Chapter 32

Electromagnetic Waves
P.u. ?oung and 8.A. lreedman, unlverslLy hyslcs wlLh
Modern hyslcs 11Lh Ldluon, earson Lducauon lnc.,
ubllshlng as earson Addlson-Wesley, 1301 Sansome SL.,
San lranclsco, CA, 2004.
Coals:
1o do an overvlew of Maxwell's equauon
and elecLromagneuc waves.
1o deLermlne Lhe relauon of Lhe speed of
llghL wlLh Lhe fundamenLal consLanLs of
elecLrlclLy and magneusm.
1o descrlbe Lhe propagauon of a
slnusoldal elecLromagneuc wave.
1o deLermlne Lhe amounL of power carrled
by an elecLromagneuc wave.
!
Ed
!
A
"
!
=
Q
enc
!
0
!
Bd
!
A
"
!
= 0
!
Bd
!
l
"
!
=
0
i
c
+!
0
d"
E
dt
#
$
%
&
'
(
enc
!
Ed
!
l
"
!
="
d#
B
dt
!"#$$%$ '"( )*+
!
!"#$$%$ '"( )*+
#
,-./+/%$
'"(
0"+"1"2%$
'"(
1he baslc prlnclples of elecLromagneusm can be expressed
ln Lerms of Lhe four equauons:
A ume-varylng magneuc eld acLs as a source of elecLrlc
eld.
A ume-varylng elecLrlc eld acLs as a source of magneuc
eld.
1he magneuc and elecLrlc eld can susLaln each oLher
formlng an elecLromagneuc wave LhaL propagaLes Lhrough
space.
lf a maLerlal ls
presenL,
!
0
!!

0
!
When elLher an elecLrlc or a magneuc eld ls changlng wlLh
ume, a eld of Lhe oLher klnd ls lnduced ln ad[acenL
reglons of space.
olnL charge aL
resL
olnL charge movlng aL
consLanL $
olnL charge
acceleraung
!
E,
!
B = 0
!
E and
!
B
EM waves
1here ls a correspondlng elecLromagneuc dlsLurbance
conslsung of ume-varylng elecLrlc and magneuc elds LhaL
can propagaLe Lhrough space from one reglon Lo anoLher
even when Lhere ls no mauer ln Lhe lnLervenlng reglon.
1he dlsLurbance has Lhe properues of a wave hence
Lermed as elecLromagneuc (LM) waves.
LM waves wlLh macroscoplc wavelengLhs were rsL produced ln Lhe lab
ln 1887 by Pelnrlch herLz.
As a source of wave, he used charges osclllaung ln L-C clrculLs. Pe
deLecLed Lhe resulung LM waves wlLh oLher clrculLs Luned Lo Lhe same
frequency.
1he posslble use of LM waves for long-dlsLance communlcauon such as
ln radlo Lransmluers and recelvers does noL seem Lo have occurred Lo
PerLz.
ln radlo Lransmluers, elecLrlc charges are made Lo osclllaLe along Lhe
lengLh of conducung anLenna, produclng osclllaung eld dlsLurbances.
Slnce many charges osclllaLe LogeLher ln Lhe anLenna, Lhe dlsLurbances
are much sLronger and can be deLecLed aL a much greaLer dlsLance.
ln radlo recelvers, Lhe anLenna ls also a conducLor, Lhe elds of Lhe
waves from Lhe Lransmluer exerL forces on free charges wlLh Lhe
recelver, produclng an osclllaung currenL LhaL ls deLecLed and amplled
by Lhe recelver clrculLry.
Plane Electromagnetic Waves and the Speed of
Light
Well assume an E-eld that
has only a y-component and a
B-eld with only a z-
component.
Well assume that both elds
move together in the x-
direction.
All this assumptions must satisfy
the four Maxwells Equations.
We suppose that the
boundary plane, which we
will call the wave front moves
to the right in the x-direction
with a constant speed c
(unknown).
A wave such as this, in which at any instant the
elds are uniform over any plane perpendicular
to the direction of propagation is called a PLANE
WAVE.
Our goal is to postulate a
simple eld conguration that
has a wavelike behavior.
Does our wave satises Maxwells 1st and 2nd
equations?
The box encloses NO
electric charge.
The E and B elds must be
perpendicular to the
direction of propagation.
That is, the wave must be
TRANSVERSE.
We take as our Gaussian
surface a rectangular box
with sides parallel to the xy,
xz and yz coordinate
planes.
!
Etot
= !
Btot
= 0
Does our wave satises Faradays Law?
The vector area dA is along
the z-direction so we
integrate counterclockwise
around the rectangle.
On side ef, E is zero.
On side fg and he, E is either
zero or perpendicular to dl.
Only side gh contributes to
the integral.
There must be a component of B
perpendicular to E so that there can be a
non-zero magnetic ux through the
rectangle efgh and a nonzero change in
magnetic ux.
We apply Faradays Law to a
rectangle efgh that is
parallel to the xy-plane.
!
Ed
!
l
"
!
= "Ea
Is the assumption consistent with
Faradays Law?
Consistent only with Faradays Law if the
wave speed and the magnitudes of the
perpendicular vectors E and B are related.
!Ea = !Bac
It is then valid to say that,
(Electromagnetic wave
in vacuum)
During a time interval dt, the
wave front moves a distance
(c)dt to the right sweeping out
an area (ac)dt of the rectangle.
The thus increases
during the time interval by,
!
B
d!
B
= B(ac)dt
The rate of change of is,
!
B
d!
B
dt
= Bac
E = cB
!
Ed
!
l
"
!
= "Ea Does our wave satises Amperes Law?
We move our rectangle so that it lies
in the xz-plane.
We take the vector area dA in the y-
direction thus we integrate
counterclockwise around the
rectangle.
On side ef, B is zero.
Only side gh contributes to the
integral.
On side fg and he, B is either zero or
perpendicular to dl.
There is no conduction current so,
!
Bd
!
l
"
!
=
0
!
0
d"
E
dt
!
Bd
!
l
"
!
= Ba
Does our wave satises Amperes Law?
Only side gh contributes to the integral.
The left-hand side of Amperes Law is
non-zero so the right-hand side must
also be non-zero.
E and B must be mutually
perpendicular.
It is then valid to say that,
(Electromagnetic wave in
vacuum)
Obeys Amperes Law only if B, c and E are
related.
!
Bd
!
l
"
!
=
0
!
0
d"
E
dt
!
Bd
!
l
"
!
= Ba
In a time interval dt, the
through the rectangle increases by,
!
E
d!
E
= E(ac)dt
The rate of change of is, !
E
d!
E
dt
= Eac
Ba =
0
!
0
Eac
B =
0
!
0
Ec
Our EM wave must obey both Amperes and
Faradays Law!
It will only happen if,
That is,
MUST BE SATISFIED!!!
B =
0
!
0
Ec E = cB; B =
1
c
E
1
c
=
0
!
0
c
c =
1

