A Preface On The Boilers:

Many centuries ago, human being found out the power of steam, but using industrial steam boilers started from 1712. They were made of lead or wood producing pressure a little more than atmosphere. In 1725, Histech boilers with steel riveted plates and proportional pressure came into use.

(Figure 1) Schematic Section of a Boiler

By passing the time, it was determined that the best way of using boilers scientifically is to make them circular. In 1795, by producing rolled plates, circular boiler was made too. Water Tube boilers were made in 1873 (Figure 1). Water flows in slant pipes where the heat absorbs. Regarding extending the surface the heat will be exchanged in the best way. By extending other parts such as super heater, deaerator economizer and air heaters, and so on, gradually, the primary steam boilers changed to current boilers with more capacities. Boilers advancement processes are mentioned below: 1. Temperature increase

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Pressure increase Boiler steam outlet increase Efficiency increase Easy to control Reducing manufacturing, operation and maintenance expenses Boiler lifetime increase

Boiler kinds: Boiler duty is to turn liquid (water) into super saturated steam, but in industry, all devices turning liquid to super heated steam are called boiler. Boilers are being used in steam production units for general, electrical and industrial uses, and depend on their planning can make use of charcoal, mazut, gas, oil and natural gas as their fuel. Based on different parameters, boilers classification is as bellow: Fossil Fuel Boilers: All industrial boilers Iran use fossilized fuels. Using fossilized fuels for producing electricity forms much carbon dioxide because the heat generated from burning the fossil fuels is three times more than the produced electrical energy. Upon the negative effects, the fossil fuels have on our life and environment, it is recommended to reduce using fossil fuels. The followings are different fossil boilers: 1. Vessel boilers: This kind of boilers consists of closed vessel in which heat exchange occurs out of it and water vaporizes in the vessel. Their efficiency is low -about 30%-, which are used just in industries with low-pressure steam. 2. Fire Tube Boilers: In these boilers, tubes are coated with water and produced gases pass through the tubes. Heat exchange occurs between water and products. Furnace can be in or out of the boiler. Fire tube boilers efficiency is about 70%, which are used for steam production in low-pressure units. 3. WATER TUBE BOILERS: In different kinds of these boilers (figure 2), heat exchange occurs by contacting the produced gases with the outer surface of tubes containing Water and steam and in conducting, replacement and radioactive ways. Small Diameter of the steam and water tubes that reduces thermal stresses on tubes is the advantage of these boilers

to fire tube ones, which consequently are used in high-pressure industries. Their efficiency is about 85 to 95%.

(figure 2) A water tube boiler consists of combustion chamber with tubes, steam and water headers and drums, super heaters, air heaters, economizer and preservers. In this boilers, integrated fin coated vertical tubes are used since water tubes are under high thermal charge, pressure and temperature stresses effects should be designed precisely. Water tubes are assembled in vertical mode in combustion chamber, which are welded in stubs on upper and lower sides of headers. Headers reduce the number of tubes connected directly to drum. Temperature distribution in water tubes depends on heat transmission coefficient, thermal charge amount, thermal conduction coefficient, dimensions, and tubes engineering and fin structures. Fins cause equal distribution of thermal charge on tubes, reduce boiler heat gradient in one hand, and increase the heat exchange level, which causes more heat exchange on the other hand. 3.1. ONCE THROUGH BOILER: Are non-drum boilers with super critical pressure, which are called Benson. Combustion chamber and wall tubes assembly are planned in a way that wall tubes feeding water passes the combustion chamber and wall tubes, and then vaporizes

and conducts directly to super heaters, these boilers are called Non-drum boilers consequently. As a fact that Benson boilers are high Pressure boilers require high technology in manufacturing process, but because of having no drum are lighter in weight than under critical presser boilers (with drum). In Benson boilers, circulation number is one. Since these boilers work, upper the critical pressure for increasing the tubes length unlike drum boilers plan the wall tubes diagonal in order to decrease the boilers height. Wall tubes in Benson boilers are thicker than drum boilers. When starting the Benson boilers for separating water and steam make use of cyclone, which uses from centrifugal force for separation. Because of being drum-less, you will not have any water and steam reserve for emergency uses. Industrial Boilers Kinds: 1. Indirect Gas Heaters: These heaters are from fire tube ones, which are used for heating the natural gas after pressure reduction installations (civil gas). 2. Direct Gas Heaters: These heaters are from water tube kinds and called refinery furnaces too. Tubes are directly exposed to fire and heat and the coil is exposed to replacement heat. 3. Chemical reaction heaters (reactors): Drum shaped recovery boilers, which are used in petrochemical plants in which their coils are installed helical on the plates. 4. Recovery type boilers: Recovery type boilers, which are used for making use of outlet gases energy in gas power plants, (figure 3). Heat recovery power plant is a combination of steam power plant and gas turbines for increasing the whole system Production. In this kind of boilers, gas turbine can operate independently.

(figure 3) 5. Recovery Boilers: These boilers are used in melting furnaces, in metalwork plants, which are installed directly in melting circuit. There is not the possibility of separating them of working system. 6. Incinerator Boilers: These boilers are used for devastating the civic litter and generating electricity. These boilers should be equipped whit pro and after reserves (for collecting the litter and evacuating the ash). 7. Coal Boilers: These boilers also should be equipped with pro and after reserve for reserving coal. Boilers Manufacturing Parts: Each boiler consists of different parts that each one is installed for a special aim. Based on the duty they have boilers parts are divided into following parts: Pressure Parts: All parts in which water as steam (tubes, headers and so on) passes through, having more inside pressure than environment are called under pressure parts (figure 4). Generally, all parts from boiler feed water pump to supper-heater outlets are called pressure parts, which are listed bellow:

Main Feed Water Pipe: transfers water from boiler feed pump outlet to economizer inlet header - Economizer Inlet Header: Generally it collects or distributes fluid (water or steam) A Distributor header: header outlets are more than inlets B Collector header: header inlets are more than outlets

(figure 4) Economizer Tubes: Economizers increase boilers efficiently. Economizers increase the inlet water temperature to reach saturation, which prevents the reduction of drum water temperature. Economizers are installed in combustion gases outlet. More heat exchange, needs more heat surfaces to maintain this fact fins are Installed on economizers tubes (fins increase heat surfaces). The boilers burning fuel determines the use of fins. If the used fuel is from light Fuels (natural gas), the fins are used and. the fins are installed in two ways: 1. In line 2. Stager Economizer Outlet Header: Collects water from economizers and conducts to steam drum Economizer Outlet Pipe: Exchanges water from economizer outlet to steam drum inlet

Steam Drum: Drums separate water and steam. Drums are different in structure, but all are the same in operation. The mixture of water and steam enters the separator. Then centrifugal force and circular movement will separate them. After passing the drier plates and finally conducts to water wall tubes by down comers, steam losses its water completely. Drum is like a reserve for boilers Too. It reserves water or steam in itself and keeps it for boiler critical conditions. Equal division of inlet water from economizer and injection of some chemical Fluids into boiler fulfills by drum. Drums are consisting of two internal and external parts. Its main parts are: 1- Separator 2- Chevron drier 3- Drier 4- Internal pipe Water (Lower) Drum: Its horizontal cylindrical reserve, which is installed, in the lowest part of the boiler and acts like a header. After separation, water comes down to down comer pipes and enters the lower drum. Water drum divides feeding water equally to wall and Bank tubes: These tubes connect upper drum to lower drum in a way that some tubes act a sown comer and the other as riser Water wall tube: In modern boilers all three kinds of heat exchange (conduction, radioactive and replacement) occur, which results on changing water to steam. In these boilers use from vertical tubes as a complete wall. Water in tubes absorbs the heat energy and cools the walls. The fins are installed between the tubes. The structure of the walls depends on combustion, steam, and boiler size. The way of installing, the water wall tubes are as per following: A - Boiling wall B Touching tubes C Fin tubes The roles water wall tubes play in absorbing the needed heat for producing water and steam along with fin tubes advantages are below listed: o Equal heat charge distribution on inner side of tubes o Fin expanded surfaces, which reduce metal surfaces of tubes for heat absorption

