INTRODUCTION.

Buddhism deserves examinationResearches of Remusat, Burnouf, Koeppen, and t. !i"aire anscrit manuscripts from Nepau"Buddhist #oo$s revea" to vie% the ancient !indoo %or"dThe openin& scene of the Kin-kang-king, '''''''''''''''' ( )I*+ O* BUDD!( IN *OUR C!(,T+R .

C!(,T+R I.

)I*+ O* !(K-(.UNI TI)) !I (,,+(R(NC+ (T B+N(R+ ( ( T+(C!+R.

,revious "ivesChrono"o&/The seventh BuddhaBirth+ar"/ "ifeBecomes a hermitBecomes Buddha)e&endar/ stories of his ear"/ preachin& Hwayen-king+xtramundane teachin&(ppearance at Benares,

C!(,T+R II.

)I*+ O* BUDD!( *RO. !I (,,+(R(NC+ ( ( T+(C!+R (T B+N(R+ TO T!+ CON0+R ION O* R(!U)(.

The four truths1odinia and his four companionsThe first monastic communit/The first "a/ #rotherConversion of five hundred fire2%orshippers in the $in&dom of .a&adhaBuddha at Ra3a&riha(t hravasti, hravasti in 4eta5s &arden(ppoints punishments &arden(ppoints punishments for crimes of mon$s1oes to see his father after t%e"ve /ears6 a#sence tor/ of his son Rahu"a, p. xxvi

C!(,T+R III.

*RO. T!+ CO..+NC+.+NT O* R(!U)(5 R+)I1IOU )I*+ TI)) T!+ N+(R (,,RO(C! O* T!+ NIR07N(.

Buddha sends for Rahu"a(rran&ements for instructin& Rahu"a and other #o/sTutorsBo/s admitted to the vo%sNunsRapid spread of monasticism Discip"inar/ ru"es+ducation in metaph/sics(nanda and the Leng-yen-kingBuddha in these %or$s "i$e ocrates in ,"atoBuddha said to have &one to Ce/"on("so to the paradise of desireOffer of Devas to protect Buddhism,rotectors of ChinaRe"ation of Buddhism to !indoo po"/theism,ra3na2 paramitaKin& ,rasena3it utra of the Benevo"ent Kin&Dai"/ "itur&/(nanda #ecomes Buddha5s attendant discip"eIntrusted %ith the utras in t%e"ve divisionsBuddha teaches his esoteric s/stem0irtua""/ contained in the 8)otus utra8In this the sun of Buddha cu"minated!is father5s approachin& death announcedBuddha reaches the fort/2ninth /ear of his pu#"ic preachin&,

C!(,T+R I0.

)( T DI COUR + (ND D+(T! O* BUDD!(.

Buddha5s immorta"it/ in his teachin&Death rea" and fina"O#3ect of Nirv9na teachin&Buddha visits the Tau-li heavenDescends a&ain #/ Indra5s staircase The first ima&esDeath of Buddha5s auntDeath of hariputraBuddha at Kushina&araBet%een the a"a trees)ast instructionsKashiapa made patriarch*"esh prohi#itedRe"ieves the $in& of .a&adha ends for (nanda(ns%ers to four :uestionsBrahma comesBuddha5s "ast %ordsDeath 1o"d coffin.a/a comesCremation!is re"ics,a&odas,

C!(,T+R 0.

T!+ ,(TRI(RC! O* T!+ NORT!+RN BUDD!I T . *eatures of (siatic "ife in the time of the patriarchsCharacter, po%ers, and inte""ectua" :ua"ities of the patriarchs eries of thirt/2three patriarchs (ppointment of Kashiapa #/ ha$/amuniThe vasti$aCounci" of Ra3a&riha, for %ritin& out the #oo$s of Buddha, and sett"in& %hat shou"d #e received as canonica"The part ta$en #/ (nanda in the authorship of the Buddhist #oo$s(nanda, second patriarchThe third %as han&navasuRemar$s on samadhi and reverie*ourth, Upa&uptaConversion of a %ic$ed %oman %hen d/in&*ifth, sixth, and seventh patriarchsBuddha5s prophec/ re&ardin& Buddhanandi, the seventh tru&&"e #et%een fi"ia" "ove and Buddhist conviction in Buddhamitra p. xxvii

;para&raph continues< The %a/ in %hich he su#dued an un#e"ievin& $in&.amin& &iven to the $in& of the 1et= to induce him to raise the sie&e of ,ata"iputra Kapimara, the thirteenthNa&ar3una, the fourteenthConverts ten thousand Brahmans>rites the Ta-ch-tu-lun0i&orous defence of Buddhism #/ Kanadeva (ssassination of Kanadeva an&hanandi, precocious as a #o/,rophec/ respectin& himRahu"ata ascends to heaven an&$a/asheta5s discussion on the nature of soundConverts five hundred hermitsKumarada5s vie%s on the ine:ua"it/ of present retri#utionDifficu"ties met %ith #/ .anura in teachin& Buddhism in outhern and >estern India( patriarch5s po%er over #irds!a$"ena converts in&ha"aputra, %ho succeeded him as patriarch ?the t%ent/2fourth@, #ut %as $i""ed #/ the $in& of CandaharThe orthodox schoo" has on"/ t%ent/2four patriarchsThe contemp"ative schoo" has t%ent/2ei&ht,rad3n/atara, the t%ent/2seventh, converts Bodhidharma, the t%ent/2ei&hth, %ho proceeds to China!indoo $no%"ed&e of the Roman empire,

C!(,T+R 0I.

K+TC! O* T!+ !I TOR- O* BUDD!I . IN C!IN(.

The emperor .in&2ti sends an em#ass/ to India for ima&es, (.D. ABKashiapmadan&a arrives in China pread of Buddhism, (.D. CCDBuddo3an&a( pa&oda at Nan$in&, (.D. CEBThe trans"ator Kumara3iva, (.D. FGDThe Chinese trave""er, *a2hien, visits India!is #oo$,ersecution, (.D. FHA Buddhism prosperous, FDDIndian em#assies to China in the un& d/nast/Opposition of the Confucianists to BuddhismDiscussions on doctrineBuddhist prosperit/ in the Northern >ei $in&dom and the )ian& $in&domBodhidharma un2/In sent to IndiaBodhidharma "eaves )ian& >u2ti and &oes to Northern China!is "atter /ears and death+m#assies from Buddhist countries in the southRe"icsThe )ian& emperor >u2ti #ecomes a mon$+m#assies from India and Ce/"onInf"uence of anscrit %ritin& in &ivin& the Chinese the $no%"ed&e of an a"pha#et /""a#ic spe""in&Confucian opposition to Buddhism in the TJan& d/nast/The five successors of Bodhidharma!iuen2tsan&5s trave"s in India>or$ as a trans"ator,ersecution, (.D. KBF!indoo ca"endar in China (mo&ha introduces the festiva" for hun&r/ &hostsOpposition of !an -I to Buddhism,ersecution of EFDTeachin& of .a2tsuTriumph of the .aha/ana Bodhiruchi,ersecution #/ the Cheu d/nast/+xtensive erection of pa&odas in the un& d/nast/+ncoura&ement of anscrit studies,"aces of pi"&rima&e ,Ju2toRe&u"ations for receivin& the vo%s!indoo Buddhists in China in the un& d/nast/The .on&o" d/nast/ favoured BuddhismThe "ast Chinese Buddhist %ho visited IndiaThe .in& d/nast/ "imits the ri&ht of accumu"atin& "andRoman Catho"ic controvers/ %ith BuddhistsKano hi of the .anchu d/nast/ opposes BuddhismThe "iterati sti"" condemn Buddhism p. xxviii

C!(,T+R 0II.

T!+ C!OO) O* C!IN+ + BUDD!I ..

The &ro%th of esoteric sects in IndiaThe 4ainsTheir series of t%ent/2four patriarchsBodhidharma headed a ne% schoo" in outhern India, and %as heretica" as vie%ed from the 4ams standpoint!e founded the contemp"ative schoo" in ChinaNa&ar3una, the author of the most revered hoo$s of this schoo"Tsun&2 menKiau2menDivisions of Tsun&2menThe Tsun&2men sects are heretica" in the vie% of the o"d orthodox/2 pecimen of the teachin& of the Tsun&2men )in2tsi schoo",rofesses strict discip"ineIts founder died (.D. EAE!is monument on the #an$ of the !u2to river in Chi2"iResem#"ance to +uropean specu"ation on the a#so"uteIs Buddhism pantheisticL+xoteric sectsL-men ?0ina/a@-o&achara*a2sian&.adh/ami$a*a2sin&Tsing-tu, or sect of the 8,ure "and8 or 8>estern heaven8TJien2tJai,oetr/ of the Tsin&2tu schoo",

C!(,T+R 0III

ON C!I2KJ(I (ND T!+ TJI+N2TJ(I C!OO) O* BUDD!I ..

TJien2tJai, a p"ace of &reat note in Chinese Buddhism ChM2$Jai resided there in the sixth centur/!is c"oa$ and rice #o%"*u2"un& fen&*an&2$%an& sM and the roc$ #rid&e)e&end of the )o2hansT%e"ve monasteries founded!e tau&ht the Fa-hwa-king /stem of threefo"d contemp"ation ix connectives

+i&ht modes of characterisin& BuddhismTen steps in pro&ressDerived much from Na&ar3unaTJien2tJai, a midd"e s/stem2Re&u"ations,

C!(,T+R IN.

T!+ BUDD!I T .OR() - T+..

The Ten virtues and Ten vicesThe cause of human stupidit/ is in the passionsThe *ive prohi#itionsThe Ten prohi#itionsK"aproth5s praise of Buddhism But it is atheistic, and therefore this praise shou"d #e :ua"ifiedKindness to anima"s #ased on the fiction of transmi&ration Buddhism teaches compassion for sufferin& %ithout incu"catin& o#edience to Divine "a% tor/ of ha$/amuni in not distin&uished from miser/Buddhists teach that the mora" sense is innate The/ assi&n a mora" nature to anima"sThe ix paths of the metemps/chosis!indoo notions of heaven and he""Count"ess a&es of 3o/ and sufferin& +xamp"es+xemption from punishment &ained #/ meritorious actionsTen $in&s of future 3ud&ment*ate or Karma Buddhism depreciates p. xxix

heaven and the &odsBuddha not 1od, #ut a aviour.ora" inf"uence of the ,aradise of the >estern heaven*i&urative interpretation of this "e&endThe contemp"ative schoo" identifies &ood and evi"No mora" distinctions in the Nirv9naBuddhism has fai"ed to produce hi&h mora"it/The Confucianist condemnation of the Buddhists.r. ,. !ordern5s praise of Buddhism in Birmah The Birmese inte""ectua""/ inferior to the ChineseKindness to anima"s $no%n to the Chinese #efore the/ received BuddhismBuddha5s reasons for not eatin& f"esh,

C!(,T+R N.

T!+ BUDD!I T C()+ND(R.

Nationa" festiva"s *estiva"s in honour of ce"estia" #ein&sIn honour of the Buddhas and Bodhisatt%asIn honour of characters in Chinese Buddhist histor/ upp"ementa" anniversaries in&ha"ese Buddhists $eep a different da/ for Buddha5s #irthda/In the TJan& d/nast/ !indoo astronomers reformed the ca"endar 1audamsiddhaThe %ee$ of India and Ba#/"on $no%n to the Chinese>ord mit for unda/,eacoc$ utraThe !indoo Rahu and Ketu,

C!(,T+R NI.

R+)(TION O* BUDD!I . TO T!+ O)D+R !INDOO .-T!O)O1-.

Buddhism accepted the !indoo m/tho"o&/, %ith the sacred #oo$s of the Brahmans, so far as it a&reed %ith its o%n do&masThe &ods Indra, Brahma, and Ish%ara "isten as discip"es to Buddha+i&ht c"asses of Devas*our $in&s of Devas-a$shas.ahora&as,retas.aras.ama, $in& of the dead Creation is denied to the !indoo &ods in the Chung-lun and other %or$s,

C!(,T+R NII.

T!+ BUDD!I T UNI0+R +.

The universe passes throu&h incessant chan&esKalpas of various "en&thsKalpas of esta#"ishment, of destruction, Oc. aha %or"d umeru mountainThe outhern continent is 4am#udvipa!eaven of the thirt/2threeTushita paradiseUpper tier of paradises!eavens of form and of desire!eavens %ithout formBrahma5s paradiseNo %ise man is #orn there, #ecause Brahma sa/s he created the universeThe #e""s tor/ from the 8Ti2tsan& utra,8 p. xxx

C!(,T+R NIII.

T!+ +NT+ND+D UNI0+R + O* T!+ NORT!+RN BUDD!I T .

,rimitive Buddhism aimed at mora" improvement and the Nirv9naIts m/tho"o&/ %as of popu"ar &ro%thThe .aha/ana m/tho"o&/ %as introduced #/ the metaph/sicians of Buddhism itse"fNa&ar3una the chief inventorHwa-yen-king(n extended universe invented to i""ustrate do&maTen %or"ds #e/ond the aha %or"d in ten different directionsNe% divinities to %orship(mita#ha!is %or"d in the >estK%an2/in and Ta2shM2chMThe %or"d of (chJo#h/a Buddha in the +ast>or"d of -o2shM *o, the hea"in& teacher.erc/, %isdom, Oc., are s/m#o"ised in the Bodhisatt%as>u2tJai shan in China is introduced in the Hwa-yen-king,

C!(,T+R NI0.

BUDD!I T I.(1+ (ND I.(1+2>OR !I,.

Temp"es+nterin& ha"", S-to-tien-wangThese four $in&s descri#edThe "au&hin& Buddha, .i2"i *oBehind him, >ei2toChief ha"", Ta-hiung-pau-tien ha$/amuni(nandaKashiapaK%an2/in, >en2shu, and other Bodhisatt%asBuddha represented as teachin&Buddha of the past, present, and future Chape"s to O2mi2to *o, Ti2tsan&, and the Ten $in&sRepresentation of the ei&ht miseries from %hich K%an2/in de"iversTemp"es in Ce/"onIma&es in temp"es near ,e$in&Tan2cho sM sna$e,i2/In sM!a"" of )o2hansDiamond throne of BuddhaCo"ossa" ima&es of .aitre/a.usica" instruments Ref"ections,

C!(,T+R N0.

.ON( T+RI+ (T ,JU2TO.

This esta#"ishment more modern than TJien2tJai and >u2tJai.an/ Thi#etan inscriptions*re:uent visits of ,e$in& "amasDedicated to K%an2/in1ifts #/ Kan&2hiIma&esCaves,a&odasInscriptionsResident defenders of BuddhismThe ,ota"a of 4eho" in .on&o"iaIt is a"so the name of the pa"ace Temp"e of the Da"ai )amaIn China an is"and %as preferred to #e the tau2ch6an& of K%an2/in,

C!(,T+R N0I.

BUDD!I T ,ROC+

ION , (

OCI(TION , ,I)1RI.(1+ , (ND C+R+.ONI+ *OR T!+ D+(D.

-lan-hwei, 8(ssociation for &ivin& food to the dead8>orship of ancestors)itur&ica" services in the houses of the rich, for the "i#eration of the sou"s of the dead from he""0i""a&e processions p. xxxi

;para&raph continues< Based on the o"d rura" processions of c"assica" times.as:uerades,"a/s,i"&rima&es to .iau2fen& shah,i"&rims %earin& iron chains upposed efficac/ of the pra/ers of the priestsPea" of the "ait/ in promotin& pi"&rima&es to ce"e#rated shrines,

C!(,T+R N0II.

BUDD!I T )IT+R(TUR+.

Buddhist "i#raries presented to monasteries #/ emperorsChJen&2tsu, of the .in& d/nast/, %as the first to print the entire series of the Buddhist accepted #oo$s !ra"na-paramita, ei&ht/ times as "ar&e as our Ne% TestamentThe ,ei2tsan&, or second printed edition, dates from the sixteenth centur/The Kia2hin& edition of the ,ei2tsan&Division into King, L, Lun*irst Counci">or$ of (nandaThe .aha/ana of Northern BuddhismCounci" of Cashmere (uthors of the .aha/ana)un&2shu %rote the Hwa-yen-kingContrasts #et%een the primitive and .aha/ana #oo$s)ist of trans"ators, (.D. KG to (.D. KGD ixteen hundred %or$s are c"assified, inc"usive of those #/ Chinese authorsOn the counci"s for sett"in& the canonTrans"ations #/ Burnouf and others)otus Boo$ of *ort/2t%o ectionsCharacter of this and other ear"/ %or$s tories i""ustrative of ancient "ifeFan-wang-kingChan-ts-king trans"ated #/ Bea" ,ratimo$sha,

C!(,T+R N0III.

T!+ )+N12-+N2KIN1*IR T C!(,T+R.

The utra of firm esta#"ishment in a"" doctrine, descri#in& c"ear"/ the secret merit and attainments in the re"i&ious "ife of Tatha&ata, %ho appears as Buddha in his &reat and unsurpassed statureQ a"so the man/ acts of the Bodhisatt%as

C!(,T+R NIN.

T!+ +K( !)OK( !( TR(.

The 8+$ash"o$a hastra,8 trans"ated from the Chinese, %ith an ana"/sis and notes,

C!(,T+R NN.

+**+CT O* BUDD!I . ON T!+ ,!I)O O,!- O* T!+ UN1 D-N( T-.

The un& phi"osophers differ from Confucius*ive periods of Chinese inte""ectua" deve"opmentThe un& %riters chan&ed the o"d cosmo&on/The !an %riters had a"read/ done soDia&ram of the 1reat +xtremeOther pictoria" i""ustrations(voidance of the doctrine of a persona" 1od.ateria"istic phi"osoph/ of natureNe% vie% of divination,

C!(,T+R NNI.

*+N12 !UI, OR T!+ >IND (ND >(T+R U,+R TITION O* T!+ C!IN+ +.

(n o#stac"e to civi"isation.eanin& of Feng, 8>ind8Of Shui, 8>ater8Use of c/c"ic characters.eanin& of Lung, 8Dra&on8Names of the &eomancers !indoo nomenc"atureSha-chi, 8Destructive vapour8Dar$ arro%Chen-wu, or 8,rotectin& shie"d8Feng-shui professed"/ #ased on the 8Boo$ of Chan&es8.odern Feng-shui is #ased on the !an2"un&2$in&Buddhist e"ement in Feng-shuiThe four e"ements of the 1ree$sThe !indoo 8(ir and %ater8 is Feng-shui+arth, %ater, fire, and air are creative forces, existin& in successive kalpas, and formin& successive %or"dsResem#"ance to the theories of the Ionian phi"osophers1eomanc/ in the TJan& d/nast/Rahu and KetuThe Feng-shui s/stem &re% out of BuddhismNative e"ement in Feng-shuiNine fancied starsCauses of the contour of hi""s and p"ains tars of the six housesFeng-shui inconsistent %ith &enuine Confucianism,

C!(,T+R NNII.

BUDD!I T ,!R( +O)O1- IN R+)(TION TO C!RI TI(N T+(C!IN1.

Use of Buddhist terms in the Nestorian inscription, (.D. KEB#o, 8demonQ8 in anscrit, maraTi-y, 8he"",8 is narakaTen 3ud&es of he""(mon& them ,au Chen&, the famous 3ud&e of the un& d/nast/The un& phi"osophers encoura&ed the popu"ar #e"ief in future retri#utionThis prepares for Christianit/ Tientang, 8heaven8Defects of this term#ing-kung, Oc., as names for 8heaven8Buddhist paradises possi#"/ #orro%ed from >estern (sia or some other countr/ farther %estRedemptionTi2tsan& and K%an2/in,it/Instruction+ffect of sinDecreed for&iveness to penitents ecret merit!appiness and merit confounded in and miser/ confoundedI""ustration from the narrative of a Christian convert,

C!(,T+R NNIII.

NOTIC+ O* T!+ >U2>+I2KI(U, ( R+*OR.+D BUDD!I T +CT.

Ori&inated t%o hundred and sevent/ /ears a&o #/ a native of hantun&No sho%/ ceremonia"No ima&es acred #oo$s six in num#erIntervie% of the founder %ith the emperor of the period, Chen&2teDiscussion %ith opponents0ictor/One of their "eaders %as crucified, p. xxxiii

C!(,T+R NNI0.

BUDD!I . (ND TRUI . IN T!+IR ,O,U)(R ( ,+CT .

The popu"arit/ of Buddhism rests on its doctrine of retri#ution, and not on its ethics.a&ica" c"aims of the Tauists %an2/in, since the t%e"fth centur/, usua""/ a fema"e,o%ers and c"aims of %an2/in,opu"ar Buddhism "oves to have pra/ers said for the dead!opes for paradise hereafter,opu"ar Tauism #e"ieves in haunted houses, in charms, and in the efficac/ of the %iRard in contro""in& demonsThe present head of the Tauists and chief ma&ician>ent from >estern China to Kian&2si, %here he has ever since resided as hereditar/ ,opeThe Tauist divinit/ -I2h%an& shan&2ti has incarnations assi&ned to himChan& ien the #o%man, a ph/sicianTai"2cuttin& de"usionTauist pra/ers for the deadThe Buddhist en-lo-wang, 81od of death8The ei&ht &eniiThe ei&hteen )o2hans The Tauist de"usions dan&erous po"itica""/TJien2tsin massacreNeed of the "i&ht of educationThe effect of the assau"t of Christianit/ on these re"i&ions,

C!(,T+R NN0.

ON T!+ U + O* (N CRIT B- T!+ C!IN+ + BUDD!I T .

Chan&es in Chinese sounds since the time of the Buddhist trans"iteration of Indian %ords+xamp"es of anscrit %ords in o"d and ne% ChineseThe importance of trans"ations made in (.D. AG to (.D. KA for readin& the *our Boo$sThe !indoo trans"ators did not spea$ pure anscrit anscrit %as the "an&ua&e of the #oo$sNo ,a"i #oo$s in ChinaThe trans"ators spo$e ,racritThe term po-li, 8&"ass8Use of anscrit %ords in ma&ic$haraniInscription in six "an&ua&es at KI2/un& $%an,

C!(,T+R NN0I.

BOOK (ND ,(,+R T!(T .(- B+ CON U)T+D *OR T!+ TUD- O* C!IN+ + BUDD!I ..

Fo% kou%&ki #/ Remusat>or$s of 4u"ienInterestin& passa&e from *a2hienTrans"ations #/ Bea" chott, 'e(er&den&)uddhaismus&in&Hoch&*sien&und&in& China>ritin&s of ,a""adius+ite"5s Hand(ook&+or&the&Student&o+&Chinese&)uddhism>atters6 account of Chinese Buddhism+ite"5s Three&Lectures, and artic"e on Nirv9na,

(),!(B+TIC() IND+N O* ,RO,+R N(.+ (ND UB4+CT ,

(),!(B+TIC() IND+N O* TIT)+ O* BOOK .+NTION+D,

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p. B

CHINESE BUDDHISM.

INTRODUCTION. Buddhism deserves examinationResearches of Remusat, Burnouf, Koeppen, and t. !i"aire anscrit manuscripts from Nepau"Buddhist #oo$s revea" to vie% the ancient !indoo %or"dThe openin& scene of the Kin-kang-king. (T the present time, %hen forei&n intercourse %ith China is increasin& ever/ /ear, and our $no%"ed&e of that countr/ is extendin& in proportion, an account of the histor/ and "iterature of Buddhism in that "and %i"" perhaps find more readers than at an/ former period. The trave""er %i"" not fai" to in:uire %h/ this Indian re"i&ion has sun$ into such he"p"essness and deca/ as he o#serves. The phi"osophica" historian natura""/ %i"" %ish to $no% the causes of the vast extension of Buddhism, and of its present dec"ine. The Christian missionar/ %ou"d %i""in&"/ "earn the amount and nature of the re"i&ious fee"in& possessed #/ the mon$s, and the stren&th of the opposition %hich the re"i&ion of Christ has to expect durin& its propa&ation, from them and from the Buddhist "ait/. +specia""/ the statesman needs to #e informed ho% far the Chinese peop"e are "i$e"/ to #e offended #/ the introduction of Christianit/, and %hether the opposition to ido"atr/ %hich it excites %i"" stri$e at an/ of their most dear"/2cherished pre3udices and #e"iefs. ( re"i&ion that has extended its s%a/ over so man/ +astern nations, and %hose converts far outnum#er those p. H of an/ other sect in the %or"d, deserves minute investi&ation. The present s$etch %i"" #e necessari"/ too #rief to do 3ustice to the su#3ect, #ut it is hoped some resu"ts %i"" #e #rou&ht for%ard that ma/ assist the forei&n o#server to exp"ain the &reat and "on&2continued success of the Buddhistic s/stem, the causes of its &ro%in& %ea$ness, and the man/ indications of its hope"ess deca/. (mon& +uropean scho"ars Remusat and his successors in the stud/ of Chinese "iterature have #esto%ed considera#"e attention on Buddhism, and their "a#ours have #een re%arded %ith man/ interestin& and va"ua#"e resu"ts. +specia""/ is the %or"d inde#ted to Burnouf and t. !i"aire for their %or$ in this fie"d of Buddhist in:uir/, and "ucid exposition of their resu"ts. The aid to #e derived from their investi&ations has not #een ne&"ected in the account no% &iven to the reader. *urther, the most direct means of &ainin& information is to stud/ some parts of the vo"uminous %or$s extant in Chinese on this su#3ect. The numerous Indian priests %ho came to China ear"/ in the Christian era %ere indefati&a#"e trans"ators, as is sho%n #/ %hat the/ have #e:ueathed to their discip"es. These monuments of the hi&h"/ civi"ised race that spo$e the anscrit "an&ua&e, &ive to the in:uir/ a specia" "iterar/ interest. The/ %ere ti"" "ate"/ inaccessi#"e in their ori&ina" form. The +uropean students of anscrit for a "on& period sou&ht in vain for an account of Buddhist doctrines and traditions, except in the %ritin&s of their adversaries. The orthodox Indians destro/ed the sacred #oo$s of their heretica" #rethren %ith assiduous care. The representations the/ &ive of the vie%s of their opponents are necessari"/ partia", and it ma/ #e expected that %hat Co"e#roo$e and others have done in e"ucidatin& Buddhism from the po"emica" %ritin&s of the Brahmans, %ou"d receive usefu" corrections and additions as %e"" from Chinese sources as from the anscrit manuscripts of Buddhist #oo$s o#tained #/ !od&son. B p. C (n extended criti:ue of the Buddhist "iterature of China and the other countries professin& Buddhism, such as Burnouf p"anned and part"/ accomp"ished for India, %ou"d #e a va"ua#"e contri#ution to the histor/ of the !indoo race. The po%er of this re"i&ion to chain the human mind, the pecu"iar princip"es of its phi"osoph/, its m/tho"o&ica" characteristics, its mode of vie%in& human "ife, its monastic and ascetic usa&es, a"" resu"t from the ear"/ inte""ectua" deve"opment of the nation %hose home is south of the !ima"a/as. In the Buddhist c"assics it is not the "ife of China that is depicted, #ut that of !indostan, and that not as it is no%, #ut as it %as t%o thousand /ears a&o. The %ords and &rammatica" forms that occur in their perusa", %hen deciphered from the hiero&"/phic Chinese form that the/ have #een made to assume, remind the reader that the/ sprin& from the same stem of %hich the c"assica" "an&ua&es of +urope are #ranches. .uch of their native "iterature the Buddhist missionaries "eft untouchedfor examp"e, the hi&h"/2%rou&ht epic poems and dramas that have recent"/ attracted the admirin& notice of +uropeansQ #ut a "ar&e num#er of fa#"es and ta"es %ith a mora" are found in Chinese Buddhist #oo$s. .an/ specimens of this pecu"iar mode of composition, %hich, ori&inatin& in 1reece, %as adopted #/ the !indoos, and spread into the various "iteratures of modern +urope and (sia, have "on& since #een made to %ear a Chinese &ar#. B *urther, the e"ements of &rammar and the $no%"ed&e of the a"pha#et, %ith some important contri#utions from mathematica" science, have reached China throu&h the same medium. evera" openin&s are thus presented into the o"d !indoo %or"d. The countr/ %here specu"ative phi"osoph/, %ith &rammatica" and arithmetica" science, p. F attained &reater perfection than an/%here e"se in ancient times, is seen spreadin& its civi"isation into the nei&h#ourin& countries, and producin& remar$a#"e and permanent chan&es in the nationa" "ife of China. To %itness this, as ma/ #e done in the Buddhist #oo$s, cannot #e re&arded as devoid of attraction. The ver/ existence of Buddhism is sufficient evidence of the ener&/ of the Indian race as it %as "on& a&o. The .on&o"s, Thi#etans, and in&ha"ese, %ith the inha#itants of the Indo2 Chinese peninsu"a, com#ine %ith the Chinese and 4apanese to prove #/ the faith the/ sti"" maintain in Buddhism the enthusiasm of its first missionaries, and their po%er to inf"uence man$ind. Buddhism %as not a"%a/s that decrepit and %orn2out superstition that it no% appears. !avin& said thus much #/ %a/ of preface, it is time to introduce to the reader5s attention the founder of the re"i&ion. No %a/ of doin& this su&&ests itse"f as more suita#"e than to trans"ate from the openin& scene of a popu"ar Buddhist %or$ ca""ed the 8Diamond C"assic8 a fe% passa&es, %here he appears in the midst of his discip"es, instructin& them in some of the princip"es of his s/stem. The time, accordin& to the in&ha"ese chrono"o&/, %as in the sixth centur/ #efore Christ. The p"ace is ha2%ei, B a cit/ in Centra" India. The hero is ha$/amuni himse"f, i,e,, Buddha or 4u"ai. The su#ordinate characters are the Bi$shu H or re"i&ious mendicants, %ho are so denominated #ecause the/ #e& instruction for the mind and food for the #od/. The/ consist of t%o c"asses, sa/s the editor of the Diamond C"assic. Those %ho have a#andoned vice and are aimin& at virtue are the sma"" Bi$shu. Those %ho are re"eased from #oth a"i$e are &reat Bi$shu. (mon& the "atter, %ho p. D have &one deeper than the others into the profundities of Buddhist doctrine, are inc"uded those ca""ed Bosat and )ahan, or, as these characters are no% pronounced #/ the Chinese, ,usa and )ohan. The chief minister of the $in& havin& at Ra3a&riha heard Buddha5s instructions, and #een deep"/ impressed #/ them, %ished to invite him to some suita#"e d%e""in&. 4eta, the $in&5s son, had a &arden. The minister offered to #u/ it. The prince said #/ %a/ of 3est that he %as %i""in& if he %ou"d cover it %ith &o"d. The minister, %ho %as chi"d"ess, o#tained &o"d2"eaf and spread it over the &arden. The prince then &ave it him free of cost. (ccordin& to another account the minister ordered ei&ht/ e"ephants "oaded %ith &o"d to come immediate"/. The prince, admirin& the doctrine %hich had so affected the minister as to ma$e him %i""in& to &ive a"" this &o"d for a ha"" to teach it, &ave it for nothin&. In a house 8in this &arden, %hich "a/ outside the cit/ ha2%ei, Buddha %ith his discip"es, BHDG in num#er, assem#"ed. It %as the time of ta$in& food. Buddha put on the ro#e8 ca""ed seng-gha-li, and %ith his pat B or 8mendicant5s rice #o%"8 in his hand, entered the cit/ to #e& for food. >hen havin& &one from door to door he had finished his tas$, he returned to his "od&in&2p"ace. 8!is mea" #ein& ended, he put his ro#e and rice vesse" aside, and %ashed his

feet,8 for it %as the practice of this re"i&ious reformer to %a"$ %ith na$ed feet. 8!e then sat cross2"e&&ed on a raised p"atform,8 remainin& some time in meditation #efore he #e&an to teach. U(t that time the a&ed u#hVti, %ho %as sittin& amon& the cro%d of discip"es, arose. >ith his ri&ht shou"der uncovered, and $nee"in& on his ri&ht $nee, he raised his 3oined hands respectfu""/, and addressed Buddha in the fo""o%in& %ordsS8Rare is it to meet %ith the %or"d5s p. A honoured one, B 4u"ai, H %ho in the #est manner protects his discip"es ?Bosat@, $eeps them in his thou&hts, and &ives them his instructions. >or"d2honoured sa&eW ? Shtsun@ if &ood men and &ood %omen exhi#it the&unsurpassed&"ust&and&enlightened&heart, ho% shou"d the/ p"ace it firm"/, and ho% shou"d the evi" risin&s of the heart #e suppressed and su#duedL8 The %ords in ita"ics, correspondin& to the anscrit anutara&samyaksam(uddhi, C are %ritten %ith Chinese characters in the text, and are exp"ained #/ the commentator as consistin& of an, 8not,8 utara, 8superior,8 samya, 8ri&ht and e:ua",8 sam(odi, 8ri&ht"/ $no%in&.8 Buddha rep"ied, 8The :uestion is a &ood one, and /ou have tru"/ descri#ed m/ disposition. It is thus that a restin&2p"ace can #e found and the heart contro""ed.8 The %ords "u-sh, 8thus,8 sa/s the commentator, refer not to %hat precedes, as in Chinese s/ntax, #ut to %hat fo""o%s, accordin& to the usa&e of anscrit &rammar. u#hVti then expresses his anxious desire to hear the instructions of the sa&e, %ho conse:uent"/ addresses his discip"es ca""ed Bosat and 1reat Bosat ? #a-ha-sat@. 8("" men, %hether the/ resem#"e in their nature oviparous anima"s,8 that are "i&ht and f"/, or imitate the mora" dispositions and ref"ectin& ha#its of 8the mamma"ia, or are "i$e the fish,8 sprun& from spa%n, instinctive"/ fo""o%in& the mu"titude in the path of evi", 8or are of the same c"ass %ith anima"s #orn #/ transformation,8 and pass throu&h remar$a#"e chan&es, shou"d enter that state %hich is fina" and unchan&ea#"e Fthe Nirv9na, D 8>hether the/ sti"" p. K thin$8 on the phenomena of the sensuous %or"d 8or have ceased to thin$,8 i,e,, #ecome so far en"i&htened as to pa/ no attention to passin& scenes, 8or are neither %ith thou&ht nor %ithout thou&ht,8 that is, have #ecome entire"/ indifferent to "ife or death, appetite or aversion, "ove or hatred, 8the/ shou"d thus see$ sa"vation in destruction.8 >h/ do not a"" "ivin& men o#tain this immeasura#"/ &reat re"easeL 8If the Bodhisatt%a ?Bosat, he&who&knows&and&+eels@ has for his aim se"f, or man, or the %or"d of "ivin& thin&s, or o"d a&e, he is not a true Bodhisatt%a.8 Buddha no% #ade u#hVti resume his seat, and %ent on to inform him concernin& the fixed p"ace of rest for %hich he had in:uired. 8The Bodhisatt%a in action shou"d have no fixed restin&2p"ace for his thou&hts. In %hat he does he shou"d not rest on co"our, sound, sme"", taste, co""ision, or an/ particu"ar action. !e shou"d not rest in forms of thin&s, that is, a""o% himse"f to attend to an/ specia" sensationa" phenomena. If he thus acts, his happiness and virtue %i"" #e #ound"ess.8 Buddha is as$ed #/ his discip"e for a further exp"anation of this doctrine. !e rep"ies #/ in:uirin& if the four :uarters of space can #e measured #/ thou&ht. Receivin& a ne&ative ans%er, he sa/s that the same is true of the doctrine that the Bodhisatt%a in actin& %ithout re&ard to particu"ar o#3ects o#tains &reat happiness and virtue. !e then as$s if %ith the materia" #od/ and its senses 4u"ai or Buddha can #e tru"/ perceived. No, sa/s the discip"e, for #od/ and form are not tru"/ #od/ and form. Buddha himse"f rep"ies #/ den/in& the existence of a"" matter in the %ords 8%hatever has form is an empt/ de"usion. If an/ one sees that a"" thin&s havin& forms are not forms, i,e,, nothin&, he then p. E tru"/ perceives 4u"ai8 in his form"ess and matter"ess rea"it/Q that is, has attained to a profound understandin& of Buddhist doctrines. In these fe% passa&es from the Kin-kang-king or 8Diamond utra,8 some of the most prominent doctrines of Buddhism are #rou&ht to vie%, viR.S?I.@ The happiness of the Nirv9na or state of unconsciousness %hich frees him %ho attains it from the miseries of existence. ?H.@ The mischievous inf"uence of human "ife, %ith its stru&&"es after particu"ar forms of happiness, and of the sensuous %or"d %ith its deceptive phenomena. ?C.@ The non2existence of matter, to #e convinced of %hich is to ta$e the first &rand step on the road to en"i&htenment. This introduction into the Buddhist sphere of thou&ht ma$es the s/stem appear to #e #ased rather on phi"osoph/ than on an/ re"i&ious princip"e. .ore %i"" su#se:uent"/ occur to confirm the correctness of this opinion. >ith re&ard to the rea" character of Buddhism, piet/ to%ards the Ru"er of the %or"d does not form either its foundation or the resu"t to %hich it aims to e"evate its votaries. It %i"" #e seen that, %hi"e strivin& to escape from the evi"s incident to "ife, and from ever/ se"fish aim, it is nothin& #ut se"fishness in an a#stract phi"osophica" form, stripped of the &rosser :ua"ities %hich are manifested in the common course of human histor/. In enumeratin& the various $inds of sensations conve/ed to our minds #/ the senses, a ver# 8to stri$e or pierce,8 chJu, is emp"o/ed in p"ace of 8touch,8 the fami"iar term of our o%n popu"ar phi"osoph/. ("" these sensations are said #/ the Buddhists to #e produced #/ the respective or&ans %ith %hich the/ are connected. The/ are ca""ed the six $inds of 8dust8 or 8%or"d"/ thin&s8the un%e"come accretions that attach themse"ves to our &arments as %e %a"$ throu&h the %or"d. 8(ction,8 +a, said to emanate from the 8%i"",8 yi, is c"assed %ith them as the sixth mode assumed #/ %or"d"/ phenomena. The precedin& specimen of Buddha5s teachin&, surrounded p. T #/ his discip"es in a cit/ of ancient India, is sufficient to introduce the su#3ect. The principa" facts in the "ife of that sa&e %i"" no% #e detai"ed. Buddha %i"" #e here represented as he appears in the Chinese #io&raphies. The/ descri#e him as a sort of divine man, possessed un#ounded ma&ica" po%er, and visitin& the most distant spots, as, for examp"e, the paradises of the &ods, in an instant of time. In &ivin& an account of Chinese Buddhism, I fee" the importance of exhi#itin& ha$/amuni in the form %hich is fami"iar to the Chinese devotee. It is %e"", in our picture, to retain the detai"s of a marve""ous nature %hich have #een so a#undant"/ added #/ the Northern Buddhists to the simp"icit/ of the first narrative. .an cannot "ive %ithout 1od. This %as an effort to recover the divine. >hen 1od, throu&h the a#surdities of po"/theism, %as pushed out of vie%, the su#stitute %as Buddha, the perfect sa&e, the mode" ascetic, the patient and "ovin& teacher, the %onder2%or$in& ma&ician, the ac$no%"ed&ed superior of &ods and men. uch %as the conception %or$ed out #/ the !indoo mind to ta$e the p"ace of the o"d po"/theism of India, and accepted #/ a"" the Buddhist nations north of ha$/amuni5s #irthp"ace. In the histor/ of re"i&ions it is of extreme importance that this fact shou"d #e reco&nised and appreciated.