0
!
0
c =
1
8.85!10
"12
C
2
/ Nm
2
( )
4! !10
"7
N / A
2
( )
= 299, 792, 458m/ s
Our assumed wave is consistent with all
Maxwells equations, provided that the wave
front moves with the SPEED OF LIGHT!!!
c = 3.00!10
8
m/ s
Important features of all Electromagnetic Waves:
The wave is transverse; both E and B are perpendicular to the
direction of propagation of the wave. The E and B elds are also
perpendicular to each other. The direction of propagation is the
direction of the vector product E x B.
There is a denite ratio between the magnitudes of E and B: E = cB.
The wave travels in vacuum with a denite and unchanging speed.
Unlike mechanical waves, which need the oscillating particles of a
medium such as water or air to transmit a wave, electromagnetic
waves require no medium. Whats waving in an electromagnetic
wave are the electric and magnetic elds.
Sinusoidal Electromagnetic Waves
Electromagnetic waves produced by an oscillating point charge is an
example of sinusoidal waves that are not plane waves.
The frequency, wavelength and speed of propagation of any periodic wave
is,
c = ! f
We can descrlbe LM waves by means of wave funcuons.
Lransverse dlsplacemenL from lLs equlllbrlum
posluon aL ume 3 of a polnL wlLh coordlnaLe 4.
y(x, t) = Acos(kx !!t)
y(x, t) !
A! maxlmum ampllLude of Lhe wave.
, wave
number.
k =
2!
"
! = 2" f , angular frequency.
LeL,
lor Lhe wave Lravelllng ln Lhe posluve x-dlrecuon, Lhe wave funcuon ls:
E
y
x, t ( )
B
z
x, t ( )
lnsLanLaneous values of and
!
E
!
B
E
max
B
max
E
y
x, t
( )
= E
max
cos kx !!t
( )
B
z
x, t
( )
= B
max
cos kx !!t
( )
maxlmum ampllLudes of and
!
E
!
B
ln vecLor form,
!
E x, t
( )
= E
max
cos kx !!t
( )

j
!
B x, t
( )
= B
max
cos kx !!t
( )

k
AL all polnLs Lhe vecLor producL ls ln Lhe dlrecuon ln whlch Lhe
wave ls propagaung.
!
E !
!
B
LeL,
lor Lhe wave Lravelllng ln Lhe negauve x-dlrecuon, Lhe wave funcuon ls:
E
y
x, t ( )
B
z
x, t ( )
lnsLanLaneous values of and
!
E
!
B
E
max
B
max
E
y
x, t
( )
= E
max
cos kx +!t
( )
B
z
x, t
( )
= !B
max
cos kx +!t
( )
maxlmum ampllLudes of and
!
E
!
B
ln vecLor form,
!
E x, t
( )
= E
max
cos kx +!t
( )