o No combustion leakage from boilers o Walls and tubes high stability o Erection time reduction o Walls weight reduction and easy commissioning o Having no touch between furnace insulation and combustion products o Increases the insulators lifetime and consequently expenses and maintenance will be reduced o Tubes can be installed in a way that fluids speed will be proportionate to heat exchange rate o Boiler starts to work easily by reducing the wall weight. Not having touch between furnace insulation and combustion products makes the insulators lifetime increased in one hand and maintenance expenses will be reduced on the other hand Making of these walls is expensive and needs much skill and experience for welding the tubes to fins. In wall tubes, water flows in tubes from Bottom to top. More water flows upward, more energy absorption and steam production we have. In natural circulation boilers because of the density differences In forced circulation tubes between water and water and steam mixture, displacement occurs naturally. With regard to low-density deterrence, forced circulation pumps are used for circulating water. It should be noticed that just a portion of outlet water turns to steam. The amount of steam produced in boiler depends on to the boiler circulation number. In away that whatever boiler circulation number is fewer, the outlet steam amount from Wall tubes increases. It can be stated as: Water circulation number in boiler = (outlet steam amount from water tubes)/1 For example when the circulation number is four, it means that water should turn four times in wall tubes and down comer. Circulation number is three to ten for drum boilers and one for non-drum boilers. Increasing the circulation number increases the boiler capacity and reduces burning of boiler tubes, which increases efficiency. Riser pipe: These pipes conduct water and steam from wall tubes outlet headers to drums in other words riser pipes act as an intermediate between wall header and steam drum. Connecting the pipe directly to drum increases the thickness of drum too much. To prevent this water and steam flowing in wall tubes gather in outlet headers first and then by fewer riser pipes conducted to drum. Saturated Steam Pipe:

Conduct steam from drum to super heater inlet header. The steam, which is heated after drum, is called dry steam with 100% quality. Primary And Secondary Super Heater And De-Super-Heater: Outlet steam from drum should have more temperature in order to have more energy, which is, called dry steam of super heater. This act fulfills in super heaters consist of parallel tubes and in touch with combustion made hot gases. These pipes conduct the combustion heat. Depend on their type; super-heaters are planned in single or multi phases. They are installed on top of the combustion chamber. They receive the heat in radioactive and displacement forms. Steam first enters the primary super heater, then de super-heater (controlling temperature) and at last, secondary super-heater should be able to keep the temperature stable in the lowest and highest turbine Load. Desuper-heaters are made of two walls for preventing saturated water touch with high tempered wall. In the boilers of low temperature outlet, super-heaters are cancelled. Re-heater: Stem energy drops when coming out of high-pressure turbines. For preventing Moisture in low-pressure turbine, floors should conduct the energy of return Steam upward and then conduct it to middle pressures turbine. This act fulfills by reheater. They are the same as super-heaters consisting horizontal and parallel tubes. These pipes are installed in combustion product direction. Exchange hot gases heat inside using re-heater or not depend on boiler capacity and power plant planning. Re-heaters are used just in high capacity boilers for increasing the efficiency. Reheaters consist of two primary and secondary sections. Re-heaters parts are listed bellow: 1- Recovery cold tube 2- Re-heater inlet header 3- Re-heater tubes 4- Re-heater outlet header 5- Warm return-tubes Main Steam Pipe: Conducts superheat steam from outlet header of secondary superheat to turbine or heat exchangers. Steam Air Heater: In cold weather water particles in the air freeze when contacting to fan blades

moreover, break the blades consequently. To prevent this, inlet air warms in a steam heater. Gas Air Heater: For preventing the entrance of low temperature air into furnace, gas air heater Issued. Since two fluids are gas with low efficiency the gas air heater are made circular. In a way, that half part of it is in cold section and half part of it is in warm section, and by turning of cold/warm blades heat exchanges.

(Figure5) pre-heater Furnace: Furnace or combustion chamber is a chamber which burning takes place in it. The consequent thermal energy exchanges to tubes feed water in the way of radioactive or conduction by tubes metal. The result of this heat exchanger, is to absorb the thermal energy by the water inside the tubes and changing it to steam. Burners: Burners turn chemical energy to thermal energy. For complete combustion, Fuel should be completely powdered in a way that particles could be more easily vaporized. Furnaces, in addition to powdering the fuel and turning it to particles, for flash vaporization of fuel and combustion make movements between fuel drops and the air.

Gas Recirculation Fan (G.R.F): Some parts of burnt gas fumes are added to inlet air for controlling the Nox and increasing the thermal efficiency. By using G.R.F some percentage of outlet combustion products will be returned to furnace to cover the outer surface of the tubes as a layer for preventing the tubes energy absorption in radioactive from. More increase in molecules makes more convection inside the furnace. G.R.F is more efficient in low temperature, because decreases the radioactive energy absorption in one hand and prevents overheating the superheat when starting to work. Controlling the temperature of outlet steam from super-heaters: A- Using De-Super-Heaters (Water Spray): Using water spray after primary super heater decreases the secondary super Heater steam temperature. This system is necessary for boilers because of its speed and reliability. This system is planned in a way that in its real charge keeps some water spray for the time of not having real temperature because of Carbon black formation inside the tubes. B- Angular Change Of Furnaces: By changing the angle of furnaces, the amount of free energy in furnace of different heights can be changed. Bringing down the furnace head, increases the produced steam when reducing the steam temperature. C- Using G. R. F: For controlling the steam temperature when starting to work, some amounts of Outlet gases will be sent back to furnace by G.R.F. Incinerator Boilers: Ever increasing production of garbage and inappropriate ways of gathering made the thermal plasma process a proper method for burning the garbage. Plasma: Plasma is one of material forms. For the first time Dr. Long Muyer an American Chemical physician scientist in 1929 called the ionized gas as plasma. It consists of a set of atoms, ions and electrons, which move freely. Electric and magnetic fields will affect plasma.

Plasma System For Garbage Disposal: All plasma system has five main parts: 1. Feeding part 2. Combustion chamber 3. Outlet gas processing unit 4. Gathering solid products 5. Lateral equipment Garbage enters the feeding unit. Then in appropriate portions, it will be put into furnace. Plasma gas, which is heated to near the sun heat, will be transferred to garbage. Plasma heat can be transferred in radioactive, convection and conduction forms garbage decomposes to raw and simple material by Pyrolisis method. Main part of outlet gases are hydrogen and carbon monoxides and acidic gases like HCI and h2 s. in plasma technology there is no need to oxygen and any oxygen reserves and its thermal out come is two to three times more the fossil fuels thermal outcome. Boiler planning and engineering department field of activities: - Planning of industrial and power plant natural circulation water tube boiler packages with 20-t/hr capacity and more steam production based on customer demand. -Technology transfer contract with IHI Company from Japan based on manufacturing of water tube boilers with natural circulation burning with gas and fluid fuels as Per followings: - Package boilers from 20t/hr to 100t/hr capacity - Industrial boilers from 50t/hr to 350t/hr capacity - Power plant boilers from 390t/hr to 2200t/hr capacities -Technology transfer contract with Gadelius K.K for Langstorm pre-heaters - FW combination cycle Different kinds of power plant, industrial and equipment manufactured in AzarAb Company Boiler Type Choice: Water tube boilers are AzarAb main products and AzarAb is one of the greatest boiler manufactures in Middle East. We are able to manufacture different types of water tube boiler, from 20t/hr to 2000t/hr under the licensee of I.H.I form Japan.

(Figure 6) 1) Base Heating Power Plant Steam Boilers: This kind of boiler consists of a natural circulation drum, super heater and economizer. The air direction is toward furnace. This compound boiler consists of furnace and heat recovery zone. (Figure 7) AzarAb has installed in Shahid Rajai power plant a MW 250 model in which consists of 12 furnaces in front wall and eight furnaces in back wall. Outlet gases pass two parallel directions in which one of them consists of re-heaters and the other consists of super-heaters. Heat gases passing the parallel directions exchange the heat to re-heaters and Super heaters join each other, then pass the primary economizer and enter the air pre-heaters. Duper will control re-heaters, which are installed at the end of reheaters outlet steam temperature from re-heater, and re-heater and Super-heater dampers generator high changes are set in a way that outlet steam Temperature remains stable. Advantages of controlling re-heater by dumber are as less consuming power, better re-heater protection, and fast response to re-heater temperature changes. Re-heaters main duty is to increase outlet steam temperature from H.P. turbine. The boilers drum is located in upper part and along the width of boiler. Separating signs separates the water and steam mixture entering to drum from wall tubes (risers).

