Showing newest posts with label Chapter 1 Form 5.

Show older posts Showing newest posts with label Chapter 1 Form 5. Show older posts

1.8 Transport of Substances in Plants (cont)

>> Sunday !pril 5 "##$

%earnin& 'b(ecti)e * Synthesising the concept of transport of substances in plants. *

%earnin& 'utcomes A student is able to : describe the pathway of water from the soil to the leaves, explain the role of root pressure in the movement of water in plants

explain the role of cohesion and adhesion of water in the movement of water in plants, conceptualise the transport mechanism in plants.

The pathway of water from the soil to the leaves.

1. Water is forced up from cell to cell by the collective push of incoming water from behind. This push is called root pressure. The root hair is hypotonic to the ad!acent cells. "ventually, water flows into cortex until it reaches endodermis #. $apillary action due to the adhesive and cohesive forces, causes water to be pulled up through the xylem vessels. %nce the water reaches the endodermal cells, it will move through the cytoplasm and vacuoles. This is because there are $asparian strips which line the sides of the &endodermal' cells. The strips are impermeable to water, so the water movement through the cell walls is bloc(ed. The water will move from the cytoplasm and the vacuole in the endodermal cells to the xylem vessels.

The upward movement of water through the xylem vessels is driven by the forces of adhesion and cohesion of water. The water molecules adhere to one another by cohesive forces.The water molecules adhere the walls of xylem vessels by adhesive forces. The hydrogen bonding results in the adhesion and cohesion of water molecules.

The water molecules adhere to one another by cohesive forces. The water molecules adhere the walls of xylem vessels by adhesive forces. The hydrogen bonding results in the adhesion and cohesion of water molecules.

). Water moves through leaf tissues via transpirational pull. &a process triggered by water * vapour loss'. After water molecules evaporate into the atmosphere, more water evaporates from the thin layer of water on the mesophyll cells. As the water has cohesive properties, the loss of water creates a tension which pulls a column of water up continuously.

The transpirational pull draws water from the xylem in the stems and leaves and finally from the xylem in the root.

The stomata will open in order to obtain sufficient carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. However, if the stomata are open, the water will be lost by transpiration through these stomata.

The closing of the stomata will stop transpiration and reduces water loss It prevents the carbon dioxide from entering the leaf. Allows the plant to carry out photosynthesis and at the same time prevents the excessive loss of water. The stomata will open in response to : light intensity

a! high b! a decrease in the carbon dioxide level.

The root of some small plants continues to transport ions and water actively into the xylem during night"time. #oot pressure starts to increase. At night, the transpiration rate is low. The root pressure will push water all the way up the stem and out of special pores called hydathodes. This natural process is $nown as &uttation. %uttation is normally occurs on cool humid mornings when the air is too saturated for the water droplets to evaporate from the leaves.

&osted by '$g Sham at (:)* A+ , comments -abels: 'hapter ( .orm *, .orm * /otes

1.8 Transport of Substances in Plants

>> Tuesday +arch ,1 "##$

%earnin& 'b(ecti)e * Synthesising the concept of transport 'utcomes of substances in plants. *

%earnin& A student is able to : state what translocation is,

explain the importance of translocation in plants, describe the process of transpiration, explain the importance of transpiration, state external conditions affecting transpiration.

1. Translocation The two"directional transport of dissolved organic solutes in the phloem is $nown as translocation. Translocation is important to plants because organic substances such as sugars and amino acids are transported from the leaves to the storage organs , to the growing regions for growth and development and to the cells for metabolism. This is important for the survival of the plant.

". Transpiration Transpiration is the loss of water vapour through the evaporation in plants alomost 0)1 of water contained in a plant!. 2ater is lost through the stomata of leaves.

Stomata control the rate at which transpiration occurs. The opening of the stomata is controlled by guard cells that gain and loss water, which close and open the stomata respectively. 2hen the water pressure in the guard cells becomes greater than in the surrounding cells, the stomata open allowing transpiration. Transpiration is important to the plant because :

it helps in the absorption and transport of water and mineral ions from the roots to different parts of the plant. it helps to cool the plant. it helps to supply water to all plant cells for metabolic processes. it helps to prevent plants from wilting by helping them to maintain cell turgidity.

3. The process of transpiration 2ater is lost from the external surfaces of the mesophyll cells of the leaves by evaporation. The air spaces in the mesophyll are saturated with water vapour.

The air in the atmosphere outside the stomata is less saturated with water.