j
!
B x, t
( )
= !B
max
cos kx +!t
( )

k
E
max
= cB
max
(Electromagnetic wave in vacuum)
Electromagnetic Waves have the property of
POLARIZATION!
A wave which is always parallel to a
certain axis is said to be linearly
polarized along that axis.
Note:
is maximum where is
maximum.
!
E
!
B
At all points the vector product
is in the direction in which the
wave is propagating.
!
E !
!
B
LM waves can also Lravel ln mauer. LxLendlng our analysls of LM waves
ln dlelecLrlcs (non-conducung maLerlals).
ln a dlelecLrlc, c ! v
!
0
! !

0
!
! ="!
0
permluvlLy
of dlelecLrlc
dlelecLrlc consLanL
=!
m

0
permeablllL
y of
dlelecLrlc
relauve
permeablllLy
ln a vacuum, ; B =
0
!
0
Ec E = cB
( s pe e d of L M l n a
dlelecLrlc)
E = vB ; B = !Ev
1
v
= !v !
1
v
2
= !
v
2
=
1
!
! v =
1
!
v =
1
!
m

0
!"
0
=
1
!
m
!
1

0
"
0
=
c
!
m
!
ln a dlelecLrlc,
(lndex of refracuon)
v =
c
!
m
!
l o r m o s L
dlelecLrlc,
!
m
!1
v =
c
!
8ecause ls always >
1,
! v
dielectric
< c
1
!
b
y
ln opucs,
c
v
= n
when
!
m
!1
; n = !
Given :
E = 2!
N
C
; B = ! !10
"8
T ; n =?
E = vB
v =
E
B
=
2!
N
C
! !10
"8
T
= 2!10
8
m
s
n =
c
v
=
3!10
8
m
s
2!10
8
m
s
=
3
2
"#$%&'()*+,$-% .*/$0 (%%1' (/$' * .23$ '*,+$
- Where wavelengLh ls large, frequency ls small.
- 1he range exLends from low energy and frequency (radlo and
Lelevlslon) Lo hlgh energy and small wavelengLh (gamma
rays).
45$ /2026#$ 07$%&'1)
- 1he vlslble specLrum ls a very small range compared Lo Lhe
enure elecLromagneuc specLrum.
- vlslble llghL exLends from red llghL aL 700 nm Lo vloleL llghL aL
400 nm.
45$ 7'(7*+*-(, (8 $#$%&'()*+,$-% .*/$0
- 1he wave fronL moves aL speed 5, equal Lo 3.0 10
8
m/s.
9'(7*+*-(, (8 $#$%&'()*+,$-% .*/$0
- 1he enure process can
be consldered as
alLernaung
appllcauons of
laradays laws and
Amperes Law.
- 1he wave ls
Lransverse, movlng aL
unchanglng 5 ln a
vacuum, wlLh elecLrlc
and magneuc elds ln
a denlLe rauo (6=57),
and requlrlng no
medlum (llke waLer or
alr).
"#$%&'()*+,$-% .*/$0 )*: 6$ &'$*&$3 *0 7#*,$
.*/$0
- lar enough from Lhe source and conslderlng one polarlzauon of Lhe
vecLor planes only, Lhe represenLauons of elecLrlc and magneuc elds
may be LreaLed as orLhogonal and slnusoldal waves.
lor an LM wave Lravelllng ln vacuum, Lhe energy denslLy ls equal Lo
Lhe sum of Lhe energy denslLy of L-eld and 8-eld.
u
tot
= u
E
+u
B
=
1
2
!
0
E
2
+
1
2
0
B
2
=
1
2
!
0
E
2
+
B
2

0
!
"
#
$
%
& ; E = cB , B =
E
c
=
1
2
!
0
E
2
+
E
2
c
2

0
!
"
#
$
%
& ; c
2
=
1
!
0

0
=
1
2
!
0
E
2
+
!
0

0
E
2

0
!
"
#
$
%
&
=
1
2
!
0
E
2
+!
0
E
2
( )
=!
0
E
2
1he energy ln an elecLromagneuc wave can be consldered by Lhlnklng
of energy denslues.
dU
dV
= u ; dU = udV = uAcdt
Slnce LM waves are Lravelllng
waves, Lhere l s an energy
Lransfer.
Power
Area
=
energy per unit time
area !tothe propagation
S =
dU
dt
A
=
uAc
A
= uc
S =!
0
E
2
c
S =!
0
1
!
0