Footnotes HSB Durin& his residence in Nepau". Of these %or$s, the Lotus&o+&the&-ood p. C Law, in Chinese #iau-+a-lien-hwa-king, has #een trans"ated #/ Burnouf, ,aris, BEDH. The Rev. . Bea", ,rofessor of Chinese in Universit/ Co""e&e, )ondon, has trans"ated from Chinese *&Catena&o+&)uddhist&Scriptures, and The&Romantic&Legend&o+& S.kya&)uddha.

CSB Of these %or$s tanis"as 4u"ien has trans"ated Les&*/adanas, consistin& of ta"es and apo"o&ues. BEDT. FSB ha2%ei %as on the north of the 1an&es, a#out HGG mi"es a#ove Benares. It is a"so %ritten hravasti. ("" the upper part of the va""e/ of the 1an&es %as em#raced in %hat %as $no%n as Centra" India. FSH This anscrit %ord is pronounced accordin& to KJan&2hi )i-ku. The ortho&raph/ here adopted for Chinese and anscrit %ords, a&rees near"/ %ith that of ir T. >ade and of the *rench %riters on $indred su#3ects. *or ou, the oo of .orrison, u is here %ritten. DSB In modern Chinese the t is dropped and the a ?a in father@ chan&ed to o. In anscrit the %ord is p.tra. ASB ( tit"e of BuddhaSh-tsun in anscrit, Lok0s1/arar."a ?+ite"5s Hand(ook&o+&Chinese&)uddhism@, or Lokad"yeshta, v. Remusat5s #2langes&*siati3ues, vo". i. p. BAF. ASH 4ulai is the Chinese trans"ation of Tatha&ata. It means "itera""/ 8thus come,8 and is exp"ained, 8#rin&in& human nature as it tru"/ is, %ith perfect $no%"ed&e and hi&h inte""i&ence, he comes and manifests himse"f.8 ASC These %ords are pronounced in o"d Chinese a&nu-ta-la&sam-mia&sam-(o-di, and in .andarin a&neu-to-lo&san-miau&san-pu-ti. ASF >ithout remainder, 5u-y. ASD 6it is trans"ated #/ the commentator 8&o out if,8 and (an, 8harassment.8 B/ the *rench ino"o&ues it is identified %ith Nirv9na, the happ/ condition of perfect rest at %hich the !indoos aim. The dictionar/ Ching-ts7-tung, sa/s, that 8the p. K Chinese e:uiva"ent of this anscrit term is, to announce that he is at rest, and that it is app"ied to descri#e the death of Buddha, #ecause his is not a true death "i$e that of other men, %hose tsing-shin ?sou"@ does not die.8 The sound (an %as se"ected, it ma/ #e, #/ a !indoo %ho pronounced the %ord Nir#ana. It is ca""ed in some trans"ations Nir%an. The !indoo trans"ator %ou"d pronounce Nir%ana. The Chinese character used for ni %as ca""ed nit in some parts of China, and nir in others.

NextS Chapter IS )ife of ha$/amuni Ti"" !is (ppearance at Benares as a Teacher acred Texts Buddhism Index ,revious Next

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A LIFE OF BUDDHA

IN FOUR CHAPTERS.

CHAPTER I.

LIFE OF SHAKYAMUNI TILL HIS APPEARANCE AT BENARES AS A TEACHER. ,revious "ivesChrono"o&/The seventh BuddhaBirth+ar"/ "ifeBecomes a hermitBecomes Buddha)e&endar/ stories of his ear"/ preachin& Hwa-yenking+xtramundane teachin&(ppearance at Benares. IN examinin& the Buddhist %ritin&s, the reader is at once reminded that he has entered a fie"d %here he is deprived of the trust%orth/ &uidance and carefu" adherence to facts and dates of native Chinese authors. Not on"/ is this true of %or$s that contain the %i"der extrava&ances of Indian m/tho"o&/, and introduce the %onderin& discip"e to the scener/ and inha#itants of num#er"ess other %or"ds, even those that %ear an historica" "oo$, and /ie"d the most information, do not fai" thus to #etra/ their forei&n ori&in. The doctrine of transmi&rations, and an eterna" succession of $a"pas past and future, is temptin& to the #io&rapher %ho %ishes for variet/ of incident. !e can p"ace his hero %herever he p"eases, in the universe #ound"ess in space and time of the Indian ima&ination. The founder of Buddhism, ha$/amuni, or the 8 a&e of the house of ha$/a,8 is a case in point. It is said of him that #efore his #irth more than t%o thousand /ears since in the present kalpa, he had durin& man/ previous ones ta$en re"i&ious vo%s, p. BH and honoured the Buddhas %ho then instructed the %or"d. !is name is associated particu"ar"/ %ith Dipan$ara, in Chinese, 4anten&, a fictitious Buddha, %ho received him as his discip"e, and foreto"d that he %ou"d in a su#se:uent $a"pa #ecome Buddha, and #ear the name #/ %hich he is no% $no%n. The time %hen this happened %as too "on& a&o to #e expressed #/ common Chinese numera"s. It %as at a distance of num#er"ess $a"pas. B In modern Chinese temp"es, an ima&e #ehind that of 4u"ai sometimes represents 4anten&. In the $a"pa immediate"/ precedin& the present, ha$/a is said to have risen to the ran$ of Bodhisatt%a. !e %as then #orn in the heaven ca""ed Tushita, H and %hen the time %as come his sou" descended to our %or"d. !e came on a %hite e"ephant havin& six tus$s. The date of ha$/a5s #irth is ver/

various"/ &iven. The iamese, ,e&uans, and in&ha"ese, a"" usin& the ,a"i versions of the Buddhist c"assics, differ amon& themse"ves. The num#ers as stated #/ them are B.C. KFF, ACE, and AHF. C The Chinese historian, .a T%an2"in, mentions t%o dates as assi&ned #/ various authorities to this event, viR., BGHK and AAE. The former is %hat is common"/ &iven in Chinese #oo$s. Burnouf ri&ht"/ prefers the chrono"o&/ of the outhern Buddhists. Their discrepancies #et%een themse"ves form an o#3ection, #ut not at a"" a fata" one, to such a conc"usion. The uncertaint/ that invo"ves this :uestion is an instance of the difficu"t/ attendin& researches in Indian chrono"o&/ and histor/, as contrasted %ith the fu"ness and accurac/ of Chinese %riters. >hat %as the ori&ina" "an&ua&e of Buddhism is another point not /et fu""/ determined. The sett"ement of it %ou"d thro% "i&ht on the chrono"o&/. On"/ one of the dates can #e ri&ht, for there is no dou#t as p. BC to Buddha5s identit/. If anscrit %as the "an&ua&e in %hich he tau&ht his discip"es, it must have #een 3ust d/in& out at the time, for the o"d Buddhist inscriptions, in the countries %atered #/ the 1an&es, are in a dia"ect derived from the anscrit and differin& "itt"e from ,a"i. The mother2ton&ue of the !indoos must then have #een a"read/ supp"anted #/ a derived dia"ect in the time of (shX$a, $in& of Centra" India, %ho rei&ned near ,atna, as #oth the Northern and outhern Buddhists inform us, a#out BDG or HGG /ears after Buddha5s death. It is to his a&e that those monuments are ascri#ed. ,erhaps a discussion as to %hether the anscrit or ,a"i versions of the sacred #oo$s %ere the ear"ier, ma/ have "ed to a desi&ned a"terin& of dates #/ the Northern or outhern schoo" of Buddhism. The deception %as an e"a#orate one, #/ %hichever part/ it %as practised, for the interva" from the death of Buddha unti" modern times is in the %ritin&s of #oth schoo"s fi""ed up #/ a series of events and dates. B The "ives of some of the patriarchs, as &iven in Chinese #oo$s, appear too "on&. (nanda, a favourite discip"e of Buddha, is made to die ei&ht/2three /ears after him. Of his successors in the office of patriarch, the first t%o he"d it for sixt/2t%o and sixt/2six /ears respective"/. The avera&e of the first fourteen patriarchs is more than fift/2t%o /ears to each. >ithout for&ettin& the simp"e and a#stemious ha#its of these ancient ascetics, their "ives must #e re&arded as pro"on&ed #e/ond pro#a#i"it/. ,erhaps the most convincin& ar&ument for the c"aim of the ,a"i to #e that %hich %as spo$en #/ Buddha himse"f, is that the ascertained interva" #et%een him and (shX$a is too short for the formation of a ne% "an&ua&e. The %or$ ca""ed San-kiau-yi-su H p"aces the Buddha ca""ed ha$/amuni in the seventh p"ace amon& those %hom p. BF it commemorates as havin&, on account of their perfect en"i&htenment, received that tit"e. The "ist #e&ins %ith the ninet/2ei&hth Buddha of a precedin& kalpa. !e is ca""ed the Bi#a Buddha. The t%o next, %ho are supposed to "ive to%ard the c"ose of the same vast period of time, are ca""ed hM2chM and Baishevu. The three first Buddhas of the present $a"pa are said to have #een named Ku"usan, Kunashemuni, and Kashiapa. In >ard5s #ythology&o+&the&Hindoos, it is said, 8The Buddhists assi&n to their hero ten incarnations, and desi&nate the histories of these incarnations #/ the names of ten !indoo sa&es.8 But the true histor/ of the re"i&ion #e&ins %ith ha$/amuni. >here a"" is fictitious, it matters not ver/ much %hether the precedin& six Buddhas %ere incarnations of ha$/amuni Buddha, or %ere separate in their persona"it/. There appears to #e no &round for #e"ievin& in an/ Buddhism #efore Buddha. 1iven a hero, it is eas/ to invent for him six pre"iminar/ "ives, or six predecessors in the same di&nit/. One %ou"d "i$e to $no% %hether the .ohammedan series of seven sa&es, se"ected out of the 4e%ish and Christian criptures, from (dam to Christ, is imitated from this !indoo series of seven sa&es. The effects of the teachin& of each of the past Buddhas are recorded. The most ancient of the seven is said to have saved CF,EGG men. The fi&ures diminish, step #/ step, to HG,GGG, the num#er attri#uted to the immediate predecessor of the historica" Buddha. The names of the most faithfu", and a"so the t%o proficient discip"es, are &iven in the case of each Buddha. The cit/ in %hich the/ "ived is a"so mentioned, and the tree under %hich the/ %ere fond of de"iverin& instruction. The favourite cit/ of ha$/amuni %as hravasti, and his tree, the Bodhi tree. !is discip"es %ere too man/ to num#er. !is faithfu" discip"e %as Rahu"a, his son, and his t%o most proficient pupi"s %ere hariputra and .aud&a"/a/ana. The true histor/ of the Buddhist re"i&ion #e&ins %ith p. BD ;para&raph continues< ha$/amuni. !e %as the son of uddhodana, $in& of the cit/ Kapi"avastu, near the #oundar/ of Nepau". The $in& of Kapi"avastu %as su#3ect to the $in& of .a&adha, a countr/ in outhern Bahar, to %hich the 1an&es provinces %ere then tri#utar/. uddhodana is ca""ed in Chinese Tsin&2 +an8!e %ho eats food freed from impurities.8 Buddha %as #orn B.C. AHC, and attained the ran$ of Buddha at thirt/2five /ears of a&e, in B.C. DEE, the sixteenth /ear of the rei&n of Bim#isara. !e died at sevent/2 nine, in the ei&hth /ear of the rei&n of (3atashatru, B.C. DFC. These are Ce/"onese dates, and are, sa/s Turnour, too "ate #/ sixt/2five /ears. (ccordin& to the iamese and Birmese chrono"o&/, the #irth and death of Buddha are assi&ned to the /ears B.C. ADC and B.C. AHE. Koeppen prefers the former dates, on the &round that the/ are usua""/ accepted #/ the outhern Buddhists, and the date of the Nirv9na is sanctioned #/ a ver/ extended officia" use. !e su&&ests that the Buddhists of China and other northern countries %ere inf"uenced #/ the prophec/ uttered #/ ha$/amuni, %hich stated that his doctrines %ou"d spread in China a thousand /ears after his death. It %as in (.D. AF that Buddhism entered China. The Nirv9na, therefore, shou"d have its date a thousand /ears ear"ier. *rom this %e ma/ understand %h/ the Chinese Buddhists p"ace the "ife of Buddha so much ear"ier than do their #rother #e"ievers in the south. Koeppen a"so remar$s that Ce/"on %as converted to Buddhism much ear"ier than countries north of India, and that historica" events are, therefore, more "i$e"/ to #e correct"/ recorded in Ce/"on. The events in Buddha5s "ife %ere fresher in remem#rance %hen the ear"/ Buddhist "iterature of Ce/"on %as compi"ed, than %hen Buddhism spread in China and other northern countries. The accepted date in China for Buddha5s #irth is B.C. BGHK. !is name %as iddharta, and that of his mother %as .a/a. he died ten da/s after his #irth. The :uestion in re&ard to this date is thus treated #/ the author of Fo-tsu-tung-ki. !e first &ives six &rounds for acceptin& p. BA the o"der chrono"o&/. B. ( portent in the /ear B.C. BGHK. (ccordin& to a %or$ ca""ed Cheu-shu-yi-ki, a #ri&ht "i&ht of five co"ours %as seen to pierce the conste""ation Tai2%ei, and pass over the %ho"e %est. On seein& it, the historian u -eu remar$ed that a &reat sa&e %as #orn in the %est. event/2nine /ears "ater, a %hite rain#o% %as seen, havin& t%e"ve stripes stretchin& from south to north. The historian !u To, seein& it, said, 8It is the si&n of the death of a &reat sa&e in the %est.8 H. Kashiapmadan&a said to the !an emperor, .in&2ti, %ho introduced Buddhism into China, that it %as in the /ear B.C. BGHK, on the ei&hth da/ of the fourth month, that Buddha %as #orn. C. The statement of the third Chinese patriarch in the sixth centur/, that it %as in the fift/2first /ear of the c/c"e, on the fourth month and ei&hth da/. F. (nother ear"/ %or$ of a Chinese Buddhist &ives the /ear B.C. BGHK, the month and da/ a&reein&. D. The same is true of a statement #/ a Buddhist in the History&o+& the&5ei, an imperia" %or$. A. +ar"/ in the seventh centur/, the emperor TJai2tsun& ordered an investi&ation into the date of Buddha5s #irth. )ieu Te2%ei, a minister of tate, in:uired of a famous Buddhist named *a2"in the reason of the discrepanc/ in the current accounts. The conse:uence %as that *a2"in sett"ed it to #e B.C. BGHK. The same author proceeds to &ive severa" other epochs, #e"ieved in #/ as man/ authorities. B. Inscription on a stone pi""ar. This &ives B.C. KBE. H. The statement of the

pi"&rim *a2hien, B.C. BBTK. C. The statement of the %or$ Siang-cheng-ki, B.C. KDC. F. (nother statement p"aces it in the time of !ia2$ie, B.C. BEGG. The fifth authorit/, Chung-sheng-tien-ki, &ives the date B.C. FDK. The sixth states that B.C. AEK %as the /ear in :uestion, and that then, accordin& to the Tso-chwen, there %as a sho%er of fa""in& stars. This phenomenon is supposed to indicate Buddha5s #irth. ( "earned Buddhist, Ku2shan, ar&ues that the #irth must have ta$en p"ace in the second month of the modern Chinese ca"endar, #ecause in the Cheu p. BK d/nast/ the /ear #e&an t%o months "ater. To this the defenders of the orthodox Chinese vie% sa/ in rep"/, that in three utras the #irth of Buddha is said to have ta$en p"ace in the fourth month, and as the/ %ere a"" trans"ated since the modern ca"endar %as adopted, a centur/ #efore the Christian era, it is not open to us to sa/ that it too$ p"ace in the second month. (t fifteen /ears of a&e he %as, in an assem#"/ of no#"es and Brahmans, forma""/ invested %ith the ran$ of heir2apparent. The no#"es presented to his ro/a" father #asins fi""ed %ith %ater from the four seas, and ornamented %ith the seven precious thin&s. The/ a"so sprin$"ed %ater on the prince5s head, and &ave him the sea" of the seven precious thin&s. (t seventeen he %as married to a Brahman maiden of the ha$/a fami"/ ca""ed -ashodara. !e %as tau&ht in his /outh ever/ possi#"e accomp"ishment, and %as supp"ied %ith a"" the de"i&hts that hi&h position and riches cou"d afford, #ut he soon "earned to despise them. (t ei&hteen /ears of a&e he "eft the pa"ace to visit certain p"easure &ardens and &roves. ,assin& the east &ate of the cit/ he sa% there a Deva %ho had assumed the form of an o"d man, %ith %hite hairs and croo$ed #ac$. !e thou&ht sad"/ on the rapidit/ %ith %hich men &ro% o"d. The/ #ecome a&ed "i$e "i&htnin&, and /et are not afraid. 1oin& out a&ain, the same divinit/ presented himse"f at the south &ate in the dis&uise of a sic$ man, %ith "an&uid features and s%e""ed paunch. (t the %est &ate he sa% a dead man, and the mem#ers of his fami"/ "au&hin& as the/ fo""o%ed him to the &rave. !e %ent out once more, and sa% at the north &ate a #e&&in& priest, a Bi$shu in fact. !e %ore the &ar# of an ascetic, and carried a #o%". ( staff %as in his hand. The prince as$ed him %ho he %as. !e rep"ied, 8I am a Bi$shu, practisin& sacred duties, and a"%a/s o#tainin& the re%ard of freedom from action.8 (s he finished these %ords he rose into the air, and %as soon out of si&ht. The prince thou&ht, 8I fear p. BE "est I ma/ #e pressed do%n #/ o"d a&e, sic$ness, death, the miseries I have %itnessed. This Bi$shu has arrived at the perception of m/ fee"in&s. !e sho%s me the path of de"iverance.8 *rom this time the prince #e&an to desire the ascetic "ife. (t t%ent/2five /ears o"d he sou&ht an intervie% %ith his father, and said, 8Kindness and affection, mu"tip"ied as the/ ma/ #e, "ead #ut to partin&s. (""o% me to enter on the ascetic "ife, that I ma/ "earn %hat %isdom is.8 !is father tried in vain to detain him. On the seventh da/ of the second month the prince, %hi"e ref"ectin& on the "ife of the rec"use, emitted from his #od/ a "i&ht %hich shone to a"" the pa"aces of the Devas. These #ein&s then $ne% that iddharta had #ecome a rec"use, and came to con&ratu"ate him. !e as$ed their aid, and "eft his father5s pa"ace in the ni&ht2time under their escort, reso"ved to #e a hermit, and sa/in&, 8If the ei&ht miseries8viR., #irth, death, sic$ness, "ove, hatred, Oc.8#e not a#andoned, %isdom cannot #e attained.8 !e refused to return to his father5s pa"ace, and "ived on the !ima"a/a .ountains in so"itar/ spots, tr/in& various methods to attain menta" satisfaction, #ut in vain. !e "ived on hemp and #ar"e/, and assua&ed his thirst %ith sno%, ti"" at thirt/ /ears of a&e he came to the perception of the true condition and %ants of man$ind. 8!e si&hed, and said, 5It is stran&e that a"" men %hi"e the/ have %ithin them 4ulai ?the capacit/ of perceivin& the true nature of "ife and %or"d"/ phenomena@, and possess $no%"ed&e and virtue as the ori&ina" propert/ of their nature, shou"d #e entan&"ed #/ deceptive thou&hts and remain in i&norance of these thin&s.5 (fter this he "ived fort/2nine /ears, and de"ivered thirt/2five discourses of specia" importance.8 There %ere, durin& Buddha5s "ife, five principa" periods of instruction. I. The time of de"iverin& the Hwa-yen-king.The scene %as most"/ in the paradises of the Devas, and the audience %as composed of m/tho"o&ica" persona&es. This p. BT %as the first &rand out#urst of Buddhist thou&ht, and it #e"on&s to the 81reater deve"opment.8 II. The deer &arden period.Buddha no% #ecomes historica". !is teachin& and his audience are human. This is the period of instruction in the four miseries, examp"es of %hich %e have in the Sutra&o+&Forty-two&Sections, and other %or$s. III. The teachin& of s:uareness and e:ua"it/Q%here a"" the princip"es of ha$/amuni5s phi"osoph/ appear in s/mmetr/, as in the Leng-yen-king. I0. The period of the ,ra3na.!ere ha$/amuni #ecomes most co"d"/ metaph/sica", and expounds the doctrine of sa"vation for man and a"" "ivin& #ein&s in the triumphant tone of an ic/ "o&ic. The miseries of societ/ are to #e terminated #/ minute hair2sp"ittin& and #e"ief in certain profound a#stractions, %hich, after a"" that ma/ #e said for them, are simp"/ impossi#i"ities. 0. The c"osin& period of Buddha5s pu#"ic "ife inc"uded the announcement of the )otus of the 1ood )a%, and the doctrine of Nirv9na. !ere, in prospect of death, the %armth of human fee"in& returns. ha$/amuni #ecomes s/mpathetic and touchin&, as in the da/s of /outh %hen he founded the !indoo monastic societies, and %hen, as an enthusiastic preacher, he visited one after another the &reat cities of Oude and Bahar. (t first Buddha appeared "i$e the sun in the east i""uminatin& the tops of the %estern hi""s. Bodhisatt%as from immense distances %ere attracted, and came to reco&nise him as the teacher %hose instructions %ou"d &uide man$ind to the hi&hest truth. This %as the !%a2/en period. Next the sun shone on the va""e/s, and then upon the %ide p"ains. (fter the Bodhisatt%as had #een tau&ht, the first discip"es of the human race, the Shramanas, or 8"isteners,8 %ere instructed in the va""e/s, and then a"" man$ind in the p"ains. The chan&es of mi"$ are referred to in i""ustration. The first teachin& %as "i$e mi"$ fresh from the co%. There are four su#se:uent p. HG sta&es, cream, ordinar/ #utter, rich #utter, and the oi" %hich appears on the surface in the "ast #oi"in& process. In .on&o"ia and North China mi"$ is #oi"ed to ma$e #utter. The !%a2/en doctrine is descri#ed a"so as tun, 8an a#rupt out#urst.8 The teachin& of the Bi$shus is 8&radua" and e"ementar/8 ?tsien@, proceedin& step #/ step from the )ook&o+&the&Forty-two&Sections to the Leng-yen, or 8 :uare and e:ua",8 and from thence to the !ra"na&paramita. Be/ond that, in the "ater /ears of his "ife, Buddha

unfo"ded the 8secret8 ?pi-mi@ and 8unfixed8 ?pu-ting@ aspects of his doctrine. The scene of the de"iver/ of the Hwa-yen utra %as "aid in nine p"aces. The first %as under the )odhi tree of *ranya in the $in&dom of .a&adha. This is different from the )odhi tree of the *gama utras of the ma"" Deve"opment schoo". *ranya is 8%i"d,8 8a :uiet p"ace,8 8#e"on&in& to the %oodsQ8 and *ranyakah 8a forester,8 8a hermit,8 8"ivin& in sec"usion8 ?see +ite"@. The addition of ka mar$s an a&ent. Before Buddha5s time, and durin& his /outh, the hermit "ife had a"read/ #ecome a fashion in India. !e %ou"d, %hen a /oun& and enthusiastic hermit, find himse"f more at home %ith men of this c"ass than an/ other. In some &reen &"ade of the forests that s$irt the mi&ht/ !ima"a/as, ha$/amuni is pictured #/ his northern fo""o%ers %ith num#er"ess m/tho"o&ica" persona&es assem#"ed #efore him. ,Ju2hien, or, as he is ca""ed in anscrit, Samanta(hadra, is the principa" spea$er. !e is one of the fa#u"ous Bodhisatt%as. .an3usiri, another, fo""o%s hit. The scene is then sudden"/ chan&ed to the paradises of the Devas. Indra receives Buddha in one of his pa"aces B p. HB on the umeru .ountain, and utters an encomium upon him in a speech in %hich he states that Kashiapa Buddha had discoursed on the same spot. !e is fo""o%ed #/ ten Bodhisatt%as, %ho a"" spea$ in praise of Buddha5s %isdom. Buddha is next found in the heaven of -ama, the Indian ,"uto, and after this in that ca""ed Tushita, "itera""/ 8the happ/,8 %here his mother .a/a resides. (fter this, the scene of the instructions and encomiums of the Bodhisatt%as in the presence of Buddha is transferred to other Deva paradises, %here Indra and other &ods of the Brahmanica" m/tho"o&/ ho"d conference %ith them. )ast of a"", at the c"ose of this "on& utra, the scene is "aid in the &arden of 4eta as in the 8 utra of the Diamond,8 Kin-kang-king. hariputra and other discip"es are there #/ anticipation, #ut do not see Buddha, nor the ma&nificent assem#"a&e of Bodhisatt%as. Before the assem#"/ #rea$s up, .an3usiri ta$es his fare%e"" of Buddha, and sets forth on a south%ard 3ourne/ amon& man$ind. hariputra and AGGG Bi$shus %ent to him for instruction. !e exhorted them to practise the duties of the Bodhisatt%as, that the/ mi&ht o#tain the samadhi of fau"t"ess vision, and see the Buddha re&ions and a"" the Buddhas. .an3usiri then proceeded to the 8cit/ of happiness,8 on the east of %hich he met the /outh fami"iar"/ $no%n amon& the Northern Buddhists as han2tsJai2tJun&2tsi, %ho #ecame his discip"e and "earned from him the $no%"ed&e of Bodhi. !e a"so traversed outhern India, %here he tau&ht in BBG cities. ha$/amuni himse"f sa/s ver/ "itt"e in the course of this utra. It is intended rather for deve"opin& the m/tho"o&/ of the &reat Bodhisatt%as. (s such, it is hi&h"/ va"ued in China, %here the ima&es of >en2shu ?.an3usiri@ and ,Ju2hien are common in the temp"es. ,Ju2hien in one speech mentions China under the name Chen2 tan, B as a p. HH re&ion %here man/ Bodhisatt%as have #een en&a&ed in past times in instructin& the peop"e. But the time had arrived %hen ha$/amuni must #ecome a teacher of man$ind, and %e no% find him sudden"/ ma$in& his appearance at Benares. )e&end havin& reso"ved to exa"t ha$/amuni to the utmost extent of her resources, #usied herse"f particu"ar"/ %ith the /ear %hen he attained that perfect vision of truth %hich is ca""ed the state of Buddha. !e had passed six /ears in the exercises of severe a#stinence and meditation. One da/ he thou&ht, 8I had #etter eat, "est the heretics shou"d sa/ that Nirv9na is attained in famishin& the #od/. )et me eat, and then attain to perfect $no%"ed&e.8 !e %ent to the Nairan3ana river to #athe. !ere a shepherdess &ave him food %hich sudden"/ &re% on a "otus2f"o%er at her feet. !e too$ it, and fe"t his stren&th return. !e %ent to sit under a #an/an tree ?,ippa"a@, or tree of Bodhi. The &od Indra #rou&ht him a stra% seat. !e sat here, reso"ved not to move ti"" the transformation he %as a#out to under&o shou"d #e comp"eted. The $in& of the .aras, perceivin& that the %a""s and foundations of his pa"ace %ere sha$in&, thou&ht in himse"f, 81autama is no% attainin& perfect $no%"ed&e. Before he has reached the hei&ht of %isdom, I %i"" &o and trou#"e him.8 !e %ent %ith #o% and arro%s, and attendant demons, to the tree %here the o#3ect of his attac$ %as sittin&. !e then addressed him8Bodhisatt%aW &ive up the monastic princip"e ?chu-kia&+a@, and #ecome a 5%hee" $in&.5 B If /ou rise not, I %i"" shoot m/ darts at /ou.8 The Bodhisatt%a %as unmoved. The darts, as the/ fe"", #ecame "otus f"o%ers. The $in& of the .aras then offered him his three dau&hters to attend on him. ha$/amuni said, 8-ou attained, #/ a sma"" act of virtue, the #od/ p. HC of a Deva. -ou thin$ not on the perishin&, #ut see$ to tempt me. -ou ma/ "eave meQ I need /ou not.8 The $in& of the .aras a&ain said, 8I %i"" resi&n to /ou m/ throne as a Deva, %ith the instruments of a"" the five p"easures.8 8No,8 rep"ied the Bodhisatt%a, 8/ou attained the ran$ of Ish%ara #/ some charita#"e deed. But this happiness has an end. I %ish it not.8 (n arm/ of spirits no% issued from the &round and re#u$ed the tempter, %ho, as his "ast device, summoned a host of demons to assau"t the uncon:uera#"e /outh. The air %as fi""ed %ith &rim faces, &nashin& teeth, and #rist"in& spears. The Bodhisatt%a "oo$ed on this scene as if it %ere chi"d5s p"a/. ( spirit in the air %as no% sudden"/ heard to sa/, 8The Bodhisatt%a attains this da/, under the Bodhi tree, the perfection of $no%"ed&e. !ere stands the diamond throne of man/ past Buddhas. It is not for /ou to distur# him. Cease /our hosti"it/, and %ait upon him %ith respect.8 The $in& of the .aras then returned to his pa"ace. It %as on the seventh da/ of the second month that ha$/amuni, after this victor/, attained the ran$ of Buddha. This is descri#ed as enterin& into a state of reverie, emittin& a #ri&ht "i&ht, and ref"ectin& on the four modes of truth. B It is added, that he comes to the comp"ete $no%"ed&e of the unrea"it/ of a"" he once $ne% as &ood and evi" actin&, "on& and short "ife, and the five paths of the metemps/chosis, "eadin& a"" "ivin& #ein&s into a perpetua" interchan&e of sorro% and 3o/. (s the mornin& star of the ei&hth da/ of the month appeared, he sudden"/ a%o$e to this consciousness, and attained the perfect vie% of the hi&hest truth. (s soon as ha$/amuni had risen from the state of p. HF ;para&raph continues< ,Jusa to that of *o, the assem#"/ of the fort/2one &reat teachers em#od/in& the "a%, and of innumera#"e Devas, Na&as, and other supernatura" #ein&s, &athered round him, as the c"ouds &ather round the moon.

To them he discoursed, as a"read/ descri#ed, in the Hwa-yen-king. >hi"e he %as meditatin& on the hope"essness of attemptin& the instruction of man$ind, none #ut a Buddha #ein& a#"e to comprehend %hat Buddha $ne%, it first appeared #etter that he shou"d enter at once into the Nirv9na. But from this %ish he %as dissuaded #/ Brahma and Indra, %ho came to intercede for morta"s, and induce Buddha to #ecome a pu#"ic teacher. Durin& seven da/s he received in si"ence Brahma5s entreaties. In the second %ee$ he ref"ected on the sufferin&s and sorro%s of man. In the third %ee$, he said, 8I ou&ht to open the &ate of the s%eet "a%. >ho shou"d first hear itL The hermit (rara, %ho desired the perfect $no%"ed&e of truthL )et me first save him.8 ( voice in the air said, 8!e died /esterda/.8 (&ain he thou&ht, 8Then "et the hermit Na"ana #e the first.8 The voice a&ain said, 8!e died "ast ni&ht.8 !e thou&ht once more, 8The five messen&ers sent #/ the minister of state had a "i$e %ish. )et them first hear the "a%.8 Buddha accordin&"/ set out for Benares. On the %a/, he sat #/ a poo" in a state of samadhi for seven da/s. ( #"ind Na&a ?sna$e or dra&on@ that "a/ in the poo" fe"t the "i&ht that shone from Buddha restore his vision. !e came out of the %ater, %as transformed into a /outh, and received the vo%s as a discip"e. On the seventh da/ of the third month, the spirit of the tree under %hich Buddha had for seven da/s #een in a state of samadhi, too$ notice of Buddha5s "on& a#stinence from food. *ive hundred trave""in& merchants passed at the moment, and the oxen that dre% their %a&&ons proved una#"e to pu"" the vehic"es over the o#stac"es that "a/ in the road. T%o of the merchants came to the tree to as$ p. HD the spirit5s aid. The spirit advised them of the presence of Buddha near the poo", and said the/ shou"d offer him food. The/ &ave him #ar"e/ mixed %ith hone/. The four $in&s of the Devas ?%ho are seen in the front ha"" of Buddhist temp"es@ too$ from the mountain stones four s%eet2sme""in& #o%"s, %hich the/ found there #/ a happ/ chance. In these the/ offered the food. Buddha too$ a"" the #o%"s, for fear of &ivin& offence to an/ of the $in&s. !e then pi"ed them up on his "eft hand, and, %ith his ri&ht ?#/ ma&ica" manipu"ation@, formed them into one, ho"din& it so that a"" present mi&ht see it. Then, after utterin& a charm, he ate the food, and proceeded at once to administer the vo%s to the t%o merchants, %ho, %ith their companions, a"" attained hi&h &rades in Buddhist $no%"ed&e. Buddha, in this instance, imposed on the neoph/tes the ordinar/ five prohi#itions suited for men and Devas. This must #e re&arded, therefore, as e8oteric teachin&. But as the &rade attained %as hi&h in proportion to the amount of trainin&, it #e"on&s so far to the unfixed or ar#itrar/ division of the exoteric doctrine Hien-lu-ch-pu-tingkiau, 8manifested, and not fixed teachin&.8 It is at this point in ha$/a5s #io&raph/ that a ne% section #e&ins. .an$ind %ere not at this time in a state to receive the doctrine of the 1reater deve"opment, and Buddha must #e content to "eave the #ri""iant"/2i""uminated re&ions of the &reat Bodhisatt%as and shine upon the retired va""e/s, %here he %i"", #/ a &radua" process of teachin&, reform and ma$e happ/ such &roups as he ma/ meet of ordinar/ morta"s in their %retchedness and deso"ation. !e %i"", for the time, postpone his more e"evated discourses, and proceed to Benares to teach the rudiments of his s/stem. The shinin& ro#es of the reco&nised Buddha must #e exchan&ed for the tattered &ar# of the ascetic. This is to him a temporar/ dis&uise. p. HA The Northern schoo", %ith a"" the "ooseness of its chrono"o&/, professes &reat exactness in dates. .onth. H Y C Y Y Da/. E HT A K E +vent. ha$/amuni #ecomes Buddha. Teaches the !%a2/en doctrine. In reverie #/ the poo". Receives food from the merchants. In the &arden at Benares.

In these dates, sa/s the #io&rapher, interva"s of three, four, and five %ee$s ma/ #e o#served.

Footnotes BHSB *-send-gi-kap. The anscrit %ord *sankhy. means 8innumera#"e.8 Kalpa is app"ied to periods of time var/in& from a fe% hundreds to man/ thousand /ears. BHSH Tushita no% pronounced Tushto. BHSC ee K"aproth5s Li+e&o+&)uddha, and Turnour5s 98amination&o+&the&!ali&)uddhistical&*nnals. BCSB The su&&estion of Turnour to account for the sixt/2five /ears discrepanc/ of the in&ha"ese and 1ree$ dates is, that dates %ere a"tered to reconci"e Buddha5s prophecies %ith facto. This thro%s "i&ht on the desi&n of the Northern Buddhists in antedatin& Buddha5s #irth #/ FFK /ears. BCSH San-kiau-yi-su, 8 upp"ementar/ account of the three re"i&ions.8

HGSB The Tau-li-tien, or 8!eaven of the num#er CCQ8 in anscrit, Triyastrimsas. umeru is pro#a#"/ +"#urR, an iso"ated mountain of the Caucasus ran&e, BE,GGG feet in hei&ht, and surrounded #/ "o% &round. The s/""a#"e su, "i$e el, is a prefix. If this supposition #e correct, the !indoo race, %hen formin& its "e&ends of the Deva %or"ds in their first form, must have "ived in the vicinit/ of the Caucasus. Su Z 9l: #e Z )u: Ru Z r. HBSB Hwa-yen-king, chap. xxvi. Tan means 8countr/,8 as in !indostan, (f&hanistan. HHSB ( $in& %ho ru"es the %or"d, and causes the %hee" of doctrine ever/%here to revo"ve. The &reat (shX$a %as a %hee" $in&. The %ord is Chakra/arti in anscrit, from Chakra, 8%hee",8 the s/m#o" of activit/, %hether of Buddha in preachin&, or of $in&s "i$e (shX$a in ru"in&. HCSB These are, Ku, 8miser/,8 Tsi, 8assem#"in&,8 #ie, 8destruction,8 and Tau, 8the path,8 consistin& in $no%"ed&e of miser/, truth, and oppressive restraints, the need of separation from the ties of passion, the possi#i"it/ of destro/in& the desires, and the path of sa"vation as re&ards the practica" Buddhist "ife.