(Figure 7) Mentioned Boilers Specifications: Produced steam capacity 390 to 2200 t/hr Planned pressure amount 150 to 2000 kg/cm2 Its fuel bused on its facilities can be natural gas or mazout. 2- Stable Boilers (SN): These boilers under the I.H.I certificate are manufactured for industrial and Power plant purposes. They are single drum non-heat-recovery, natural circulation and radioactive heat transfer .the used fuels can be natural gas mazout or gas oil. - Produced steam capacity 90 to 950 t/hr - Planned pressures amount: 80 to 150kg/cm2

(Figure 8)

3- Stable Boilers (SD): This kind of boilers because of their high quality and efficiency has special Situation between industrial and power plant boilers. With a stable structure, consist of two water and steam drums with natural Circulation fluid, a large furnace for complete combustion and high temperature control super heaters. Boiler more specifications: Produced steam capacity 40 to 420 t/hr Planned pressure amount 40 to 110 kg/cm2 Maximum temperature 515 c (960 f) 4- Water Tube Boiler (SCM): For better maintenance, these boilers consist of two drums and heat exchange is done by furnace in convection and radioactive ways.

(Figure 9) Here the preheated water conducts to water and steam drum installed in top of the boiler and then goes to all tubes and pipes. Contrary to type 1, this boiler has no heat recovery system. Water walls with two or 2.5-inch outer diameters are completely welded for using in replacement units. For regulating the water level in drum, there are special signs under the usual Water level. In this way, the dryness of the steam will be kept more than 99.5 Percent. BOILER MORE SPECIFICATION: - Produced steam capacity: 5 to 35t/hr - Planned pressure amount: 10 to 25kg/m2 Mazout is the used fuel. 5- Pre-Made Boilers (SC): Contrary to other boilers, these boilers will be transported and installed in the site after manufacturing and installing it in the workshop as a complete pre-mode unit. There are some limits in dimensions and weight of these boilers because of Traffic regulations. MORE SPECIFICATIONS: - Produced steams capacity 250 t/hr - Planned presser amount: 30 to 350 kg/cm2 - Maximum temperature 48c (900 f) The used fuels are gas or gas oil and/or a mixture of both.

(Figure 9) Boilers Lateral Equipment : 1- Gas and air canals 2- Gas and air regulating valves 3- Gas and air expasile Canal openings 4- Inlet air preheating by steam and water AzarAb manufactured all these equipment. Electricity industry is a basic industry and all other industries and activities are directly and indirectly are relative to it. So investing on it is necessary. Countries provide their needed energy from different ways such as fossil, atomic, water, natural gas, coal, and geothermal fuels. From whole of useful used energy, some part of it will be converted to useful energy and a part of it will be wasted. From aspect of producing the electricity hydropower, plants are divided to: - Large hydropower plants (LHP) (more than 100mw capacity) - Small hydro power plants (SHP) (between 1 to 100mw capacity) - Mini hydro power plants (lower than 1mw capacity) Small hydro power plants are in two forms: - Low head small hydro power plants - High head small hydro power plants as a general high head hydro power plants are cheaper than the low head

ones, due to the used turbines. In large hydro power plants the installation place of turbine is on dam installations, water conducts toward turbine by a canal and turns the runner that is connected to turbines shaft and turning the shaft generates electricity. Hydropower Plants Department and Factory Equipment: Based on our country's developing policies and localizing the basic industry technology, departments goals are de fined in forms of GC and EPC. Based on our 20 years of experiences from abroad training courses and using our unique equipment, the department and company has capabilities in making power plant precise parts, planning, finance and industrial consultant commerce, making engineering, erection, commissioning and project management in manufacturing hydro power plants, Francis, Kaplan and butterfly valves. Based on our policy, AzarAb has done the engineering construction or left the manufacturing of karun1, Karun2, Karun3, Karun4 or Masjed Soleiman, karkheh power plant and factories equipment to other regional companies and by distributing the work among the regional companies has performed a significant role. In addition to active participating in domestic industries, this department has been present in international markets such as China, Austria, and Belarus. In addition, this department has made much effort on continuing the establishment of Occupation Health and Safety Management System OHSAS 18001. Non-destructive test on all under process parts takes place in hydro power plants and factory equipment department based on most modern methods. The tests performance guide starts from entering the raw material to our Raw Material Receipt Department by using VT, DT, and UT tests. In forming unit, metal sheets up to 220mm thickness will be rolled and pipes up to 52" diameter will be bent, performing DT, VT, PT, and VT tests. In assembling line, precise parts will be assembled in X, Y, Z coordinates and by using digital precise measuring and calibrated tools (Camera and control by machine). In machining workshop, light and heavy parts up to 200 ton with 12m length, 5m width, 12m diameter, and 6m height are being work with using DT test with hectomillimeter tolerance. In welding field based on ASTM, ASME, DIN and other international standards along with VT, DT, PT, MT, UT and RT tests, the qualified methods are being used. On thermal operation, based on our capability and factory powerful thermal operation equipment, this department issues the stress relief, aniline and return guides, and regarding the operation has quiet assessment through by Quality Control Department. Following the first, second and third schedule of the country's economical development, AzarAb has a noteworthy role in the national goals by participating in

manufacturing the essential machinery and equipments of mother industries. Client's satisfaction by on time doing the order and standard quality and least expenses in compare with foreign manufacturer is one this industries company long term schedules. All attempts and tries of the management and staff would be widely offered to reach to these objectives. Based on our capabilities and obtained experiences during participating in performing the country's heavy projects and regarding the market potential and current fortunes and threats, market's quality and quantity development, AzarAb has started manufacturing of Francis type hydro turbines equipment from 1985 as follow: 1- Karun 1 hydro-turbine in four units with 250MW power output 2- Karun 3 hydro-turbine in eight units with 250MW power output 3- Karkheh hydro-turbine in three units with 133MW power output 4- Masjed Soleiman hydropower in four units with 250MW Power output 5- Masjed Soleiman developing plan hydropower in four units with 250MW power output 6- Gotvand hydro-turbine in four units with 250MW power output 7- Karun 4 hydro-turbine in four units with 250MW power output 8- Siah Bishe hydro-turbine in four units with 250MW power output 9- Seimare hydro-turbines in three units with 163MW power output Manufacturing of high capacity hydro-turbines is performed for the first time in Iran. AzarAb in cooperation with FARAB Company based on its strong professional potential both in software and hardware capabilities could solve all problems and difficulties and now produces the high quality products. For instance, the molding of heavy equipments was one of the main problems in the way of these projects and fortunately, now we have successfully solved all of these problems with the help and cooperation of AzarAb's experts. We offer our thanks to Mr. Mahnama and Mr. Karbalai current managing directors of FARAB and AzarAb companies for their wide attempts and also Mr. Haj Rasoulian the chairman of the board of FARAB for his guidance. By choosing 30 direct contractors and 50 indirect contractors in the fields of molding and forging under the AzarAb monitoring the manufacturing operation of the project started to perform. After the confirmation of plans and documents by employer agents some portion of the equipment were sent to site and installed. According the most experts' comments, these equipments in compare with the foreign ones have better quality. Now four units of Masjed Soleiman developing plan, Karun 4, Gotvand and Siah Bishe hydro-turbines equipment manufacturing process have come to conclude with VOITH from Austria, and Seimare project with ALSTOM from France, in which main part of equipment is delivered to VOITH's agency in the least possible time and