0
!
"
#
#
$
%
&
&
2
EB
=!
0
E cB
( )
c =!
0
c
2
EB
=
EB

0
ln vecLor form,
!
S =
1

0
!
E !
!
B ( o y n u n g
vecLor)
- pol nLs Lowards Lhe dl recuon of
propagauon.
lor any closed surface Lhe power ls glven by:
P =
!
S d
!
A
"
!
1he rooop solar panels are ulLed Lo be face-on Lo Lhe sun, LhaL ls,
face-on Lo Lhe oynung vecLor of LM waves from Lhe sun, so LhaL
Lhe panels can absorb Lhe maxlmum amounL of wave energy.
Conslder Lhe LM wave shown, whaL ls Lhe power per unlL area of Lhe
wave?
!
E x, t
( )
= E
max
cos kx !!t
( )

j
!
B x, t
( )
= B
max
cos kx !!t
( )

k
!
S =
1

0
!
E !
!
B
!
S =
1

0
E
max
B
max
cos
2
kx !!t
( )

i
Accordlngly Lhe average power per unlL area dellvered ls:
S
ave
=
1
2
0
E
max
B
max ; B
max
=
E
max
c
=
1
2
0
E
2
max
c
; c =
1
!
0

0
=
1
2
0
E
2
max
!
0

0
=
1
2
E
2
max
!
0

0
;
!
0

0
=
!
0
!
0

0
=!
0
c
=
1
2
!
0
cE
2
max
= I (lnLenslLy of a
slnusoldal wave ln
vacuum)
unit : 1
W
m
2
An LM plane ls Lransmlued ln vacuum ln Lhe posluve x-dlrecuon aL frequency of
300Pz. 1he L-eld has ampllLude of 9n/C osclllaung ln Lhe posluve y-dlrecuon.
WrlLe Lhe vecLor equauons for " and ; as funcuons of posluon and ume. Also,
whaL ls lLs power per unlL area?
!
E x, t ( ) = E
max
cos kx !!t [ ]

j
Slnce Lhe propagauon ls along Lhe +x-
axls, ; should be along Lhe +z-axls.
!
B x, t ( ) = B
max
cos kx !!t [ ]

k
E
max
, B
max
, k, !?
E
max
= 9 N C
B
max
=
E
max
c
=
9 N C
3!10
8
m s
= 3!10
"8
T
k =
2!
"
! =
c
f
=
3!10
8
m s
3!10
2
Hz
=1!10
6
m
=
2!
1!10
6
m
= 2! !10
"6
rad
m
! = 2" f = 2! 300Hz ( ) = 600!
rad
s
= 9 N C ( )cos 2! !10
"6
rad m
( )
x " 600! rad s ( )t
#
$
%
&

j
= 3!10
"8
T
( )
cos 2! !10
"6
rad m
( )
x " 600! rad s ( )t
#
$
%
&

k
!
S =
1

0
!
E !
!
B
=
27!10
"8
4! !10
"7
#
$
%
&
'
(
cos
2
2! !10
"6
rad m
( )
x " 600! rad s ( )t
)
*
+
,

i
LM waves L r anspor L
energy
dp
dV
=
EB

0
c
2
=
S
c
2
(1)
LM waves carry momenLum
w/ momenLum denslLy:
- . ls a properLy of Lhe eld and ls noL assoclaLed wlLh
Lhe mass of a movlng parucle.

- Lhe volume occupled by an LM wave LhaL passes
Lhrough
an area ln ume ls:
dV = Acdt
from (1)
dp
Acdt
=
EB

0
c
2
=
S
c
2
1
A
dp
dt
=
EB

0
c
=
S
c
(ow raLe of LM momenLum)
- momenLum Lransferred per unlL surface
area per unlL ume.
When an LM wave ls compleLely absorbed by a surface, Lhe
wave's momenLum ls also Lransferred Lo Lhe surface.
p
rad
=
S
ave
c
=
I
c
1hls momenLum ls responslble for Lhe phenomenon of radlauon
pressure whlch ls:
(wave LoLally
absorbed)
p
rad
=
2S
ave
c
=
2I
c
(wave LoLally
reecLed)
p
rad
=
F
A
=
averageof
dp
dt
A
p
rad
= 0 (wave LoLally Lransmlued)
1he correspondlng average pressure on a compleLely absorblng
surface ls:
(before passlng Lhrough Lhe
earLh's aLmosphere)
p
rad
=
2S
ave
c
=
2I
c
I
sunlight
=1.4!10
3
W
m
2
p
rad
=
S
ave
c
=
I
c
=
1.4!10
3
W m
2
3.0!10
8
m s
= 4.7!10
"6
Pa
1he correspondlng average pressure on a compleLely reecung
surface ls:
= 9.4!10
"6
Pa