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CHAPTER II.

LIFE OF BUDDHA FROM HIS APPEARANCE AS A TEACHER AT BENARES TO THE CONVERSION OF RAHULA. The four truths1odinia and his four companionsThe first monastic communit/The first "a/ #rotherConversion of five hundred fire %orshippers in the $in&dom of .a&adhaBuddha at Ra3a&riha(t hravasti, in 4eta5s &arden(ppoints punishments for crimes of mon$s1oes to see his father after t%e"ve /ears6 a#sence tor/ of his son Rahu"a. IT %as exact"/ thirt/2five da/s after his arrivin& at perfect %isdom that Buddha opened his pu#"ic "ife at Benares, #/ discoursin& to 1odinia and others on the four truths. 8-ou shou"d $no%,8 he said to his auditors, 8the fact of miser/ ?DUKJ(@, and the need of #ecomin& separated from the accumu"ation of entan&"ements caused #/ the passions ? (.UD(-(@. These t%o truths #e"on& to the %or"d from %hich /ou are no% exhorted to ta$e /our departure. -ou shou"d a"so experience the extinction of these miseries and entan&"ements ?NIROD(@, and the path of reformation ?.(R1(@. These t%o truths #e"on& to the monastic "ife on %hich /ou shou"d no% enter.8 !avin& these su#3ects to discourse on, Buddha %ent forth to appea" to the /outh of India, the hermits, the fo""o%ers of the Poroastrian fire2%orship, the Brahman %ho studied the 0edas, and to men of ever/ c"ass. The %hee" of doctrine revo"ved thrice. There %as first didactic statement, then exhortation, and "ast"/ appea" to evidence and persona" experience. The ima&e is that of &rindin&. The chaff and refuse are forced from the p. HE &ood f"our #/ repeated revo"utions of the %hee". The statement of facts, the ur&ent appea", and the proof are repeated in the incu"cation of each of the 8four truths.8 The %hee" of Buddhist preachin& %as thus made to perform t%e"ve revo"utions. B !avin& once "aunched the su#3ect under these four heads, it %as natura" that the !indoo minds of the time, fond as the/ %ere of dia"ectica" hair2sp"ittin&, shou"d ramif/ them into num#er"ess su#divisions. The/ ta"$ed of the ei&ht/2one states of miser/, the ei&ht/2ei&ht varieties of deception, the thirt/2seven methods of reformation, Oc. One of Buddha5s ear"iest converts %as 1odinia, %ho %as attracted #/ his teachin& upon the four truths, and attained the first &rade of c"ear vision. It %as at Benares, the ancient 0aranasi, in the .ri&adava &arden ?Lu-ye-yuen@, that this conversion and that of four others too$ p"ace. Thus #e&an the revo"vin& of the %hee" of the Buddhist "a%, %hich %as destined to spread the ne% doctrine over so %ide a portion of (sia, and to continue for so man/ centuries. These ne% discip"es as$ed to #e permitted to commence the mon$ish "ife. This ha$/a a""o%ed, sa/in&, 8Bi$shusW it is for /ou to ta$e off /our hair, %ear the $asha, and #ecome hramanas.8 !e discoursed of the non2permanence of human actions, of the emptiness of the externa" %or"d, the non2existence of the 9go, the de"iverance of the mind from thra"dom #/ the cessation of fau"ts, and the conse:uent attainment of the mora" and inte""ectua" ran$ of (rhan. 8Thus,8 adds the de"i&hted Buddhist historian, 8the %or"d for the first time had six (rhans, and ?inc"udin& the ne% doctrine@ the Three&!recious&;nes ?San&!au@. The first %as Buddha, the second %as the revo"vin& of the %hee" of the doctrine of the four truths ? $harma@, and the third %as the compan/ of the five (rhans ?Sanga@. >e"" mi&ht that &arden #e re&arded as the happ/ "and of men and Devas ?Tien@.8 p. HT This %as the foundation of the spiritua" communities of Buddhism. The Sanga, or assem#"/ of #e"ievers, distin&uished #/ common vo%s of a#stinence from marria&e,

from anima" food, and the occupations of socia" "ife, no% commenced. The an&arama and 0ihara, B or monastery, %as soon rendered necessar/ for the residence of the vo"untar/ c[no#ites, %ho dai"/ &re% in num#ers, and the &reatest socia" revo"ution that ever too$ p"ace in India %as fair"/ #e&un. oon after%ards, a /outh of &reat inte""i&ence sa% in the ni&ht2time a "i&ht. !e opened the door of the house, and %ent out in search of the "i&ht. !e soon reached Buddha5s &arden, %as tau&ht, #ecame an (rhan, and re:uested permission to ta$e the vo%s, to %hich Buddha at once consented. The father of this /outh came in search of him, and %as a"so tau&ht #/ Buddha. !e #ecame a convertQ %ith pur&ed vision too$ the vo%s of adherence to the Three ,recious Ones, and returned home to #ecome the first Up9sa$a, or "a/ #rother, $eepin& the ru"es, #ut "ivin& at his o%n house. It %as permitted to the neoph/te, if he preferred it, to continue in the position %hich he he"d in socia" "ife, and not to 3oin the monastic communit/. (s soon as the num#er had increased to fift/2six, another &reat step %as ta$en #/ ha$/amuni. !e #ro$e up the communit/, and dismissed a"" its mem#ers to trave" ever/%here, &ivin& instruction in the doctrine of the four miseries to a"" persons %ith %hom the/ met. This occupation %as connected %ith #e&&in& for food. (t this time the Buddhist communit/ had no propert/. It %as supported #/ the "i#era"it/ of the ne% mem#ers, or #/ the &ifts of rich persons. >hether the mon$s %ere in the monaster/ or upon their trave"s, the norma" mode of &ainin& support %as #/ the charit/ of nei&h#ours, of passers#/, of $in&s and no#"es, and a"" the $ind"/ disposed. The s/stem %as thus &radua""/, in the ear"/ /ears of ha$/amuni5s p. CG teachin&, assumin& the form it has ta$en in a"" Buddhist countries. .onastic vo%s, "ivin& in spiritua" communities, vo"untar/ povert/, and universa" preachin&these formed the #asis on %hich the &reat Buddhist structure %as erected. >e cannot #ut admire the %onderfu" practica" &enius of the man %ho conceived the s/stem, and carried it out %ith such triumphant success. In a fe% /ears India %as covered, throu&h the "a#ours of the Buddhist preachers, %ith f"ourishin& communities of mon$s, and in the coo" season of the /ear the Bi$shus, or re"i&ious mendicants, %ere ever/%here seen on the roads and in the cities teachin& the true path to the Nirv9na. (s ha$/amuni %as the first in time of the founders of monastic communities, so he surpassed them a"" in the ori&ina"it/ of his conceptions, in the success of his s/stem, and in the force of his inf"uence. The Buddhist preachers "eft their master, %ho proceeded from Benares to .a&adha. (t evenin& he s"ept in the house of U"uvi"va Kashiapa. !e there su#dued a fier/ sna$e, and administered to him the vo%s of adherence to Buddha, the )a%, and the ,riesthood. To produce an impression on Kashiapa5s mind, he enc"osed the sna$e in a rice #o%". Kashiapa %as sti"" deficient in $no%"ed&e, #ut from this time he ripened and pro&ressed visi#"/. On the #an$s of the Nairan3ana river, ha$/amuni had an intervie%, sa/s the "e&end, %ith his o"d enem/, the $in& of the .aras ?the Chinese mo in mo-kwei, 8devi"8@,%ho %ished to enter the Nirv9na. But Buddha refused his thrice repeated re:uest, on the &round that he %as not mentally&prepared for the chan&e. Thus, "e&end%hich %as never more active in inventin& %onderfu" stories a#out an/ one than a#out ha$/amunima$es him soverei&n over the most po%erfu" supernatura" #ein&s. !e did not, ho%ever, a"%a/s refuse app"icants for sa"vation from other %or"ds. !e is said to have &one up to the Tushita paradise to instruct his mother .a/a in the ne% "a%. p. CB On the #an$s of the same river, five hundred fire2%orshippers, after hearin& his discourse on the four miseries, #ecame (rhans, and thre% their imp"ements of %orship into the river. Their re"i&ionfre:uent"/ mentioned in ear"/ Buddhist histor/%as, as it %ou"d appear, propa&ated from ,ersia to India not "on& #efore the time of C/rus. In ,ersia, fire2%orship had #een added to the o"d .a&ian %orship of the heaven"/ #odies. But %hi"e it had triumphed throu&h Poroaster5s inf"uence in ,ersia, it %as destined to #e expe""ed from India #/ Buddhism. >ith these ne% converts, Buddha %ent to the cit/ of Ra3a&riha, and %as received there %ith perfect confidence and admiration. The $in& 0im#as9ra, (3atashatru5s father, B and a"" the principa" persons in the cit/, Brahmans, officers, and peop"e, #ecame his discip"es. The ruins of this cit/ are sti"" visited #/ the 4ains, at a spot sixteen mi"es south2%est of Bahar. H It %as the metropo"is of the .a&adha princes ti"" the era of (shX$a, the Buddhist monarch %ho ru"ed a"" India a#out t%o hundred /ears after the time of ha$/amuni. !ere Buddha tau&ht for man/ /ears, and received some of his most ce"e#rated discip"es, such as hariputra, .aud&a"/a/ana, and Kashiapa. (t this time Buddha #e&an to appoint the %earin& of the shangati, or upper ro#e, reachin& to the $nees. It is %orn outside the kasha, or "on& ro#e, %hich %as in use from the commencement of the monastic institute. Three /ears "ater, ha$/a %as invited to hravasti, to occup/ a house and &arden express"/ provided for him #/ the $in&5s e"dest son and a rich no#"e, as a"read/ descri#ed. It %as the 4etavana 0ihara, or .onaster/ of 4eta5s 1arden. !ere he %as in the $in&dom of Kosa"a, then ru"ed #/ ,rasena3itaQ %ho, %ith the chief. persons of inf"uence, %ere a"" in favour of the ne% doctrine. Buddha %as o#"i&ed to #ecome a "e&is"ator. (s thefts, assassination, and evi"2spea$in& occurred in his communit/, p. CH he made specia" ru"es for the punishment of such crimes ?Fo-tsu-tung-ki, iii. CG@. !is father sent a messen&er to him, after he had #een a#sent from home for t%e"ve /ears, to inform him that he %ished to see him, and to invite him to come for a visit. The messen&er %as a Brahmach9ri ?a re"i&ious student or o#server of Brahmanica" ru"es of purit/@, named Uda/a. On hearin& Buddha discourse, Uda/a at once attained to the state of (rhan ?)ohan@. Buddha no% reso"ved to &o to see his father, and attempt, #/ teachin&, to save #oth him and his mother. !e sent for%ard Uda/a to inform the $in&, and perform #efore him the ei&hteen chan&esa series of ma&ica" effects. The $in& %as de"i&hted, and %ent out of the cit/ thirteen mi"es, accompanied %ith an escort of ten thousand persons, to %e"come ha$/amuni, %ho %as conspicuous for his stature#ein& sixteen feet in hei&htand his #ri""iant &o"den co"our. !e appeared "i$e the moon amon& the c"ouds. (round him %ere man/ Brahmach9ri %ho had "on& #een in the %oods and mountains, and %hose #odies %ere #"ac$. The/ seemed "i$e those #"ac$2%in&ed #irds that f"/ round the purp"e2&o"den mountain. The $in& then ordered five hundred /ouths of distin&uished fami"ies to #ecome mon$s and attend on Buddha, "i$e phoenixes round .ount umeru. The hermit "ife in India preceded the monastic "ife. Buddha himse"f %as at first a hermit, "i$e the Brahmach9ri of the time. But %hi"e the/ aimed at the o"d Brahmanica" purit/, his mind s%e""ed %ith ne% thou&hts and aims. The/ %ere content to avoid the stains of a secu"ar "ife. !e %as #ent on savin& mu"titudes #/ teachin&. >hen Buddha %as come to see his father after t%e"ve /ears6 a#sence, his %ife #rou&ht his "itt"e son, Rahu"a, to see him. The #o/ %as 3ust six /ears o"d, and the courtiers dou#ted if Buddha %as his father. Buddha said to the dou#ters, 8-ashodara has #een true to her dut/. I %i"" &ive proof of it.8 !e then, #/ his ma&ica" po%er, caused the mon$s present a"" to #ecome Buddhas in p. CC

appearance. -ashodara then too$ a si&net rin& and &ave it to the #o/, sa/in& to him, 8This is /our father5sQ &ive it to him.8 Rahu"a too$ it and &ave it at once to Buddha. The $in& and a"" the courtiers said, 81oodW this #o/ is tru"/ the son of Buddha.8 B

Footnotes HESB Sh-er-hing-+a-lun. HTSB Sanga, 8assem#"/Q8 ar.ma, 8&ardenQ8 <ih.ra, 8a p"ace for %a"$in& a#out in.8 CBSB *rom <im(a, 8shado%Q8 s.ra, 8stren&th.8 In o"d Chinese, )im(asala. CBSH +ite"5s Hand(ook&o+&Chinese&)uddhism. CCSB Other stories ta$e the p"ace of this in .r. Bea"5s trans"ation of The&Romantic&Legend&o+&S.kya&)uddha.

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CHAPTER III.

FROM THE COMMENCEMENT OF RAHULA'S RELIGIOUS LIFE TILL THE NEAR APPROACH OF THE NIRVANA. Buddha sends for Rahu"a(rran&ements for instructin& Rahu"a and other #o/sTutorsBo/s admitted to the vo%sNunsRapid spread of monasticism Discip"inar/ ru"es+ducation in metaph/sics(nanda and the Leng-yen-kingBuddha in these %or$s "i$e ocrates in ,"atoBuddha said to have &one to Ce/"on ("so to the paradise of desireOffer of Devas to protect Buddhism,rotectors of ChinaRe"ation of Buddhism to !indoo po"/theism,rad3na ,aramitaKin& ,rasena3it utra of the Benevo"ent Kin&Dai"/ "itur&/(nanda #ecomes Buddha5s attendant discip"eIntrusted %ith the utras in t%e"ve divisionsBuddha teaches his esoteric s/stem0irtua""/ contained in the 8)otus utra8In this the sun of Buddha cu"minated!is father5s approachin& death announcedBuddha reaches the fort/2ninth /ear of his pu#"ic preachin&. >!+N Buddha %as fort/2four /ears o"d he sent a messen&er to his father and %ife to sa/ that his son Rahu"a %as no% nine /ears of a&e, and ou&ht to commence the re"i&ious "ife. .aud&a"/a/ana %as the messen&er. The mother rep"ied, 8>hen 4ulai ?Tath9&ata@ %as a prince he married me, and #efore %e had #een married three /ears he %ent a%a/ to "ead a mountain "ife. !avin& after six /ears #ecome Buddha, and returned to visit his countr/, he no% %ishes me to &ive him m/ son. >hat miser/ can #e so &reat as thisL8 he %as, ho%ever, persuaded to consent to this sacrifice, and committed him to the care of the messen&er. >ith him the $in& p. CD sent fift/ sons of no#"e fami"ies to #e his companions in ta$in& the vo%s and receivin& instruction. The/ %ere p"aced, sa/s the "e&end, under the care of hariputra and .aud&a"/a/ana as their tutors Ho-shang ?'p.saka@, and *-che-li ?*charya@. B The ori&ina" meanin& of the ordinar/ Chinese term for Buddhist priest thus appears to #e 8tutor.8 The primar/ dut/ of the !o2shan& %as to #e the &uide of /oun& mon$s. The term %as after%ards extended in +astern Tur$estan to a"" mon$s. *rom that countr/ it %as introduced into China, %here it is sti"" used in the %ider sense, a"" mon$s #ein& ca""ed Ho-Shang. It %as no% arran&ed #/ Buddha that %hi"e #o/s mi&ht #e received into the communit/, if the parents %ere %i""in&, %hen sti"" of tender /ears, as from t%e"ve to seventeen, the/ shou"d not receive the fu"" vo%s ti"" the/ %ere t%ent/. !e a"so ordered the erection of an a"tar for administerin& the vo%s. It is ca""ed Kiai-tan, 80o% a"tar.8 It is ascended #/ three f"i&hts of steps. On the top sit the officiatin& priest and his assessors. The f"i&hts of steps are so arran&ed that the neoph/te passes three times round the a"tar on his %a/ up, to indicate his trip"e su#mission to Buddha, the )a%, and the ,riesthood. >omen #e&an to as$ and received permission to ta$e the vo%s. The/ %ere ca""ed in India )ikshuni, and in China 6iku. 6i is the anscrit feminine termination of )ikshu, and ku is a common respectfu" term used of aunts, /oun& &ir"s, Oc. In t%e"ve /ears from the commencement of his pu#"ic teachin& Buddha5s doctrines had spread over sixteen Indian $in&doms, the monastic s/stem %as founded, and the out"ine of the re&u"ations for the mon$s and nuns %as a"read/ dra%n.

ha$/amuni tau&ht mora"it/ #/ ru"es. !e hed&ed p. CA round his communit/ %ith the strictest re&u"ations, #ut he made metaph/sics the stap"e artic"e of his ora" instructions. !e tried first to #rin& his discip"es out of dan&er from the %or"d5s temptations #/ introducin& them to the spiritua" association of the Bi$shus. !ere there %as communit/ of &oods, #rotherhood, the a#sence of secu"ar cares, strict mora" discip"ine, and re&u"ar instruction. The on"/ respite %as %hen the %ho"e communit/ %ent out into the streets of the cit/ to receive the a"ms of the househo"ders in the form of mone/ or food. The instruction consisted of hi&h metaph/sics and a mora"it/ %hich spea$s chief"/ of merc/, and on"/ "oo$s at dut/ on its human side. O#edience to the "a% of 1od is in ha$/amuni5s mora"it/ $ept assiduous"/ out of vie%. Instead of theo"o&/ he tau&ht metaph/sics, and instead of a histor/ of 1od5s dea"in&s %ith man$ind, such as the Bi#"e is to the Christian, he supp"ied them %ith an un"imited series of the #enevo"ent actions of the Buddhas and Bodhisatt%as. This is true of Northern and outhern Buddhism, #ut the s/stem prevai"in& in Ce/"on and iam has perhaps some%hat "ess of the metaph/sica" and more of the mora" e"ement than that found in China and .on&o"ia. One of the most stri$in& examp"es of the use of metaph/sics as a cure for mora" %ea$ness, is found in the Leng-yen-king. The incident, %hich is of course "e&endar/, is p"aced #/ Buddha5s #io&raphers in the fort/2fifth /ear of his a&e and in the cit/ hravasti. (nanda, the favourite discip"e, "in&ered one evenin& in the streets, %here he proceeded a"one from door to door #e&&in&. !e accidenta""/ met a %ic$ed %oman named .aten&a. The &od Brahma had a"read/ reso"ved to in3ure (nanda, and no% dre% him #/ a spe"" into the house of .aten&a. Buddha, $no%in& of the spe"", after the evenin& mea" returned from the house of the rich man %ho entertained him, sent forth a #ri&ht "otus "i&ht from his head and received a charm. !e then directed .an3usiri to ta$e the charm p. CK %ith %hich he had thus #een miracu"ous"/ furnished, and &o to save (nanda. B/ means of it he %as to"d to #rin& (nanda and .aten&a for instruction. (nanda on arrivin& made his #o% and %ept, #"amin& himse"f that he had not come #efore, and that after much teachin& his 8stren&th8 ? tau-li@ %as so far from perfect. +arnest"/ he as$ed the aid of the Buddhas of the ten re&ions that he mi&ht o#tain the first #enefits of $no%"ed&e ?Bodhi@. Buddha in a&reein& to his desire announced to him the doctrine of the Leng-yen-king. The attempt is made to stren&then the discip"e a&ainst temptation #/ a &rand disp"a/ of metaph/sica" s$i"". The man %ho founded the monastic institute as a cure for %or"d"iness, mi&ht consistent"/ teach phi"osophica" ne&ations as a remed/ a&ainst #ad mora"it/. But it is for ever to #e re&retted that ha$/amuni fai"ed to see the true foundations of mora"it/. Confucius %as a#"e to uncover the secret of the ori&in of virtue and dut/ so far as to trace it to conscience and natura" "i&ht. 4udaism found it in the revea"ed "a% of 1od. Christianit/ com#ined the "a% %ritten on the heart %ith the revea"ed "a% of the Divine Ru"er. But ha$/amuni fai"ed to express ri&ht"/ the re"ation of mora"it/ to 1od or to human nature. !ere is the most &rievous fai"ure of his s/stem. !e $ne% the "on&in& of humanit/ for de"iverance from miser/, and the stru&&"e %hich ta$es p"ace perpetua""/ in the heart of man$ind #et%een &ood and evi"Q #ut he misunderstood them #ecause he %as destitute not on"/ of Christian and 4e%ish, #ut even of Confucian "i&ht. *ortunate"/, ho%ever, a"" the imperfect teachin& in the %or"d cannot destro/ the %itness %hich conscience in ever/ "and #ears to the distinctions of eterna" and immuta#"e mora"it/, or Buddha5s teachin& %ou"d have #een sti"" more harmfu". The occurrence of the Leng-yen-king ear"/ in Buddha5s pu#"ic "ife constitutes a difficu"t/ to the Buddhist commentators. Buddha is perfect. !e commences %ith the superficia", and finishes %ith the profound. !o% %as it p. CE that this most po"ished specimen of his acumen, ac$no%"ed&ed to #e so #/ noted Chinese Confucianists "i$e Chu2fu2tsM, shou"d e:ua" the utras %hich %ere de"ivered at the end of his "ifeL The/ therefore den/ its e:ua"it/ %ith the Fa-hwa-king, 8The )otus of the 1ood )a%,8 de"ivered, so the/ sa/, %hen ha$/amuni %as an o"d man. It has cost much "a#our to reduce the utras into a se"f2consistent chrono"o&ica" order. The Northern Buddhists %hen the/ added the "iterature of the .aha/ana to that %hich %as composed #/ ha$/amuni5s immediate discip"es, fe"t o#"i&ed to sho% in a harmonious scheme of his "on& "ife, to %hat /ears the various utras of the Hinayana and #ahayana, or 8 ma""er8 and 81reater Deve"opment,8 shou"d #e assi&ned. Ima&ine a "ife of ocrates composed #/ a modern author on the h/pothesis that he rea""/ spo$e a"" that Nenophon and ,"ato said in his name. +ach or these authors imparted his o%n co"ourin& to his account, and introduced his o%n thou&hts in various proportionQ and ,"ato5s %or$s certain"/ constitute the record of his o%n inte""ectua" "ife rather than that of ocrates. !is ram#"es in the %or"d of thou&ht have ever since his time #een re&arded as his o%n much more than the/ %ere those of his revered teacher. !o% foo"ish and use"ess %ou"d #e the endeavour to construct a #io&raph/ of ocrates on the princip"e that he %rote ,"ato, that the ,"atonic dia"o&ues %ere a"" the products of his mind, that the incidents rea" or fictitious the/ record %ere a"" capa#"e of arran&ement in a se"f2consistent scheme, and that the phi"osophica" princip"es the/ contain %ere a"" deve"oped in a s/mmetrica" succession, and at definite epochs in the "ife of ocratesW uch is the hope"ess tas$ underta$en #/ Buddha5s Northern #io&raphers. Buddha, in the ei&hteenth /ear of his pu#"ic teachin&, is said to have &one to Ce/"on, ca""ed in the utras )en&a is"and. !e %ent to the top of (dam5s ,ea$, and here p. CT de"ivered the Lenga&Sutra. ( Bodhisatt%a said to him, 8!eretics prohi#it the eatin& of f"esh. !o% much more shou"d Buddha enforce a#stinence from f"eshW8 Buddha assented, and &ave severa" reasons %h/ Bodhisatt%as and others shou"d conform to this ru"e. )en&a Is"and is descri#ed as inha#ited #/ -a$shas, and as unapproacha#"e #/ men except #/ those %ho are endo%ed %ith ma&ica" po%er. Durin& the next /ear Buddha is said to have visited one of the heaven"/ paradises, in the midd"e of the second ran&e of the heaven of co"our and desire, %here an assem#"a&e of Buddhas and Bodhisatt%as from the ten re&ions &athered #efore him. !ere he de"ivered the Ta-tsi-king. +ach ,Jusa appeared in the form of the e"ement he &overned, %hether it %ere 8air8 ?kung@, %ater, or an/ other. The Devas and Na&as no% came for%ard, and said, 8>e %i"" henceforth protect correct doctrine. If an/ $in&s scour&e mem#ers of the mon$ish communit/, %e %i"" not protect their $in&doms. The discip"es of Buddha %i"" a#andon their inhospita#"e territories, %hich %i"" then remain un#"essed. Not havin& the re"i&ious esta#"ishments %hich #rin& happiness on a countr/, pesti"ence, famine, and %ar %i"" commence, %hi"e %ind, and rain, and drou&ht %i"" #rin& ruin on the a&ricu"ture.8 (fter the &ods and dra&ons had finished this speech, Buddha addressed himse"f to a son of a Deva ca""ed 0ishva$arma, the patron of artisans, B the -a$sha Kapi"a, and fifteen dau&hters of Devas, havin& e/es %ith t%o pupi"s, and directed them to #ecome the patrons of China. +ach of them %as to"d to ta$e DGGG fo""o%ers and %herever there %as strife, "iti&ation, %ar, or pesti"ence, to put a stop to those evi"s, so that the e/e of Buddha5s "a% mi&ht "on& remain in that "and. The m/tho"o&/ of India appears in this description in its true "i&ht. The a#ori&ina" inha#itants of a distant

p. FG is"and "i$e Ce/"on %ere thou&ht of as a race of demons. The #ein&s ca""ed Devas, the Theoi of 1reece, and the $ei of the )atins, %ere a c"ass su#ordinate to Buddha, the se"f2e"evated sa&e. *or %ant of a #etter %ord, the Chinese term for 8!eaven,8 Tien, is app"ied to them. The 8dra&ons,8 or nagas,%ith %hich the !e#re% nahash B and +n&"ish sna$e ma/ #e compared,are here vie%ed as a c"ass of ce"estia" #ein&s. ("" these #ein&s, ho%ever exa"ted, are re&arded #/ the Buddhists as su#3ect to the commands of their sa&e. Continuin& to ru"e the %or"d, the/ do so in the interest of the ne% "a% %hich ha$/amuni has introduced. !ence in Buddhist temp"es the/ are p"aced at the door, and are %orshipped as invisi#"e protectors of a"" faithfu" Buddhists. >hen the "e&end sa/s that 8&ods8 ?Devas@ and 8dra&ons8 ?Na&as@ a&reed to protect Buddhism, the meanin& is, that at this period in Buddha5s "ife the Indian $in&s #e&an to favour his re"i&ion in a more pu#"ic and extended manner than #efore. ha$/amuni next de"iveredaccordin& to the Chinese account of himthe ,ra3na ,aramita ? !at-no-pa-la-mit-ta@. !ra"na is 8%isdom.8 !ara is 8the farther side8 of a river. #ita is 8$no%n,8 8measured,8 8arrived at.8 There are six means of arrivin& at the farther shore of the sea of miser/. The/ constitute the six ,aramitas. Of these, that ca""ed the ,ra3na is the hi&hest. The ori&ina" %or$s containin& this s/stem %ere thou&ht too vo"uminous to #e trans"ated in fu"" #/ Kumara3iva. It %as not ti"" the seventh centur/ that !iuen2tsan& the trave""er, after his return from India, undertoo$ the "a#orious tas$ of trans"atin& one of these %or$s, %hich extended to six hundred chapters, and one hundred and t%ent/ vo"umes. Na&ar3una, the most noted %riter amon& the t%ent/2ei&ht patriarchs, founded on some of these %or$s the hastra p. FB of the 8.easure of >isdom.8 B The Chinese ChM2$Jai, the sa&e of TJien2tJai, made much use of the ,ra3na in constructin& his s/stem. !e had on"/ Kumara3iva5s fra&mentar/ trans"ations, such as the 8Diamond C"assic.8 The 8Benevo"ent Kin&8 ?4en-wang@, here ta$es his p"ace in the Chinese narrative of ha$/amuni5s "ife. This of t2mentioned persona&e %as ,rasena3ita, $in& of hravasti. It %as to him that Buddha is said to have de"ivered one of the ,ra3na discourses, and to have &iven the advice that he shou"d, for the avoidance of nationa" ca"amities, invite a hundred priests to recite this utra upon a hundred e"evated seats t%ice in one da/. Thus he %ou"d #e a#"e to prevent re#e""ion, the invasion of hosti"e armies, portents in the sun, moon, and stars, &reat fires, inundations, dearth, destructive %inds, and drou&ht. The $in&, %hen trave""in&, shou"d have the utra p"aced upon a ta#"e ornamented %ith the even ,recious Thin&s, viR., artic"es of &o"d, si"ver, cr/sta", &"ass, corne"ian, cora", and pear"s, and it shou"d #e fu""/ a hundred paces in advance of himse"f. >hen at home, it shou"d #e $ept on an e"evated throne, over %hich han& curtains ornamented %ith the same precious thin&s. It shou"d #e honoured dai"/ %ith reverentia" #o%s, as a man %ou"d honour his father and mother. !ere is the first mention of the dai"/ service, and of the superstitious reverence for the sacred #oo$s ca""ed utras common amon& the Buddhists of a"" countries. The possession of a 8 utra8 or nom amon& the .on&o"s, and a king amon& the Chinese, is #e"ieved to #rin& &ood "uc$ to the fami"/ and the state. The/ are often %ritten in &i"t "etters, and occup/ an honoura#"e position near the domestic ido". The ru"ers of nature %i"" protect those %ho honour Buddha5s true %ords. uch is the (siatic fetishism. Buddha himse"f, and the #oo$s containin& his teachin&, #ecome %orshipped o#3ectsQ and the &rand "itur&ica" services performed #/ "ar&e companies of priests at p. FH the ca"" of emperors and rich men in times of drou&ht, sic$ness, death, and other ca"amities, are #e"ieved #/ the peop"e to #e #eneficia" on the &round of such passa&es as that 3ust &iven. >hen the same utrathe !ra"na&!aramita%as heard #/ the $in&s of sixteen Indian tates, the/ %ere, sa/s the enthusiastic #ut evident"/ not truthfu" narrator, so de"i&hted, that the/ &ave over the affairs of their &overnments to their #rothers, adopted the monastic "ife, and #ecame devoted see$ers after Buddhist perfection. The names of the countries or cities the/ ru"ed %ere hravasti, .a&adha, ,aranai or Benares, 0aisha"i the seat of the second s/nod, Kapi"avastu Buddha5s #irthp"ace, Kushinara the cit/ %here he died, Kosa"a the modern Oude and Berar, Cophen the modern Ca#u", Ku"u, 1ata$ana, Kucha, Oc.? Fo-tsu-tung-ki@. In the sixtieth /ear of his a&e, (nanda %as se"ected to #e the persona" attendant of ha$/amuni, and in his care %ere deposited the utras in t%e"ve &reat divisions. This statement means that (nanda %as the most active of the discip"es in preservin& the sa/in&s of his teacher, and perhaps in composin& the o"der utras. 1odinia5s offer of service %as dec"ined on account of his a&e. .aud&a"/a/ana, in a state of reverie, sa% that ha$/amuni5s thou&hts %ere on (nanda. !e to"d 1odinia, %ho persuaded (nanda to accept the dut/. In temp"es (nanda is p"aced on the ri&ht hand of Buddha, for, sa/s the "e&end, ha$/amuni set his heart upon him, as the sun at his risin& sheds his "i&ht strai&ht on the %estern %a"". In in&ha"ese temp"es (nanda5s ima&e is not p"aced in that c"ose proximit/ to Buddha %hich is common in China. B This circumstance su&&ests that he does not, amon& the outhern Buddhists, occup/ so prominent a position as $eeper of the utras and persona" attendant on ha$/amuni as he is entit"ed to in the opinion of their Northern #rethren. In the sentence 8Thus p. FC have I heard,8 %hich opens a"" the utras, the person %ho spea$s is (nanda. (t sevent/2one /ears of a&e, Buddha &ave instruction in his esoteric or m/stic doctrine. It %as in ans%er to thirt/2six :uestions propounded to him #/ Kashiapa. Na&ar3una "a/s it do%n as a ru"e that 8ever/ Buddha has #oth a revea"ed and a m/stic doctrine.8 The exoteric is for the mu"titude of ne% discip"es. The esoteric is for the Bodhisatt%as and advanced pupi"s, such as Kashiapa. It is not communicated in the form of definite "an&ua&e, and cou"d not, therefore, #e transmitted #/ (nanda as definite doctrine amon& the utras. -et it is virtua""/ contained in the utras. *or examp"e, the Fa-hwa-king, or 8 utra of the )otus of the 1ood )a%,8 %hich is re&arded as containin& the cream of the revea"ed doctrine, is to #e vie%ed as a sort of ori&ina" document of the esoteric teachin&, %hi"e it is in form exoteric. This %or$, the Saddharma&!undarika, or 81reat )otus of the 1ood )a%,8 ta$es its name from the i""ustrations emp"o/ed in it. The &ood "a% is made p"ain #/ f"o%ers of rhetoric. *or examp"e, in the fifth chapter, .aitre/a rises in the assem#"/ and addresses Buddha, remindin& him of the time, fort/ and more /ears #efore, %hen he #ecame an ascetic, "eft the pa"ace of the ha$/a c"an, and "ived near the cit/ of 1a/a as a hermit. !e then points to the mu"titude of immeasura#"/ exa"ted Bodhisatt%as, the fruit of his teachin&. 8The %onderfu" resu"t is,8 he sa/s, 8to men incredi#"e. It is as if a man of #eautifu" countenance and #"ac$ hair, a#out t%ent/2 five /ears of a&e, shou"d sa/, pointin& to an o"d man of a hundred, 5This is m/ sonQ5 and the o"d man shou"d point to the /oun& man and sa/, 5This is m/ father.5 Their %ords %ou"d #e hard to #e"ieve, #ut it is not "ess so to credit the fact of the marve""ous resu"ts of Buddha5s exertions in so short a space of time. !o% is it, too,8 he as$s, 8that these innumera#"e discip"es have, durin& past periods of #ound"ess time, #een practisin& Buddha5s "a%, exercisin& ma&ica" po%ers, stud/in& the doctrines of the

Bodhisatt%as p. FF escapin& the stains of the %or"d, emer&in&, "i$e the "otus from its mir/ #ed, and no% appear here %ith reverence in the presence of the >or"d5s !onoured oneL8 This utra mar$s the time %hen, sa/ the #io&raphers, Buddha5s sun reached the Renith and cast no shado%. The/ ta$e the opportunit/ to remar$ here that Centra" India, %here Buddha "ived, is in fact the .idd"e $in&dom, as sho%n #/ the &nomon, %hich, at the summer so"stice, in that "atitude casts no shado%. China, the/ sa/, cannot so %e"" #e ca""ed the Centra" $in&dom, #ecause there is a shado% there on the da/ mentioned. >hen Buddha5s father %as an o"d man, and %as seiRed %ith a threatenin& sic$ness, the son sent him a comfortin& messa&e #/ (nanda. !avin&, #/ attendin& to the prohi#itions of purit/, caused the remova" of po""ution from his heart, he shou"d re3oice and meditate on the doctrine of the utras. The messen&er %as directed first to "eap in the air, so as to produce a supernatura" "i&ht, %hich shou"d shine upon the sic$ $in&, causin& re"ief from pain. Then he %as to put his hand upon his forehead, and state the messa&e. Immediate"/ after%ards, the $in&, p"acin& his hand on his heart in an attitude of %orship, sudden"/ too$ his departure preparator/ to his next transmi&ration. .em#ers of the ha$/a c"an p"aced him in his coffin, and set him upon the throne ornamented %ith "ions. (t the funera", the four $in&s of the Devas, at their o%n re:uest, officiated as coffin2#earers, havin& for this purpose assumed the human form. Buddha himse"f %ent in front carr/in& an incense2ho"der. The coffin %as #urnt, %ith sanda"2%ood for fue", and the #ones %ere co""ected in &o"d cas$ets #/ various $in&s, %ho after%ards erected Da&o#as and tupas over them. Buddha informed his fo""o%ers that the deceased, on account of his purit/ of "ife, had #een #orn into one of the hi&her paradises a#ove the umeru mountain. +ar"/ Buddhism favoured no castes. ,ersons of a"" castes %ere e:ua" in the e/es of Buddha. This circumstance made the ne% re"i&ion ver/ popu"ar %ith men of hum#"e ori&in. This, perhaps, %as the cause of the preservation p. FD of Buddha and (nanda %hen the c"an of ha$/a, to %hich the/ #e"on&ed, %as massacred. ,rasena3ita had a son #/ a %oman of "o% caste. This #o/, %hen ei&ht /ears o"d, had #een insu"ted #/ the ha$/a c"an. !e %as "earnin& archer/ in the house of a tutor. ( ne% house for Buddha to discourse in had 3ust #een comp"eted, and the sa&e had #een invited %ith his fo""o%ers. Ru"i, the /oun& prince, mounted the "ion throne, %hen he %as sarcastica""/ revi"ed #/ mem#ers of the ha$/a c"an for presumin& to sit on the throne, he #ein& of i&no#"e #irth. On succeedin& to the $in&dom, he %ent to ma$e %ar on the ha$/as, and had an immense num#er of them trodden to death #/ e"ephants in pits. !is #rother, 4eta, &iver of the &arden of that name, %as a"so $i""ed #/ him for refusin& to ta$e part in this crue" act. Buddha to"d his fo""o%ers that 4eta %as #orn ane% in the !aradise&o+&=ndra, usua""/ ca""ed in Chinese 8The thirt/2three heavens.8 !e a"so foreto"d the ear"/ destruction of Ru"i and his so"diers in a thunder2storm, %hich too$ p"ace, it is said, accordin& to the prediction, %hen the/ a"" %ent to the he"" ca""ed (vichi. Buddha a"so said that the unhapp/ fate of the ha$/as %as due to their mode of "ife. The/ %ere fishermen, and, as the/ had #een destro/ers of "ife, so %ere the/ destro/ed. In the vie% of ha$/amuni, a mora" fate ru"es the %or"d. Innumera#"e causes are constant"/ %or$in& out their retri#utive effects. These are the yin-yuen of %hich %e hear the Chinese Buddhists sa/ so much. This mora" fate is impersona", #ut it operates %ith ri&id 3ustice. +ver/ &ood action is a &ood yin-yuen, securin& at some future time an infa""i#"e re%ard. ("" virtuous and %ise persons are supposed to #e so, as the resu"t of &ood actions accumu"ated in former "ives. Buddha %as no% approachin& the "ast /ear of his "ife. In the e"eventh month he said to the Bi$shus &athered round him in the cit/ 0aisha"i, 8I sha"" enter the Nirv9na in the third month of next /ear.8

Footnotes CDSB +ite"5s Hand(ook. The %ord !o2shan& is trans"ated from 'p.saka into the former "an&ua&e of Khoten. *rom Tur$estan it %as introduced into China.?Fan-yiming-i@. CTSB +ite"5s Hand(ook. FGSB Nahash in !e#re%, 8serpent,8 is said to #e named from the hissin& sound of the anima". To 8utter incantations8 is nahash or lahash. FBSB Chi-tu-lun. ee Fo-tsu-tung-ki, xxx. BC. FHSB >hen at 1a""e in BEDE I noticed this.