manufacturing of the rest equipment is still continued. Draft tube elbow from Seimare hydro-turbine project is delivered to ALSTOM too. AzarAb has confirmed about 60-milliard Rials investment in water projects, has performed about 90% of the project, and now is generating electricity. In addition to hardware investment, AzarAb has seriously followed the technology transfer and has made a contract with L.M.Z, in which the first phase of the contract for planning and manufacturing of butterfly valves has successfully ended. In any way AzarAb activity in hydropower plants field focuses on two parts: 1. Planning and manufacturing of butterfly valves 2- Planning and manufacturing of hydro-turbines Butterfly Valves: Butterfly valves is used to open and close the inter water main direction, which includes four main parts as case, disk, upper and lower pipes and two hydraulic jacks. Its diameter and weight is about 5.3m and 272t, which is from the biggest ones in all over the world and just a few countries are able to manufacture it. Its case weighs about 70t and each one of molded parts is about 11~15t, with about 800mm thickness. Used sheets thickness is from approximately 30mm to 130mm the its joints are performed with usage of very modern technology and its manufacturing process involves cutting, welding, thermal operation, precise machining, hydrostatic test, leakage test, and system operation test. Regarding its huge dimension, some special equipment is installed in AzarAb. Now the operation of molding, construct, machining, hydrostatic test, and leakage test is successfully ended and we are witness of its operation in hydro power plants. Hydro-Turbines: Spiral Case: Its main duty is to distribute the inlet fluid equally to stay ring in a way that inlet fluid speed is stable to prevent the chock of fluid movement non-symmetry. Geometrical shape of spiral case is like a spiral and the curve causes to reduce the fluid pressure loss to its smallest amount. The spiral case weighs about 170 tons and is made of high-resistance steel alloy sheets (62 U, S460N, P355) with 24 to 60mm thickness. Due to its curve and non-symmetric it is formed by special rolling operation that needs high technical knowledge and experience and joint to each other by welding operation. Then its complete pre-montage regarding the dimension control and planning data approval- is perform and tested under 34.8bar water.

Since manufacturing of spiral case parts regarding the algebraic form and high precise need much sensitivity, so RT and UT tests will test all welded directions according the standard. Distributor: Its main duty is conducting the inlet water to runner blades and a dynamic assembly. This assembly consists of near five thousands small and big parts and are in mechanical conformity with each other, which are mode of antirust martenziti steel which is used in industrial process such as molding, cutting, welding, machining and thermal operation according the international standards and weight about 160 ton. Distributors move by two hydraulic jacks with 40bar pressure, which is manufactured in AzarAb. AzarAb Company is now based on its scientific knowledge is among the world's famous companies such as VOITH, ALSTOM, H.E.C, and GE. Wicket Gate: Wicket gate plays an important role in hydropower plants. Wicket gate increases turbine revolution and after paralleling with net, increases the turbine load. Changing in turning place of this part causes the change in flow rate of turbine runner. Wicket gate conducts the water flow into runner. In this case, the angle of entering water to runner is too important and plays an important role in efficiency and reducing cavitations. Because of nature of flowing water in turbine direction, sandy parcels and impure material, and cavitations causes friction and corrosion in wicket gates. So after a time depend on the condition of operation and the water and grease material, the journal place and the sealing on the wicket will corrode. In this case, manufacturing and and/or purchasing a new wicket gate is too expensive and needs much time, so AzarAb tries to use certain economical maintenance methods and makes the start to power plants easy. Based on following applicable method wicket gates can be ready to perform in a short time: total wicket gate cleaning, quality control in all levels repairing the ruined parts, cleaning the welding surfaces, thermal operation for stress relief, make the repaired surfaces to standard sizes by lathe operation, doing chrome campsite coating in friction surfaces and wicket gates seats. The machining operation of wicket gate is too important in a way that shaft and seat angle of the sealing should be in the same direction.

Runner: Runners change the fluid motion moment and make the generator to turn. Since the static pressure of the runner blades is equal, so the pressure does nothing. The aerodynamic shape of the blades is so that the pressure turns to kinetic energy along the blade so the static pressure in blades both sides are equal. Thus, the static pressure in blades outlet is less than its inlet. As the turbine is Francis type, the radical inlet flow and in the The fluid flow on the blades should be symmetrical, to prevent the chock on turbine shaft. Runner is one of the basic turbine parts so blades should be resistant against cast frictional stresses and cavitations. Its main parts such as blades, crowns, bands are made of antirust steel and in molding method. Welding these stainless steel parts needs special technology and equipment in which AzarAb is equipped with the best ones. Regarding their dynamically, special sensitive and care is applied in their manufacturing process. Draft Tube Elbow: Since the outlet flow contains kinetic energy and the pressure in runner outlet is too low to prevent cavitations and energy loss a make use of unloading pipe is essential that its aerodynamic shape is acquired by the model and dimensional analysis. Each unloading pipe consists of 16 semi cone segments and weighs 78 tons, which is manufactured by rolling and welding operations with essential technical knowledge and experience.

Servomotor: To open and close the butterfly valves and turbine moveable blades for regulating the inlet water to runner, two 40 and 60 bar hydraulic jacks are used. As the open and closing time should in a special period, the precise of manufacturing is too high. For example, the inner side of the cylinder should be sangzani to be assured of essential surface safi. In addition, the hydrostatic, leakage, and performance tests for controlling the process of the manufacturing, resistance, and planning verification would be performed.

Type of boilers This section describes the various types of Boilers: Fire tube boiler, Water tube boiler, Packaged boiler, Fluidized Bed Combustion Boiler, Atmospheric Fluidized Bed Combustion Boiler, Pressurized Fluidized Bed Combustion Boiler, Circulating Fluidized Bed Combustion Boiler, Stoker Fired Boiler, Pulverized Fuel Boiler, Waste Heat Boiler and Thermic Fluid Heater. Fire Tube Boiler In fire tube boiler, hot gases pass through the tubes and boiler feed water in the shell side is converted into steam. Fire tube boilers are generally used for relatively small steam capacities and low to medium steam pressures. As a guideline, fire tube boilers are competitive for steam rates up to 12,000 kg/hour and pressures up to 18 kg/cm2. Fire tube boilers are available for operation with oil, gas or solid fuels. For economic reasons, most fire tube boilers are nowadays of packaged construction (i.e. manufacturers shop erected) for all fuels. Water Tube Boiler

Fig: Simple Diagram of Water Tube Boiler Reference: http://www.yourdictionary.com/

In water tube boiler, boiler feed water flows through the tubes and enters the boiler drum. The circulated water is heated by the combustion gases and converted into steam at the vapour space in the drum. These boilers are selected when the steam demand as well as steam pressure requirements are high as in the case of process cum power boiler / power boilers. Most modern water boiler tube designs are within the capacity range 4,500 120,000 kg/hour of steam, at very high pressures. Many water tube boilers nowadays are of packaged construction if oil and /or gas are to be used as fuel. Solid fuel fired water tube designs are available but packaged designs are less common. The features of water tube boilers are:

images/ahd/jpg/A4boiler.jpg

Forced, induced and balanced draft provisions help to improve combustion efficiency. Less tolerance for water quality calls for water treatment plant. Higher thermal efficiency levels are possible

Packaged Boiler The packaged boiler is so called because it comes as a complete package. Once delivered to site, it requires only the steam, water pipe work, fuel supply and electrical connections to be made for it to become operational. Package boilers are generally of shell type with fire tube design so as to achieve high heat transfer rates by both radiation and convection. The features of package boilers are:

Small combustion space and high heat release rate resulting in faster evaporation. Large number of small diameter tubes leading to good convective heat transfer. Forced or induced draft systems resulting in good combustion efficiency. Number of passes resulting in better overall heat transfer. Higher thermal efficiency levels compared with other boilers.