As a result, water vapour in the air spaces of the leaf diffuses from the plant cells into the atmosphere through the stomata. The movement of air outside the leaf carries water vapour away from the stomata. The loss of water from a mesophyll cell ma$es the cell hypertonic to an ad4acent cell. 2ater from the ad4acent cell diffuses into the mesophyll cell by osmosis and this in turn draws water from another ad4acent cell into this cell. 2ater continues to diffuse from neighbouring cells into the ad4acent cells. .inally, water is drawn from the xylem vessels in the veins. A pulling force is created to pull water up the xylem vessels as a result of the evaporation of water vapour and this is $nown as transpirational pull.

In the presence of light, glucose synthesised will increase the osmotic pressure of the guard cell. The guard cells will absorb water through osmosis and become turgid. High hydrostatic pressure causes stomata to open. The rate of transpiration increases. In the dar$, photosynthesis do not occur and the concentration of glucose in the guard cell decreases. The osmotic pressure in the cell also decreases. 2ater moves out from the cells by osmosis. The guard cells become flaccid and the stomata close. The rate of transpiration decreases.

5.

.actors

affecting

the

rate

of

transpiration

%i&ht intensity : An increase in light intensity increases the rate of transpiration. Thus, transpiration is high during the day and radically drop at night.

Temperature : An increase in temperature increases the rate of transpiration.

!ir mo)ement : An increase in air movement increases the rate of transpiration. Thus, transpiration is higher on a windy day.

#elative humidity : High humidity surrounding the leaves reduces the rate of transpiration. The higher the humidity of the surrounding atmosphere, the lower is the rate of transpiration.

&osted by '$g Sham at ((:30 &+ , comments -abels: 'hapter ( .orm *, .orm * /otes

1.- %ymphatic System

>> Sunday +arch "$ "##$

Learning Objective : Synthesising the concept of lymphatic system Learning Outcomes : A student is able to:

describe the formation of interstitial fluid, state the composition of interstitial fluid, state the importance of interstitial fluid, describe the fate of interstitial fluid, describe the structure of the lymphatic system, explain how the lymphatic system complements the circulatory system.

1. +ow the interstitial fluid is formed : The higher hydrostatic pressure at the arterial end of the capillaries forces some fluid out through the capillary walls into the interstitial spaces which are found between the cells. This fluid is (nown as interstitial or tissue fluid.

The interstitial fluid has the same composition as the blood plasma but does not contain erythrocytes, platelets and large protein molecules.

#. ,mportance of the interstitial fluid ,t forms the internal environment of the body. ,t bathes the cells and supplies them with their re-uirements such as oxygen and nutrients.

,t receives excretory waste products such as carbon dioxide and urea from the cells. ,t helps to (eep the internal environment of the body within a normal range.

). What happens to the interstitial fluid.

/01 of the interstitial fluid flows bac( into the veins. 101 of the interstitial fluid enters the lymphatic capillaries and becomes lymph. Lymph is similar to blood plasma and has no erythrocytes, platelets and protein molecules but it contains a higher number of lymphocytes. 2ymph is carried by the lymphatic vessels and finally by the thoracic duct . The thoracic duct finally drains the lymph into the left subclavian vein and right vein and bac( into the bloodstream.

3. 4ole of the lymphatic system $ollects the interstitial fluid and returns it to the circulatory system. Transports fat from the villi of the ileum to the blood circulatory system.

2ymph nodes filter out bacteria and other foreign particles. 5hagocytes engulf and destroy foreign particles. 2ymphocytes in the lymph nodes produce antibodies.

&osted by '$g Sham at *:36 &+ ) comments -abels: 'hapter ( .orm *, .orm * /otes

1., +echanism of .lood Clottin&

%earnin& 'b(ecti)e *

6nderstanding

the

mechanism

of

blood

clotting :

Learning Outcomes A student is able to: explain the necessity for blood clotting at the site of damaged blood vessels, explain the mechanism of blood clotting,

predict the conse-uences of impaired blood clotting mechanism in an individual.

Necessity of blood clotting : to prevent excessive blood loss from the body to prevent blood pressure from falling to a low level in order to maintain proper blood circulation

to prevent entry of microorganisms and foreign particles into the body

Mechanism of blood clotting :

When an in!ury causes a blood vessel wall to brea(, platelets are activated. They change shape from round to spiny, stic( to the bro(en vessel wall and each other, and begin to plug the brea(. They also interact with other blood proteins to form fibrin. 7ibrin strands form a net that entraps more platelets and blood cells, producing a clot that plugs the brea(.

%4

When a wound starts bleeding on our bodies, an en8yme called thromboplastin that is released from damaged tissue cells combines with the calcium and prothrombin in the blood. As a result of the chemical reaction, the resulting mesh of threads form a protective layer, which solidifies eventually. The top layer of cells eventually die, becoming cornified, so forming the scab. 6nderneath the scab, or protective layer, new cells are being formed. When damaged cells are completely replaced, the scab drops off.