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CHAPTER IV.

LAST DISCOURSES AND DEATH OF BUDDHA. Buddha5s immorta"it/ in his teachin&Death rea" and fina"O#3ect of Nirv9na teachin&Buddha visits the Tau-li heavenDescends a&ain #/ Indra5s staircaseThe first ima&esDeath of Buddha5s auntDeath of hariputraBuddha at Kushina&araBet%een the a"a trees)ast instructionsKashiapa made patriarch*"esh prohi#itedRe"ieves the $in& of .a&adha ends for (nanda(ns%ers to four :uestionsBrahma comesBuddha5s "ast %ordsDeath1o"d coffin.a/a comesCremation!is re"ics,a&odas. T!+ fifth period of deve"opment in the discourses of Buddha em#races those #oo$s %hich #e"on& to the 8)otus of the 1ood )a%,8 and the 8Nirv9na.8 The/ c"ose his pu#"ic "ife as a teacher, and are re&arded as the me""o%est and richest of his productions. The/ %ere adapted to excite the "on&in& of his discip"es for hi&her attainments. This %as his meanin& %hen he said, 8I am not to #e destro/ed, #ut sha"" #e constant"/ on the 5mountain of instruction5 ?ling-shan, 5efficacious mountain5@.8 This, sa/s the %riter, is %hat is intended #/ Buddha enterin& the Nirv9na, %here there is neither "ife nor death. !e is not dead, #ecause he "ives in his teachin&. Thus interpreted, the c"aim of the Northern Buddhists on #eha"f of their sa&e amounts to an immorta"it/ in the resu"ts of his instructions. This is the Buddhist non& omnis&moriar. It is consistent %ith much scepticism, and ma/ amount #/ imp"ication to a denia" of the future "ife, and the continued existence of the sou" in an/ form. >e must not for&et that the enthusiastic Buddhists p. FK %ho %rote the treatises %e are no% examinin& #e"on&ed to the same actua" %a$in&, movin& %or"d %ith ourse"ves. The/ fe"" #ac$, not se"dom, from a state of metaph/sica" reverie into the condition of common men under the dominion of the senses. Then the/ too$ a firm &rasp of the %or"d. .etaph/sics vanished. Death the/ "oo$ed on as a rea" death. The destruction of the materia" or&anisation is rea". (s for the sou", it "ives in its actions. ( &reat hero "i$e Buddha "ives on"/ in the resu"ts of his "ife %or$. ,erhaps our un& d/nast/ author of six centuries a&o fe"t satisfaction occasiona""/ in restin& the truth of his phi"osoph/, as an expounder of the .aha/ana, on the rea"it/ of visi#"e thin&s. In this case he finds the Nirv9na of ha$/amuni in the un#ro$en continuance of the resu"ts of his teachin&. The same tendenc/ to "oo$ out on the actua" %or"d accounts for the vie% here ta$en of the Nirv9na as a s/stem of u"timate doctrine adapted to correct the fau"ts of ne&"i&ent and mis&uided mon$s and others. (fter the ear"ier instructions had #een de"ivered, do%n to the period of the 8)otus of the 1ood )a%,8 there %ere sti"" some men %ho fai"ed to comprehend the fu"" sense of Buddha5s teachin&. To them it %as necessar/ sti"" to discourse on the true nature of Buddha, that the/ mi&ht "earn %hat is 8rea""/ permanent8 ?chen-chang@, and so enter the Nirv9na, (s the farmer has the ear"/ and the "ate harvest, so Buddha, %hen the first so%in& of instruction had #een fo""o%ed #/ the ripenin& and the harvest, proceeded to a "ater so%in& and harvest. It %as then that a mu"titude of discip"es, hi&h and "o% in attainment, came to see, as never #efore, the true nature of Tath9&ata, and to #ear the fruit of a ripe experience. (fter their autumn harvestin& and %inter &arnerin&, there %as no more for them to do. (mon& them %ere those %ho advanced from the !ra"na&!aramita to the Fa-hwa ?"otus@, and others %ho, their perceptions sti"" #"unted, found the Fa-hwa #e/ond their reach, and %ere on"/ capa#"e of #ein& reduced to a state of menta" p. FE and mora" su#mission #/ the 6ir/.na. The/ find in the Nirv9na doctrine that %hich ena#"es them to see Buddha5s nature. The historian has his e/e upon those mon$s of "ater times %ho "i$e to read other #oo$s than those of Buddha himse"f, and cease to use the #oo$s of Buddha for their instruction. The/ "earn to encoura&e in3urious and destructive thou&hts, even %hen under the contro" of Buddha5s "a%. The/ shorten %isdom5s "ife, and "et &o comp"ete"/ from their possession the 8em#odiment of the "a%8 ?+a-shen@. It is for such #ac$s"iders that the doctrine of permanence %as introduced. Its fu"ness and rea"it/ %ere to furnish them %ith a firm support. This %as %h/, near the c"ose of his "ife, ha$/amuni discoursed specia""/ on the Nirv9na #efore himse"f enterin& into that state of #"issfu" extinction. B/ this means he is stated to have stren&thened the authorit/ of the mon$ish s/stem of ru"es, and %ith it that of the three divisions of the Buddhist "i#rar/. >e see the teachin& of the Nirv9na to #e the doctrine of Buddha in his o"d a&e, %hen his experience %as ripe. It %as the resu"t of his o#servation of the needs of the Buddhist communit/. It %as the comp"etin& process in the deve"opment of doctrine, and %as adapted to affect minds %hich remained unmoved under ear"ier and simp"er forms of teachin&. In the /ear TFK B.C., accordin& to the chrono"o&/ of the Northern schoo", Buddha %ent to the Tau2"i heaven, and remained three months. !e sent .an3usiri to his mother to as$ her for a time to #end #efore the Three ,recious Thin&s. he came. Immediate"/ mi"$ f"o%ed from her and reached Buddha5s mouth. he came %ith .an3usiri to the p"ace %here Buddha %as, %ho instructed her. he attained the u2da2%an fruit. In the third month, %hen Buddha %as a#out to enter Nirv9na, Indra made three f"i&hts of steps. B/ these Buddha, after sa/in& fare%e"" to his mother, descended to the %or"d, "ed #/ a mu"titude of discip"es, p. FT and %ent to the 4etavana &arden in the cit/ of hravasti. The $in& Uda/ana, of Kausham#i, fe"t for Buddha a "ovin& admiration, and made a &o"den ima&e. !earin& that Buddha %as a#out to descend #/ the steps Indra had made, he came %ith the ima&e and #o%ed #efore Buddha. The ima&e %as of 8sanda"2%ood8 ? chan-tan@, and five feet hi&h. >hen the $in& ,rasena3ita heard of it, he a"so caused an ima&e to #e made of purp"e &o"d. It %as five feet hi&h. These %ere the first t%o ima&es of Buddha $no%n to have #een made in the %or"d of 4am#udvipa. These ima&es radiated "i&ht %hi"e the s$/ rained f"o%ers. Buddha 3oined his hands, and said to the ima&e, 8(fter m/ entrance into the state of extinction and sa"vation, I &ive into /our char&e m/ discip"es.8 Buddha5s aunt, .ah9pra39pat\, cou"d not #ear the thou&ht of seein& Buddha enter the state of extinction and sa"vation that %ou"d hide him from morta" vie% for ever. he too$ %ith her five hundred %omen and &ir"s under vo%s of fastin&, and made o#eisance to Buddha. The/ then returned to the house, %here the/ resided accordin& to their ru"es, and each then exhi#ited the ei&hteen movements, attitudes, and marve""ous performances. ome %a"$ed on the %ater as on dr/ "andQ others, "eavin& the &round, %a"$ed in the air, or sat, or "a/ do%n, or stood sti"", a"" in the same e"ement. *ire and %ater %ere seen f"o%in& from the ri&ht side of some, and from the "eft side of others. In others it %as seen issuin& from their mouths. The/ then a"" to&ether entered the Nirv9na. Buddha no% ordered (nanda to &o into the cit/, and announce to a"" the resident Buddhist househo"ders, that it %ou"d #e proper for them to ma$e five hundred coffins. >hen the #urnin& of the #odies %ith the coffins %as comp"eted, the re"ics %ere &athered and p"aced in temp"es erected for the purpose, %here the/ mi&ht #e continua""/ honoured %ith %orship.

hariputra and .aud&a"/a/ana %ere a"so &rieved at the prospect of %itnessin& the entrance of their master into p. DG the Nirv9na, and themse"ves died first. (t the same time KT,GGG )ohans a"so entered the state of extinction. Buddha, seein& that his discip"es of a"" four c"asses %ere a"so exceedin&"/ distur#ed in mind, made use of his ma&ica" po%er, and chan&ed the t%o proficient ones into the form of t%o attendant discip"es, one on his ri&ht and the other on his "eft. ("" "ivin& #ein&s re3oiced %hen the/ sa% this, and %ere at once "i#erated from ever/ anxiet/ and vexation. On the fifteenth da/ of the second month, Buddha %as at the cit/ Kushina&ara. !e %ent to a spot #et%een t%o a"a trees, and here in a short time entered Nirv9na. ( &reat voice %as heard proc"aimin& to a"" the assem#"/, 8To2da/ the >or"d5s !onoured One is a#out to enter the Nirv9na. >hoever has an/ dou#ts, no% "et him come for%ard and as$ for a so"ution of them. It is the "ast opportunit/ of as$in& Buddha for instruction.8 (t this time the &reat Bodhisatt%as, the various $in&s of the 4am#udvipa continent, the $in&s of the Devas, the $in&s of the mountains and rivers, and of the #irds and #easts, %ith the persona" discip"es of Buddha, a"" arrived %ith offerin&s, %ishin& to administer to the %ants of the >or"d5s !onoured One. In si"ence he firm"/ dec"ined to receive an/thin&. Chunda, a 8"a/ discip"e8 ?'p.saka@, addressed him in the %ords, 8>e "oo$ to 4u"ai for food in the future. No% %e desire to receive sorro%fu""/ the vo%s of the o#edient, and to ma$e our sma"" offerin&.8 Buddha rep"ied, 8I accept /our offerin&, for it is the "ast offerin& /ou %i"" present to me.8 Chunda said in rep"/, 8Thou&h I $no% the #enefit that is derived to man$ind from Buddha enterin& the Nirv9na in a pu#"ic manner, /et I cannot #ut &rieve.8 *or this Buddha commended him. (t this time the $in&s of the Devas and Na&as ur&ed ha$/amuni, #ut in vain, not to enter the Nirv9na at present. In rep"/, the >or"d5s !onoured One discoursed on the s/m#o" 8I,8 %ritten %ith three dots ?@, arran&ed as a trian&"e restin& on its #ase. This he used as a s/m#o" p. DB of the em#odied form of Tath9&ata %hen re"eased from the three methods of the ,ra3na. ("" the assem#"/ of Bi$shus then invited him to discourse on the cessation of permanence, on miser/, on emptiness, and on the ne&ation of se"f. Buddha, in conse:uence, &ave them instruction in the four antitheses, viR., the permanence %hich is not permanent, the 3o/ that invo"ves sorro%, the I that is not I, and the purit/ that contains impurit/. The vast audience of Bi$shus said, 84u"ai #ein& %ithout these four contradictions, %h/ %i"" he not remain %ith us for a kalpa or ha"f a kalpa, that %e ma/ #e informed ho% to escape from the four contradictionsL8 Buddha said in ans%er, 8I have a"read/ committed to .aha Kashiapa the comp"ete and unsurpassed doctrine, to $eep in trust, that /ou ma/ a"" have a form of teachin& on %hich /ou can re"/. It %i"" #e the same as if /ou had Buddha himse"f.8 !e then added, 8I a"so intrust to /ou, $in&s of countries and "eaders of supernatura" armies, the deposit of sound doctrine that /ou ma/ defend it #/ punishments and "a%fu" force, in case of %ant of di"i&ence, ne&"i&ence, or %i"fu" #rea$in& of mon$ish ru"es.8 The prohi#ition of anima" food is referred #/ the 1reat Deve"opment schoo" to this period. The compi"er ta$es the opportunit/ here to thro% #"ame on the )esser Deve"opment schoo", #ecause it a""o%s fish and f"esh to #e eaten on certain occasions. This refers to the teachin& of ha$/amuni in the Deer &arden at Benares, %here the *gama&Sutras of the )esser Deve"opment schoo" %ere de"ivered. In the first utras, those of the Hwa-yen and Fan-wang c"ass, the Bodhisatt%as cou"d not eat anima" food. This %as the state of the :uestion a"so at the time of the teachin& in Benares. It occurs a&ain in the Lenga&Sutra, as a restriction on the Bodhisatt%a. In the %or$ ca""ed Shih&tsien, 8Ta""ies of the ha$/a communities,8 it is said, that the restriction on the entire Buddhist communit/ #e&an su#se:uent to the (&ama period. In the Nirv9na teachin& p. DH of Buddha it %as that the "a% %as first made #indin& on a"" discip"es of the Buddhist re"i&ion. Thus the Nirv9na teachin& made an important addition to the Buddhist code of discip"ine. (3atashatru, $in& of .a&adha, had $i""ed his father, and in conse:uence, #/ natura" retri#ution, suffered from a painfu" u"cer. !e had six ministers of depraved minds %ho counse""ed him, in their deceptive %a/, to app"/ for re"ief to the six heretica" teachers, ,urana Kashiapa, Oc., %ho tau&ht that there is no need to honour prince or parents, and that happiness and miser/ do not depend on the mora" character of actions, #ut come #/ chance. (nother adviser informed the $in& that Buddha cou"d cure him. >hi"e the $in& %as "amentin& that Buddha %as a#out to enter the Nirv9na, ha$/amuni himse"f %ent into a remar$a#"e state of samadhi, #/ %hich he %as ena#"ed to radiate pure and coo" "i&ht as far as to the #od/ of the $in&, %hose u"cer %as at once hea"ed. The $in&, %ith the :ueen and DEG,GGG of his su#3ects, then proceeded to Kushina&ara to see the sa&e, %ho there tau&ht them. In conse:uence, the heav/ crime of (3atashatru #ecame much "i&htened. !e, his %ife and dau&hters, made hi&h attainments in the Bodhi %isdom, and then #ade fare%e"" to the sa&e, and returned to their pa"ace. Buddha no% said to 1odinia, 8>here is (nandaL8 1odinia rep"ied, that he %as #e/ond a"ari#hu, invo"ved in the de"usions of sixt/2four thousand mi""ions of demons. These demons had transformed themse"ves into so man/ Buddhas, discoursin& on the "a% and disp"a/in& marve""ous po%ers. (nanda %as "ed to thin$ himse"f receivin& instruction from true Buddhas, %hi"e he %as at the same time entan&"ed in a demon thra"". Conse:uent"/ he did not come, and remained in this state of &reat unhappiness. Buddha then addressed .an3usiri in the %ords, 8(nanda has #een m/ discip"e and has served me for more than t%ent/ /ears. ./ teachin& of the "a% has #een heard #/ him in its entireness. (s %ater f"o%s into p. DC a vesse", so he received m/ instructions. Therefore, I as$, >here is heL I %ish him to hear from me the 6ir/.na&Sutra. !e is no% vexed %ith demons. Ta$e in /our hand this 5charm5 ?dharani@ of mi&ht/ po%er, and &o and save him.8 .an3usiri too$ it and %ent. The $in&s of the .aras, on hearin& the charm recited, at once #e&an to fee" 8%ise thou&hts8 ?)odhi@ stirrin& %ithin them. The/ immediate"/ a#andoned the devices of .aras, and re"eased (nanda, %ho returned to Buddha. Buddha no% informed (nanda that u#hadra, an 8ascetic8 ?)rahmach.ri@ of a hundred and t%ent/ /ears o"d, %ho "ived #e/ond the a"ari#hu $in&dom, a"thou&h he had ac:uired the e/esi&ht and hearin& of a Deva, and the po%er to search into other persons5 minds and purposes, had not #een a#"e to put a%a/ his pride. !e directed (nanda to &o to him and sa/ that Buddha, %ho came into the %or"d "i$e the 8Udum#ara tree8 ?Ficus&glomerata@, B %ou"d to2ni&ht enter the Nirv9na. If he %ou"d do an/thin& he shou"d do it :uic$"/.

(nanda %ent as commanded. u#hadra came %ith him to see Buddha, %ho discoursed to him so effective"/ that he attained the ran$ of (rhan, and immediate"/ used his endeavours to induce Buddha to de"a/ enterin& the Nirv9na. The sa&e made si"ent si&ns that his reso"ution %as unchan&ed, and u#hadra, not a#"e to #ear the pain of %itnessin& the entrance into the Nirv9na, himse"f first entered the state of destruction. On this, Buddha said to the assem#"ed mu"titude, 8*rom the time that I attained %isdom I have #een en&a&ed in savin& men. The first %as 1odinia, the "ast %as u#hadra. I have no% nothin& more to do.8 (nanda, at the instance of (nuruddha, as$ed him four :uestionsS8>ith %hom shou"d %e "iveL >hom sha"" %e ta$e as our teacherL >here sha"" %e "iveL >hat %ords sha"" %e use as a si&nL8 p. DF Buddha rep"ied, UIn re&ard to /our first :uestion, m/ 3ud&ment is that, after m/ death ?entrance into the Nirv9na@, such men as Chanda$a, #e"on&in& to the six c"asses of unreformed Bi$shus, must come under the /o$e, and put a%a/ their evi" dispositions. U(s to the :uestion, >hom after Buddha5s death /ou shou"d ta$e as /our teacherL I rep"/ that /our teacher %i"" #e the Shipara s/stem of discip"ine. U(s to the :uestion, >here sha"" /ou resideL I rep"/, In the four p"aces of meditation. B. .editation on the #od/. The #od/ and the mora" nature are identica" in vacanc/. H. .editation on receptiveness. Reception is not insideQ nor is it outsideQ nor is it in the midd"e. C. .editation on the heart. It is on"/ a name. The name differs from the nature. F. .editation on 5the )a%5 ?$harma@. The &ood Dharma cannot #e attainedQ nor can the evi" Dharma #e attained. 8(s to the %ords /ou shou"d re&ard as a si&n, there shou"d #e in a"" utras, at the #e&innin&, the sentence 4u-shi-wo-wen5Thus have I heard.5 This shou"d #e fo""o%ed #/ an announcement of the p"ace %here Buddha %as teachin&, and of %hom his audience %as composed.8 (nanda a&ain as$ed, 8(fter 4u"ai has entered the Nirv9na, ho% shou"d the #uria" #e conductedL8 (ns%er, 8)i$e that of the %hee" $in&s. The #od/ shou"d #e %rapped in fine %hite hair2c"oth, B and coated %ith a pu"p of odoriferous dust. The inner coffin shou"d #e of &o"d, the outer of iron. >hen the #od/ of the $in& is p"aced in it, it shou"d #e sprin$"ed %ith me"ted #utter and #urned %ith fra&rant %ood. >hen the #urnin& is comp"eted, "et the remainin& fra&ments of #one #e ta$en up and p"aced under a pa&oda, to%er, or other monumenta" #ui"din&. Those %ho see it %i"" #oth re3oice and &rieve as the/ thin$ of the $in& %ho ru"ed his countr/ 3ust"/. In this our "and the mu"titudes of men sti"" to "ive %i"" continue to #ur/ %ith %ashin&, and %ith #urnin&, and construct p. DD tom#s and pa&odas %ith a &reat variet/ of customar/ practices.8 8>ithin the 4am#u continent is the $in&dom of China. I %i"" send three sa&es to renovate and instruct the peop"e there, so that in pit/ and s/mpath/, and in the institution of a"" needfu" ceremonies, there ma/ #e comp"eteness.8 This passa&e is founded on statements in the utra Tsung-mu-yin-yuen-king, 8 utra of Tom#s in connection %ith s/mpathetica""/ operatin& causes.8 The three sa&es are Confucius, )aou2tsM, and -en !%ei. The/ are ca""ed the Bodhisatt%a of "i&ht and purit/, the Kashiapa Bodhisatt%a and the Bodhisatt%a of moon"i&ht. Northern Buddhism &ives its approva" to the mora"it/ of Confucius, the ascetic phi"osoph/ of )i )aou2tan, and the hi&h purpose of -en !%ei. It a"so "oo$s #enevo"ent"/ on the funera" customs of the Chinese. Brahma not appearin& in the assem#"/ %hen Buddha %as a#out to enter the Nirv9na, %as sent for #/ the an&r/ mu"titude, %ho appointed the immorta" man of a hundred thousand charms to &o on this mission. Brahma5s cit/ %as found to #e in a fi"th/ condition. *i"th/ thin&s fi""ed the moat, and the hermit died. Buddha created a diamond $in& #/ the exercise of his ma&ica" po%er, %ho %ent to Brahma5s a#ode, and pointin& to the fi"th, transformed the moat into &ood "and. !e then pointed to Brahma, and made use of a sma"" portion of his adamantine and indestructi#"e stren&th. This had its effect in inducin& Brahma to come to the p"ace %here Buddha %as. Buddha then proceeded to te"" his discip"es that the/ must fo""o% the instructions of the #oo$ of discip"ine ca""ed !ratimoksha&Sutra. This %or$ detai"s the "a%s #/ %hich the priests are to conduct their "ives. The/ must not trade, or te"" fortunes, or ma$e profit #/ "and, or train s"aves and servin& &ir"s for fami"ies. The/ must not cu"tivate p"antations for &ain, or concoct medicines, or stud/ astro"o&/. The ru"es he ordered them to maintain p. DA %ere of this $ind. This treatise %as to #e their teacher in p"ace of himse"f. The "ast %ords ascri#ed to Buddha #/ the author of Fo-tsu-tung-ki ?iv. BH@ are, 8>hi"e I have #een in this continent of 4am#udvipa, I have appeared severa" timesQ and thou&h I have entered the Nirv9na, it has not #een a comp"ete Nirv9na. Therefore /ou ou&ht to $no% the 5)a%5 ?$harma@ that constant"/ remains, the unchan&in& "a%.8 Buddha then, as he "a/ on the couch of the even ,recious Thin&s, rec"ined on his ri&ht side, %ith his head to the north, his feet to the south, his face to the %est, and his #ac$ to the east. (t midni&ht, %ithout a sound, he entered the !aranir/.na. !e "a/ #et%een ei&ht a"a trees, arran&ed in four pairs. >hen he had entered the Nirv9na, the t%o pairs that "a/ east and %est #ecame one tree, as did a"so the t%o pairs that "a/ north and south. The/ united to spread their shade over Buddha, and throu&h extreme &rief chan&ed to a stor$"i$e %hiteness. The &rief of the mu"titude, manifested in "oud cries, no% fi""ed the universe %ith sadness. ( "ar&e num#er &oin& into the cit/ made a &o"d coffin, ornamented %ith the even ,recious Thin&s. The/ a"so prepared #anners and canopies of sanda"2%ood, a"oes, and other fra&rant su#stances. The/ came to %here Buddha %as, and presented them respectfu""/. >ith sincere &rief the mu"titude raised Buddha and p"aced him in the coffin of &o"d. *our stron& men %ere appointed to invite the coffin to enter the cit/. The/ cou"d not raise it. Then sixteen stron& men tried to "ift it, #ut fai"ed. (nuruddha no% said, 8If a"" the peop"e in the cit/ %ere to tr/ to "ift it, the/ %ou"d #e una#"e. The Devas must #e appea"ed to, for the/ can do it.8 Before he had finished spea$in&, Indra ha$ra appeared in the air carr/in& a ma&nificent canop/. ( host of Devas of the visi#"e heavens came %ith ha$ra offerin& service. Buddha %as moved %ith pit/. !e himse"f "ifted the coffin into the

p. DK air to the hei&ht of a a"a tree. The coffin of itse"f entered the %est &ate, and came out #/ the east. It then entered the south &ate, and came out #/ the north. In this %a/ Buddha %ent the round of the cit/ &ates seven times, and arrived at "ast s"o%"/ at the p"ace of cremation. >hen the coffin reached the &rove of the even ,recious Thin&s, the four $in&s of the Devas arrived carr/in& #ranches of sanda"2%ood and a"oes. On the t%ent/2second of the second month, Buddha, havin& entered the Nirv9na seven da/s, %ished to "eave his coffin. !is discip"es carried him %eepin& to the &rove of the even ,recious Thin&s. The/ then too$ odoriferous %ater and sprin$"ed him %ith it, and %rapped him from head to foot in si"$ and fine hair2c"oth. (fter this the/ "ifted him into the coffin, and p"aced him as he "a/ in the coffin upon a hi&h frame%or$ constructed of fra&rant %ood. +ach of them then too$ a torch of fra&rant %ood, proceeded to the %ooden structure, and a"" %as consumed. (nuruddha %ent up to the Tushita heaven to announce these events to .a/a, the mother of Buddha. .a/a at once came do%n, and the coffin opened of itse"f. The !onoured One of the %or"d rose up, 3oined his hands, and said, 8-ou have condescended to come do%n here from /our a#ode far a%a/.8 Then he said to (nanda, 8-ou shou"d $no% that it is for an examp"e to the unfi"ia" of after a&es that I have risen from m/ coffin to address in:uiries to m/ mother.8 Kashiapa %as instructin& five hundred discip"es at the 1ridhra$uta mountain %hen an earth:ua$e occurred, from %hich he $ne% that Buddha had entered the Nirv9na. (t once he set out %ith his discip"es to &o to the spot %here the coffin %as. Buddha compassionated him. The coffin opened of itse"f, and presented to vie% the &o"den and purp"e #od/ of Buddha, stron& and #eautifu". Kashiapa, %eepin&, sprin$"ed it %ith fra&rant %ater, and %rapped it a&ain %ith the hair2c"oth. The coffin a&ain c"osed, and a -atha %as chanted #/ p. DE ;para&raph continues< Kashiapa, %hen the feet of Buddha #ecame a&ain visi#"e, and the representations of the %hee" of a thousand spo$es ?on %hich Buddha sits@ appeared outside of the coffin. Kashiapa performed reverent sa"utations to the feet indestructi#"e as the diamond, and sa% them return %ithin the coffin. (nother %onder %as added. *"ame from the heart and #ones of Buddha %as seen extendin& out of the coffin. The process of cremation %ent &radua""/ on ti"" the seventh da/, %hen the entire frame of fra&rant %ood on %hich the coffin rested %as consumed. (ccordin& to another account, Kashiapa too$ fire and "it the pi"e of fra&rant %ood. The un& d/nast/ author, ChM2pJan, prefers the statement that the cremation %as caused #/ a f"ame issuin& from Buddha5s o%n #od/. even da/s had passed after the death ?"itera""/ destruction and extrication@ of Buddha, %hen Kashiapa announced to DGG (rhans that the/ shou"d &o to a"" %or"ds and &ather (rhans %ho possess the six po%ers of penetration. B No fe%er than EGE,GGG came and received instruction in Dharma near the t%o trees. On the t%ent/2ninth of the second month, seven da/s after the cremation of Buddha, Indra ha$ra opened the coffin and too$ out a ri&ht tooth of Buddha. !e caused t%o pa&odas to #e erected in his paradise. ( Ra$sha a"so too$ t%o teeth. The peop"e of the cit/ came and fi""ed ei&ht &o"den pots %ith re"ics. The/ too$ them into the cit/, and made offerin&s to them for seven da/s in succession. There %as much contention amon& those %ho desired a share in the re"ics. Those %ho stru&&"ed %ere the $in&s of the Devas, the $in&s of the Na&as, and ei&ht $in&s of India. To end the strife, Upa$utta proposed a division into three parts for the Devas, the dra&on $in&s, and the Indian $in&s respective"/. !is advice %as fo""o%ed. Kin& (shX$a o#tained EF,GGG re"ics, and a"so the moustaches p. DT of Buddha. On his %a/ home he met Nanda, a $in& of the Na&as, %ho #e&&ed re"ics from him, threatenin& to destro/ his $in&dom if he refused. (shX$a &ave him a hair of Buddha5s moustaches, %hich he too$ to the umeru mountain. !e there erected a pa&oda of roc$2cr/sta" for its safe $eepin&. In various parts of the 4am#udvipa continent ten pa&odas %ere soon erected %ith a simi"ar o#3ect in vie%.

Footnotes DCSB This tree, a fi&2#earin& fruit %ithout distinct f"o%ers, is said to #"oom once in three thousand /ears. DFSB Tie, E, dip, 8*ine hair2c"oth,8 c+. tapis, tapestr/. DESB These are such as the po%er of distin&uishin& a"" sounds, the fee"in&s and aims of a"" persons, varieties of form, "ife, death, and retri#ution, Oc.

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CHAPTER V.

THE PATRIARCHS OF THE NORTHERN BUDDHISTS. *eatures of (siatic "ife in the time of the patriarchsCharacter, po%ers, and inte""ectua" :ua"ities of the patriarchs eries of thirt/2three patriarchs(ppointment of Kashiapa #/ ha$/amuniThe vasti$a counci" of Ra3a&riha, for %ritin& out the #oo$s of Buddha, and sett"in& %hat shou"d #e received as canonica"The part ta$en #/ (nanda in the authorship of the Buddhist #oo$s(nanda, second patriarchThe third %as han&navasuRemar$s on samadhi and reverie*ourth, Upa&upta Conversion of a %ic$ed %oman %hen d/in&*ifth, sixth, and seventh patriarchsBuddha5s prophec/ re&ardin& Buddhanandi, the seventh tru&&"e #et%een fi"ia" "ove and Buddhist conviction in BuddhamitraThe %a/ in %hich he su#dued an un#e"ievin& $in&.amin& &iven to the $in& of the 1et= to induce him to raise the sie&e of ,ata"iputraKapimara, the thirteenthNa&ar3una, the fourteenthConverts ten thousand Brahmans>rites the Ta-ch-tu-lun0i&orous defence of Buddhism #/ Kanadeva(ssassination of Kanadeva an&hanandi, precocious as a #o/,rophec/ respectin& himRahu"ata ascends to heaven an&$a/asheta5s discussion on the nature of soundConverts five hundred hermitsKumarada5s vie%s on the ine:ua"it/ of present retri#utionDifficu"ties met %ith #/ .anura in teachin& Buddhism in outhern and >estern India( patriarch5s po%er over #irds!a$"ena converts in&ha"aputra, %ho succeeded him as patriarch ?the t%ent/2 fourth@, #ut %as $i""ed #/ the $in& of CandaharThe orthodox schoo" has on"/ t%ent/2four patriarchsThe contemp"ative schoo" has t%ent/2ei&ht,rad3n/atara, the t%ent/2seventh converts Bodhidharma, the t%ent/2ei&hth, %ho proceeds to China!indoo $no%"ed&e of the Roman empire. >+ are no% in the midst of the (siatic %or"d of t%o thousand and sixteen hundred /ears a&o. In India, in (f&hanistan, and p. AB in Tur$estan, Buddhist priests had entered active"/ on that pi"&rim "ife to %hich monasticism inevita#"/ &ives ori&in. >ith the o#3ect either of instructin&, or of %orshippin& at some ce"e#rated shrine, trave""ers %ere constant"/ seen on each foot2%orn mountain path proceedin& to some distant monaster/. uch scenes as the fo""o%in&, i""ustratin& the #e"iefs of the time and "oca"it/, %ou"d not se"dom occur. ( %a/farer in the countr/ of the 1et= ?4ats@ ?(f&hanistan@ $noc$s at the door of a Brahman fami"/. ( /oun& man %ithin ans%ers, 8There is no one in this house.8 The trave""er %as too %e"" tau&ht in Buddhism not to $no% the meanin& of this phi"osophica" nihi"ism, and at once ans%ered, 8>ho is no oneL8 The /oun& man, %hen he heard this, fe"t that he %as understood. ( $indred spirit %as outside. !urried"/ he opened the door, and invited the stran&er to enter. The visitor %as the patriarch of the time ?seventeenth@, %ith staff and rice #o%", trave""in& to teach and ma$e ne% discip"es. On his entrance, he at once proceeded to utter a statement that this /oun& man %as the o#3ect of a "on& foreto"d destin/. ( thousand /ears after Buddha5s death, a distin&uished teacher %ou"d appear in the countr/ of the 1et=, %ho %ou"d reform his contemporaries, and fo""o% up the %or$ of i""ustrious predecessors. This meant that he %as to #ecome patriarch. !e is ei&hteenth in the series. ( patriarch is represented as one %ho does not "oo$ at evi" and dis"i$e itQ nor does he, %hen he sees that %hich is &ood, ma$e a stron& effort to attain it. !e does not put %isdom aside and approach fo""/Q nor does he f"in& a%a/ de"usion and aim at comprehendin& truth. -et he has an ac:uaintance %ith &reat truths %hich is #e/ond #ein& measured, and he penetrates into Buddha5s mind to a depth that cannot #e fathomed. !is "od&in& is not %ith the sa&e, nor %ith the common c"ass. Because he is a#ove ever/ one e"se in his attainments, he is ca""ed a patriarch. ( patriarch has ma&ica" po%ers. !e can f"/ throu&h p. AH the air, cross rivers on a #oat of "eaves, rain mi"$ B at %i"" from the air, and enter into a ver/ &reat variet/ of trances or samadhi. ( patriarch has the $eenest inte""ectua" perception. !e can dive into men5s thou&hts, and exp"ain the meanin& of the "on&est and most o#scure compositions. The superiorit/ of his menta" facu"ties to those of common men is most mar$ed. !e can accomp"ish inte""ectua" feats %here others fai". ,ossessed of such &ifts and :ua"ifications as these, a patriarch is the chief defender of Buddhism a&ainst the heretics and opposers of his time. e"ected #/ the "ast patriarch from the cro%d of common discip"es, he ta$es the chief p"ace ever after as champion of the Buddhist "a% and discip"ine. !e cares nothin& for "uxurious "ivin& or socia" ran$. !e "ives poor"/, is mean"/ c"ad, and $eeps up the di&nit/ of his position #/ the inf"uence of mind, of character, and of supernatura" acts. The succession %as #ro$en at the fifth Chinese patriarch, and has never #een restored. The ran$ of patriarch cou"d #e the more easi"/ discontinued #ecause he had no ru"in& po%er. !e %as simp"/ a defender, teacher, and examp"e of the Buddhist doctrine and "ife. The fo""o%in& para&raphs are ta$en from papers I %rote man/ /ears a&o. (fter the death of ha$/amuni, or, to spea$ honorifica""/, his entrance into the Nirv9na at Kushina&ara, a series of thirt/2three patriarchs, if %e inc"ude five Chinese ho"ders of the di&nit/, superintended in succession the affairs of the re"i&ious communit/ he had founded. Remusat has &iven an a#stract of the #io&raph/ of the patriarchs ta$en from a 4apanese enc/c"op=dia. !e sa/s, Buddha, #efore his death, committed the secret of his m/steries to his discip"e, .aha Kashiapa. !e %as a Brahman, #orn in the p. AC $in&dom .a&adha, in Centra" India. To him %as intrusted the deposit of esoteric doctrine, ca""ed Chen& fa2/en2tsan&, 8the pure secret of the e/e of ri&ht doctrine.8 The s/m#o" of this esoteric princip"e, communicated ora""/ %ithout #oo$s, is man or wan. This, in Chinese, means 8BG,GGG,8 and imp"ies the possession of BG,GGG perfections. It is usua""/ p"aced on the heart of Buddha in ima&es and pictures of that divinit/. It is sometimes ca""ed sin2/in, 8heart5s sea".8 It contains %ithin it the %ho"e mind of Buddha. In anscrit it is ca""ed s/astika. It %as the mono&ram of 0ishnu and hiva, the #att"e2axe of Thor in candinavian inscriptions, an ornament on the cro%ns of the Bonpa deities in Thi#et, and a favourite s/m#o" %ith the ,eruvians. The appointment of Kashiapa to #e successor of Buddha and patriarch is descri#ed in the fo""o%in& mannerS8The >or"d2honoured teacher ascended the p"atform