These boilers are classified based on the number of passes - the number of times the hot combustion gases pass through the boiler. The combustion chamber is taken, as the first pass after which there may be one, two or three sets of fire-tubes. The most common boiler of this class is a three-pass unit with two sets of fire-tubes and with the exhaust gases exiting through the rear of the boiler. Fluidized Bed Combustion (FBC) Boiler Fluidized bed combustion (FBC) has emerged as a viable alternative and has significant advantages over conventional firing system and offers multiple benefits compact boiler design, fuel flexibility, higher combustion efficiency and reduced emission of noxious pollutants such as SOx and NOx. The fuels burnt in these boilers include coal, washery rejects, rice husk, bagasse & other agricultural wastes. The fluidized bed boilers have a wide capacity range- 0.5 T/hr to over 100 T/hr. When an evenly distributed air or gas is passed upward through a finely divided bed of solid particles such as sand supported on a fine mesh, the particles are undisturbed at low velocity. As air velocity is gradually increased, a stage is reached when the individual particles are suspended in the air stream the bed is called fluidized. With further increase in air velocity, there is bubble formation, vigorous turbulence, rapid mixing and formation of dense defined bed surface. The bed of solid particles exhibits the properties of a boiling liquid and assumes the appearance of a fluid bubbling fluidized bed. If sand particles in a fluidized state is heated to the ignition temperatures of coal, and coal is injected continuously into the bed, the coal will burn rapidly and bed attains a uniform temperature. The fluidized bed combustion (FBC) takes place at about 840 OC to 950 OC. Since this temperature is much below the ash fusion temperature, melting of ash and associated problems are avoided. The lower combustion temperature is achieved because of high coefficient of heat transfer due to rapid mixing in the fluidized bed and effective extraction of heat from the bed through in-bed heat transfer tubes and walls of the bed. The gas velocity is maintained between minimum fluidisation velocity and particle entrainment velocity. This ensures stable operation of the bed and avoids particle entrainment in

the gas stream. Atmospheric Fluidized Bed Combustion (AFBC) Boiler Most operational boiler of this type is of the Atmospheric Fluidized Bed Combustion. (AFBC). This involves little more than adding a fluidized bed combustor to a conventional shell boiler. Such systems have similarly being installed in conjunction with conventional water tube boiler. Coal is crushed to a size of 1 10 mm depending on the rank of coal, type of fuel fed to the combustion chamber. The atmospheric air, which acts as both the fluidization and combustion air, is delivered at a pressure, after being preheated by the exhaust fuel gases. The in-bed tubes carrying water generally act as the evaporator. The gaseous products of combustion pass over the super heater sections of the boiler flow past the economizer, the dust collectors and the air preheater before being exhausted to atmosphere. Pressurized Fluidized Bed Combustion (PFBC) Boiler In Pressurized Fluidized Bed Combustion (PFBC) type, a compressor supplies the Forced Draft (FD) air and the combustor is a pressure vessel. The heat release rate in the bed is proportional to the bed pressure and hence a deep bed is used to extract large amount of heat. This will improve the combustion efficiency and sulphur dioxide absorption in the bed. The steam is generated in the two tube bundles, one in the bed and one above it. Hot flue gases drive a power generating gas turbine. The PFBC system can be used for cogeneration (steam and electricity) or combined cycle powergeneration. The combined cycle operation (gas turbine & steam turbine) improves the overall conversion efficiency by 5 to 8%. Atmospheric Circulating Fluidized Bed Combustion Boilers (CFBC) In a circulating system the bed parameters are so maintained as to promote solids elutriation from the bed. They are lifted in a

relatively dilute phase in a solids riser, and a down-comer with a cyclone provides a return path for the solids. There are no steam generation tubes immersed in the bed. Generation and super heating of steam takes place in the convection section, water walls, at the exit of the riser. CFBC boilers are generally more economical than AFBC boilers for industrial application requiring more than 75 100 T/hr of steam. For large units, the taller furnace characteristics of CFBC boilers offers better space utilization, greater fuel particle and sorbent residence time for efficient combustion and SO2 capture, and easier application of staged combustion techniques for NOx control than AFBC steam generators. Stoker Fired Boilers Stokers are classified according to the method of feeding fuel to the furnace and by the type of grate. The main classifications are spreader stoker and chain-gate or traveling-gate stoker. Spreader Stokers Spreader stokers utilize a combination of suspension burning and grate burning. The coal is continually fed into the furnace above a burning bed of coal. The coal fines are burned in suspension; the larger particles fall to the grate, where they are burned in a thin, fast-burning coal bed. This method of firing provides good flexibility to meet load fluctuations, since ignition is almost instantaneous when firing rate is increased. Due to this, the spreader stoker is favored over other types of stokers in many industrial applications. Chain-grate or Traveling-grate Stoker

Coal is fed onto one end of a moving steel grate. As grate moves along the length of the furnace, the coal burns before dropping off at the end as ash. Some degree of skill is required, particularly when setting up the grate, air dampers and baffles, to ensure clean combustion leaving the minimum of unburnt carbon in the ash. The coal-feed hopper runs along the entire coal-feed end of the furnace. A coal gate is used to control the rate at which coal is fed into the furnace by controlling the thickness of the fuel bed. Coal must be uniform in size as large lumps will not burn out completely by the time they reach the end of the grate. Pulverized Fuel Boiler Most coal-fired power station boilers use pulverized coal, and many of the larger industrial water-tube boilers also use this pulverized fuel. This technology is well developed, and there are thousands of units around the world, accounting for well over 90% of coal-fired capacity. The coal is ground (pulverized) to a fine powder, so that less than 2% is +300 micro meter (m) and 70-75% is below 75 microns, for a bituminous coal. It should be noted that too fine a powder is wasteful of grinding mill power. On the other hand, too coarse a powder does not burn completely in the combustion chamber and results in higher unburnt losses. The pulverized coal is blown with part of the combustion air into the boiler plant through a series of burner nozzles. Secondary and tertiary air may also be added. Combustion takes place at temperatures from 13001700C, depending largely on coal grade. Particle residence time in the boiler is typically 2 to 5 seconds, and the particles must be small enough for complete combustion to have taken place during this time. This system has many advantages such as ability to fire varying quality of coal, quick responses to changes in load, use of high pre-

heat air temperatures etc. One of the most popular systems for firing pulverized coal is the tangential firing using four burners corner to corner to create a fireball at the center of the furnace. Waste Heat Boiler Wherever the waste heat is available at medium or high temperatures, a waste heat boiler can be installed economically. Wherever the steam demand is more than the steam generated during waste heat, auxiliary fuel burners are also used. If there is no direct use of steam, the steam may be let down in a steam turbine-generator set and power produced from it. It is widely used in the heat recovery from exhaust gases from gas turbines and diesel engines. Thermic Fluid Heater In recent times, thermic fluid heaters have found wide application for indirect process heating. Employing petroleum - based fluids as the heat transfer medium, these heaters provide constantly maintainable temperatures for the user equipment. The combustion system comprises of a fixed grate with mechanical draft arrangements. The modern oil fired thermic fluid heater consists of a double coil, three pass construction and fitted with modulated pressure jet system. The thermic fluid, which acts as a heat carrier, is heated up in the heater and circulated through the user equipment. There it transfers heat for the process through a heat exchanger and the fluid is then returned to the heater. The flow of thermic fluid at the user end is controlled by a pneumatically operated control valve, based on the operating temperature. The heater operates on low or high fire depending on the return oil temperature, which varies with the system load The advantages of these heaters are:

Closed cycle operation with minimum losses as compared to steam boilers. Non-Pressurized system operation even for temperatures around 250 0c as against 40 kg/cm2 steam pressure requirement in a similar steam system. Automatic control settings, which offer operational flexibility. Good thermal efficiencies as losses due to blow down, condensate drain and flash steam do not exist in a thermic fluid heater system.