Conse uences of impaired blood clotting mechanism :

!aemophiliacs are people who suffer from a condition of impaired clotting mechanism (nown as haemophilia due to lac( of certain clotting factors. This causes serious bleeding and can bring about death.

A blood clot &thrombus' that forms in a artery may cause bloc(age of the artery, a condition (nown as thrombosis. When the thrombus gets dislodged and is carried away by blood circulation, it is (nown as an embolus. The condition is (nown as embolism.

A stro"e is caused by an embolus bloc(ing flow of blood to the brain cells.

Angina is a specific type of pain in the chest caused by inade-uate blood flow through the blood vessels &coronary vessels' of the heart muscle &myocardium'.

7igure A shows a normal artery with normal blood flow. 7igure 9 shows an artery containing pla-ue buildup An angina is caused by partial bloc(age of the coronary artery while a heart

attac( or myocardial infarction is caused by a total bloc(age of the coronary artery.

&osted by '$g Sham at 3:)( A+ ) comments -abels: 'hapter ( .orm *, .orm * /otes

1." Concept of the Circulatory System

>> Saturday +arch "8 "##$

%earnin& 'b(ecti)e * Synthesising the concept of circulatory system %earnin& 'utcomes * A student is able to:

state what a circulatory system is, state the three components of circulatory system in humans and animals, state the three components of of circulatory system in humans and animals, state the medium of transport in humans and animals, state the composition of human blood explain the function of blood and haemolymph in transport,

describe the structure of human blood vessels, explain how blood is propelled through the human circulatory system, explain briefly how blood pressure is regulated, compare and contrast the circulatory systems in the following: humans, fish and amphibians, conceptualise the circulatory system in humans.

The !uman Circulatory #ystem consists of :

+eart 9lood 9lood :essels &arteries ; veins ; capillaries'

/uman blood consists of * <<1 blood plasma &a clear, pale yellow li-uid', and 3<1 blood cells

The composition of blood plasma is : /01 water, and 101 dissolved substances such as plasma protein &albumin, globulin, fibrinogen and antibodies', digested food &glucose, amino acids' vitamins, minerals, waste substances, hormones and respiratory gases.

The blood cells are made up of three types, namely, "rythrocytes &red blood cells'

2eucocytes &white blood cells' which are further divided into granulocytes and agranulocytes, and 9lood platelets &thrombocytes'

The diagram below shows the main components of blood :

Comparison of the three types of blood cells :

$unctions of blood in transport : Transport of oxygen from the lungs to the cells in all parts of the body Transport of carbon dioxide from the cells to the lungs to be removed.

Transport of absorbed food materials Transport of excretory waste products

Transport of heat Transport of hormones Transport of water to tissues

Structures of human blood )essels :

The blood vessels are made up of three types: %rteries are blood vessels that carry blood away from heart. &eins are blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart.

Capillaries are small, thin*walled blood vessels that connect arteries to veins and their purpose is to allow oxygen to diffuse from the blood into the cells and carbon dioxide to diffuse from the cells into the blood

0ifferences bet1een arteries capillaries *

Structures of the human heart * The heart consists of 4 Chambers which makes up 2 pumps : 2 atrium chambers (relatively thin walls / lower pressure) 2 ventricle chambers (relatively thick walls / higher pressure)

'lood (ressure in !umans Systole vs. Diastole phases

Systolic vs. Diastolic 5ressure +ealthy 9lood 5ressure &1#0;=0' +ypertension * $onsistent +igh 9lood 5ressure &130;/0 or above' 9lood pressure is measured using a device called a sphygmomanometer

Circulatory systems in insects fish amphibians and humans :

&osted by '$g Sham at ,:,, A+ ) comments -abels: 'hapter ( .orm *, .orm * /otes

1.1 2mportance of /a)in& ! Transport System in Some +ulticellular 'r&anisms

%earnin& 'b(ecti)e * 7nderstanding the importance of having a transport system in some multicellular organisms %earnin& 'utcomes * A student is able to : identify the problem that could be faced by multicellular organisms in obtaining their cellular re8uirements and getting rid of their waste products, suggest how the problem is overcome in multicellular organisms.

1. +umans and large organisms possess an efficient circulatory system which is made up of the heart, blood vessels and blood as the medium. #. 2arge organisms need a medium to transport materials around the body. The medium or blood is carried in blood vessels which consist of arteries, veins and capillaries. ). This is because large organisms have an increased need for oxygen and nutrients to be supplied to the cells and for waste products to be removed. 3. At the same time they have a small TSA;: ratio which causes the exchange of substances by direct diffusion to be too slow to meet the re-uirements of the organism. <. The heart functions as a pump that forces blood through the blood vessels through out the whole organism.