from %hich he &ave his instructions, ho"din& in his hand a f"o%er, the &ift of a $in&. !is discip"es %ere a"" re&ard"ess of his teachin&. On"/ Kashiapa sho%ed attention and p"easure in his countenance. Buddha understood %hat %as passin& in his mind, and &ave him the pure m/ster/ of ri&ht doctrine, the secret heart of the Nirv9na, that true $no%"ed&e of existin& thin&s %hich consists in $no%in& them not to exist, and the method of en"i&htenment and reformation.8 Kashiapa distin&uished himse"f #/ severe"/ ascetic practices. Buddha $ne% his exce""ence, and %ished him to sit on the same seat %ith himse"f, as #ein& not inferior in merit. But to this he %ou"d not consent. !e a"so easi"/ comprehended the ideas of Buddha. Buddha, on one occasion, used the fo""o%in& i""ustrationS8( nota#"e man5s house too$ fire. !e #rou&ht &oat2carts, dra%n #/ &oats, deer, and #u""oc$s, to rescue his sons. !e after%ards &ave them a "oft/, #road %a&&on, dra%n #/ %hite #u""oc$s. The first are the methods of !ina/ana. The "ast is that of .aha/ana.8 Kashiapa understood that p. AF ;para&raph continues< Buddha, %hen he thus a""uded to the various modes of teachin& emp"o/ed #/ him to save men, %ished to point out that the .aha/ana is superior to the others in capacit/, adapta#i"it/, and uti"it/. !e tau&ht at Ra3a&riha after the Nirv9na. The $in&, (3atashatru, supp"ied dai"/ %ith food for a %ho"e summer a thousand (rhans, %ho %ere en&a&ed under Kashiapa in co""ectin& the #oo$ s containin& the sa/in&s of Buddha, i,e,, the Tripitaka. This is %hat is ca""ed #/ Koeppen the *irst Buddhist counci". Kashiapa tau&ht after this for t%ent/ /ears, and then intrusted to (nanda the secret of pure doctrine. (fter this %e hear of his proceedin& to the four p"aces of pi"&rima&e to %orship. These %erethe p"ace of ha$/amuni "eavin& his home to #ecome a rec"use, the p"ace of his #ecomin& Buddha, of first preachin&, and of enterin& the Nirv9na. The second patriarch, (nanda, fi&ures in man/ narratives as the constant attendant and discip"e of Buddha. In temp"es he is represented as the correspondin& fi&ure to the o"d man Kashiapa, %here he stands on Buddha5s ri&ht hand. !e %as the second son of ha$/amuni5s unc"e, and %as therefore first cousin of the sa&e. !is name means 83o/.8 !is face %as "i$e the fu"" moon, and his e/es "i$e the "otus f"o%er. !e #ecame a discip"e at ei&ht /ears o"d. (t the assem#"/ of the )otus of the 1ood )a%, Buddha foreto"d of (nanda that he %ou"d u"timate"/ #ecome Buddha. This %as to #e a re%ard for his 3o/ at hearin& the "a%, and his di"i&ent "istenin& to it. Buddha o#tained $no%"ed&e and tau&ht the "a%. The Bodhi %as perceivedQ and the Dharma #ecame its em#odiment. The part of (nanda %as to &rasp, ho"d firm"/, and save from destruction the Dharma as uttered #/ Buddha. In so doin& he a"so saved from o#"ivion the Dharma %hich %i"" #e uttered #/ comin& Buddhas, as foreto"d #/ ha$/amuni. Kashiapa appointed that (nanda shou"d sit on the "ion p. AD throne, %ith a thousand secretaries #efore him. The/ too$ do%n his %ords %hi"e he repeated the Dharma as he had heard it from Buddha. +vident"/ he had a &ood memor/. Kashiapa %as an o"d man, and (nanda %as comparative"/ /oun&. Both %ere a"i$e anxious to preserve the teachin& of BuddhaQ and the thousand (rhans, %ho received the sacred Dharma, %ere se"ected from a vast mu"titude of those %ho had accepted Buddha as the "ion of the "a%, the mi&ht/ hero of the ne% and popu"ar re"i&ion. It is not said that the/ %rote. The/ ma/ have committed to memor/ the sacred Dharma as (nanda &ave it, #ut %ritin& #ecame the common mode of preservin& Buddhist teachin& so soon after, that this narrative ma/ descri#e actua" dictation and the %or$ of a di"i&ent secretariat, or compan/ of discip"es, %ho acted as scri#es. The a&ed patriarch, Kashiapa, %hen he died, intrusted to (nanda the ver/ victorious "a%, and to"d him the fo""o%in& stor/, %hich thro%s "i&ht on ancient Buddhism as represented #/ the Northern schoo". 8(ncient"/, %hen Tin&2$%an& *o %as a 5 hamen5 ? Shramana@, he had under his protection a 5 hami5 ?Shramanera@ %hom he re:uired to recite pra/ers and meditations constant"/, reprovin& him severe"/ if he fai"ed in readin& the %ho"e of his tas$s. The hami sometimes %ent out to #e& for his instructorQ #ut if he de"a/ed #e/ond the due time, and did not comp"ete his dai"/ readin&s, he had to #ear heav/ #"ame from that ver/ instructor for %hom he #e&&ed. This "ed him to fee" unhapp/, and he commenced recitin& on the road as he %ent his rounds. ( $ind and friend"/ man as$ed him the reason, and findin& ho% matters stood, addressed him as fo""o%sS5Do not #e sad. In future I %i"" provide for /our %ants.5 The hami ceased to #e&, and &ave his %ho"e attention to recitations of the sacred #oo$s, and %as never deficient in the num#er of pa&es read. This hami after%ards #ecame ha$/amuni Buddha. !is $ind friend #ecame (nanda in a "ater #irth, and his sa&acit/, his po%er of p. AA retention, and di"i&ence in "earnin& resu"ted from his meritorious treatment of the hami.8 The third patriarch %as han&navasu of Ra3a&riha. In a former "ife he had #een a merchant. On the road, as he trave""ed, he had met a ,rat/e$a Buddha, ver/ sic$, and poor"/ c"ad. !e &ave him medicine, and c"othin& of a #eautifu" &rass2c"oth. B This is %hat, #/ Buddhists, is ca""ed so%in& the 8fie"d of happiness8 ?+u-tien@. Other %a/s of actin& so as to reap happiness are improvin& roads, #ui"din& #rid&es, respect to parents, care of the poor, and openin& common %e""s. The ,rat/e$a Buddha said, 8This is ca""ed the Shangna ro#e. >ith it the ac:uirement of %isdom can #e made, and %ith it the Nirv9na of destruction shou"d #e entered.8 !e then too$ %in&, performed the ei&hteen movements in the air, and entered the Nirv9na. han&navasu co""ected fra&rant %ood, #urned the #od/, and raised a da&o#a over the re"ics. !e a"so, as he %ept, uttered a %ish that in five hundred future #irths he mi&ht a"%a/s %ear a ro#e of this $ind, and have a merit e:ua" to that of his present "ife. !e %ent to sea, o#tained va"ua#"e pear"s, and #ecame a rich man. !e then invited "ar&e num#ers to a free feastin& assem#"/ in a forest, such as %as he"d once in three /ears. !e #ui"t a to%er at the entrance of the p"ace of meetin&. (nanda said to him, 8-ou shou"d "earn our doctrine, and "ive to #enefit man$ind.8 To this he consented. !e too$ the vo%s and #ecame an (rhan. 1oin& a%a/ to the .anda mountain, he there #/ means of the samadhi of merc/, chan&ed t%o poisonous /oun& Na&as into #ein&s havin& a &ood disposition. Samadhi means ecstatic reverie, and as there is some uncertaint/ as to its nature in some %riters on Buddhism,

p. AK it ma/ #e %e"" to dra% attention to this instance of sna$e2charmin&. It means a mesmerisin& po%er, a fixin& of the mind and e/e %hich has an effect on the sna$e. To fix the facu"ties in Buddhist contemp"ation is to enter into san-mei or samadhi. Those phenomena %hich %e ca"" trance, #ro%n stud/, reverie, are examp"es of an inactive samadhi. The addition of an effort of %i"" ma$es an active samadhi, as that used in sna$e charmin& #/ Buddhists, and as that of mesmerists. !e founded a house to #e used #/ mon$s as a contemp"ation ha"" at the spot, and perhaps the sna$es he tamed ma/ have #een $ept there in a #ox, as is sometimes done no% in China. But the account does not sa/. !e %ent thence to Candahar, at that time ca""ed Kipin, and there propa&ated the doctrines of Buddhism a#out ei&ht/ /ears #efore the con:uests of ("exander. !e "ived in the Siang2 ?e"ephant@ pe ?%hite@ mountain, sat on his chair, and entered into a trance. >hi"e this %as happenin&, Upa&upta, his successor, %as #ein& much trou#"ed %ith five hundred pupi"s, %ho %ere se"f2opinionated and proud. !e fe"t that the/ %ere #e/ond his po%er to &uide and e"evate. There %as not existin& #et%een him and them the 8secret "in$ of inf"uence8 ?yuen, 8cause.8 ansc. nidana@ that %ou"d have overcome this difficu"t/. This conviction he ac:uired in a samadhi, and "earned or rather thou&ht at the same time, %hi"e sti"" in the ecstatic state, that on"/ han&navasu cou"d reform them. The samadhi here appears to #e an e"evated state of inspiration. But it has a"so a ma&ica" po%er. The next point in the narrative is the arriva" of han&navasu himse"f f"/in& throu&h the air. !e %as ha#ited most sha##i"/, and %hen he sat do%n on Upa&upta5s chair, the pupi"s stared an&ri"/ at him for darin& to do this. But Upa&upta came #efore him and #o%ed to him most respectfu""/. han&navasu pointed to the air, and fra&rant mi"$ fe"" as if from a sprin& on the side of a hi&h mountain. This %as the resu"t of a samadhi, %hich the patriarch said %as the samadhi of a Na&a rushin& ea&er"/ for%ard. p. AE ;para&raph continues< !e then exhi#ited five hundred different $inds of samadhi. (t the same time he o#served to Upa&upta, that %hen Buddha performed an/ ma&ica" act #/ samadhi, his pupi" .aud&a"/a/ana did not $no% %hat samadhi it %as. Nor did inferior discip"es $no% the name of an/ samadhi #/ he"p of %hich .aud&a"/a/ana mi&ht do an/thin& %onderfu". 8Nor do I,8 he said, 8understand that of (nanda. Nor do /ou understand mine.8 8>hen I enter the Nirv9na,8 he continued, 8KK,GGG utras %i"" perish %ith meQ a"so BG,GGG hastras and EG,GGG %or$s of the c"ass of discip"ine.8 (fter this the five hundred pupi"s #itter"/ repented, received the patriarch5s instructions, and #ecame (rhans. Upon this the patriarch entered into the Nirv9na. Upa&upta, the fourth patriarch, %as a native of the .adura countr/. !e had a no#"e countenance %hich indicated his inte&rit/, and %as hi&h"/ inte""i&ent and e"o:uent. !is instructor, han&navasu, the third patriarch, to"d him to $eep #"ac$ and %hite pe##"es. >hen he had a #ad thou&ht he %as to thro% do%n into a #as$et a #"ac$ pe##"eQ %hen he had a &ood thou&ht he %as to thro% do%n a %hite pe##"e. Upa&upta did as he %as to"d. (t first #ad thou&hts a#ounded, and #"ac$ pe##"es %ere ver/ numerous. Then the %hite and #"ac$ %ere a#out e:ua". On the seventh da/ there %ere on"/ %hite pe##"es. han&navasu then undertoo$ to expound to him the four truths. !e at once attained the fruit 8 rXt9panna8 ?S-t1o-hwan@. (t that time a %oman of %ic$ed "ife in the same cit/ %ith Upa&upta, hearin& of his upri&ht conduct, sent messen&ers to invite him to &o and see her. !e refused. The son of a citiRen in &ood repute at a#out the same time %ent to sta/ %ith her. This /outh she s"e%, #ecause a rich trave""er came %ith presents of va"ua#"e precious stones and pear"s, %hich he offered for her acceptance. he #uried the /outh in a court of her house. !is re"ations came to see$ him and du& up the #od/. The $in&, informed of %hat had occurred, ordered the %oman to have her arms and "e&s cut off, and a"so her nose and ears. he p. AT %as then thro%n out amon& &raves in the open &round #e/ond the cit/. >hen Upa&upta %ent out on his #e&&in& round he arrived at the spot. he said to him, 8>hen I invited /ou to come and see me I had a #eautifu" face, #ut /ou refused. No% that I am maimed, m/ #eaut/ &one, and m/ death near, /ou have come to see me. >h/ is thisL8 !e rep"ied, 8I have come to see /ou from a %ish to $no% %hat /ou tru"/ are, and not throu&h evi" desire. -ou have #/ /our #eaut/ corrupted and ruined man/. -ou %ere "i$e a painted vase a"%a/s &ivin& out evi" odours. It %as no p"easure to the tru"/ en"i&htened to approach /ou. The/ $ne% that this #eaut/ %ou"d not #e permanent. No% a"" miseries have &athered on /ou "i$e num#er"ess #oi"s and u"cers. -ou ou&ht di"i&ent"/ to see$ "i#eration #/ means %hich are in /our po%er.8 The %oman as she "istened opened the e/e of Dharma, and o#tained the purification of her heart. (t death she %as #orn ane% in paradise. Upa&upta, %hen sti"" a /outh, sa% that a"" the common methods of redemption %ere mar$ed #/ #itterness, emptiness, and non2permanence, and at once attained the fruit (na&amin, the third de&ree of saintship, or that from %hich there is 8no8 ?ana@ 8return8 ?gamin@. !e %as then seventeen. han&navasu at once received him to the vo%s on his app"ication, and he #ecame an (""an. !e %as contemporar/ durin& the "ater /ears of his patriarchate %ith $in& (shX$a, %ho, hearin& that he %as on .ount Uda discoursin& to a "ar&e audience of #e"ievers, sent messen&ers to him, invitin& him to come to the cit/ %here the $in& %as, and #"ess him, #/ touchin& him on the cro%n of the head. The $in& much desired to "earn at %hat spots he shou"d erect pa&odas in honour of Buddha. To this the patriarch responded, #/ pointin& out to him a"" the p"aces %here Buddha had done an/thin& remar$a#"e durin& his "ife. The num#er of converts %as immense. +ach of them thre% do%n a ta""/ four inches "on&. The ta""ies fi""ed a storehouse %hich %as sixteen feet hi&h. Upa&upta #ecame, p. KG in virtue and %isdom, a"most a Buddha, "ac$in&, ho%ever, the thirt/2t%o points of characteristic #eaut/. >hen he had finished his 3ourne/s for reformin& others, and the 8accomp"ishment of destin/ in meetin&s %ith them8 ?hwa-yuen-yi-pi, 8renovatin& destin/ a"read/ ended8@, he performed the ei&hteen metamorphoses, and seiRed on the sa"vation that consists in destruction, i,e,, he died. The ta""ies in the house %ere used as offerin&s, ya"un ?ya"ur@, to #urn. The peop"e a"" %ept a"oud, co""ected the 8re"ics8 ?sharira@, erected a ta ?stupa@, and performed re&u"ar %orship #efore it. In this examp"e of the saint %orship of Buddhism ma/ #e o#served the up&ro%th of superstitious practices. It apt"/ i""ustrates the %a/ in %hich the re"i&ious princip"e in man %or$s out%ard. Buddha, a sort of human &od, %as first %orshipped. Other hi&h"/ venerated men of a secondar/ t/pe %ere in succession added, and #ecame the inferior &ods of a ne% pantheon. Dri$ata, the fifth patriarch, %as &iven #/ his father to Upa&upta as a discip"e, to #e in constant attendance on him as (nanda %as upon ha$/amuni. Upa&upta received him to the vo%s at t%ent/ /ears o"d. It %as in this %a/. Upa&upta %as on a re"i&ious 3ourne/. !e came to the door of an e"der"/ man, %ho as$ed him, 8>h/ do /ou, a

ho"/ sa&e, trave" unattendedL8 !e rep"ied, 8I have "eft the %or"d, and am %ithout fami"/ ties. No one has &iven me an attendant discip"e. It ma/ #e /ou %ho %i"" #esto% this $indness.8 The e"der"/ man rep"ied, 8If I have a son I %i"" respectfu""/ offer him to /ou.8 !e after%ards had a son %hom he named Dri$ata, %ho devoted himse"f in /outh to the stud/ of the utras and other #oo$s, and then %ent in search of Upa&upta. >hen Upa&upta %as o"d, he said to Dri$ata, 8./ time for enterin& the Nirv9na is come. The Dharma %hich I have tau&ht I intrust to /ou. It %i"" #e /our dut/ to teach it in re&ions far and near.8 This he did in Centra" India, and %hen he died ?seiRed on the Nirv9na@ Devas and men %ere sad. p. KB .icha$a %as the sixth patriarch. >hen he met first %ith Dri$ata, he said to him, 8I %as former"/ #orn %ith /ou in the heaven of Brahma. I met %ith (sita, B %ho tau&ht me the doctrine of the Rishis. -ou met %ith &ood and %ise teachers %ho instructed /ou in the princip"es of Buddhism. o /our path differed from mine for a period of six $a"pas. The record of the Rishis said, 5(fter six $a"pas /ou sha"" meet %ith a fe""o% "earner. Throu&h him /ou sha"" o#tain the ho"/ fruit.5 To2da/, in meetin& %ith /ou, is it not the fu"fi"ment of destin/L8 Dri$ata then instructed him in Dharma, and he made eminent attainments. The Rishis, his companions, did not #e"ieve, unti" Dri$ata performed #efore them various ma&ica" transformations, %hen the/ a"" #e"ieved and o#tained the fruit of doctrine. >hen Dri$ata died, .icha$a too$ his p"ace in renovatin& man$ind #/ teachin& the Nirv9na. The seventh ?shou"d #e ei&hth@ patriarch %as Buddhanandi, a native of Northern India. >hen .icha$a came to his countr/, Buddhanandi sa% on the cit/ #att"ements a &o"den2co"oured c"oud. !e thou&ht that there must #e a sa&e #eneath the c"oud, %ho %ou"d transmit the Dharma. !e %ent to search, and found Buddhanandi in the street "eadin& to the mar$et2p"ace. .icha$a said, 8*ormer"/ Buddha, %hen trave""in& in Northern India, said to (nanda, 5Three hundred /ears after m/ death there %i"" #e a sa&e named Buddhanandi. !e %i"" ma$e the Dharma &reat in this re&ion.58 Buddhanandi rep"ied, 8I remem#er that in a former $a"pa I presented to Buddha a throne. It %as on this account that he made reference to me, and foreto"d that I shou"d in the 5$a"pa of the sa&es5 ? )hadrakalpa@ spread the Dharma far and %ide. ince this a&rees exact"/ %ith %hat /ou have said, I %ish to #ecome a discip"e.8 !e at once o#tained the four fruits of en"i&htenment. The ninth patriarch, Buddhamitra, %as found #/ his p. KH predecessor in the patriarchate in the fo""o%in& manner. Buddhanandi came to his countr/ to teach. eein& a %hite "i&ht over a house, he said to his discip"es, 8There is a sa&e here, %ho has a mouth, #ut does not spea$, and has feet, #ut does not %a"$.8 !e %ent to the door, and %as as$ed #/ an o"d man %h/ he came. The ans%er %as, 8In search of a discip"e.8 The o"d man rep"ied, 8I have a son 3ust fift/. !e neither spea$s nor %a"$s.8 8That,8 said Buddhanandi, 8is m/ discip"e.8 Buddhamitra rose, made o#eisance, %a"$ed seven steps, and then pronounced the fo""o%in& -atha>8If m/ father and mother are not m/ nearest of $in, %ho is soL If the Buddhas are not m/ teachers, %ho are m/ teachersL8 Buddhanandi rep"ied, 8-ou spea$ of /our nearest re"ative #ein& the heart. To this /our "ove for /our parents is not compara#"e. -our actin& in accordance %ith 5doctrine5 ?tau@ is the mind of the Buddhas. The Buddha of the wai&tau ?heretica" teachers@ #e"on&s to the %or"d of forms. Their Buddha and /ou are not a"i$e. -ou shou"d $no% that /our rea" mind is neither c"ose"/ attached nor separated.8 !e further said to the fatherS8-our son former"/ met %ith Buddha, and, stimu"ated #/ compassion, had &reat "on&in&s to #enefit others. But #ecause he has thou&ht too much of his father5s and mother5s "ove, %ho cou"d not "et him &o, he has not spo$en nor %a"$ed.8 The a&ed father hearin& this, at once "et him "eave the fami"/ to #ecome a mon$. >hen .icha$a ?in +ite", .i$$a$aQ in San-kiau-yi-su, .isucha$a@ %as a#out to die, he intrusted to Buddhanandi the correct Dharma to teach to man$ind. uch is the statement of ChM2pJan of the Kiau2men in Fo-tsu-tung-ki. !e re3ects 0asumitra, the seventh patriarch of the contemp"atist schoo". !e does not even mention 0asumitra, %ho /et %as ver/ distin&uished. !e too$ a chief part in the "ast revision of the canon, as president of the third or fourth s/nod, under Kanish$a, Ra3ah of Cashmere, B.C. BDC. To this, +ite" adds, that he must p. KC have died soon after, thou&h Chinese chrono"o&/ p"aces his death in B.C. DTG. The Kiau2men %riters apparent"/ sa/ "itt"e a#out the s/nods or counci"s, perhaps #ecause the/ %ere presided over #/ the patriarchs, %ho favoured the contemp"atist schoo". Can this #e the reason that ChM2pJan has ne&"ected the seventh patriarch and caused .icha$a to nominate Buddhanandi ?the ei&hth@ as his successor, ma$in& him the seventhL *rom this point I prefer to fo""o% San-kiau-yi-su and +ite" in num#erin& the patriarchs, %hi"e continuin& to ta$e the stor/ of their "ives from the interestin& pa&es of Fo-tsu-tung-ki, #ecause the author is fu"" of anecdote. Chi2pJan, to fi"" the vacanc/ caused #/ the omission of 0asumitra, mentions .adh/anti$a, a discip"e of (nanda, %ho converted Cashmere. !e %as contemporar/ %ith han&navasu. Buddhamitra passed at once throu&h the steps of en"i&htenment, and #e&an to teach the correct Dharma. There %as a $in& then rei&nin& %ho fo""o%ed another schoo", and %ished to destro/ the inf"uence of Buddhism, a re"i&ion %hich he despised. Buddhamitra, %ishin& to #rin& this $in& to su#mission, too$ a red f"a& in his hand, and carried it #efore the $in& for t%e"ve /ears. The $in& at "ast as$ed %ho this man %as. Buddhamitra rep"ied, 8I am a man of $no%"ed&e, %ho can discuss re"i&ion.8 The $in& ordered an assem#"/ of Brahmans to meet him in a "ar&e ha"", and discuss re"i&ion %ith him. Buddhamitra too$ his seat, and de"ivered a discourse. ( man %ea$ in $no%"ed&e %as pitted a&ainst him, %hose reasonin&s he at once su#verted. The rest dec"ined to ar&ue. The $in& then entered himse"f into ar&ument %ith him, #ut soon &ave %a/, and announced his intention to fo""o% the Buddhist re"i&ion. In the same $in&dom %as a 8Nir&rantha8 ?6ikan@, %ho revi"ed Buddhism, and %as an expert ca"cu"ator. 6irgrantha means a devotee %ho has cut the ties of food and c"othin&, p. KF and can "ive %ithout fee"in& hun&r/ or co"d. It is from grantha, 8tie.8 Buddhamitra %ent to him and received information in re&ard to his ca"cu"ations. The Nir&rantha spared no a#use in spea$in& of Buddha. The Buddhist then said, 8-ou are no% %or$in& B out punishment to /ourse"f, and %i"" fa"" into he"". If /ou do not #e"ieve %hat I sa/, tr/ /our ca"cu"ations, and /ou %i"" find %hether it is so or not.8 The heretic ca"cu"ated, and found that it %as so. !e then said to the Buddhist teacher, 8!o% can I

avoid this ca"amit/L8 The rep"/ %as, 8-ou shou"d #ecome a #e"iever in Buddha. -ou ma/ then have this demerit annu""ed.8 Nir&rantha ?or the Nir&rantha@ upon this, pronounced five hundred sentences in praise of Buddha, and repented of his former fau"ts. Buddhamitra then said, 8!avin& performed these meritorious actions, /ou %i"" certain"/ #e #orn in one of the heaven"/ paradises. If /ou dou#t this, ma$e the ca"cu"ations, that /ou ma/ $no% it to #e so.8 !e did this, and found that his demerit %as &one, and that he %ou"d #e #orn in heaven. !e and five hundred of his fo""o%ers 3o/fu""/ enro""ed themse"ves as Buddhist mon$s, shaved their "oc$s, and p"aced themse"ves under the protection of the Three ,recious Thin&s. The tenth patriarch %as ,arshva, and the e"eventh ,una/a3a. ,arshva came to the cit/ of 8,ata"iputra8 ?Chinese, Hwa-sh@, and rested under a tree. !e pointed to the &round and said, 8If this earth shou"d chan&e to a &o"den co"our, a sa&e must #e here.8 (s soon as he had said this, the &round chan&ed its co"our, and immediate"/ ,una/a3a arrived. !e %as received to the vo%s #/ ,arshva, and #ecame his successor. The t%e"fth patriarch %as (sh%a&osha, or #aming, 8a horse nei&hin&.8 In the cit/ of ,ata"iputra, five hundred /ouths of prince"/ fami"ies #ecame at one time converts p. KD to his doctrine, and too$ the tonsure. The $in& feared that his $in&dom %ou"d #ecome depopu"ated, and issued an order that there shou"d #e no more chantin&. This decree %as "eve""ed a&ainst the use of some ver/ popu"ar and s%eet music introduced #/ .amin&. The music must have excited &reat attention, and must have had its effect in "eadin& man/ persons to reso"ve on "eadin& the Buddhist "ife. This %ou"d "ead to diminution in popu"ation. The countr/ %ou"d #ecome poorer. There %ou"d #e fe%er %or$ers, fe%er tax2pa/ers, fe%er so"diers, and fe%er traders. (t this 3uncture the $in& of the 1et= ?Indo2 c/thians@ #esie&ed ,ata"iputra. There %ere TGG,GGG men in the cit/, and the #esie&in& $in& re:uired TGG,GGG pieces of &o"d as a ransom. The $in& of ,ata"iputra &ave him .amin&, a Buddha5s rice #o%", and a coc$, o#servin& that each of these &ifts %as %orth CGG,GGG &o"d pieces. .amin&5s %isdom %as unriva""ed. Buddha had #ound"ess virtue, and a mercifu" heart. The coc$ %ou"d not drin$ %ater that had insects in it. ("" three %ou"d #e a#"e to drive a%a/ enemies. The $in& of the 1et= %as de"i&hted, dre% #ac$ his troops, and returned to his countr/. (fter a time, the ,arthians attac$ed him. !e &ained a victor/, and $i""ed TGG,GGG of the enem/. .amin& %as #orn at Benares, #ut tau&ht chief"/ at ,ata"iputra. One da/, %hi"e he %as causin& the %hee" of the %onderfu" "a% to revo"ve, an o"d man sudden"/ fe"" on the &round 3ust #efore him. The patriarch said, 8This is no ordinar/ person. There %i"" #e some remar$a#"e appearance.8 No sooner %as this said than he vanished. Then, in a trice, a man %ith a &o"den s$in rose out of the &round. !e soon #ecame chan&ed into a /oun& %oman, %ho pointed %ith her ri&ht hand at .amin& and said, 8I #o% to the a&ed and honoured patriarch. )et me receive the mar$ of 4u"ai.8 he disappeared. The patriarch said, 8( demon must #e comin& to stru&&"e %ith me.8 p. KA ;para&raph continues< There %as a vio"ent %ind and heav/ rain. The s$/ #ecame dar$. The patriarch remar$ed, 8The demon is indeed come. I must expe" him.8 >hen he pointed into the air, a &o"den dra&on appeared, %ho sho%ed marve""ous po%er, and shoo$ the mountains. The patriarch sat ca"m"/, and the demon5s a&enc/ came to an end. (fter seven da/s, a sma"" insect appeared, %hich hid itse"f under the chair of the patriarch, %ho too$ it up and said to the assem#"/, 8This is the demon in an assumed shape come stea"thi"/ to hear m/ teachin&.8 !e set the insect free, and to"d it to &o, #ut the demon in it cou"d not move. The patriarch then said to the demon, 8If /ou on"/ p"ace /ourse"f under the direction of the Three ,recious Thin&s, /ou ma/ at once o#tain marve""ous po%ers.8 The demon at once returned to his ori&ina" shape, made a prostration and a penitent confession. The patriarch, as$in& him his name, he rep"ied, 8Kapimara.8 >hen the in:uir/, %hat %as the extent of his po%ers, %as addressed to him, he rep"ied that to transform the sea %as eas/ to him. 8Can /ou,8 as$ed the patriarch, 8transform the 5sea of the mora" nature5 ? sing-hai@L8 !e ans%ered that he did not $no% %hat %as meant. .amin& exp"ained that the ph/sica" %or"d rests on this mora" nature for its existence. o a"so the po%ers of samadhi, and of far2reachin& perception on the part of Buddhist proficients, a"so depend on this for a"" their va"ue. Kapimara #ecame a #e"iever, and three thousand of his adherents a"" entered the ran$s of the shaven mon$s. The patriarch ca""ed in five thousand (rhans to aid in administerin& the vo%s to this "ar&e cro%d of app"icants. Kapimara #ecame the thirteenth patriarch. !is numerous fo""o%ers spread the Buddhist re"i&ion in outhern India. !e compi"ed a hastra ? Lun@, ca""ed the 8 hastra of the Non2e&o.8 It extended to the "en&th of BGG -athas ?Kie@. >herever this hastra came, the demons and heretics %ere pitia#"/ discomfited. p. KK Lung-shu, or 8Na&ar3una,8 %as the fourteenth patriarch. !e #e"on&ed to outhern India. ( $in& there %as ver/ much opposed to Buddhism, and inf"uenced #/ %hat that re"i&ion ca""s 8depraved vie%s8 ?sie-kien@. )un& shu %ished to convert him, and for seven /ears carried a red #anner #efore him %hen trave""in&. The Ra3ah as$ed, 8>ho is this manL8 !e rep"ied for himse"f, 8I am a man possessin& a"" $inds of $no%"ed&e.8 The Ra3ah as$ed, 8>hat are the Devas no% doin&L8 !e rep"ied, 84ust no% the Devas are fi&htin& %ith the (suras.8 In a moment the/ #ecame a%are of the conf"ict of s%ords in the s$/, and, to the Ra3ah5s astonishment, some ears and noses of the &iants fe"" on the &round. The Ra3ah reverentia""/ performed a prostration #efore )un&2shu. Ten thousand Brahmans %ho %ere at the time in the ha"" of audience a"" 3oined in praisin& the marve""ous virtue of the patriarch, and at once su#mitted themse"ves to the tonsure, and entered on the mon$ish "ife. )un&2shu %rote severa" important hastras. (mon& them %as that one ca""ed Ta-ch-tu-lun, 8 hastra of the .ethod of 1reat >isdom.8 !e %as one of the most pro"ific authors of the .aha/ana schoo". On this account he #ecame the o#3ect of the 3ea"ous dis"i$e of the o"der schoo" of the )esser Conve/ance. >hen dra%in& near the end of his "ife, he unexpected"/ fe"" one da/ into the trance ca""ed the samadhi of the moon5s %hee", in %hich he on"/ heard %ords of the Dharma, #ut sa% no forms. !is pupi", Deva, comprehended him, and said, 8The Buddha nature %hich /ou, m/ teacher, ma$e $no%n to us, does not consist in si&hts and sounds.8 )un&2shu intrusted to him the care of the Dharma, and entered a vacant room. (s he did not come out for a da/, the pupi"s #ro$e open the door. !e had