The overall economics of the thermic fluid heater will depend upon the specific application and reference basis. Coal fired thermic fluid heaters with a thermal efficiency range of 55-65% may compare favorably with most boilers. Incorporation of heat recovery devices in the flue gas path enhances the thermal efficiency levels further. Steam Locomotive Operation The latest reviewed version was checked on 28 May 2013. There are template/file changes awaiting review. A Wikibookian believes this page should be split into smaller pages with a narrower subtopic. You can help by splitting this big page into smaller ones. Please make sure to follow the naming policy. Dividing books into smaller sections can provide more focus and allow each one to do one thing well, which benefits everyone. You can ask for help in dividing this book in the assistance reading room. This book is an operators manual for the operation of functional steam locomotives. The terms and procedures described here will enable a person to safely operate a 19th or 20th century steam locomotive well into the future. To hostle, fire, or engineer a locomotive effectively, efficiently, and safely, a person should have a good understanding of the construction and the physics that go into a steam engine to produce locomotion as well as an understanding of normal operating techniques. Contents [hide]

1 Locomotive Construction and Parts o 1.1 The Boiler o 1.2 Combustion Chamber o 1.3 Effect of Heating, Cooling, and Low Water o 1.4 Temperatures of Steam and Water 2 The steam circuit 3 The Crew o 3.1 Hostler o 3.2 Fireman o 3.3 Engineer 4 Firing o 4.1 General Practices o 4.2 Fire less Locomotives o 4.3 Wood Burning Locomotives o 4.4 Oil Burning Locomotives 5 References Locomotive Construction and Parts[edit] The Boiler[edit] A common later (1940s) boiler design was the radial stay extended wagon top type of locomotive boiler, which consists of an oblong box with a circular top made of steel plating, connected to a cylindrical part which is commonly known as the barrel of the boiler. That part of the boiler enclosing the firebox is known as the outer casing, or shell. The firebox corresponds in shape to the back end and sides of the outer casing or shell, a space being provided between the firebox sheets and those of the outer casing which provides for the firebox being surrounded by water. The front, or cylindrical part of the boiler encloses the flues which are secured at the front to the front flue sheet and at the back to the inner or firebox flue sheet. This arrangement provides that all parts of the firebox, as well as the flues are completely surrounded by water, and it also provides that when fuel is burned in the firebox, the heat will be transmitted by the flues and firebox plates to the water; the unused gasses and smoke having free passage from the firebox through the flues to the smoke box and smoke stack. The smoke box is formed by extending the cylindrical part of the boiler beyond the front flue sheet. The boiler shell is provided with a steam dome on top of the shell which forms a chamber where steam may collect and free itself from the

water in the boiler before passing through the throttle valve to the cylinders. The flues in a locomotive boiler are known as fire tubes, because the heat passes through them, while the arch tubes, of which there are usually four in each firebox are called "water tubes" because the fire is on the outside, and the water passes through them. The firebox sheets and flues constitute what is known as the heating surface. In addition to this heating surface there is additional, or superheater heating surface in many boilers, which superheats the steam after it leaves the boiler and while it is passing from the boiler to the cylinders. Comparing the flue heating area with that of the area of the firebox plates shows that the plate heating surface equals only 5% of the flue heating surface, but the firebox heating surface generates about 40% of the steam. This fact should be remembered. In the locomotive boiler a large number of small flues are provided instead of a few large flues, in order that the heat and gasses passing from the firebox to the smoke box will be split up and come into contact with a larger flue surface. If large flues were used, great quantities of heat would pass through the center of the flues without coming into contact with the surface of the flue, such heat would pass away and be lost. A large number of small tubes also provides for the heat being more evenly distributed through the boiler shell water space. The small flue can be made of thinner material, which permits the heat to be more easily transmitted to the water which surrounds the flues. In the extended wagon top type of locomotive boiler, the back part, or outer shell, is considerably larger in diameter than the front section, or cylindrical part; while the straight type of boiler has the outer shell and cylindrical part of practically the same diameter. The extended wagon top type therefore allows more steam and water space, and gives superior performance in foaming water conditions. Locomotive boilers are made entirely of steel, except stay-bolts and stays, which are of iron. The crown sheet is supported by what are called radial stays, reaching from the crown sheet to the exterior wrapper sheet. There are three common designs of fireboxes in general use. The narrow, deep firebox, which is between the frames and extends below the top frame rails. The semi-wide shallow firebox which rests on top of the frames and extends to the outside edges of the frame rails, and the wide firebox type having a firebox wider than the frames and extending outside the frame rails on both sides, and resting on top of the frame rails, or expansion brackets which are secured to the top of the frames. Combustion Chamber[edit]

The combustion chamber for large locomotives was originally introduced for the purpose that its name implies, of providing increased firebox area for combustion purposes. As locomotives grew larger and the wheel base longer, it then became a question of limiting the length of flues. It was found that when flues were more than 21 or 22 feet long, there was considerable more trouble in respect to leakage and in order to keep the flues within those limits of length it was necessary to lengthen out the firebox, which was done by extending the flue area into the boiler. There is also an advantage of the combustion chamber, in addition to allowing shorter flues, the heating surface of the firebox sheets composing the combustion chamber is vastly more efficint than the increased length of flues would be if the combustion chamber was not used. The combustion chamber also serves to protect the ends of the tubes from cold air which comes up through the grates at the front end of the firebox, in addition to providing a long flameway for the burning gases, which is particularly desirable with oil, or coal, having a large percentage of volatile matter. Effect of Heating, Cooling, and Low Water[edit] When the crown sheet or firebox sheets are not covered with water, they become overheated very quickly with a hot fire in the firebox. If for any reason water is not maintained over the crown sheet, and the sheet becomes overheated, the fire must be put out or deadened at once, and under no circumstances should cold water be forced into the boiler. The boiler should be cooled down before any attempt is made to refill it, because forcing cold water into the boiler when it is very hot produces sudden changes in temperature of the various parts of the sheets and sets up destructive strains. The prevention of destructive strains and stresses, or reducing their amplitude should interest all who have to do with the upkeep of the locomotive. In order to bring out clearly and simply the cause of destructive stresses, it should fully be understood that the contraction or expansion of a body of metal when changes of temperature occur is irresistible. A firebox sheet expanding or contracting as a result of a change in temperature cannot be restrained. It is certain to find relief in some direction, either by self destruction or destroying the obstacle opposing its movement. The life of a locomotive boiler or firebox is dependent largely upon the care which it receives while in service. It is not possible in the operation of a locomotive to avoid all strains and stresses, but it is possible, practical, and beneficial to reduce the frequency of the stresses and also their amplitude. In other words, if

by any means the severity of the strains is reduced even though their frequency be increased, the period between failures will be prolonged, the time between repairs and the life of fireboxes and boilers will be lengthened. Figure 3, which is a diagram of the boiler shown in Figure 1, illustrates the action of metal when heating and cooling takes place. It will be noted that the boiler is divided into sections. After steam is generated in the boiler to 200lbs per square inch, it is found that the boiler has expanded nearly one inch, which demonstrates that the metal expands as heating takes place and that when the boiler cools the metal contracts. Expansion and contraction of the metals thus sets up strains and stresses at various parts in the boiler, and it is important that as these strains are developed that they be developed slowly, in order that the effect of heating or cooling will be distributed throughout the boiler so that the expansion or contraction will be as uniform as possible throughout all its parts. Temperatures of Steam and Water[edit] Operating a water injector or water pump while locomotive is standing causes more frequent and greater inequality of temperatures throughout the boiler and the development of more destructive stresses than any other cause. To illustrate: Temperature of the steam in a locomotive boiler at 190 psi is 383 degrees Fahrenheit (195 degrees Centigrade). This is also the temperature of the water at that steam pressure. When an injector is operated, the water passing through the injector on its way to the boiler is heated from 160 to 200 degrees F (71 to 93 degrees C). It is therefore from 183 to 223 degrees F (102-124 deg C) cooler than the water within the boiler. The water from the injector being cooler is heavier than the higher temperature water in the boiler, and on entering the boiler must take a downward course and continue downward until it reaches the lowest part. The weight of a cubic foot of water as it enters the boiler from the injectors is 60 1/8 pounds, while a cubic foot of water at 190 psi steam pressure, or 383 degrees Fahrenheit, is 54 1/4 pounds, or 9% lighter than the water at 200 degrees delivered into the boiler from the injector. This difference of weight makes it clear why the cooler and heavier water seeks the lower levels and displaces the hotter, lighter water. Table Showing Temperatures of Steam at Different Pressures Boiling point 100.0 C 100 psi 169.9 C 212 F

337.8 F

160 psi 188.1 C 180 psi 193.1 C 200 psi 197.7 C 220 psi 202.0 C 250 psi 207.8 C 300 psi 216.5 C

370.6 F 379.5 F 387.8 F 395.6 F 406 F

421.7 F

-Quick reference to Water boiling point (Not Steam Temp) at different pressuresThe boiling point of water raises 3 degrees F per each pound of square inch pressure added. For example: at sea level, water will boil at 212 degrees F (100 deg C). +1 PSI over sea level it will raise the boiling point 3 degrees F, to 215 degrees F (1.7 deg C, to 101.7 deg C). At +5 PSI over sea level the boiling point of water will be 227 degrees F (108.3 deg C). And so on. This is why directions for boiling noodles and baking goods at high altitudes require longer cook times, and/or more water added to mixture. The steam circuit[edit]

The Crew[edit] Hostler[edit] The hostler prepares an engine each day for service. This usually includes starting the fire, greasing and oiling all lubrication points on a steam locomotive. This was traditionally the starting point for a person coming onto the engine crew.

