'ine termina' are the o'e ource of negati4e e<uence current, the app'ication of negati4e e<uence o4ercurrent re'a& function , for backup function , pro4i-e the en iti4it& nee-e- for -etecting pha e to groun- fau't an&8here a'ong the tran mi ion 'ine9 " #onclusion ".'e/an-ro Schnakof k&$

%hi report hope to high'ight re'e4ant an- ob/ecti4e factor to be con i-ere- 8hen app'&ing -irectiona' groun- o4ercurrent re'a& b& the protection engineer9 . -ocumente-, the range of 4ariab'e in4o'4e- goe from impe-ance of the return path an- mutua' coup'ing to e4er changing & tem con-ition uch a topo'og&, 'oa- unba'ance an- uti'i=ation of ing'e po'e tripping9 Directiona' groun- o4ercurrent pro4i-e an ea & to un-er tan- protection e'ement that pre ent a great a'ternati4e to -i tance e'ement offering amp'e re i ti4e co4erage if proper'& et9 #'ear gui-e'ine 8ere pro4i-e- to et pickup an- time -e'a& etting 9 . -e'icate ba'ance bet8een ecurit& an- en iti4it& can be achie4e- b& etting the thre ho'- of the e'ement abo4e the ma?imum 'oa- unba'ance9 #arefu' attention hou'- be pai- to the a4ai'ab'e fau't current for -ifferent ource impe-ance con-ition at 'ine en- fau't to en ure proper fau't c'earing9 Fina''&, the a--ition or remo4a' of =ero e<uence ource mu t be ana'&=e-B 8hen unab'e to come up 8ith a etting that co4er a'' -ifferent con-ition , con i-er u ing the a-apti4e capabi'it& of the re'a& b& u ing mu'tip'e etting group 9 Like an& other protecti4e re'a&ing cha''enge, there i part art an- part cience to the pu=='e9 %hi i not -ifferent in -irectiona' groun- o4ercurrent protection 8here the <uantit& of 4ariab'e ca'' for thoughtfu' compromi e 9

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$ References% &i'lio(rap)y .'e?an-er,G9 :9, .n-richak, *9 G9, @Groun- Di tance Re'a&ing! Prob'em an- Princip'e A, G:R)DGJD, Genera' :'ectric #o9, pre ente- at the 0ineteenth .nnua' We tern Protecti4e Re'a& #onference, Spokane, W., 2ct9 20, 1JJ19 +'ackburn, *9 Le8i , %rotecti"e &elaying %rinciples and Applications, Dr- e-9, #R# Pre , 200F9 #a'ero, F9 an- 1ou, D9, @Practica' #on i-eration for Sing'e)Po'e)%rip Line)Protection Scheme A, Sch8eit=er :ngineering Laboratorie , ;nc9, 20049 @#on i-eration in Setting ;n tantaneou 24ercurrent Re'a& on %ran mi ion Line ,A ;:::EPSR# Working Group Report, ;::: %ran action on Po8er De'i4er&, (o'9 14, 0o9 1, *anuar& 1JJJ9 Fi cher, 09 an- 1ou, D9B @Metho- for Detecting Groun- Fau't in Me-ium (o'tage Di tribution Po8er S& tem A, Sch8eit=er :ngineering Laboratorie , ;nc9, Pu''man, W., 200F9 Griffin, #9 19B @Princip'e of Groun- Re'a&ing for 1igh (o'tage an- :?tra 1igh (o'tage %ran mi ion Line A, pre ente- at the ;::: Po8er :ngineering Societ&, 1JI2 Summer Meeting Paper I2 SM 40D)49 @1igh ;mpe-ance Fau't Detection %echno'og&,A ;:::EPSR# Working Group D1> Report, March 1JJF9 @1igh (o'tage %ran mi ion Line Protection 8ith Sing'e Po'e %ripping an- Rec'o ingA, G:%)F>>>, G: Po8er Management, Markham, 20, #.9 1ou, D9, @Detection of 1igh);mpe-ance Fau't in Po8er Di tribution S& tem ,A Sch8eit=er :ngineering Laboratorie , ;nc9, Pu''man, W., 200F9 '((( )uide for %rotecti"e &elay Applications to ransmission *ines, ;::: #DG911D)1JJJ9 *ack on, +e t, an- +ergen, @.pp'ication of a Sing'e Po'e Protection Scheme to a Doub'e) #ircuit 2D0 k( %ran mi ion LineA, >2n- .nnua' Georgia %ech Protecti4e Re'a&ing #onference, .t'anta, G., 1JJI9 Mi''er, *9 W9, Pre entation entit'e- @.pp'ication of Directiona' Groun- 24ercurrent Re'a&ingA, Georgia Po8er #ompan&, Fore t Park, G., 20009 Moone&, *9 +9, Peer, *9 M9, @.pp'ication Gui-e'ine for Groun- Fau't ProtectionA, Sch8eit=er :ngineering Laboratorie , ;nc, Pu''man, W.,1JJG9

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Sch8eit=er, :9 29, Robert , *9, .rora, R, an- Poggi, :9, @Limit to the Sen iti4it& of GrounDirectiona' an- Di tance ProtectionA, pre ente- at the Penn &'4ania :'ectric . ociation Re'a& #ommittee, 1JJG Spring Meeting, .''ento8n, P., Ma& 1>)1F, 1JJG9 We tern :'ectricit& #oor-inating #ounci', Re'a& Work Group, @Pre4ention of Sen iti4e Line Protection 0egati4e Se<uence :'ement Mi operation During (ariou Cnba'ance#on-ition "-raft 1$,A 200J9

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