&one into a state of samadhi, and died. In a"" the $in&doms of India, temp"es %ere erected for him, and he %as honoured as if he %ere Buddha. The fifteenth patriarch %as Kanadeva, a native of outh p. KE ;para&raph continues< India. The $in& of his countr/ fo""o%ed a form of depraved doctrine. >hen men %ere invited to act as &uards, Kanadeva responded to the ca"", and too$ his p"ace, spear in hand, in the front ran$, dischar&in& his duties in so re&u"ar and exemp"ar/ a manner that the $in&5s attention %as attracted. In rep"/ to the $in&5s in:uiries, he said he %as a man %ho studied %isdom and practised ar&umentative orator/. The $in& opened for him a discussion ha"". !ere Kanadeva proposed three thesesS?B.@ Buddha is the most exce""ent of sa&esQ ?H.@ No "a% can compare %ith the "a% of BuddhaQ ?C.@ There is no happiness ?or merit@ on earth e:ua" to that of the Buddhist mon$. 8If an/ one can van:uish me in re&ard to these three theses, I consent to have m/ head ta$en off.8 In the discussion that ensued, a"" the heretics %ere %orsted, and as$ed permission to #ecome mon$s. ( fo""o%er of one of the scho"ars %ho %ere van:uished in ar&ument fe"t ashamed for his master, %as much enra&ed, and reso"ved to $i"" Kanadeva. !e attac$ed him %hi"e en&a&ed in %ritin& a controversia" %or$, and %ith his s%ord pierced him throu&h. Before "ife %as extinct, the patriarch said, 8-ou can ta$e m/ ro#e and rice #o%", and &o :uic$"/ to m/ discip"es and inform them, that if an/ amon& them have not made pro&ress, the/ shou"d $eep firm"/ to their purpose %ithout despairin&.8 The pupi"s came to see their master %ith "oud "amentation. !e said to them, 8("" methods and s/stems are empt/. I do not exist, and cannot #e in3ured. I do not receive "ove or hatred from an/. >hat that man has in3ured is the form of retri#ution for m/ past. It is not I m/se"f.8 !e then cast off the #od/, as a cicada does its outer coverin&. !is discip"es co""ected the re"ics after his cremation, erected a da&o#a, and paid him the re&u"ar honours of %orship. The sixteenth patriarch %as Rahu"ata, a native of Kapi"a. >hen a certain Brahman %rote a %or$ of BGG,GGG -athas, extreme"/ difficu"t to exp"ain, Na&ar3una %as a#"e p. KT to understand the %ho"e at first hearin&, and Kanadeva at the second hearin&. Rahu"ata %as a#"e to comprehend the %ho"e %hen he had heard Kanadeva5s exp"anation. On this, the Brahman said, under the inf"uence of &reat astonishment, 8The hramana $no%s it as c"ear"/ as if he had $no%n it a"" of o"d.8 !e then #ecame a #e"iever. (fter his destined %or$ of reformation and instruction %as done, Rahu"ata entered ?the %ord is 8too$,8 8seiRed on8@ the Nirv9na. The seventeenth patriarch, an&hanandi, of the cit/ hravasti, %as the son of the $in&. !e cou"d spea$ as soon as he %as #orn, and read the #oo$s of Buddha %hen an infant. (t seven /ears o"d he formed a dis"i$e to a %or"d"/ "ife. !is parents tried in vain to chec$ him in reso"vin& to #e a mon$. T%o /ears "ater, Rahu"ata came to the #an$s of the 1o"den2%ater river and said, pointin& %ith his fin&er, 8(t a distance of five hundred li from this spot, there is a ho"/ person, named an&hanandi, %ho %i"", a thousand /ears after Buddha, succeed him on the throne of purit/.8 Rahu"ata "ed his discip"es to see him. !e had 3ust a%a$ed from a trance of t%ent/2one da/s, and at once desired to ta$e the monastic vo%s. !e ver/ soon understood the princip"es of Buddha5s teachin&, and #ecame himse"f an instructor. One da/ Rahu"ata ascended to the heaven of Brahma %ith a &o"den rice #o%" in his hand to o#tain rice for a mu"titude of #e"ievin& Buddhists. On a sudden the/ dis"i$ed its taste. Rahu"ata said, 8The fau"t is not in me. It is in /ourse"ves.8 !e then desired an&hanandi to distri#ute the food and eat %ith the others. ("" %ondered. Rahu"ata then said, 8!e is a Buddha of #/&one times, and /ou a"so %ere discip"es of the "a% of Buddha in a&es "on& past. !o%ever, /ou had not attained to the ran$ of (rhan, #ut on"/ rea"ised the first three fruits of the monastic "ife.8 The/ rep"ied, 8The marve""ous po%er of our teacher can "ead to faith. This Buddha of the past has sti"" secret dou#ts.8 an&hanandi o#served that %hen Buddha %as p. EG "ivin&, the earth %as at peace and the %aters made ever/thin& #eautifu"Q #ut after his death, %hen ei&ht hundred /ears had passed, men had "ost faith. The/ did not #e"ieve the true form of #eaut/. The/ on"/ "oved marve""ous po%ers and deeds that astonish. !e had no sooner ended, than he seiRed a cr/sta" 3ar, and s"o%"/ entered the earth. !e %ent %ith it to the #oundar/ of the diamond %hee" re&ion, and fi""ed it %ith the 8drin$ of the immorta"s8 ?kan-lu@. This he #rou&ht #ac$ to the assem#"/, and p"aced #efore them. The/ a"" repented of their thou&ht, and than$ed him. (n (rhan, fu"" of a"" virtue and merit, came there. an&hanandi tried his po%ers #/ a :uestion. 8One #orn of the race of the %hee" $in&s %as neither Buddha nor an (rhan. !e %as not received #/ after a&es as rea", nor %as he a ,rat/e$a Buddha.8 The (rhan, una#"e to so"ve this pro#"em, %ent to the paradises of the Devas, and as$ed .aitre/a, %ho rep"ied, 8The custom of the %or"d is to form a "ump of c"a/, and %ith a %hee" ma$e it into a porce"ain ima&e. !o% can this ima&e compare %ith the sa&es or #e continued to "ater &enerationsL8 The (rhan came #ac$ %ith this ans%er. an&hanandi rep"ied, 8It must have #een .aitre/a that to"d /ou this.8 >hen his destined course %as finished, he &rasped a tree %ith his ri&ht hand, and entered the state of destruction and sa"vation. The corpse cou"d not #e removed #/ his discip"es on account of its &reat %ei&ht. ( "ar&e e"ephant a"so came to tr/ his stren&th, #ut %as una#"e to move it. The discip"es then pi"ed up fra&rant %ood a&ainst the tree, and performed the process of cremation. The tree #ecame sti"" more "uxuriant"/ #eautifu". ( da&o#a %as erected, and the re"ics %ere %orshipped. The ei&hteenth patriarch %as named an&$a/asheta. >hen he heard the #e""s of a temp"e rin&in& on account of the %ind #"o%in&, his teacher as$ed him, 8Is it the #e""s that ma$e the sound, or the %indL8 The /outh rep"ied, 8It is neither the #e""s nor the %ind, it is m/ p. EB mind.8 >a"$in& on the sea2side, he came to a temp"e and %ent into it to #e& food, sa/in&, 8!un&er is the &reatest evi". (ction is the &reatest sufferin&. !e %ho $no%s the rea"it/ of Dharma that there is in this statement, ma/ enter the path of Nirv9na.8 !e %as invited to enter and supp"ied %ith food. an&$a/asheta sa% in the house t%o hun&r/ &hosts, na$ed and chained. 8>hat is the meanin& of thisL8 he as$ed. !is host said, 8These &hosts %ere in a former "ife m/ son2in2"a% and dau&hter2in2"a%. The/ %ere an&r/ #ecause I &ave a%a/ food in charit/, and %hen I instructed them the/ refused to "isten. I then too$ an oath and said, 5>hen /ou suffer the pena"t/ of /our sin I %i"" certain"/ come and see /ou.5 (ccordin&"/, at the time of their sufferin& their retri#ution, I arrived at a certain p"ace %here mon$s, at the sound of the #e"", had assem#"ed for food. >hen the food %as near"/ a"" eaten, it chan&ed to #"ood, and the mon$s #e&an to use their #o%"s and

other utensi"s emp"o/ed at mea"s, in fi&htin& %ith one another, and said, 5>h/ are /ou savin& of foodL The miser/ %e #ear no% is a recompense for the past.5 I as$ed them to te"" me %hat the/ had done. The/ rep"ied, that in the time of Kashiapa Buddha, the/ had #een &ui"t/ on one occasion, %hen Bi$shus came as$in& food, of concea"in& their store and an&ri"/ refusin& to share it %ith them. This %as the cause of their present retri#ution.8 an&$a/asheta %ent on the sea and sa% a"" the five hundred he""s. This tau&ht him fear, and the desire to avoid, #/ some means, such a fate as to #e condemned to "ive there. !e attained the ran$ of (rhan, and findin& in a %ood five hundred 8hermits8 ?sien@ %ho %ere practisin& ascetic ru"es, he converted them to Buddhism #/ praisin& Buddha, the )a%, and the ,riesthood. >hen his destined course %as run, he entered the Nirv9na, B.C. BC. In the account of Kumarada, the nineteenth patriarch, is inc"uded an ans%er he &ave to a /outh %ho %as puRR"ed at the ine:ua"it/ of re%ards and punishments in the present p. EH "ife. The /outh5s parents %ere devout Buddhists, #ut in ver/ fee#"e hea"th. Their nei&h#our %as a #utcher, and en3o/ed an immunit/ from a"" sic$ness and pain. >h/ shou"d a man %hose #usiness it %as to ta$e anima" "ife escape retri#ution from this sinL Kumarada to"d him that the ine:ua"it/ of men5s condition in the present "ife is main"/ on account of sins and virtuous acts in a former "ife. 0irtue and vice #e"on& to the present. !appiness and miser/ are the recompense of the virtue and vice of the past. The virtue and vice of the present %i"" #e re%arded in the future "ife. 4a/ata %as charmed %ith this conversation. !is dou#ts %ere dissipated. !e su#se:uent"/ #ecame the t%entieth patriarch. Kumarada a"so said to him, 8(ctivit/, in %hich /ou have hitherto #e"ieved, comes from dou#t, dou#t from $no%"ed&e, $no%"ed&e from a man5s not possessin& the perceptive po%er, and the a#sence of perception from the mind5s #ein& in a mor#id state. )et /our mind #e pure and at rest, and %ithout "ife or death, victor/ or defeat, action or retri#ution, and /ou %i"" then have attained the same eminence as the Buddhas of the past. ("" vice and virtue, action and inaction, are a dream and a de"usion.8 Kumarada died (.D. HC. The %or$ of the patriarchs %as to en&a&e in a perpetua" ar&ument a&ainst un#e"ief. There %ere differences in "oca"ities. ome parts of India %ere more favoura#"e to Buddhism than others. In the account of the "ife of .anura, the 8t%ent/2first8 patriarch, in Fo-tsu-tung-ki ?#ut rea""/ the t%ent/2second@, it is said that in the t%o Indias south of the 1an&es, >estern and outhern India, there %as &reat perversit/ of vie%. .anura %as %e"" s$i""ed in the ana"/sis of a"pha#etic sounds, and %as recommended #/ a "earned Buddhist named -a3a, to proceed to >estern and outhern India to teach Buddhism. +vident"/ he %ou"d aid in &ivin& a"pha#ets to the Tami" and other "an&ua&es, %hich at that time %ere first committed to %ritin&. On the other hand, in Northern, Centra", and +astern India, a"" stated to #e to the north of the 1au&es, the %or$ p. EC of Buddhist teachin& is said to #e eas/. -a3a undertoo$ to teach in this part of India. The campai&n of .anura is descri#ed as a "on& stru&&"e %ith errors and heresies. !e specia""/ made use of a #oo$ #/ the t%e"fth patriarch ca""ed the Sutra&o+&the&6otme. !e found >estern India under the contro" of $in& Teda, %ho one da/ %hen trave""in& passed a sma"" pa&oda. !is attendants cou"d not sa/ %hat %as the occasion of its #ein& erected. !e as$ed the 8Brahmans of pure "ife8 ?Fan-hing@, the 8contemp"atists8 ?chun-kwan@, and the 8utterers of charms8 ?chen-shu@, %ho formed three c"asses of the communit/ of that da/. The/ did not $no%. .anura %as then as$edQ %ho said it %as a pa&oda erected #/ $in& (shX$a, and %hich had no% come to "i&ht throu&h the &ood fortune of the $in&. B The $in& %as much impressed %ith .anura5s teachin&, and #ecame a discip"e. !e &ave over his ro/a" authorit/ to his son, and himse"f too$ vo%s as a mon$. In seven da/s he advanced to the fourth &rade of the understandin& of Buddhist doctrine. .anura &ave the %or$ of reformin& the $in&dom #/ Buddhist teachin& into the hands of the $in&, and %ent himse"f to the $in&dom of the Indian 1et, %horetreatin& %est%ard #efore the !iun&2nu, B.C. BEGcon:uered the ,un3a# and Cashmere in (.D. BHA. .anura tau&ht in >estern India and in *er&hana in the third Christian centur/. !e is author of the <i(hasha&Shastra. The t%ent/2third patriarch %as !a$"ena. !e %as of the countr/ of the 1et= ?Candahar@. (t seven /ears o"d he #e&an to re#u$e those peop"e %ho visited temp"es to sacrifice to the &ods. !e said the/ %ere deceivers of the peop"e, #/ %ron& statements of the causes of ca"amities and of happiness. 8Besides, /ou are,8 he said, 8%astin& the "ives of innocent catt"e, %hich is a ver/ &reat evi".8 On a sudden the temp"e and ima&es fe"" do%n in ruins. (t thirt/2ei&ht /ears of a&e he met %ith .anura, and %as p. EF instructed. .anura to"d him that former"/ five hundred of his discip"es had, on account of sma"" merit, #een #orn as stor$s. 8These are the f"oc$ that are no% fo""o%in& /ou, %ishin& to de"ude /ou into sho%in& them favour.8 !a$"ena as$ed him, 8!o% can the/ #e removedL8 .anura spo$e some sentences in the form of 1athas. 8The mind fo""o%s the ten thousand forms in their revo"utions. (t the turnin&2points of revo"ution, there rea""/ must #e dar$ness. B/ fo""o%in& the stream and reco&nisin& the true nature, /ou attain a position %here there is no 3o/ or sorro%.8 The #irds hearin& these %ords, f"e% a%a/ %ith "oud cries. This is inserted #/ the Chinese #io&rapher as an examp"e of a patriarch5s po%er over the anima" creation. !a$"ena %ent to Centra" India. >hi"e he %as teachin& in the presence of a Ra3ah, t%o men appeared dressed in dar$ red mant"es and %hite to&as. The/ came to %orship, and sta/ed a "on& time. udden"/ the/ %ent a%a/. The Ra3ah as$ed, 8>ho are the/L8 !a$"ena rep"ied, 8The/ are the sons of the Devas of the sun and moon.8 !is most promisin& discip"e %as in&ha"aputra ?)ion sonQ in Chinese, Sh-ts@, %ho had former"/ #e"ieved in Brahmanism, and a#andoned it in favour of the Buddhist faith. !e as$ed !a$"ena, 8To %hat must I &ive m/ chief attention if I %ou"d attain the true $no%"ed&e of thin&sL8 8Do nothin&,8 %as the rep"/. 8If /ou do an/thin& there is no merit in it. B/ doin& nothin&, /ou %i"" comp"/ %ith the s/stem of Buddha.8 !a$"ena died (.D. HGT ?Chinese chrono"o&/@. The t%ent/2fourth patriarch %as in&ha"aputra, a native of Centra" India. !e %ent to Candahar ? Ki-pin@, and there #rou&ht over ver/ man/ persons to Buddhism. ome heretics %ere &ui"t/ of &ross crimes, and too$ the name of Buddhists. The $in& #ecame an&r/ a&ainst Buddhism, and cut off the head of the patriarch.

On account of this unhapp/ fate of the patriarch, the succession, accordin& to some authors, %as #ro$en off at this point. (nother reason for terminatin& the "ist of p. ED patriarchs here, is said, #/ the author of Fa-tsu-tung-hi, to have #een that the remainin& patriarchs %ere not foreto"d #/ Buddha #/ name, and did not e:ua" in &ifts and honour those that preceded. The contemp"ative schoo", or schoo" of Bodhidharma, ho%ever, have retained the t%ent/2ei&ht names, and reco&nise no superiorit/ in the t%ent/2four universa""/ ac$no%"ed&ed patriarchs over the remainin& four. *or man/ centuries there %as an active discussion on the c"aims of the "ast four and the Chinese patriarchs to the honour of the name. ChM2pJan, %ritin& in (.D. BHAT, at Nin&po, decides a&ainst them. ome of the friends %ho revie%ed his %or$, and %hose names are &iven, #e"on&ed to the contemp"ative schoo". The difference of vie%s %ou"d not therefore #e an unfriend"/ one. The t%ent/2fifth patriarch, accordin& to the contemp"ative schoo", %as Basiasita. !e %as a Brahman, and a native of Candahar. !e trave""ed into Centra" and outhern India, and died (.D. CHE. ,utnomita %as the next ?t%ent/2sixth@ that received the c"oa$ and secret s/m#o"s of the patriarchs. !e %as a Kshatr/a of outhern India. !e visited +astern India, %here he found the $in& under the inf"uence of heretica" doctrine, and converted him. !e died in (.D. CEE. !is successor, the t%ent/2seventh patriarch, %as ,rad3]atara, a native of Centra" India, %ho trave""ed to the southern part of the peninsu"a, and there too$ under his instructions Bodhidharma, the second son of the $in&. !e died (.D. FDK, and "eft as his successor the pupi" 3ust mentioned, %ho, he foreto"d, %ou"d visit China sixt/2 nine /ears after%ards. Bodhidharma as$ed him, %hen under instruction, %hat he had to sa/ a#out precious thin&s, pear"s, and doctrines, %hich are round and #ri&ht. The patriarch ans%ered, 8(mon& a"" precious thin&s the Buddhist Dharma is the most precious. (mon& a"" #ri&ht thin&s, $no%"ed&e is the #ri&htest. (mon& a"" c"ear thin&s, a c"ear mind is the c"earest. (mon& a"" thin&s, p. EA other men and I are the hi&hest. (mon& a"" thin&s, the 8essentia" nature8 ?sing@ of Dharma is the &reatest.8 Bodhidharma %as the t%ent/2ei&hth patriarch. !e represents a schoo" that despises #oo$s and reduces Buddhist teachin& to the simp"est possi#"e princip"es. !e %as an ascetic of the first %ater. In (.D. DHA, Bodhidharma "eft outhern India for China #/ sea. The sixt/2nine /ears that passed #et%een the death of his predecessor and his departure from India formed the #asis of the prediction a#ove mentioned, constructed %e must suppose after the event. The cause of his departure %as pro#a#"/ persecution and disaster. !e %as a sectarian even in Buddhism, and possi#"/ his enemies %ere not on"/ the Brahmans, #ut a"so fe""o%2Buddhists. The readin& of #oo$s %as the "ife and sou" of man/ monasteries. Bodhidharma decried #oo$ readin&. !is s/stem made the monasteries much "ess educationa" and much more m/stica" and meditative than #efore. )overs of $no%"ed&e amon& the Buddhists %ou"d dis"i$e his s/stem. This %ou"d #e the case in China and in India. In China the do&matic reason &iven for not ac$no%"ed&in& the "ast four patriarchs %as that, in the 8Dharmapita$a utra,8 Buddha had said, 8(fter m/ enterin& the Nirv9na, there %i"" #e t%ent/2four honoura#"e teachers, %ho %i"" appear in the %or"d and teach m/ "a%8 ? Fo-tsu-tung-ki, v. B@. (fter this %hat cou"d #e done #ut ta$e the statement as a fina" ans%er to the in:uir/, !o% man/ patriarchs cou"d there #eL Bodhidharma %ished to return to India, #ut died in China #efore accomp"ishin& this purpose. The 81et=8 ?4ats@ mentioned in the account of !a$"ena are ca""ed ue-ti #/ the Chinese. In the C/c"op=dia Fa-yuen-chu-lin, it is said that the &reat $in&doms to the east, north, and %est of India, are China, the 1et=, and the 8Roman empire,8 Ta-tsin. B/ the $in&dom of the 1et= the Chinese author meant some &reat empire #et%een Rome and China. This is a statement dra%n from Indian sources.

Footnotes AHSB This is stated in the "ife of han&navasu, the third patriarch. The %ord used is hiang-"u, 8fra&rant mi"$.8 This is the name of a mi"$/ p"ant, 9schscholt7ia&cristata, a""ied to the vervain.5illiams. AASB This c"oth %as #rou&ht to China from Thi#et and other %estern countries in the TJan& d/nast/. It %as %hite, fine, thic$, and stron&. The p"ant of %hich it %as made had nine sta"$s. >hen an (rhan is #orn this p"ant is found &ro%in& in some c"ean spot. KBSB ( Rishi %ho %as a#"e to detect the mar$s of Buddha on a chi"d. ha$/amuni %as his s"ave in a former #irth. 9itel. KFSB Tsau-tsui, 8creatin& sin,8 i,e,, the punishment of sin. in and its punishment are confused and "oose"/ identified. ECSB 81ood fortune,8 +u-li, 8po%er of the $in&5s merit.8 Fu, 8happiness,8 is in a Buddhist sense 8merit.8 B/ the "a% of hidden causation, &ood fortune is a"%a/s deserved #/ some &ood action done, either in the present or in some former "ife.

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CHAPTER VI.

SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF BUDDHISM IN CHINA. The emperor .in&2ti sends an em#ass/ to India for ima&es, (.D. ABKashiapmadan&a arrives in China pread of Buddhism in (.D. CCDBuddo3an&a( pa&oda at Nan$in&, (.D. CEBThe trans"ator Kumara3iva, (.D. FGDThe Chinese trave""er, *a2hien visits India!is #oo$,ersecution, (.D. FHABuddhism prosperous, FDBIndian em#assies to China in the un& d/nast/Opposition of the Confucianists to BuddhismDiscussions on doctrineBuddhist prosperit/ in the Northern >ei $in&dom and the )ian& $in&domBodhidharma un&2/In sent to IndiaBodhidharma "eaves )ian& >u2ti and &oes to Northern China!is "atter /ears and death+m#assies from Buddhist countries m the southRe"icsThe )ian& emperor >u2ti #ecomes a mon$+m#assies from India and Ce/"onInf"uence of anscrit %ritin& in &ivin& the Chinese the $no%"ed&e of an a"pha#et /""a#ic spe""in&Confucian opposition to Buddhism in the TJan& d/nast/The five successors of Bodhidharma!iuen2tsan&5s trave"s in India>or$ as a trans"ator,ersecution, (.D. KBF!indoo ca"endar in China(mo&ha introduces the festiva" for hun&r/ &hostsOpposition of !an -I to Buddhism,ersecution of EFDTeachin& of .atsuTriumph of the .aha/anaBudhiruchi,ersecution #/ the Cheu d/nast/+xtensive erection of pa&odas in the un& d/nast/+ncoura&ement of anscrit studies,"aces of pi"&rima&e,JutoRe&u"ations for receivin& the vo%s!indoo Buddhists in China in the un& d/nast/The .on&o" d/nast/ favoured BuddhismThe "ast Chinese Buddhist %ho visited IndiaThe .in& d/nast/ "imits the ri&ht of accumu"atin& "andRoman Catho"ic controvers/ %ith BuddhistsKan&2hi of the .anchu d/nast/ opposes BuddhismThe "iterati sti"" condemn Buddhism. IT %as in the /ear (.D. AB, that the Chinese emperor .in&2ti, in conse:uence of a dream, in %hich he sa% the ima&e of a forei&n &od, sent messen&ers to India, a countr/ p. EE severa" thousand mi"es to the south2east of the capita", to as$ for Buddhist #oo$s and teachers. B ( native of Centra" India named Kashiapmadan&a, %ith others, accompanied them #ac$. !e trans"ated a sma"" #ut important utra, ca""ed the utra of *ort/2t%o ections, and died at )o2/an&. The re"i&ion had no% "on& #een esta#"ished in Nepau" and Independent Tartar/, as the trave"s of the patriarchs indicate. It had a"so extended itse"f throu&hout India and Ce/"on, and the persecution of the Brahmans, insti&ated part"/ #/ controversia" fee"in&, and more #/ a desire to increase their caste inf"uence, had not /et commenced. )on& #efore this, it is stated that in B.C. HBK, Indians had arrived at the capita" of China in hen2si, in order to propa&ate their re"i&ion. Remusat, after mentionin& this in the Fo% kou%&ki, adds that, to%ards the /ear B.C. BHH, a %ar"i$e expedition of the Chinese "ed them to !ieou2thou, a countr/ #e/ond -ar$and. !ere a &o"den statue %as ta$en, and #rou&ht to the emperor. The Chinese author states that this %as the ori&in of the statues of Buddha that %ere after%ards in use. (t this period the &eo&raphica" $no%"ed&e of the Chinese rapid"/ increased. The name of India no% occurs for the first time in their anna"s. In the /ear B.C. BHH Chan& KJien, a Chinese am#assador, returned from the countr/ of the 1et=, and informed the !an emperor >u2ti, of the $in&doms and customs existin& in the %est. (mon& other thin&s, he said, 8>hen I %as in the countr/ of the Dah=, H BH,GGG Chinese mi"es distant to the south2%est, I sa% #am#oo staves from K6iun& and c"oth from M2 ch6uen. On as$in& %hence the/ came, I %as to"d that the/ %ere artic"es of traffic at Shin-do ?5 cinde,5 a countr/ far to p. ET the south2east of the Dah=@.8 It is added in the commentar/ to the T1ung-kien-kang-muh, that the name is a"so pronounced, Kan-do and T1in-do, and that it is the countr/ of the #ar#arians ca""ed Buddha. +ar"/ in the fourth centur/, native Chinese #e&an to ta$e the Buddhist monastic vo%s. Their histor/ sa/s, under the /ear CCD, that the prince of the Ch6au $in&dom in the time of the +astern Ts6in d/nast/, permitted his su#3ects to do so. !e %as inf"uenced #/ an Indian named Buddo3an&a, B %ho pretended to ma&ica" po%ers. Before this, natives of India had #een a""o%ed to #ui"d temp"es in the "ar&e cities, #ut it %as no% for the first time that the peop"e of the countr/ %ere suffered to #ecome 8 hamen8 H ?Shramanas@, or discip"es of Buddha. The first trans"ations of the Buddhist #oo$s had #een a"read/ made, for %e read that at the c"ose of the second centur/, an Indian residin& at Ch6an&2an, the modern i2an fu, produced the first version of the 8)otus of the 1ood )a%.8 The emperor !iau >u, of the Ts6in d/nast/, in the /ear (.D. CEB, erected a pa&oda in his pa"ace at Nan$in&. (t this period, "ar&e monasteries #e&an to #e esta#"ished in North China, and nine2tenths of the common peop"e, sa/s the historian, fo""o%ed the faith of the &reat Indian sa&e. Under the /ear (.D. FGD, the Chinese chronic"es record that the $in& of the Ts6in countr/ &ave a hi&h office to Kumara3iva, an Indian Buddhist. This is an important epoch for the histor/ of Chinese Buddhist "iterature. Kumara3iva %as commanded #/ the emperor to trans"ate the sacred #oo$s of India, and to the present da/ his name ma/ #e seen on the first pa&e of the principa" Buddhist c"assics. The seat of the ancient $in&dom of Ts6in %as in the southern p. TG part of the provinces hen2si and Kan2su. Ch6au, another $in&dom %here, a fe% /ears previous"/, Buddhism %as in favour at court, %as in the modern ,e2chi2"i and han2si. That this re"i&ion %as then f"ourishin& in the most norther"/ provinces of the empire, and that the date, p"ace ?Ch6an&2an@, and other circumstances of the trans"ations are preserved, are facts that shou"d #e remem#ered in connection %ith the histor/ of the Chinese "an&ua&e. The numerous proper names and other %ords transferred from anscrit, and %ritten %ith the Chinese characters, are of &reat assistance in ascertainin& %hat sounds %ere then &iven to those characters in the re&ion %here .andarin is no% spo$en. Kumara3iva %as #rou&ht to China from Kui2tsi, a $in&dom in Thi#et, east of the Ts6un&2"in& mountains. The $in& of Ts6in had sent an arm/ to invade that countr/,

%ith directions not to return %ithout the Indian %hose fame had spread amon& a"" the nei&h#ourin& nations. The former trans"ations of the Buddhist sacred #oo$s %ere to a &reat extent erroneous. To produce them in a form more accurate and comp"ete %as the tas$ underta$en #/ the "earned Buddhist 3ust mentioned, at the desire of the $in&. .ore than ei&ht hundred priests %ere ca""ed to assist, and the $in& himse"f, an ardent discip"e of the ne% faith, %as present at the conference, ho"din& the o"d copies in his hand as the %or$ of correction proceeded. .ore than three hundred vo"umes %ere thus prepared. B >hi"e this %or$, so favoura#"e to the pro&ress of Buddhism, %as proceedin&, a Chinese trave""er, *a2hien, %as exp"orin& India and co""ectin& #oo$s. The extension of the re"i&ion that %as then propa&ated %ith such Rea" and fervour ver/ much promoted the mutua" intercourse of (siatic countries. The road #et%een +astern ,ersia and China %as fre:uent"/ traversed, and a succession of Chinese Buddhists thus found their %a/ to the parent p. TB "and of the "e&ends and superstitions in %hich the/ #e"ieved. evera" of them on their return %rote narratives of %hat the/ had seen. (mon& those that have #een preserved, the o"dest of them, the *ccount&o+&)uddhist&Kingdoms, B #/ *a2hien, is perhaps the most interestin& and va"ua#"e. !e descri#es the f"ourishin& condition of Buddhism in the steppes of Tartar/, amon& the Oui&hours and the tri#es residin& %est of the Caspian ea, in (f&hanistan %here the "an&ua&e and customs of Centra" India then prevai"ed, and the other "ands %atered #/ the Indus and its tri#utar/ rivers, in Centra" India and in Ce/"on. 1oin& #ac$ #/ sea from Ce/"on, he reached ChJan&2an in the /ear FBF, after fifteen /ears6 a#sence. !e then undertoo$ %ith the he"p of ,a"ats6an&a, a native of India, the tas$ of editin& the %or$s he had #rou&ht %ith him, and it %as not ti"" severa" /ears had e"apsed that at the re:uest of Kumara3iva, his re"i&ious instructor, he pu#"ished his trave"s. The earnestness and vi&our of the Chinese Buddhists at that ear"/ period, is sho%n sufficient"/ #/ the repeated 3ourne/s that the/ made a"on& the tedious and dan&erous route #/ Centra" (sia to India. Neither re"i&ion nor the "ove of seein& forei&n "ands, are no% enou&h, un"ess the emperor commands it, to induce an/ of the educated c"ass amon& them to "eave their homes. *a2hien had severa" companions, #ut death and other causes &radua""/ deprived him of them a"". The Ts6in d/nast/ no% fe"" ?(.D. FHG@, and %ith it in :uic$ succession the pett/ $in&doms into %hich China %as at that time divided. The northern provinces #ecame the possession of a po%erfu" Tartar fami"/, $no%n in histor/ as the >ei d/nast/. ( native d/nast/, the first of the name un&, ru"ed in the southern provinces. The princes of these $in&doms %ere at first hosti"e to Buddhism. p. TH ;para&raph continues< Ima&e ma$in& and the #ui"din& of temp"es %ere for#idden, and in the north professors of the prohi#ited re"i&ion %ere su#3ected to severe persecution. The peop"e %ere %arned a&ainst &ivin& them she"ter, and in the /ear FHA an edict %as issued a&ainst them, in accordance %ith %hich the #oo$s and ima&es of Buddha %ere destro/ed, and man/ priests put to death. To %orship forei&n divinities, or construct ima&es of earth or #rass, %as made a capita" crime. The e"dest son of the Tartar chief of the >ei $in&dom made man/ attempts to induce his father to dea" "ess harsh"/ to%ards a re"i&ion to %hich he himse"f %as stron&"/ attached, #ut in vain. The %or$ of this $in& %as undone #/ his successor %ho, in the /ear (.D. FDB, issued an edict permittin& a Buddhist temp"e to #e erected in each cit/, and fort/ or fift/ of the inha#itants to #ecome priests. The emperor himse"f performed the tonsure for some %ho too$ the monastic vo%s. The rapid advancement of Buddhism in China %as not unnoticed in nei&h#ourin& $in&doms. The same prosperit/ that a%o$e the 3ea"ous/ of the civi" &overnment in the countr/ itse"f, occasioned s/mpath/ e"se%here. .an/ em#assies came from the countries "/in& #et%een India and China durin& the time of un& >en2ti. %hose rei&n of more than thirt/ /ears c"osed in FDC. Their chief o#3ect %as to con&ratu"ate the ru"in& emperor on the prosperit/ of Buddhism in his dominions, and to pave the %a/ for fre:uent intercourse on the &round of identit/ in re"i&ion. T%o "etters of ,isha#arma, $in& of (ratan, to this emperor are preserved in the histor/ of this d/nast/. !e descri#es his $in&dom as "/in& in the shado% of the !ima"a/as, %hose sno%s fed the streams that %atered it. !e praises China B as the most prosperous of $in&doms, and its ru"ers p. TC as the #enefactors and civi"isers of the %or"d. The "etter of the $in& of 4e#a#ada, another Indian monarch, expresses his admiration of the same emperor in &"o%in& "an&ua&e. !e had &iven rest to the inha#itants of heaven and earth, su#3ected the four demons, attained the state of perfect perception, caused the %hee" of the honoured "a% to revo"ve, saved mu"titudes of "ivin& #ein&s, and #/ the renovatin& po%er of the Buddhist re"i&ion #rou&ht them into the happiness of the Nirv9na. Re"ics of Buddha %ere %ide"/ spreadnum#er"ess pa&odas erected. ("" the treasures of the re"i&ion ?Buddha, the )a%, and the ,riesthood@ %ere as #eautifu" in appearance, and firm in their foundations as the umeru mountain. The diffusion of the sacred #oo$s and the "a% of Buddha %as "i$e the #ri&ht shinin& of the sun, and the assem#"/ of priests, pure in their "ives, %as "i$e the marsha""ed conste""ations of heaven. The ro/a" pa"aces and %a""s %ere "i$e those of the Tau"i heaven. In the %ho"e 4am#u continent, there %ere no $in&doms from %hich em#assies did not come %ith tri#ute to the &reat un& emperor of the -an&2cheu B $in&dom. !e adds, that thou&h separated #/ a %ide sea, it %as his %ish p. TF to have em#assies passin& and repassin& #et%een the t%o countries. The extensive intercourse that then #e&an to exist #et%een China and India ma/ #e &athered from the fact that Ce/"on B a"so sent an em#ass/ and a "etter to un& >en2 ti. In this "etter it is said, that thou&h the countries are distant three /ears6 3ourne/ #/ sea and "and, there are constant communications #et%een them. The $in& a"so mentions the attachment of his ancestors to the %orship of Buddha. The next of these curious memoria"s from Buddhist $in&s preserved in the anna"s of the same Chinese emperor, is that from 8Kapi"i8 ?Kapi"avastu@, the #irthp"ace of ha$/amuni, situated to the north2%est of Benares. The compi"er of the un& anna"s, after insertin& this document, a""udes to the f"ourishin& state of Buddhism in the countries from %hich these em#assies came, and in China itse"f. !e then introduces a memoria" from a ma&istrate representin& the disorders that had sprun& from the %ide2spread inf"uence of this re"i&ion, and recommendin& imperia" interference. That document sa/s that 8Buddhism had durin& four d/nasties #een mu"tip"/in& its ima&es and sacred edifices. ,a&odas and temp"es %ere up%ards of a thousand in num#er. On enterin& them the visitor5s heart %as affected, and %hen he departed he fe"t desirous to invite others to the practices of piet/. )ate"/, ho%ever, these sentiments of reverence had &iven p"ace to frivo"it/. Instead of aimin& at sincerit/ and purit/ of "ife, &aud/ finer/ and mutua" 3ea"ousies prevai"ed. >hi"e man/ ne% temp"es %ere erected for the sa$e of disp"a/, in the most sp"endid manner, no one thou&ht of re#ui"din& the o"d ones. Officia" in:uiries shou"d #e instituted to prevent further evi"s, and %hoever %ished to cast #raRen statues shou"d first o#tain permission from the authorities.8 ( fe% /ears after%ards ?(.D. FDE@ a conspirac/ %as detected in %hich a chief part/ %as a Buddhist priest. p. TD