Additonally, Hostlers service locomotives with fuel and water, sand and lubricants and assure that all required tools and flagging equipment are provided on the locomotive. The firebox is cleaned or banked as necessary upon arrival at the locomotive. Fireman[edit] The fireman maintains the steam pressure in a locomotive boiler. This is accomplished through careful regulation of the fire, and by regular addition of water to the boiler. Water is added through the use of an injector or feed water pump. In the absence of an Engineer, he will be responsible for the safety and security of the locomotive. Locomotive Firemen will not operate locomotives unless under the direct supervision of a qualified Engineer. Engineer[edit] The engineer is responsible for ensuring that the engine is fit for operation before and during any movement of the locomotive. The engineer is responsible for its over the road upkeep, oiling and proper operation of the locomotive to be most fuel efficient and easy on the machinery. The engineer controls the operation of the locomotive but the conductor controls the movement of the train, and both are responsible for its safe operation. The steam whistle, headlight, throttle, air brakes, reverse lever, and fireman are usually under the direct control of the engineer. Firing[edit] Firing involves caring for the boiler, and making sure there is always sufficient steam for the engineer to use. When proficient, a fireman should concentrate on efficient operation to conserve fuel, water and extend the life of the engine. This is especially important in the 21st century as working steam engines are rare and often in precarious financial situations. General Practices[edit] The boiler of a locomotive is made of a steel alloy and holds thousands of gallons of water. The boiler must be treated with care at all times, as it must withstand tremendous amounts of heat, pressure and vibration. The fireman should take care to minimize the thermal stresses placed on the boiler when safety permits. Fire less Locomotives[edit] Fire less locomotives generally used a tank (in place of a boiler and firebox) filled with super heated water that flashed into steam as the pressure from working existing steam dropped the pressure (refer to pressure table above). Fire less

locomotives were tied to operating in an area where they could obtain water heated higher than the boiling point while a fire was undesirable for safety reasons. They were used mostly in industries or a group of industries, and due to this limitation were not common for moving trains on main lines. They were replaced by explosion proof diesel or electric locomotives. There are no references to currently operating fire less locomotives found by this author. Wood Burning Locomotives[edit] Wood burning locomotives fell into disfavor in the United States once expansion into the western plain states began, chiefly because of the generally lower amount of thermal energy wood locomotives offered from the fuel, and the scarcity of forests in the plain states. Oil Burning Locomotives[edit] Oil burning locomotives in the steam era mainly used "Bunker C" fuel oil. (Bunker C is also known as Type 6 or Number 6.)[1] While some preserved steam locomotives of today (circa 2005) still use Bunker C, most have switched to various alternative fuels as Bunker C can be difficult to locate, transport, and store. Alternatives include Number 4 fuel oil, kerosene or diesel oil (and sometimes a mixture of diesel/kerosene), others employ used motor oil. Regardless of the kind of oil used, most locomotives store the fuel in a tank on the tender. The oil tank is equipped with steam heat coils to heat the fuel before combustion. This is done to keep the oil viscosity such that the oil can flow freely to the combustion chamber. Bunker C fuel oil is very thick and difficult to use without pre-heating. The fire in an oil burning locomotive is controled with two valves: The fuel valve, which controls the flow of oil to the atomizer, and the atomizer valve, which controls the steam to force the oil into small droplets for burning. The fireman must control the amount of steam, oil, and air in the combustion chamber to produce the most effecient fire to boil the water. The fireman observes the color of the smoke emitted from the smoke stack to determine what the fire needs. Thick, foul smelling black smoke indicates that the fire is not burning correctly due to too much fuel oil. The fireman can increase the draft of air using dampers and the blower or reduce the amount of oil to the burner. Blue smoke indicates too much steam is being admitted to the atomizer, and he must reduce the steam pressure. A light grey smoke indicates proper adjustment, while no smoke at all means the fire is too light and should be increased. It is worthy to note that under some circumstances, the fireman can cause a series of hollow booms or small explosions though mis-adjustment of the fire. If

one were to be watching with the firedoors open at such a time, one would see that the flame is being ripped away from the burner and into the flues. This also can cause heavy amounts of soot to be deposited in the flue, reducing the effeciency of the boiler. The soot can be cleaned by throwing sand into the combustion chamber, but this causes undesireable wear to the flues and any superheaters. Super critical boilers supper critical is simply the point above which a two phase mixture does not exist. If we start with water at room temperature and above the critical pressure it is still water and acts as a fluid. Above the critical pressure as we heat the water we will simply not goto a phase change. There is still a saturation line so to speak. If you look at the density change with temperature you find that the saturation can be extended along a line were there is a significant density change rate with temperature. I don't know if anybody else has noticied this though. At any rate below the critical pressure when you heat water you reach a point were adding heat stops rasing the temperature and the heat goes into effecting a change of phase from liquid to water. The amount of BTUs it takes to change liquid to vapor is decreasing as you increase the pressure until you reach the critical point. At the critical point the heat it takes ti effect a change of phase becomes zero. Loot at the chart on my web page. There is a 3D chart of pressure temperature and enthalpy(heat content). That chart does not go to the critical point but can clearly see a wall of constant temperature along the saturation line. The height of the wall is the heat of vaporazation and you can see that it's height it deminishing as the pressure is increassing. Ot just keeps deminishing right up to the critical point. You might also note that the top of the saturation wall is almost constant and that is the heat content of the liquid water increassing with pressure along the saturation line that is reducing the wall's height. If thoes charts went to the critical point that saturation wall would reduce town to zero height. And above the critical pressure it would not exist. I think in a super ctitical boiler your circulation rate is not important because there is no bubble formation or evaporation and the there is only one condition through out the boiler. The bubbles / vapor are the robbers of heat transfer and without them the tube wall is always wet for maximum heat conduction. The evaporation zone is fairly short and the change from liquid heat transfer to that of steam is quick. 2 phase flow only happens for a short distance and it still keeps the walls wet for excellent heat transfer but as the walls start to dry, the transfer drops considerably. Theroetically the super critical boiler would be smaller as every bit of the heat transfer surface can see the maximum transfer rate. Now you must

consider the weight of the materials and the size of the pumps and controls needed for super critical pressures, not to mention the cost.

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What are the fuels used in boilers? Coal, oil and fuel gas. What are the types of boilers used? Power boilers, industrial boilers. What are the Balance of plant (BOP) in a power station? Coal handling, ash handling, auxiliary piping, cooling water plant, Chemical treatment plantlet. What is a buckstay? Buckstay is a product used to avoid bucking of the slim water walls and steam cooled walls. What is a de-super heater? De-super heater reduces the temperature of the superheated steam. What is a de-aerator? De-aerator is a product used to remove oxygen and other gases from the water. What is a burner? Burner is used to burn solid or liquid or gaseous fuels. What is a water wall? Water wall is made of series of tubes connected with each other. Water flows inside the tubes. What is a steam cooled wall? Steam cooled wall is made of tubes connected with each other. Steam flows inside these tubes. What are the types of air-heaters? Air-heaters can be rotary type or stationery type. Why ash collection devices are used? Ash collection devices are used to reduce pollution. What are the types of ash collection devices? Mechanical precipitation and Electro-static precipitation are the two types used. What are soot blowers? Soot blowers are used to clean the heat transfer surfaces of boiler. What are the mediums used for soot blowing?