;para&raph continues< (n edict issued on the occasion #/ the emperor sa/s, that amon& the priests man/ %ere men %ho had f"ed from 3ustice and too$ the monastic vo%s for safet/. The/ too$ advanta&e of their assumed character to contrive ne% modes of doin& mischief. The fresh trou#"es thus constant"/ occurrin& excite the indi&nation of &ods and men. The constituted authorities, it is added, must examine narro%"/ into the conduct of the mon$s. Those %ho are &ui"t/ must #e put to death. It %as after%ards enacted that such mon$s as %ou"d not $eep their vo%s of a#stinence and se"f2denia" shou"d return to their fami"ies and previous occupations. Nuns %ere a"so for#idden to enter the pa"ace and converse %ith the emperor5s %ives. The advances of Buddhism "ater in the fifth centur/ %ere too rapid not to excite much opposition from the "iterati of the time, and a re"i&ious controvers/ %as the resu"t. In the #io&raph/ of TsM )ian&, a minister of state under the emperor Ts6i >u2ti ?(.D. FEC@, there are some fra&ments of a discussion he maintained in favour of Buddhism. !e sa/s, 8If /ou do not #e"ieve in 5retri#ution of mora" actions5 ?yin-kwo@, then ho% can /ou account for the difference in the condition of the rich and the poorL8 !is opponent sa/s, 8.en are "i$e f"o%ers on trees, &ro%in& to&ether and #ent and scattered #/ the same #reeRe. ome fa"" upon curtains and carpets, "i$e those %hose "ot is cast in pa"aces, %hi"e others drop amon& heaps of fi"th, representin& men %ho are #orn in hum#"e "ife. Riches and povert/, then, can #e accounted for %ithout the doctrine of retri#ution.8 To this the advocate of Buddhism is said to have #een una#"e to rep"/. !e a"so %rote on the destruction of the sou". ,ersonatin& the Confucianists, he sa/s that, 8The 5sou"5 ?shin@ is to the 5#od/5 ?hing@ as sharpness to the $nife. The sou" cannot continue to exist after the destruction of the #od/, more than sharpness can remain %hen the $nife is no more.8 These extracts sho% that some of the Confucianists of that a&e denied an/ providentia" retri#ution in the present or a p. TA future "ife. >hatever ma/ #e thou&ht of notions connected %ith ancestra" %orship, and the passa&es in the c"assica" #oo$s that seem to indicate the $no%"ed&e of a separate "ife for the sou" after death, the/ %ere too imperfect and indistinct to restrain the "iterati from the most direct anta&onism on this su#3ect %ith the ear"/ Buddhists. !o"din& such cheer"ess vie%s as the/ did of the destin/ of man, it is not to #e %ondered at that the common peop"e shou"d desert their standard, and adopt a more con&enia" s/stem. The "an&ua&e of dai"/ "ife is no% thorou&h"/ impre&nated %ith the phraseo"o&/ of retri#ution and a separate state. ("" c"asses ma$e use of ver/ man/ expressions in common intercourse %hich have #een ori&inated #/ Buddhism, thus attestin& the extent of its inf"uence on the nation at "ar&e. (nd, as the Buddhist immorta"it/ em#races the past as %e"" as the future, the popu"ar notions and "an&ua&e of China extend to a precedin& "ife as much as to a comin& one. ( distinct conception of the controvers/ as it then existed ma/ #e o#tained from the fo""o%in& extracts from an account of a native Buddhist, contained in the #io&raphica" section of the History&o+&the&Sung&dynasty>8The instructions of Confucius inc"ude on"/ a sin&"e "ifeQ the/ do not reach to a future state of existence, %ith its intermina#"e resu"ts. !is discip"e, in mu"tip"/in& virtuous actions, on"/ #rin&s happiness to his posterit/. 0ices do #ut entai" &reater present sufferin&s as their punishment. The re%ards of the &ood do not, accordin& to this s/stem, &o #e/ond %or"d"/ honour, nor does the recompense of &ui"t inc"ude an/thin& %orse than o#scurit/ and povert/. Be/ond the $en of the senses nothin& is $no%nQ such i&norance is me"ancho"/. The aims of the doctrine of ha$/a, on the other hand, are i""imita#"e. It saves from the &reatest dan&ers, and removes ever/ care from the heart. !eaven and earth are not sufficient to #ound its $no%"ed&e. !avin& as its one sentiment, merc/ see$in& to save, the renovation of a"" "ivin& #ein&s cannot satisf/ p. TK it. It spea$s of he"", and the peop"e fear to sinQ of heaven, and the/ a"" desire its happiness. It points to the Nirv9na as the spirit5s 5fina" home5 ? ch1ang-kwei, "it. 5"on& return5@, and te""s him of 5the #odi"/ form of the "a%5 ?+a-shen@, B as that "ast, #est spectac"e, on %hich the e/e can &aRe. There is no re&ion to %hich its inf"uence does not reach. It soars in thou&ht into the upper %or"d. Be&innin& from a space no "ar&er than the %e""5s mouth in a court/ard, it extends its $no%"ed&e to the %ho"e ad3acent mansion.8 These sentiments are rep"ied to, in the ima&inar/ dia"o&ue in %hich the/ occur, #/ a Confucian, %ho sa/s, 8To #e ur&ed #/ the desire of heaven to the performance of virtue, cannot #ear comparison %ith doin& %hat is ri&ht for its o%n sa$e. To $eep the #od/ under restraint from the fear of he"", is not so &ood as to &overn the heart from a fee"in& of dut/. (cts of %orship, performed for the sa$e of o#tainin& for&iveness of sins, do not sprin& from piet/. ( &ift, made to secure a hundredfo"d recompense to the &iver, cannot come from pure in%ard sincerit/. To praise the happiness of the Nirv9na promotes a "aR/ inactivit/. To spea$ hi&h"/ of the #eaut/ of the em#odied idea" representation of Buddhist doctrine, seen #/ the advanced discip"e, tends to produce in men a "ove of the marve""ous. B/ /our s/stem, distant &ood is "oo$ed for, %hi"e the desires of the anima" nature, %hich are c"ose at hand, are unchec$ed. Thou&h /ou sa/ that the Bodhisatt%a is freed from these desires, /et a"" #ein&s, %ithout exception, have them.8 To these ar&uments for the o"der Chinese s/stem, the Buddhist comes for%ard %ith a re3oinderS8-our conc"usions are %ron&. .otives derived from a future state are necessar/ to "ead men to virtue. Other%ise ho% cou"d the evi" tendencies of the present "ife #e ad3ustedL .en %i"" not act spontaneous"/ and immediate"/ %ithout p. TE somethin& to hope for. The countr/man is di"i&ent in p"ou&hin& his "and, #ecause he expects a harvest. If he had no such hope, he %ou"d sit id"e at home, and soon &o do%n for ever 5#e"o% the nine fountains.58 B The Confucian ans%ers that 8re"i&ion8 ?tau@ consistin& in the repression of a"" desires, it is inconsistent to use the desire of heaven as a motive to virtue. The discussion is continued %ith &reat spirit throu&h severa" pa&es, turnin& entire"/ on the advanta&e to #e derived from the doctrine of the future state for the incu"cation of virtue. The Buddhist champion is ca""ed the teacher of the 8#"ac$ doctrine,8 and his opponent that of 8the %hite.8 The author, a Buddhist, has &iven its fu"" force to the Confucian reasonin&, %hi"e he condemns %ithout f"inchin& the difficu"ties that he sees in the s/stem he opposes. The %ho"e is preserved in a #eautifu""/ finished st/"e of composition, and is a specimen of the va"ua#"e materia"s contained in the Chinese d/nastic histories for specia" in:uiries on man/ su#3ects not concerned %ith the &enera" histor/ of the countr/. It %as %ith fair %ords "i$e these, the dar$er shades of Buddhism #ein& $ept out of vie%, that the contest %as maintained in those da/s #/ such as %ou"d introduce a forei&n form of %orship, a&ainst the adherents to the maxims of Confucius. The author of the piece %as re%arded for it #/ the rei&nin& emperor. In the northern provinces Buddhism %as no% f"ourishin&. The prince of the >ei $in&dom spared no expense in promotin& it. !istor/ sa/s, that in the /ear FAK he caused an ima&e to #e constructed 8fort/2three feet8 in hei&ht ?thirt/2five +n&"ish feet@. ( hundred pecu"s of #rass, or more than five tons, %ere used, and six pecu"s of &o"d. *our /ears after, he resi&ned his throne to his son, and #ecame a mon$. >hen, a#out the same time, the un& emperor erected a ma&nificent Buddhist temp"e, he %as severe"/ re#u$ed #/ some of his mandarins. The time of >u2ti, the first emperor of the )ian& p. TT d/nast/, forms an era in the histor/ of Chinese Buddhism, mar$ed as it %as #/ the arriva" in China of Ta-mo ?Bodhidharma@, the t%ent/2ei&hth of the patriarchs, and #/ the extraordinar/ prosperit/ of the Buddhist re"i&ion under the imperia" favour. (t the #e&innin& of the sixth centur/, the num#er of Indians in China %as up%ards of three thousand. The prince of the >ei $in&dom exerted himse"f &reat"/ to

provide maintenance for them in monasteries, erected on the most #eautifu" sites. .an/ of them resided at )o2/an&, the modern !o2nan fu. The temp"es had mu"tip"ied to thirteen thousand. The dec"ine of Buddhism in its mother"and drove man/ of the !indoos to the north of the !ima"a/as. The/ came as refu&ees from the Brahmanica" persecution, and their &reat num#er %i"" assist materia""/ in accountin& for the &ro%th of the re"i&ion the/ propa&ated in China. The prince of the >ei countr/ is recorded to have discoursed pu#"ic"/ on the Buddhist c"assics. (t the same time, he refused to treat for peace %ith the am#assadors of his southern nei&h#our, the )ian& $in&dom. Of this the Confucian historian ta$es advanta&e, char&in& him %ith inconsistenc/ in #ein& attached to a re"i&ion that for#ids crue"t/ and #"oodshed, %hi"e he sho%ed such fondness for %ar. oon after this, severa" priests %ere put to death ?(.D. DBD@ for practisin& ma&ica" arts. This is an offence attri#uted more than once #/ the Chinese historians to the ear"/ Buddhists. The use of charms, and the c"aim to ma&ica" po%ers, do not appear to have #e"on&ed to the s/stem as it %as "eft #/ ha$/amuni. !is teachin&, as Burnouf has sho%n, %as occupied simp"/ %ith mora"s and his pecu"iar phi"osoph/. (fter a fe% centuries, ho%ever, amon& the additions made #/ the Northern Buddhists to popu"arise the re"i&ion, and &ive &reater po%er to the priests, %ere man/ narratives fu"" of marve"s and impossi#i"ities, fa"se"/ attri#uted to primitive Buddhism. These %or$s are ca""ed the Ta-ch1eng, or 81reat Deve"opment8 p. BGG ;para&raph continues< utras. (nother nove"t/ %as the pretence of %or$in& enchantments #/ means of uninte""i&i#"e formu"=, %hich are preserved in the #oo$s of the Chinese Buddhists, as in those of Nepau", %ithout attempt at exp"anation. These charms are ca""ed Dharani. The/ occur in the 1reat Deve"opment c"assics, such as the 8)otus of the 1ood )a%,8 #iau-+a-lien-hwa-king ?Fa-hwa-king@, and in various Buddhist %or$s. The account &iven in the T1ung-kien-kang-muh of the professed ma&ician %ho "ed the priests referred to a#ove, sa/s that he st/"ed himse"f Ta-ch1eng, used %i"d music to %in fo""o%ers, tau&ht them to disso"ve a"" the ties of $indred, and aimed on"/ at murder and distur#ance. The native annotator sa/s that Ta-ch1eng is the hi&hest of three states of inte""i&ence to %hich a discip"e of Buddha can attain, and that the correspondin& anscrit %ord, #ahayana, means 8Bound"ess revo"ution and unsurpassed $no%"ed&e.8 It is here that the resem#"ance is most stri$in& #et%een the Buddhism of China and that of other countries %here it is professed in the north. These countries havin& the same additions to the creed of ha$/a, the division of Buddhism #/ Burnouf into a Northern and outhern schoo" has #een ri&ht"/ made. The superadded m/tho"o&/ and c"aim to ma&ica" po%ers of the Buddhists, %ho revere the anscrit as their sacred "an&ua&e, distin&uish them from their co2re"i&ionists %ho preserve their traditions in the ,a"i ton&ue. In the /ear (.D. DBE, un&2/In %as sent to India #/ the prince of the >ei countr/ for Buddhist #oo$s. !e %as accompanied #/ !%ei2shen&, a priest. !e trave""ed to Candahar, sta/ed t%o /ears in Ud/ana, and returned %ith BKD Buddhist %or$s. !is narrative has #een trans"ated #/ ,rofessor Neumann into 1erman. In (.D. DHA, Bodhidharma, after havin& &ro%n o"d in outhern India, reached Canton #/ sea. The propa&ation of Buddhism in his native countr/ he &ave in char&e to one of his discip"es durin& his a#sence. !e %as received %ith the honour due to his a&e and character, and immediate"/ p. BGB invited to Nan$in&, %here the emperor of outhern China, )ian& >u2ti, he"d his court. The emperor said to him8*rom m/ accession to the throne, I have #een incessant"/ #ui"din& temp"es, transcri#in& sacred #oo$s, and admittin& ne% mon$s to ta$e the vo%s. !o% much merit ma/ I #e supposed to have accumu"atedL8 The rep"/ %as, 8None.8 The emperorS 8(nd %h/ no meritL8 The patriarchS 8("" this is #ut the insi&nificant effect of an imperfect cause not comp"ete in itse"f. It is the shado% that fo""o%s the su#stance, and is %ithout rea" existence.8 The emperorS 8Then %hat is true meritL8 The patriarchS 8It consists in purit/ and en"i&htenment, depth and comp"eteness, and in #ein& %rapped in thou&ht %hi"e surrounded #/ vacanc/ and sti""ness. .erit such as this cannot #e sou&ht #/ %or"d"/ means.8 The emperorS 8>hich is the most important of the ho"/ doctrinesL8 The patriarchS 8>here a"" is emptiness, nothin& can #e ca""ed 5ho"/5 ? sheng@.8 The emperorS 8>ho is he that thus rep"ies to meL8 The patriarchS 8I do not $no%.8 The emperorsa/s the Buddhist narratorsti"" remained unen"i&htened. This extract exhi#its Buddhism ver/ distinct"/ in its m/stic phase. ./sticism can attach itse"f to the most a#stract phi"osophica" do&mas, 3ust as %e"" as to those of a proper"/ re"i&ious $ind. This state of mind, a""/in& itse"f indifferent"/ to error and to truth, is thus sho%n to #e of pure"/ su#3ective ori&in. The o#3ective doctrines that ca"" it into existence ma/ #e of the most opposite $ind. It &ro%s, therefore, out of the mind itse"f. Its appearance ma/ #e more natura""/ expected in the histor/ of a re"i&ion "i$e Christianit/, %hich a%a$ens the human emotions to their intensest exercise, %hi"e, in man/ %a/s, it favours the extended use of the contemp"ative facu"ties, and hence the numerous m/stic sects of Church histor/. Its occurrence in Buddhism, and its $indred s/stems, mi&ht %ith more reason occasion surprise, founded as the/ are on phi"osophica" meditations eminent"/ a#stract. It %as reserved for the fantastic &enius of India to construct a re"i&ion out of three such e"ements as p. BGH atheism, annihi"ation, and the non2rea"it/ of the materia" %or"dQ and, #/ the encoura&ement of m/sticism and the monastic "ife, to ma$e these most u"timate of ne&ations pa"ata#"e and popu"ar. The su#se:uent addition of a m/tho"o&/ suited to the taste of the common peop"e %as, it shou"d #e remem#ered, another po%erfu" cause, contri#utin&, in con3unction %ith these :uietist and ascetic tendencies, to spread Buddhism throu&h so &reat a mass of human$ind. In carr/in& out his m/stic vie%s, Ta2mo discoura&ed the use of the sacred #oo$s. !e represented the attainment of the Buddhist5s aim as #ein& entire"/ the %or$ of the heart. Thou&h he professed not to ma$e use of #oo$s, his fo""o%ers preserved his apophthe&ms in %ritin&, and, #/ the %ide diffusion of them, a numerous schoo" of contemp"atists %as ori&inated, under the name of Chan-hio ?dhyana doctrine@ and Chan-men ?dhyana schoo"@. Bodhidharma, not #ein& satisfied %ith the resu"t of his intervie% %ith ro/a"t/, crossed the -an&2tsRe $ean& into the >ei $in&dom and remained at )o2/an&. !ere, the narrative sa/s, he sat %ith his face to a %a"" for nine /ears. The peop"e ca""ed him the 8>a""2&aRin& Brahman.8 B >hen it %as represented to the )ian& emperor, that the &reat teacher, %ho possessed the precious heir"oom of ha$/a, the s/m#o" of the hidden "a% of Buddha, %as "ost to his $in&dom, he repented and sent messen&ers to invite him to return. The/ fai"ed in their errand. The presence of the Indian sa&e excited the more ardent Chinese Buddhists to ma$e &reat efforts to con:uer the sensations. Thus one of them, %e are to"d, said to himse"f, 8*ormer"/, for the sa$e of re"i&ion, men #ro$e open their #ones and extracted the marro%, too$ #"ood from their arms to &ive to the hun&r/, ro""ed their hair in the mud, or thre% themse"ves do%n a precipice to feed a famishin& ti&er. >hat can I doL8 (ccordin&"/, %hi"e sno% %as fa""in&, he exposed himse"f to it ti"" it had risen a#ove his $nees, %hen the patriarch o#servin& him, as$ed him %hat he hoped to p. BGC &ain #/ it. The /oun& aspirant to the victor/ over se"f %ept at the :uestion, and said, 8I on"/ desire that merc/ ma/ open a path to save the %ho"e race of man$ind.8 The patriarch rep"ied, that such an act %as not %orth/ of comparison %ith the acts of the Buddhas. It re:uired, he to"d him, ver/ "itt"e virtue or reso"ution. !is discip"e, stun& %ith the ans%er, sa/s the "e&end, too$ a sharp $nife, severed his arm, and p"aced it #efore the patriarch. The "atter expressed his hi&h approva" of the deed, and %hen, after nine /ears6 a#sence, he determined to return to India, he appointed the discip"e %ho had performed it to succeed him as patriarch in China. !e said to him on this occasion, 8I &ive /ou the sea" of the "a% as the si&n of /our adherence to the true doctrine in%ard"/, and the kasha ?ro#e %orn #/ Buddhists@ as the s/m#o" of /our out%ard teachin&. These s/m#o"s must #e de"ivered do%n from one to another for t%o hundred /ears after m/ death, and then, the "a% of Buddha havin& spread throu&h the %ho"e nation, the succession of patriarchs %i"" cease.8 !e further said, 8I a"so consi&n to /ou the Lenga&Sutra in four sections, %hich opens the door to the heart of Buddha, and is fitted to en"i&hten a"" "ivin& men.8 Ta2mo5s further instructions to his successor as to the nature and duties of the patriarchate are fu""/ detai"ed in the Ch-yue-luh. !e died of o"d a&e after five attempts to poison him, and %as #uried at the !iun&2er mountains #et%een !o2nan and hen2si. (t this 3uncture un&2 /In, %ho had #een sent to India a fe% /ears previous"/ for Buddhist #oo$s, returned, and inspected the remains of Bodhidharma. (s he "a/ in his coffin he he"d one

shoe in his hand. unQ2/In as$ed him %hither he %as &oin&. 8To the >estern heaven,8 %as the rep"/. un&2/In then returned home. The coffin %as after%ards opened and found empt/, exceptin& that one of the patriarch5s shoes %as "/in& there. B/ imperia" command, the shoe %as preserved as a sacred re"ic in the monaster/. (fter%ards in the TJan& d/nast/ it %as sto"en, and no% no one $no%s %here it is. p. BGF The em#assies from Buddhist $in&doms in the time of )ian& >u2ti afford other i""ustrations of the passion for re"ics and mementoes of venerated persona&es, encoura&ed #/ the Buddhist priests. The $in& of Bunam, the ancient iam, %rote to the emperor that he had a hair of Buddha, t%e"ve feet in "en&th, to &ive him. ,riests %ere sent from the Chinese court to meet it, and #rin& it home. Three /ears #efore this, as the History&o+&the&Liang&dynasty informs us, in #ui"din&, #/ imperia" command, a monaster/ and pa&oda to $in& *-yo ?(shX$a@, a sharira, or 8re"ic of Buddha,8 had #een found under the o"d pa&oda, %ith a hair of a #"ue "avender co"our. This hair %as so e"astic that %hen the priests pu""ed it, it "en&thened ad&li(itum, and %hen "et a"one cur"ed into a spira" form. The historian :uotes t%o Buddhist %or$s in i""ustration. The 8 en&2&a utra8 ?king@ sa/s, that Buddha5s hair %as #"ue and fine. In the an2mei2$in&, ha$/a himse"f sa/s, 8>hen I %as former"/ in m/ father5s pa"ace, I com#ed m/ hair, and measurin& it, found that it %as t%e"ve feet in "en&th. >hen "et &o, it cur"ed into a spira" form.8 This description a&rees, it is added, %ith that of the hair found #/ the emperor. In (.D. DHC, the $in& of Ban#an sent as his tri#utar/ offerin&, a true 8sharira8 ?she-li@ %ith pictures and miniature pa&odasQ a"so "eaves of the Bodhi, Buddha5s favourite tree. The $in& of another countr/ in the Birmese peninsu"a had a dream, in %hich a priest appeared to him and foreto"d to him that the ne% prince of the )ian& d/nast/ %ou"d soon raise Buddhism to the summit of prosperit/, and that he %ou"d do %ise"/ if he sent him an em#ass/. The $in& pa/in& no attention to the %arnin&, the priest appeared a&ain in a second dream, and conducted the monarch to the court of )ian& >u2ti. On a%a$in&, the $in&, %ho %as himse"f an accomp"ished painter, dre% the "i$eness of the emperor as he had seen him in his dream. !e no% sent am#assadors and an artist %ith instructions to paint a "i$eness of the Chinese monarch from "ife. On p. BGD comparin& it %ith his o%n picture, the simi"arit/ %as found to #e perfect. This emperor, so Rea"ous a promoter of Buddhism, in the /ear (.D. DHK, the t%ent/2sixth of his rei&n, #ecame a mon$ and entered the Tun&2tai monaster/ in Nan$in&. The same record is made in the histor/ t%o /ears after%ards. (s mi&ht #e expected, this event ca""s forth a "on& and severe criti:ue from the Confucian historian. The preface to the histor/ of the d/nast/ esta#"ished #/ this prince, consists so"e"/ of a "ament over the sad necessit/ of advertin& to Buddhism in the imperia" anna"s of the nation, %ith an ar&ument for the o"d nationa" s/stem, %hich is so c"ear"/ ri&ht, that the %ish to deviate from it sho%s a man to #e %ron&. In reference to the emperor5s #ecomin& a priest, the critic sa/s, 8that not on"/ %ou"d the man of common inte""i&ence condemn such conduct in the ru"er of a common%ea"th, #ut even men "i$e Bodhidharma %ou"d %ithho"d their approva".8 ( fe% /ears after%ards, the same emperor re#ui"t the Ch6an&2ts6ien monaster/ five le to the south of 8Nan$in&,8 in %hich %as the tope ?shrine for re"ics@ of *-yo or (shX$a. The %riter in the Tung-kien-kang-muh adds, that a true re"ic of Buddha5s #od/ is preserved near 8.in&2cheu8 ?no% Nin&po@. (shX$a erected EG,GGG topes, of %hich one2nineteenth %ere assi&ned to China. The tope and re"ic here a""uded to are those of the hi"" o-wang&shan, %e"" $no%n to forei&n visitors, and situated fift/2 t%o li east%ard of Nin&po. To Buddhist pi"&rims comin& from far and near to this sacred spot, the she-li is an o#3ect of reverentia" %orship, #ut to un#e"ievin& e/es it presents a rather insi&nificant appearance. The sma"", reddish, #ead"i$e su#stance that constitutes the re"ic, is so p"aced in its "antern2shaped receptac"e, that it does not admit of much "i&ht #ein& thro%n upon it. The co"our is said to var/ %ith the state of mind of the visitor. -e""o% is that of happiest omen. The theor/ is a safe one, for there is 3ust o#scurit/ enou&h to render the tint of the p. BGA precious remains of ha$/a5s #urnt #od/ some%hat uncertain. Kin& (shX$a, to %hom this temp"e is dedicated, %as one of the most ce"e#rated of the Buddhist $in&s of India. Burnouf in his =ntroduction&?&l1Histoire&du&)uddhisme& =ndien, has trans"ated a "on& "e&end of %hich (shX$a is the hero, and %hich is a"so contained in the Chinese %or$, Fa-yuen-chu-lin. The commencement in the "atter differs a "itt"e from that &iven #/ Burnouf. Buddha sa/s to (nanda, 8-ou shou"d $no% that in the cit/ 5,a"input5 ?,ata"iputra@, there %i"" #e a $in& named 5The moon protected5 ? ue-huQ in anscrit, Chandragupta@. !e %i"" have a son named Bindupa"a, and he a&ain %i"" have a son usima.8 (shX$a %as the son of Bindupa"a #/ another %ife, and succeeded his father as $in&. The Indian $in& andracottus, %ho conc"uded a treat/ %ith e"eucus Nicator, the 1ree$ $in& of /ria, B.C. CGD, %as identified %ith Chandra&upta #/ ch"e&e" and >i"son. (ccordin& to the #aha/anso, the ,a"i histor/ of the Buddhist patriarchs, there %as an interva" of EDF /ears from Buddha5s death to the accession of Chandra&upta, ma$in& that event to #e in B.C. CET, %hich is more than ha"f a centur/ too soon. Turnour thin$s the discrepanc/ cannot #e accounted for #ut #/ supposin& a %i"fu" perversion of the chrono"o&/. These statements are :uoted in !ard/5s 9astern&#onachism, from >i"son5s <ishnu& !urana. B/ this s/nchronism of 1ree$ and Indian "iterature, it is satisfactori"/ sho%n that (shX$a "ived in the second centur/ #efore Christ, and Buddha in the fourth and fifth. The common"/ received chrono"o&/ of the Chinese Buddhists is too "on&, therefore, #/ more than five hundred /ears. B ,ro#a#"/ this fraud %as effected to verif/ predictions found in certain utras, in %hich Buddha is made to sa/ that in a definite num#er of /ears after his death, such and such thin&s %ou"d happen. The p. BGK ;para&raph continues< Northern Buddhists %rote in anscrit, made use of anscrit utras, and %ere anxious to vindicate the correctness of a"" predictions found in them. Burnouf supposes that the discip"es of Buddha, %ou"d natura""/ pu#"ish their sacred #oo$s in more than one "an&ua&eQ anscrit #ein& then, and "on& after%ards, spo$en #/ the "iterati, %hi"e derived dia"ects %ere used #/ the common peop"e. B/ *a2hien (shX$a is ca""ed *-yo&5ang, as at the monaster/ near Nin&po. In !iuen2 tsan&5s narrative, the name 5u-yeu&wang, the 8 orro%"ess $in&,8 a trans"ation of the anscrit %ord, is app"ied to him. The )ian& emperor >u2ti, after three times assumin& the, Buddhist vo%s and expoundin& the utras to his assem#"ed courtiers, %as succeeded #/ a son %ho favoured Tauism. ( fe% /ears after, the soverei&n of the Ts6i $in&dom endeavoured to com#ine these t%o re"i&ions. !e put to death four Tauist priests for refusin& to su#mit to the tonsure and #ecome %orshippers of Buddha. (fter this there %as no more resistance. In (.D. DDE it is re"ated that >u2ti, an emperor of the Ch6in d/nast/, #ecame a mon$. ome /ears after%ards, the prince of the Cheu $in&dom issued an edict prohi#itin& #oth Buddhism and Tauism. Boo$s and ima&es %ere destro/ed, and a"" professors of these re"i&ions compe""ed to a#andon them. The History&o+&the&6orthern&5ei&dynasty contains some detai"s on the ear"/ anscrit trans"ations in addition to %hat has #een a"read/ inserted in this narrative. B The pioneers in the %or$ of trans"ation %ere Kashiapmadan&a and Chu2fa2"an, %ho %or$ed con3oint"/ in the time of p. BGE ;para&raph continues< .in&2ti. The "atter a"so trans"ated the 8 utra of the ten points of rest.8 In (.D. BDG, a priest of the 8(n2si8 ?(rsaces@ countr/ in +astern ,ersia is

noticed as an exce""ent trans"ator. (#out (.D. BKG, Chitsin, a priest of the 1et= nation, produced a version of the 6ir/.na&Sutra. un K6iuen, prince of the >u state, one of the Three Kin&doms, %ho, some time after the em#ass/ of .arcus (ure"ius (ntoninus, the Roman emperor, to China, received %ith &reat respect a Roman merchant at his court, B treated %ith e:ua" re&ard an Indian priest %ho trans"ated for him some of the #oo$s of Buddha. The next Indian mentioned is Dharma$a$a"a, %ho trans"ated the 80ina/a8 or Kiai-l ?Discip"ine@ at )o2/an&. (#out (.D. CGG, ChM2$un&2min&, a forei&n priest, trans"ated the 5ei-ma and Fa-hwa, H 8)otus of the 1ood )a% utras,8 #ut the %or$ %as imperfect"/ done. Tau2an, a Chinese Buddhist, findin& the sacred #oo$s disfi&ured #/ errors, app"ied himse"f to correct them. !e derived instruction from Buddo3an&a and %ished much to converse %ith Kumara3iva, noticed in a previous pa&e. The "atter, himse"f a man of hi&h inte""i&ence, had conceived an extraordinar/ re&ard for him, and "amented much %hen he came to Ch6an&2an from )ian&2cheu at the north2%estern corner of China %here he had "on& resided, that Tau2an %as dead. Kumara3iva found that in the corrections he proposed to ma$e in the sacred #oo$s, he had #een comp"ete"/ anticipated #/ his Chinese fe""o%2re"i&ionist. Kumara3iva is commended for his accurate $no%"ed&e of the Chinese "an&ua&e as %e"" as of his o%n. >ith his assistants he made c"ear the sense of man/ profound and extensive 8 utras8 ?King@ and 8 hastras8 ?Lun@, t%e"ve %or$s in a"". The divisions into sections and sentences %ere formed %ith care. The finishin& touch to the Chinese composition of these trans"ations %as &iven p. BGT #/ en&2chau. *a2hien in his trave"s did his utmost to procure copies of the Discip"ine and the other sacred #oo$s. On his return, %ith the aid of an Indian named Bhadra, he trans"ated the Seng-k-l ?*sangkhyea&<inaya@, %hich has since #een re&arded as a standard %or$. Before *a2hien5s time, a#out (.D. HTG, a Chinese named Chu M2hin& %ent to Northern India for Buddhist #oo$s. !e reached Udin or Khodin, identified #/ Remusat %ith Khoten, and o#tained a utra of ninet/ sections. !e trans"ated it in !o2nan, %ith the tit"e Fang-kwang-pat-nia-king ?)i&ht2emittin& ,ra3na utra@. .an/ of these #oo$s at that time so coveted, %ere #rou&ht to )o2/an&, and trans"ated there #/ Chufahu, a priest of the 1et= nation, %ho had trave""ed to India, and %as a contemporar/ of the Chinese 3ust mentioned. *a2"in& %as another Chinese %ho proceeded from 8-an&2cheu8 ?Kian&2nan@ to Northern India and #rou&ht #ac$ the utra Hwa-yen-king and the !en-ting-l, a %or$ on discip"ine. 0ersions of the 8Nirv9na utra8 ?6i-wan-king@, and the Seng-ki-l %ere made #/ Chi2men& in the countr/ Kau-chang, or %hat is no% 8+astern Thi#et.8 The trans"ator had o#tained them at Hwa-sh or 8,ata"iputra,8 a cit/ to the %est%ard. The Indian Dharmara$sha #rou&ht to China a ne% anscrit cop/ of the 6ir/.na&Sutra and &oin& to Kau2chJan&, compared it %ith Chi2men&5s cop/ for critica" purposes. The "atter %as after%ards #rou&ht to ChJan&2an and pu#"ished in thirt/ chapters. The Indian here mentioned, professed to forete"" po"itica" events #/ the use of charms. !e a"so trans"ated the Kin-kwangking, or 81o"den )i&ht utra,8 and the #ing-king, 8Bri&ht utra.8 (t this time there %ere severa" tens of forei&n priests at ChJan&2an, #ut the most distin&uished amon& them for a#i"it/ %as Kumara3iva. !is trans"ations of the 5ei-ma, Fa-hwa, and Cheng-shih ?comp"ete@ utras, %ith the three 3ust mentioned, #/ Dharmara$sha and some others, to&ether form the -reat&$e/elopment course of p. BBG instruction. The 8)on&er (&ama utra8 B and the 8Discip"ine of the *our Divisions8 H %ere trans"ated #/ Buddha/asha, a native of India, the 8Discip"ine of the Ten Chants8 C #/ Kumara3iva, the 8(dditiona" (&ama utra8 #/ Dharmanandi, and the 8 hastra of .etaph/sics8 ? *(hidharma-lun@ #/ Dharma/a&ama. These to&ether formed the Smaller&$e/elopment course. In some monasteries the former %or$s %ere studied #/ the rec"usesQ in others the "atter. Thus a metaph/sica" theo"o&/, su#divided into schoo"s, formed the su#3ect of stud/ in the (siatic mon$ish esta#"ishments, as in the da/s of the +uropean schoo"2men. The Chinese trave""ers in India, and in the chain of Buddhist $in&doms extendin&#efore the inroads of .ohammedanismfrom their native "and into ,ersia, &ive us the opportunit/ of $no%in& ho% %ide"/ there as %e"" as in China the monastic "ife and the stud/ of these #oo$s %ere spread. (#out (.D. FGG, an&adeva, a native of 8Cophen8 ? Kipin@, trans"ated t%o of the *gama&Sutras. The 8!%a2/en utra8 %as soon after%ards #rou&ht from Udin #/ Chi *a2"in&, a Chinese Buddhist, and a version of it made at Nan$in&. !e a"so procured the !en-ting-l, a %or$ in the <inaya or 8Discip"ine8 #ranch of Buddhist #oo$s. .a T%an2"in a"so mentions a !indoo %ho, a#out (.D. DGH, trans"ated some hastras of the 1reat Deve"opment ?Ta-cheng@ schoo", ca""ed Ti-ch-lun ?fixed position@, and Shi-ti-lun ?the ten positions@. The !indoo Buddhists in China, %hose "iterar/ "a#ours do%n to the midd"e of the sixth centur/ are here recorded, %hi"e the/ sometimes en3o/ed the imperia" favour, had to #ear their part in the reverses to %hich their re"i&ion %as exposed. Dharmara$sha %as put to death for refusin& to come to court on the re:uisition of one of the >ei emperors. ihien, a priest of the ro/a" fami"/ of the Kipin $in&dom in Northern India, in times of persecution assumed the dis&uise of a ph/sician, and %hen the ver/ severe pena" "a%s then enacted a&ainst Buddhism %ere p. BBB remitted, returned to his former mode of "ife as a mon$. ome other names mi&ht #e added to the "ist of !indoo trans"ators, %ere it not a"read/ sufficient"/ "on&. (#out the /ear FAG it appears from the histor/ that five Buddhists from Ce/"on arrived in China #/ the Thi#etan route. T%o of them %ere -ashaita and Budanandi. The/ #rou&ht ima&es. Those constructed #/ the "atter had the propert/ of diminishin& in apparent siRe as the visitor dre% nearer, and "oo$in& #ri&hter as he %ent farther a%a/. Thou&h a "iterar/ character is not attri#uted to them, the outhern Buddhist traditions mi&ht, throu&h their means, have #een communicated at this time to the Chinese. This ma/ account for the datenear"/ correctassi&ned to the #irth of Buddha in the History&o+&the&5ei&dynasty, from %hich these facts are ta$en, and in that of the ui d/nast/ %hich soon fo""o%ed. (ccordin& to the same histor/ there %ere then in China t%o mi""ions of priests and thirt/ thousand temp"es. This account must #e exa&&eratedQ for if %e a""o% a thousand to each district, %hich is pro#a#"/ over the mar$, there %i"" #e #ut that num#er at the present time, a"thou&h the popu"ation has increased ver/ &reat"/ in the interva". B Buddhism received no chec$ from the ui emperors, %ho ru"ed China for the short period of thirt/2seven /ears. The first of them, on assumin& the tit"e of emperor in DEB, issued an edict &ivin& fu"" to"eration to this sect. To%ards the c"ose of his rei&n he prohi#ited the destruction or ma"treatment of an/ of the ima&es of the Buddhist or Tauist sects. It %as the %ea$ness of a&e, sa/s the Confucian historian, &ivin& %a/ to superstitions that "ed him to such an act as this. The same commentator on the histor/ of the period sa/s, that the Buddhist #oo$s %ere at this time ten times more numerous than the Confucian p. BBH c"assics. The Sui&History in the di&est it &ives of a"" the #oo$s of the time, states those of the Buddhist sect to #e BTDG distinct %or$s. .an/ of the tit"es are &iven, and amon& them are not a fe% treatin& of the mode of %ritin& #/ a"pha#etic s/m#o"s used in the $in&doms from %hence Buddhism came. The first a"pha#et that %as thus introduced appears to have #een one of fourteen s/m#o"s. It is ca""ed Si-yo&hu-shu or 8*orei&n >ritin& of the >estern countries,8 and a"so )a-la-men-shu, 8Brahmanica" %ritin&.8 The ta#"es of initia"s and fina"s found in the Chinese native dictionaries %ere first formed in the third centur/, #ut more fu""/ ear"/ in the sixth centur/, in the )ian& d/nast/. It %as then that the !indoos, %ho had come to China, assisted in formin&, accordin& to the mode" of the anscrit a"pha#et, a s/stem of thirt/2six initia" "etters, and descri#ed the voca" or&ans #/ %hich the/ are formed. The/ a"so constructed ta#"es, in %hich, #/ means of t%o sets of representative characters, one for the initia"s and another for the fina"s, a mode of spe""in& %ords %as exhi#ited. The Chinese %ere no% tau&ht for the first time that monos/""a#ic sounds are divisi#"e into parts, #ut a"pha#etic s/m#o"s %ere not adopted to %rite the separated e"ements. It %as thou&ht #etter to use characters a"read/ $no%n to the peop"e. ( serious defect attended this method. The ana"/sis %as not carried far enou&h. Inte""i&ent Chinese understand that a sound, such as man, can #e divided into t%o parts, m and anQ for the/ have #een "on& accustomed to the s/stem of phonetic #isection here a""uded to, #ut the/ usua""/ refuse to #e"ieve that a trisection of the sound is practica#"e. (t the same time the s/stem %as much easier to "earn than if forei&n s/m#o"s had #een emp"o/ed, and it %as ver/ soon universa""/ adopted.