Q15. Q16. Q17. Q18.

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Air blowing or steam blowing are the two methods used. What are the types of soot blowers? Wall blowers and long retractable blowers are used. What are the type of heat transfer surfaces used? Plain surfaces and finned surfaces are for heat transfer. What is the function of the economizer? Economizer economizes the power plant operation. What are the functions of steam drum? (a) steam separation, (b) steam-water circulation and (c) purifying steam. What is the function of super-heater? Super-heater is used to super heat the steam and get higher thermal Efficiency of the plant. Why large boilers are top supported? (a) avoid buckling of furnace walls, (b) allow thermal expansion and (c) reduce thermal loads. Why steel structures (avoiding concrete) are used for boiler structures? Steel structures are used are used for speeding - up the construction schedule and facilitate changes. What is aviation light? Aviation lights are used in tall buildings to warn aeroplanes against Collision and accident. What is lightning arrestor? Lightning arrestors receive the electrical current during lightning and Save the structure. What is wind load? Movement of air is wind. The wind load for India is given in IS875 part 3. What is seismic load? Seismic load, also known as earth-quake load, is due to movement of Earth. (see IS1893). What is the allowable deflection? The allowable deflection was set as one inch per ten yards. As per IS800 - 1984, D = span / 325. What is resonance? When the natural frequency and the induced frequency matches Resonance takes place. Why resonance should be avoided?

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During resonance, high vibration and stress will occur. Hence, resonance Should be avoided. What is the life of a power plant? Life of the power plant is about 50 years. But, many components need Replacement and repair. What is safety requirement for boiler, in India? The Indian Boiler Regulations, 1950 (with amendments). What are the materials used for boiler pressure parts? Carbon steel, low alloy steel, medium alloy steel and stainless steel. What are the materials used for boiler structures? Mild steel as per IS2062 is used. For fasteners, IS1367 is used. What is the material used for boiler insulation? Slag wool, mineral wool and glass wool are used. What is the material used for boiler foundation? Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC) with a specification "M20" is used. What are the types of bolted connections used for boiler structures? Bearing type connection and Friction type connections are used. Bearing type is popularly used. What is a shear key? Shear key are flat plates welded at the bottom of the structure base plates to transfer shear forces. What are the types of chimneys? Rcc chimney and steel chimney are used. What are the types of steel chimneys? Self supporting type and guyed chimney are used. Why conical chimneys are preferred? Conical chimneys are economical. What is the corrosion allowance used for steel chimney? Corrosion allowance = 3.0 mm (typical). Which boiler code is governing in India? The Indian Boiler Regulations, 1950 (with amendments)is governing in India. Who is the authorized inspector in India? The Chief Inspector of Boiler (CIB) is the authorized

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Q54. Q55.

inspector for the Respective states. Which body is empowered to amend The Indian Boiler Regulation? The Central Boiler Board (CBB) is authorized to amend the IBR. Why steel is used for boiler pressure parts? The cost to weight ratio is favorable for steel. Hence, steel is used. What is the purpose of refractory? Refractory is provided where the flue gas temperature is high (above 800 Degree C). What is the purpose of refractory retainers? Retainers are embed within the refractory and they retain the refractory to the surfaces. What are the steps in design? Design, engineering, process analysis, stress analysis, detailing, drafting, Documentation and document approval. What are the aspects to be taken care-off in design? Head-room, walk-way, access, approach, clash detection, clash resolution and interfacing. What are the software's used in design office? MS Windows, MS Office, STAAD. Pro, CAEPIPIE, CAESAR - II. What are the hardware required in design office? Computer with accessories, Un-interrupted power supply (UPS), Xerox machine, FAX. What software are used for piping stress analysis? CAEPIPE and CAESAR - II. What are the plant design computer programs used? CATIA, Plant Design System (PDS), Plant Design Management System (PDMS). What are the Finite Element Analysis (FEA) software available? ANSYS, COSMOS, ABACUS and NASTRAN. What is the head room required? Head room required = 1.800 mm. What is the walk- way width required? Walk-way width required = 900 mm.

Q56. What is the load per unit area on the boiler floors? Load per square meter = 500 kg. Q57. What is the allowable deflection due to loads? Allowable deflection = " Span / 325 ". Q58. What is the allowable drift? Allowable drift = " Height / 325 ". Q59. Why stress concentration factor (SCF) is not considered in boiler design? The boiler materials are ductile steel. The stress, after yielding, Re-distributes favorably. Q60. What is virtual zero point? Large top supported boilers expand cubically with respect to a virtual Zero point near the top. Q61. What is floating anchor? Floating anchors are anchors with thermal expansion movements. Q62. What is buckstay channel? Buckstay channel is used to support the furnace walls and helps in transfer of loads. Q63. What is furnace guide? Furnace guides fix the virtual zero point. This is used to transfer load From hot structure to cold structure. l amwater mixture. Q64. List the drum internals Turbo-separator or cyclone separator, pipes for vents, drains ad chemical dosing. Q65. What is the purpose of a header? Header collects or distributes steam or water or steamwater mixture. Q66. State ideal gas law. PV = m R T. Q67. State zoreth law of thermodynamics. If systems A and B are in equilibrium with system C, then systems A and B Are in equilibrium. Q68. State the First law of thermodynamics. In an isolated system, the energy is always conserved. Q69. State the Second law of thermodynamics. A system has to deliver heat with a sink while pumping heat from a lower Source to a higher source.

Q70. State First law of Newton A body will be in its state of rest or steady motion along a straight line Unless acted upon by external force. Q71. State Second law of Newton. The rate of change of momentum is equal to force. Q72. State Third law of Newton. For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. Q73. State Newtons universal law of gravitation. All bodies attract each other. The force of attraction is inversely proportional to the square of distance of separation. Q74. What are the types of pollution? Solid pollution, liquid pollution, air pollution and noise pollution. Q75. What is the causes of air pollution? The main causes of air pollution are power plants and automobiles. Q76. Why Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC) is used? RCC is labor intensive and economical in India. Q77. What is pre-stressed concrete? Pre-stressing with steel rods in the RCC is pre-stressed concrete. Q78. What is the function of foundation bolts? Foundation bolts holds-down the structure to earth. Q79. What is Flue Gas De-sulfurisation (FGD)? FGD is used to remove sulfur and sulfur compounds from the flue gas. Q80. Name a few structural elements (members). Column, beam and bracing. Q81. What is the design criteria for column? Axial compressive load. Q82. What is the design criteria for beam? Beams are designed to withstand bending. Q83. What is the design criteria for bracing? Axial tension or axial compression. Q84. What is the function of base plate? Base plate distributes forces from the columns and bracings to the foundation.

Q85. What are the types structural steel connections? Bolted or welded or riveted or bonded connections. Q86. What is the minimum thickness of structures to be used? Six millimeter. Q87. Where hand hole plates are used? Hand hole plates are used in the boiler pressure parts to view and clean the inside surfaces. Q88. Where man-hole ways are used? Man-hole ways are used to access the boiler inner parts. Q89. What is the function of boiler drum level gages? Level gages are used for finding the water level inside the boiler drums. Q90. What are thermo-couples? Thermo-couples are used to measure the temperature of components. Q91. What is flow nozzle? Flow nozzle is used to find-out the quantity of flow measurement. Q92. What is an orifice? Orifice is a sharp opening in a plate to facilitate flow measurement. Q93. What is a venture? Venturi is used measure the flow in a pipe. Q94. What is a valve? Valves are used control flow in pipes. Q95. What is DAS? Data Acquisition System (DAS) is used record readings. Q96. What is VLH? Variable Load Hangers (CLH) are used for support, permiting limited Support load variation. Q97. What is CLH? Constant Load Hangers(CLH) are used for support,permitting small load variations. Q98. Why water quality is control of in boilers? Water quality is controlled to avoid corrosion of boiler parts. Q99. Why paints are required? Paints are required to protect the surface of boiler.

Q100. Why rockers are used for boiler hanger supports? Rockers reduce the induced bending load. This leads to economic design.