hen2$un&, a priest, is said to have #een the author of the s/stem, and the dictionar/ -p1ien %as one of the first extensive %or$s in %hich it %as emp"o/ed. B That the !indoo Buddhists shou"d have tau&ht the Chinese p. BBC ho% to %rite the sounds of this "an&ua&e #/ an artifice %hich re:uired nothin& #ut their o%n hiero&"/phics, and rendered unnecessar/ the introduction of ne% s/m#o"s, is sufficient evidence of their in&enuit/, and is not the "east of the services the/ have done to the sons of !an. It ans%ered %e"" for severa" centuries, and %as made use of in a"" dictionaries and educationa" %or$s. But the "an&ua&e chan&ed, the o"d sounds %ere #ro$en up, and no% the %ords thus spe"t are read correct"/ on"/ #/ those natives %ho happen to spea$ the dia"ects that most near"/ resem#"e in sound the o"d pronunciation. To hen -o, the historian of t%o d/nasties, and author of severa" detached historica" pieces, is attri#uted the discover/ of the four tones. !is #io&rapher sa/s of him in the 8)ian& !istor/S88!e %rote his 5Treatise on the *our Tones,5 to ma$e $no%n %hat men for thousands of /ears had not understoodthe %onderfu" fact %hich he a"one in the si"ence of his #reast came to perceive.8 It ma/ #e %e"" dou#ted if the credit of arrivin& unassisted at the $no%"ed&e of this fact is due to him. !e resided at the court of )ian& >u2ti, the &reat patron of the Indian stran&ers. The/, accustomed to the unriva""ed accurac/ in phonetic ana"/sis of the anscrit a"pha#et, %ou"d readi"/ distin&uish a ne% phenomenon "i$e this, %hi"e to a native spea$er, %ho had never $no%n articu"ate sounds to #e %ithout it, it %ou"d a"most necessari"/ #e undetected. In the s/""a#ic spe""in& that the/ formed, the tones are du"/ represented, #/ #ein& em#raced in ever/ instance in the fina". The extent of inf"uence %hich this nomenc"ature for sounds has attained in the native "iterature is $no%n to a"" %ho are fami"iar %ith its dictionaries, and the common editions of the c"assica" #oo$s. In this %a/ it is that the traditions of o"d sounds needed to exp"ain the rh/mes and metre of the ancient nationa" poetr/ are preserved. B/ the same method the sounds of modern dia"ects that have deviated extensive"/ from the o"d t/pe have #een committed p. BBF to %ritin&. The dia"ects of the .andarin provinces, of Northern and outhern *u2$ien, and Canton have #een %ritten do%n #/ native authors each %ith its one s/stem of tones and a"pha#etic e"ements, and the/ have a"" ta$en the method introduced #/ the Buddhists as their &uide. The Chinese have since #ecome ac:uainted %ith severa" a"pha#ets %ith forei&n s/m#o"s, #ut %hen the/ need to %rite phonetica""/ the/ prefer the s/stem, imperfect as it is, that does not o#"i&e them to a#andon the hiero&"/phic si&ns transmitted #/ their ancestors. Never, perhaps, since the da/s of Cadmus, %as a phi"o"o&ica" impu"se more successfu" than that thus communicated from India to the Chinese, if the extent of its adoption #e the criterion. The/ have not on"/ #/ the use of the s/""a#ic spe""in& thus tau&ht them, co""ected the materia"s for phi"o"o&ica" research afforded #/ the modern dia"ects, #ut, #/ patient industr/, have discovered the ear"/ histor/ of the "an&ua&e, sho%in& ho% the num#er of tones increased from t%o to three #/ the time of Confucius, to four in the sixth centur/ of our era, and so on to their present state. *e% forei&n investi&ators have /et entered on this fie"d of research, #ut it ma/ #e su&&ested that the phi"o"o&/ of the +astern "an&ua&es must %ithout it #e necessari"/ incomp"ete, and that the Chinese, #/ patience and a true scientific instinct, have p"aced the materia"s in such a form that "itt"e "a#our is needed to &ather from them the facts that the/ contain. The Thi#etans, and, pro#a#"/, the Coreans a"so, o%e their a"pha#ets, %hich are #oth arran&ed in the anscrit mode, to the Buddhists. Corean am#assadors came in the rei&n of )ian& >u2ti to as$ for the 8Nirv9na8 and other Buddhistic c"assics. It ma/ then have #een as ear"/ as this that the/ had an a"pha#et, #ut the %ritin& no% in use dates from a#out (.D. BCAG, as .r. cott has sho%n. B p. BBD The first emperor of the TJan& d/nast/ %as induced #/ the representations of *u -i, one of his ministers, to ca"" a counci" for de"i#eration on the mode of action to #e adopted in re&ard to Buddhism. *u -i, a stern enem/ of the ne% re"i&ion, proposed that the mon$s and nuns shou"d #e compe""ed to marr/ and #rin& up fami"ies. The reason that the/ adopted the ascetic "ife, he said, %as to avoid contri#utin& to the revenue. >hat the/ he"d a#out the fate of man$ind dependin& on the %i"" of Buddha %as fa"se. )ife and death %ere re&u"ated #/ a 8natura" necessit/8 %ith %hich man had nothin& to do ? yeu--ts-"an@. The retri#ution of vice and virtue %as the province of the prince, %hi"e riches and povert/ %ere the recompense provo$ed #/ our o%n actions. The pu#"ic manners had de&enerated "amenta#"/ throu&h the inf"uence of Buddhism. The 8six states of #ein&8 B into %hich the sou"s of men mi&ht #e #orn %ere entire"/ fictitious. The mon$s "ived an id"e "ife, and %ere unprofita#"e mem#ers of the common%ea"th. To this it %as rep"ied in the counci", #/ iau ^, a friend of the Buddhists, that Buddha %as a 8sa&e8 ? shing-"en@, and that *u -i havin& spo$en i"" of a sa&e, %as &ui"t/ of a &reat crime. To this *u -i ans%ered, that the hi&hest of the virtues %ere "o/a"t/ and fi"ia" piet/, and the mon$s, castin& off as the/ did their prince and their parents, disre&arded them #oth. (s for iau ^, he added, he %as#ein& the advocate of such a s/stemas destitute as the/ p. BBA of these virtues. iau ^ 3oined his hands and mere"/ rep"ied to him, that he"" %as made for such men as he. The Confucianists &ained the victor/, and severe restrictions %ere imposed on the professors of the forei&n faith, #ut the/ %ere ta$en off a"most immediate"/ after. The successors of Bodhidharma %ere five in num#er. The/ are st/"ed %ith him the six 8+astern patriarchs,8 Tung-tsu. The/ "ed :uiet "ives. The fourth of them %as invited to court #/ the second emperor of the TJan& d/nast/, and repeated"/ dec"ined the honour. >hen a messen&er came for the fourth time and informed him that, if he refused to &o, he had orders to ta$e his head #ac$ %ith him, the impertur#a#"e o"d man mere"/ he"d out his nec$ to the s%ord in to$en of his %i""in&ness to die. The emperor respected his firmness. ome /ears previous"/, %ith a "ar&e num#er of discip"es, he had &one to a cit/ in hansi. The cit/ %as soon after "aid sie&e to #/ re#e"s. The patriarch advised his fo""o%ers to recite the 81reat ,ra3na,8 #a-ha-pat-nia, an extensive %or$, in %hich the most a#stract do&mas of Buddhist phi"osoph/ are ver/ fu""/ deve"oped. The enem/, "oo$in& to%ards the ramparts, thou&ht the/ sa% a #and of spirit2so"diers in arra/ a&ainst them, and conse:uent"/ retired. In the /ear AHT the ce"e#rated !iuen2tsan& set out on his 3ourne/ to India to procure anscrit #oo$s. ,assin& from )ian&2cheu at the north2%estern extremit/ of China, he proceeded %est%ard to the re&ion %atered #/ the Oxus and 4axartes %here the Tur$s B %ere then sett"ed. !e p. BBK after%ards crossed the !indoo2$ush and proceeded into India. !e "in&ered for a "on& time in the countries throu&h %hich the 1an&es f"o%s, rich as the/ %ere in reminiscences and re"ics of primitive Buddhism. Then #endin& his steps to the south%ards, he comp"eted the tour of the Indian peninsu"a, returned across the Indus, and reached home in the sixteenth /ear after his departure. The same emperor, TJai2tsun&, %as sti"" rei&nin&, and he received the trave""er %ith the utmost distinction. !e spent the rest of his da/s in trans"atin& from the anscrit ori&ina"s the Buddhist %or$s he had #rou&ht %ith him from India. It %as #/ imperia" command that these trans"ations %ere underta$en. The same emperor, TJai2tsun&, received %ith e:ua" favour the /rian Christians, ("open and his companions, %ho had arrived in (.D. ACT, on"/ seven /ears #efore !iuen2tsan&5s return. The Histoire&de&la&<ie&de&Hiouen-thsang, trans"ated #/ .. 4u"ien, is a vo"ume fu"" of interest for the histor/ of Buddhism and p. BBE

;para&raph continues< Buddhist "iterature. (s a preparation for the tas$, the accomp"ished trans"ator added to his unriva""ed $no%"ed&e of the Chinese "an&ua&e an extensive ac:uaintance %ith anscrit, ac:uired %hen he %as a"read/ advanced in "ife, %ith this specia" o#3ect. carce"/ does the name of a p"ace or a #oo$ occur in the narrative %hich he has not identified and &iven to the reader in its anscrit form. The #oo$ %as ori&ina""/ %ritten #/ t%o friends of !iuen2tsan&. It inc"udes a specimen of anscrit &rammar, exemp"if/in& the dec"ensions of nouns, %ith their ei&ht cases and three num#ers, the con3u&ation of the su#stantive ver#, and other detai"s. !iuen2tsan& remained five /ears in the monaster/ of Na"anda, on the #an$s of the 1an&es, stud/in& the "an&ua&e, and readin& the Brahmanica" "iterature as %e"" as that of Buddhism. !iuen2tsan& %as summoned on his arriva" to appear at court, and ans%er for his conduct, in "eavin& his countr/ and underta$in& so "on& a 3ourne/ %ithout the imperia" permission. The emperorpraised #/ 1i##on as the (u&ustus of the +ast%as residin& at )o2/an&, to %hich cit/ the trave""er proceeded. !e had #rou&ht %ith him BBD &rains of re"ics ta$en from Buddha5s chairQ a &o"d statue of Buddha, C feet C inches in hei&ht, %ith a transparent pedesta"Q a second, C feet D inches in hei&ht, and others of si"ver and carved in sanda"2%ood. !is co""ection of anscrit #oo$s %as ver/ extensive. ( sufficient conception of the vo"uminous contri#utions then made to Chinese "iterature from India %i"" #e o#tained #/ enumeratin& some of the names. Of the 1reat Deve"opment schoo", BHF utras. On the Discip"ine and ,hi"osophica" %or$s of the fo""o%in& schoo"sS han&2tso2pu ? arv9stiv9das@, an2mi2ti2pu ? ammit\/as@, .i2sha2se2pu ?.ah\sh9sha$as@, Kia2she2pi2/e2pu ?K9sh/ap\/as@, *a2mi2pu ?Dharma&uptas@, h%o2i2tsie2/eu2pu ? arv9stiv9das@ p. BBT ;para&raph continues< These %or$s, amountin& %ith others to ADK, %ere carried #/ t%ent/2t%o horses. The emperor, after "istenin& to the trave""er5s account of %hat he had seen, commanded him to %rite a description of the >estern countries, and the %or$ ca""ed Tatang-si-y-ki %as the resu"t. B !iuen2tsan& %ent to Chang-an ? i2an2fu@ to trans"ate, and %as assisted #/ t%e"ve mon$s. Nine others %ere appointed to revise the composition. ome %ho had "earned anscrit a"so 3oined him in the %or$. On presentin& a series of trans"ations to the emperor, he %rote a preface to themQ and at the re:uest of !iuen2tsan& issued an edict that five ne% mon$s shou"d #e received in ever/ convent in the empire. The convents then amounted to CKBA. The "osses of Buddhism from the persecutions to %hich it had #een exposed %ere thus repaired. (t the emperor5s instance, !iuen2tsan& no% corrected the trans"ation of the ce"e#rated utra Kin-kang-pat-nia-pa-la-mi-ta-king ?in anscrit, <a"ra-chedika-pra"napara-mita&Sutra@. T%o %ords %ere added to the tit"e %hich Kumara3iva had omitted. The ne% tit"e read 6eng-twan-kin, etc. The name of the cit/ hravasti %as spe"t %ith five characters instead of t%o. The ne% trans"ation of this %or$ did not supp"ant the o"d onethat of Kumara3iva. The "atter is at the present da/ the most common, except the 8Dai"/ ,ra/ers,8 of a"" #oo$s in the Buddhist temp"es and monasteries, and is in the hands of a"most ever/ mon$. This %or$ contains the &erm of the "ar&er compi"ation !ra"na&paramita in one hundred and t%ent/ vo"umes. The a#stractions of Buddhist phi"osoph/, %hich %ere after%ards ramified to such a formida#"e extent as these num#ers indicate, are here found in their primar/ form pro#a#"/, as the/ %ere tau&ht #/ ha$/amuni himse"f. The trans"ation of the "ar&er %or$ %as not comp"eted ti"" (.D. p. BHG ;para&raph continues< AAB. That !iuen2tsan&, as a trans"ator, %as a stron& "itera"ist, ma/ #e inferred from the fact, that %hen he %as meditatin& on the propriet/ of imitatin& Kumara3iva, %ho omitted repetitions and superf"uities, in so "ar&e a %or$ as this, he %as deterred #/ a dream from the idea, and reso"ved to &ive the one hundred and t%ent/ vo"umes entire, in a"" their %earisome reiteration of metaph/sica" paradoxes. (mon& the ne% ortho&raphies that he introduced %as that of )i-chu for )i-ku, 8.endicant discip"e,8 and of )a-ga-/am instead of )ut for 8Buddha.8 This spe""in& near"/ coincides %ith that of the Nepau"ese anscrit, )haga/at. In the ,a"i versions he is ca""ed 81autama,8 %hich is a patron/mic, in Chinese, -o-dam. )a-ga-/am is used in the utra o-s-lieu-li-kwang-"u-lai-kung-te-king. .odern reprints of !iuen2tsan&5s trans"ation of the hastras ca""ed *(hidharma, are found in a fra&mentar/ and %orm2eaten state in man/ of the "ar&er Buddhist temp"es near han&hai and e"se%here at the present time. !e "ived nineteen /ears after his return, and spent near"/ the %ho"e of that time in trans"atin&. !e comp"eted KFG %or$s, in BCCD #oo$s. (mon& them %ere three %or$s on )o&ic, viR., Li-men-lun, =n-ming-lun, =n-ming-shukiai. (mon& other %or$s that he #rou&ht to China, %ere treatises on 1rammar, Shing-ming-lun and !e-ye-kie-la-nan, and a )exicon, *(hidharma&Kosha. B p. BHB The modern Chinese editor of the 8Description of >estern Countries8 comp"ains of its author5s superstition. (nxiet/ to detai" ever/ Buddhist %onder has #een accompanied #/ ne&"ect of the ph/sica" features of the countries that came under revie%. !ere, sa/s the critic, he cannot #e compared %ith 6gai&4u-lio ?4u"ius ("eni, one of the ear"/ 4esuits@ in the Chih-+ang-wai-ki ?a %e""2$no%n &eo&raphica" %or$ #/ that missionar/@. In truthfu"ness this %or$ is not e:ua", he te""s us, to the 8(ccount of Buddhist $in&doms8 #/ *a2hien, #ut it is %ritten in a st/"e much more ornamenta". The extensive $no%"ed&e, he adds, of Buddhist "iterature possessed #/ !iuen 2 tsan& himse"f, and the e"e&ant st/"e of his assistants, ma$e the #oo$ interestin&, so that, thou&h it contains not a "itt"e that is fa"se, the reader does not &o to s"eep over it. BD BD HH BK FH AK %or$s. Y Y Y Y Y

The "ife and adventures of !iuen2tsan& have #een made the #asis of a "on& nove", %hich is universa""/ read at the present time. It is ca""ed the Si-yeu-ki or Si-yeu-chentseuen. The %riter, apparent"/ a Tauist, ma$es un"imited use of the t%o m/tho"o&iesthat of his o%n re"i&ion and that of his heroas the machiner/ of his ta"e. !e has invented a most eventfu" account of the #irth of !iuen2tsan&. It mi&ht have #een supposed that the %i"d romance of India %as unsuited to the Chinese taste, #ut our author does not hesitate to adopt it. !is readers #ecome fami"iar %ith a"" those ima&inar/ deities, %hose fi&ures the/ see in the Buddhist temp"es, as the ornaments of a fictitious narrative. The hero, in underta$in& so distant and dan&erous a 3ourne/ to o#tain the sacred p. BHH #oo$s of Buddhism, and #/ trans"atin& them into his native ton&ue, to promote the spread of that superstition amon& his countr/men, is represented as the hi&hest possi#"e examp"e of the exce""ence at %hich the Buddhist aims. The effort and the success that cro%ns it, are identified %ith the aspiration of the Tauist after the e"ixir of immorta"it/Q the hermit5s e"evation to the state of Buddha, and the trans"ation of those %hose hearts have #een purified #/ meditation and retirement, to the a#odes of the &enii. acred Texts Buddhism Index ,revious Next

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CHAPTER VII.

THE SCHOOLS OF CHINESE BUDDHISM. The &ro%th of esoteric sects in IndiaThe 4ainsTheir series of t%ent/2four patriarchsBodhidharma headed a ne% schoo" in outhern India, and %as heretica" as vie%ed from the 4ains6 standpoint!e founded the contemp"ative schoo" in ChinaNa&ar3una, the author of the most revered #oo$s of this schoo"Tsun&2men Kiau2menDivisions of Tsun&2menThe Tsun&2men sects are heretica" in the vie% of the o"d orthodox/ pecimen of the teachin& of the Tsun&2men)in2tsi schoo",rofesses strict discip"ineIts founder died (.D. EAE!is monument on the #an$ of the !u2to river in Chi2"iResem#"ance to +uropean specu"ation on the a#so"uteIs Buddhism pantheisticL+xoteric sectsL-men, ?0ina/a@-o&achara*a2sian&.adh/ami$a*a2sin&Tsing-tu, or sect of the 8,ure "and8 or 8>estern heaven8TJien2tJai,oetr/ of the Tsin&2tu schoo". BUDD!I ., as a re"i&ion of #oo$s and ima&es, %ith the vo% of ce"i#ac/ and the monastic s/stem, had entered China, and #een %ide"/ propa&ated for severa" centuries, #efore an/thin& %as heard of schoo"s. 1radua""/ the Chinese Buddhists came to $no% of patriarchs, of the contemp"ative schoo", and of its man/ su#divisions. >e are to"d that %hen the use of #oo$s %as carried to excess, and the true nature of humanit/ vei"ed from vie%, Bodhidharma arrived %ith a tradition of his o%n teachin&, that men #/ #ecomin& conscious of their o%n nature %ou"d attain the state of Buddha. !e #ecame the chief founder of the esoteric schoo"s, %hich %ere divided into five principa" #ranches. The common %ord for the esoteric schoo"s is dan, the p. BDA ;para&raph continues< anscrit $hyana, no% ca""ed in the modern sound &iven to the character, chan. Dr. !ami"ton sa/s, spea$in& of the %aracs or 4ains, a sti"" existin& Buddhist sect in India, that the/ %orship t%ent/2four &reat teachers, %ho are ca""ed either */atars or Tirthancaras. Tirtha is an incarnation or an heretica" teacher or non2Buddhist ascetic of an/ sect. B Rhode supposed the 4ains to #e descendants of the (suras and Ra$shas, races hosti"e to the ear"/ !indoos. H But the/ %ere rather a schoo". The Chinese have the series of t%ent/2four patriarchs. The/ ma/ #e assumed to #e the same %ith the 4aina t%ent/2four patriarchs. Bodhidharma %i"" then #e a heretic and continuator of an offshoot from the 4aina "ist of patriarchs, commencin& %ith Basiasita. The "ocation of this offshoot of the patriarchs, em#racin& the t%ent/2fifth, t%ent/2sixth, t%ent/2seventh, and t%ent/2ei&hth, %as outhern India, for these four patriarchs %ere either natives of outhern India or %ere at "east en&a&ed in active "a#ours there. ,erhaps it %i"" #e #etter to sa/ that the 4ains and the schoo" of Bodhidharma are #oth of them offshoots from a common stoc$, %hich reco&nised patriarchs from the time of Kashiapa, and maintained esoteric doctrine from that time. The author of Fo-tsu-tung-ki, after descri#in& the "ife of Buddha in four chapters, &ives an account of the t%ent/2four patriarchs in his fifth chapter, and of nine se"ected patriarchs in his sixth and seventh chapters. (mon& the nine, Na&ar3una is the on"/ forei&ner, and the ei&ht natives are not an/ of them amon& the five re&u"ar successors of Bodhidharma. (mon& them %ere ?r.@ Kau !%ei2%en, (.D. DDGQ ?H.@ )i !%ei2sM, founder of the Nan2n&o schoo"Q ?C.@ Chen ChM2$Jai of TJien2tJai and founder of that schoo". The five others I sha"" not mention. Then he se"ects ei&ht others. (fter this he &ives the p. BDK histor/ of the succession in each case ti"" he has re"ated the "ives of an immense num#er of teachers of schoo"s, "ar&e and sma"", important and unimportant. (fter this he finds room for the schoo" of Bodhidharma, on %hich, ho%ever, he is rather #rief.

The author of San-kiau-yi-su p"aces Bodhidharma in a much more important and e"evated position. If Chi2pJan5s vie% is a #etter representation of the o"d and orthodox Buddhist opinion, that of this "ater #oo$ is a #etter indication of the most preva"ent opinions of modern Chinese mon$s. Orthodox Buddhism has in China s"o%"/ #ut steadi"/ #ecome heterodox. The Buddhism of #oo$s and ancient traditions has #ecome the Buddhism of m/stic contemp"ation. The fo""o%ers of Bodhidharma have extended themse"ves on ever/ hand, and &ained an a"most comp"ete victor/ over stead/ orthodox/. The histor/ of ancient schoo"s sprin&in& up "on& a&o in the Buddhist communities of India, can no% #e on"/ ver/ partia""/ recovered. ,ossi#"/ some "i&ht ma/ #e thro%n #ac$ #/ China upon the re"i&ious histor/ of the countr/ from %hich Buddhism came. In no part of the stor/ is aid to the recover/ of this "ost $no%"ed&e more "i$e"/ to #e found than in the accounts of the patriarchs, the "ine of %hom %as comp"eted #/ Bodhidharma. In see$in& the #est exp"anation of the Chinese and 4apanese narrative of the patriarchs, and the seven Buddhas terminatin& in 1autama or ha$/amuni, it is important to $no% the 4ain traditions as the/ %ere ear"/ in the sixth centur/ of our era, %hen the patriarch Bodhidharma removed to China. If it occur as an o#3ection to this h/pothesis that the discrepancies no% existin& #et%een the schoo" of Bodhidharma and of the !indoo 4ains are ver/ &reat, the "atter havin& temp"es and an externa" %orship, and that their chrono"o&/ a"so differs, in rep"/, it ma/ #e o#served that the fame and inf"uence of Bodhidharma in China mar$ p. BDE him out as himse"f a &reat sect founder. In this character he %ou"d preserve on"/ as much as he p"eased of the traditions and o#servances of his fe""o% re"i&ionists, and in their vie% he %as pro#a#"/ in man/ points a heretic. The a#sence of the esoteric e"ement ?at "east that distinct and hi&h"/2deve"oped form of it %hich #e"on&s to China@ from modern 4ainism %ou"d fo""o% the departure of the "ast patriarch. *urther, his schoo" $eep ima&es, and never thin$ of dispensin& %ith them, thou&h the/ ho"d that the/ ma/ #e dispensed %ith. Their ritua" a"so is most e"a#orate. The second native %riter, a"read/ :uoted, thus compares Buddha and Bodhidharma. The former, 84u"ai8 ? Tath.gata@, tau&ht &reat truths and the causes of thin&s. !e #ecame the instructor of men and Devas. !e saved mu"titudes, and spo$e the contents of more than five hundred %or$s. !ence arose the Kiau-men, or exoteric #ranch of the s/stem, and it %as #e"ieved to #e the tradition of the words of Buddha. Bodhidharma #rou&ht from the >estern heaven 8the sea" of truth8 ?true sea"@, and opened the fountain of contemp"ation in the +ast. !e pointed direct"/ to Buddha5s heart and nature, s%ept a%a/ the parasitic and a"ien &ro%th of #oo$ instruction, and thus esta#"ished the Tsung-men, or esoteric #ranch of the s/stem, containin& the tradition of the heart of Buddha. -et, he adds, the t%o #ranches, %hi"e presentin& of necessit/ a different aspect, form #ut one %ho"e. Thou&h the t%o s/stems have %or$ed harmonious"/ to&ether, a "ine is readi"/ dra%n in their "iterature. Thus in the Fa-yuen-chu-lin, a "ar&e co""ection of misce""aneous Buddhist information comin& do%n from the TJan& d/nast/, nothin& is said of Bodhidharma or his s/stem. To separate the productions of these t%o &reat schoo"s is then an important step in the c"assification of the Buddhist #oo$s in China. (mon& the traditions preserved in the histor/ of the patriarchs are notices of some of the discip"es of Buddha and other eminent persons, fa#u"ous p. BDT or rea". The/ are &iven in an extended form in the %or$ Ch-yue-luh. .an3usiri is the first. The others are Tien-tsin&pu-sa ?0asu#andu Bodhisatt%a@, 5ei-ma, Shantsai ?&ood a#i"it/@, u#hVti, 5u-yeu-tso-wang ?the perfect $in& %ithout an/ dissatisfaction@, hariputra, -an&imara, ,indu"o, Chang-pi-mo-wang ?the $in& %ho resists .ara@, the prince 6a-to, Kwang-ngo-to-r, and $7in-(a-da. In tracin& the rise of the various schoo"s of esoteric Buddhism it must #e $ept in mind that a princip"e some%hat simi"ar to the do&ma of aposto"ica" succession #e"on&s to them a"". The/ a"" profess to derive their doctrines throu&h a succession of teachers, each instructed persona""/ #/ his predecessor, ti"" the time of Bodhidharma, and so further up in the series to ha$/amuni himse"f and the ear"ier Buddhas. The sixth Chinese patriarch did not appoint a successor. The monastic ha#it and rice #o%" that had descended to him %ere in accordance %ith %hat Bodhidharma had said, not communicated to a ne% patriarch. In the five peta"s the f"o%er, as he had expressed it, %ou"d #e comp"ete, he himse"f, the first of the six, #ein& the stem on %hich the others &re%. The "ast of the patriarchs resided at TsJau2$Ji, in Kian&2si. T%o schoo"s %ere formed #/ his discip"es, denominated Nan2n&o ? outh .ountain@ and Ts6in&2/uen, from the spots %here the teachers resided. The former is near !en&2cheu, in !u2nan, the "atter near TsJiuen2cheu, in *u2$ieu. In these schoo"s there %as no ver/ rea" difference in sentiment from the doctrine of the parent stem. !en&2shan is the o"d Confucianist mountain $no%n #/ that name, and a"so as Nan2n&o. The ta#"et of -I %as said to #e discovered there, and %e can see the reason of this. It %as the southern "imit of the Chinese empire of that time. !e %as the traditiona" civi"iser, the cana" ma$er and em#an$ment en&ineer of the !ia d/nast/, and of his %or$ the &eo&raphica" section in the 8Boo$ of !istor/8 is the record. Thou&h Bodhidharma %as nomina" founder of the esoteric p. BAG schoo"s in China, the rea" phi"osophic thin$er, %ho &ave them the impu"se to ref"ection, %as Na&ar3una, the most important founder of the .aha/ana schoo". !e specia""/ ori&inated the .adh/ami$a s/stem, %hich reduces ever/thin& to #a"d a#stractions and then denies them. The sou" has neither existence nor non2existence. It is neither permanent nor non2permanent. uch %as his teachin&.? ee in +ite"@. !is s/stem inf"uenced Kau !%ei%en, %ho studied the hastra Ta-ch-tu-lun, and mastered the idea of 8centra" &aRin&,8 chung-kwan, and a"so that of three #ranches of %isdomviR. matter is nothin&Q the mind5s anno/ances are nothin&Q the temptations throu&h the senses are nothin&. )i !%ei2sM, of the Nan2n&o schoo", #ui"t up his ideas on those of !%ei2%en, and transmitted to ChM2$Jai the 8trip"e &aRe,8 the empt/, the h/pothetica", and the media". uch is the statement of ChM2pJan, the orthodox authorit/. But, accordin& to San-kiau-yi-su, the chief inf"uence in the formation of the Nan2n&o and of the TsJin&2/uen %as that of the sixth patriarch upon the mind of Tu !%ai23an& and )ieu !in&2sM. The founders of these t%o schoo"s, the first of the Tsun&2men, %ere !%ai23an& and !in&2sM. Their successors %ere .a2tsu in Kian&2si, and !i2$Jiau or hM2tJeu, %ho, %hi"e the/ chan&ed their residences and #ecame themse"ves teachers of the esoteric doctrine, retained the names, Nan2n&o and Ts6in&2/uen, of the schoo"s %here the/ had #een tau&ht. The #io&raphica" record of the Tsun&2men teachers in the ChM2/ue2"uh contains notices of priests trained #/ the predecessors of the sixth patriarch, and sent out to teach the doctrine of Bodhidharma. T%o %ere instructed #/ the successor of Bodhidharma, ei&ht #/ the fourth patriarch, and six #/ the fifth. One of the "atter, hin2sieu, %as

st/"ed the sixth patriarch for North China, %hi"e !%ai2nen&, the "e&itimate successor of Bodhidharma, from residin& in the southern provinces, %as ca""ed the sixth patriarch p. BAB for the outh. Nothin& is said of the schoo"s ori&inated in various provinces #/ these teachers. It is on"/ the successors of !%ai2nen&, the "ast2mentioned hierarch, that are re&arded as deservin& a memoria". *rom him a series of discip"es, a"" #ecomin& 8teachers8 ?chan-s@ in their turn, are counted to the sixteenth &eneration. This mode of expression is used instead of mentionin&, accordin& to custom, the /ears of imperia" rei&ns and d/nasties. The #io&raph/ in the Ch-yue-luh, a #oo$ of the .in& d/nast/, ceases at the sixteenth descent. This %as at the #e&innin& of the t%e"fth centur/, and the %ho"e series em#races a#out four hundred /ears. .odern mon$s of these schoo"s trace their succession in a simi"ar manner, accordin& to a more recent arran&ement, in t%e"ve divisions. The reason for this carefu" record of ecc"esiastica" ancestr/ is to #e sou&ht in the princip"e of un#ro$en "inea" descent, %hich is indispensa#"e to the maintenance of esoteric tradition. -et it does not appear that there %as an/ secret doctrine %hich those %ho $ne% it %ou"d not divu"&e. >hat the/ he"d %as simp"/ a protest a&ainst the ne&"ect of the heart, and dependence on #oo$ $no%"ed&e and the performance of out%ard rites. ince their o#3ect %as to dra% neoph/tes a%a/ from the inordinate stud/ of the #oo$s of the re"i&ion, instruction %as &iven ora""/. (n extensive series of %or$s containin& records of the instructions of these teachers has #een the resu"t. The/ are ca""ed -luh, 8Records of the sa/in&s8 of ce"e#rated teachers. evera" #ranch schoo"s %ere ori&inated #/ the successors of the sixth patriarch. In the fourth &eneration from him the !%ei2nian& schoo" %as formed. In the fifth appears that of )in2tsi and TsJau2tun&. The -In2men #e"on&s to the ei&hth &eneration. That ca""ed *a2/en #e"on&s to the ninth. These names are ta$en from the p"aces %here the founders of the respective schoo"s resided. The/ are denominated co""ective"/ the >u2tsun&, or 8*ive schoo"s,8 to distin&uish them from those %hich preceded them, and adhered more c"ose"/ to the tradition of the patriarchs. p. BAH The differences that existed #et%een these schoo"s and the parent doctrine %ere not &reat. But it is not essentia" that differences shou"d #e &reat to ma$e them the su#3ect of controvers/ and the cause of division. (n examp"e of the mode in %hich the contemp"ative Buddhists carried on their discussions %i"" here #e &iven. hin2 sieu tau&ht his doctrine in the fo""o%in& versesS 8The #od/ is "i$e the $no%"ed&e tree. The mind is "i$e a mirror on its stand. It shou"d #e constant"/ and carefu""/ #rushed, )est dust shou"d #e attracted to it.8 !is teacher, the fifth patriarch, %as p"eased %ith this mode of representin& the importance of %atchin& over the heart. But !%ai2nen&, the sixth patriarch, opposed it %ith vehemence. !e a"so %rote his vie% in versesS 8There is no such thin& as a $no%"ed&e tree. There is no such thin& as a mirror2stand. There is nothin& that has a rea" existence. Then ho% can dust #e attractedL8 In the former appears ver/ distinct"/ the practica" part of the esoteric s/stem, attention to the heart. In the "atter its specu"ative tendenc/den/in& ever/thin& externa" to the mindis #rou&ht to vie%. (ccordin& to the s/stem he"d in common #/ these schoo"s, the heart is Buddha. There is no mode of attainin& to the state ca""ed Buddha #ut #/ the mind itse"f. This mind has neither #e&innin& nor end, co"our nor form. To "oo$ out%ard is to #e a common man. To "oo$ in %ard is to #e Buddha. In rea"it/ man is the same thin& as Buddha. To re"/ on the performance of particu"ar acts is not true $no%"ed&e. To ma$e offerin&s to a"" the past Buddhas is not to #e compared %ith offerin& to one man %ho has #ecome superior to menta" passions and sensationa" inf"uences. ("" that the &reat Bodhisatt%as have tau&ht, men have in themse"ves. The pure vacanc/ of .an3usiri, the %ithdra%a" p. BAC of the thou&hts from the %or"d of sensations recommended #/ ,Ju2hien, the merc/ of K%an2/in, the $no%"ed&e of hM2chi, the purit/ of 80ima$ita8 ?5ei-mo@a"" these various princip"es are in the heart. To $no% it, is a"" that is needfu". To #ecome Buddha the mind on"/ needs to #e freed from ever/ one of its affections, not to "ove or hate, covet, re3oice, or fear. To do, or aim at doin&, %hat is virtuous or %hat is vicious is to "eave the heart and &o out into the visi#"e tan&i#"e %or"d. It is to #ecome entan&"ed in the metemps/chosis in the one case, and much trou#"e and vexation in the other. The ri&ht method is in the mindQ it is the mind itse"f. The fountain of $no%"ed&e is the pure, #ri&ht, se"f2en"i&htenin& mind. The method tau&ht #/ a"" the Buddhas is no other than this. )et the mind do nothin&, o#serve nothin&, aim at nothin&, ho"d fast to nothin&Q that is Buddha. Then there %i"" #e no difference #et%een "ivin& in the %or"d and enterin& the Nirv9na. Then human nature, the mind, Buddha, and the doctrine he tau&ht, a"" #ecome identica". B >hi"e revisin& these papers, and addin& to them, so that the/ ma/ form a distinct #oo$ on Chinese Buddhism ?(u&ust BB, BETT@, I here insert a #rief account of the )in2tsi schoo". The )in2tsi schoo" has #een ver/ successfu". It has pushed out the other sects, and spread over the north and south of China to an enormous extent. Be&innin& in hantun&, it has #een accepted throu&hout the ei&hteen provinces, and in 4apan, as the most popu"ar exponent of the teachin& of the contemp"ative schoo". The/ sa/, 8>ithin the #od/ %hich admits sensations, ac:uires $no%"ed&e, thin$s, and acts, there is the 5True man %ithout a position,5 5u-wei-chen-"en. !e ma$es himse"f c"ear"/ visi#"eQ not the thinnest separatin& fi"m hides him. >h/ do /ou not reco&nise himL The invisi#"e po%er of the p. BAF mind permeates ever/ part. In the e/e it is ca""ed seein&, in the ear it is hearin&. It is a sin&"e inte""i&ent a&ent, divided out in its activit/ in ever/ part of the #od/. If the mind does not come to conscious existence, there is de"iverance ever/%here. >hat is the difference #et%een /ou and the sa&es of anti:uit/L Do /ou come short in an/thin&L >hat is BuddhaL *ns. ( mind pure, and at rest. >hat is the "a%L *ns. ( mind c"ear and en"i&htened. >hat is Tau@ *ns. In ever/ p"ace a#sence of impediments and pure en"i&htenment. These three are one.8 The o#3ect of the )in2tsi has #een to teach Buddhism, so that each mon$ shou"d fee" that there is difficu"t/

in the paths of se"f2improvement, and that he has in himse"f the po%er to con:uer that difficu"t/. The 8true man %ithout a position,8 5u-wei-chen-"en, is %rapped in a pric$"/ she"" "i$e the chestnut. !e cannot #e approached. This is Buddha, the Buddha %ithin /ou. The sharp reproof of discip"ine is s/m#o"ised #/ s"aps on the chee$ %ith the pa"m of the hand, and #"o%s %ith the fists under the ri#s. This treatment &ives an improved tone to the mind and fee"in&s. (n infant cannot understand the seven eni&mas. These eni&mas are &iven in dar$ "an&ua&e difficu"t even for adepts to exp"ain. ThusS 8Is it to search in the &rass %here there is the shado% of the stic$ that /ou have a"read/ come hereL8 8To $i"" a man, to stri$e %ith the s%ord a dividin& #"o%, and the #od/ shou"d not enter the %ater.8 The exp"anations of these eni&mas are not &iven in the #oo$ I have consu"ted. Dou#t"ess the/ mean somethin& :uite in harmon/ %ith the fundamenta" princip"es of Buddhism, other%ise the )in2tsi schoo" %ou"d not #e so popu"ar as it is. The/ have the 8Three 5dar$,5 hiuen, princip"es,8 the 8rea",8 sh, the 8forma",8 ti, and the 8practica",8 yung. The/ have a"so the 8Three 5important,5 yau, princip"es.8 These are, 8i""umination,8 chau, 8uti"it/ or use,8 yung, and the com#ination of the t%o. p. BAD In their discip"ine the/ have three #"o%s %ith the cane, three successive reproofs, and the a"ternation of speech and si"ence. The/ have a p"a/ on the %ords 8&uest8 and 8host.8 The &uest ma/ "earn from the host #/ seein& ho% he meets circumstances, and imitatin& him. The host ma/ "earn from the &uest, as %hen those %ho are a"read/ profound in %isdom ma$e constant in:uiries from their visitors, and seiRe ardent"/ on %hat the/ approve. The host ma/ "earn from another host, as %hen those %ho are a"read/ %ise discuss points, and such as are "earnin& thro% a%a/ %hat the/ had #een &raspin& firm"/. The &uest ma/ "earn from another &uest, as %hen the "earner is "aden %ith the heav/ %ooden nec$ co""ar and iron "oc$, and a"" discussion ceases. >here the meanin& of such m/sterious teachin& is not c"ear, there %i"" #e an ora" exp"anation #/ the tutorQ and so step #/ step the pupi"s %i"" ac:uire a $no%"ed&e of the )in2tsi schoo" doctrines and discip"ine, and of the eni&matica" "an&ua&e in %hich the/ are couched. The founder of the )in2tsi schoo" died (.D. EAE. ( da&o#a %as erected over his ashes in the south part of the province of Chi2"i, near Ta2min& fu, on the north2%est an&"e not far from the cit/. !e resided for some /ears on the #an$s of the river !u2tJo, %hich rushes %ith &reat force of current out of han2si into Chi2"i, at the distance of a mu"e5s 3ourne/ of five da/s from ,e$in& on the south2%est. This river f"o%s throu&h the prefecture of Chen2tin& fu to the 1rand Cana". On the #an$s of this river to the south2east of the cit/ of Chen2cheu, as Chen2tin& fu %as then ca""ed, the founder of the )in2tsi schoo" spent much of his "ife in a sma"" monaster/. !ere he %as in a :uiet spot surrounded #/ the o#3ects of a %e""2cu"tivated p"ain, %here %heat and mi""et have #een so%n from time immemoria"Q and here he ac:uired a reputation for ma&ica" po%ers. !e cou"d stro$e the #eard of a fierce ti&er, sp"it roc$s, #urst open precipices, %a"$ upon ice, and move a"on& the ed&e of a p. BAA s%ord. The main features in the "andscape on %hich he "oo$ed %ere the #"ue mountains of han2si, formin& a #road and continuous chain on the %est, %ith the s%ift river %hich f"o%ed #/ his monaster/ %ith a fu"" and foamin& stream in the summer months, and sin$in& to a much sma""er one in the %inter, %hen it is froRen hard enou&h to #e passed #/ "oaded %a&&ons. It %as this river that &ave a name to the schoo", for Lin-tsi means 8Comin& to the ford.8 To the $ind of phi"osoph/ sprin&in& up in India, and further deve"oped #/ the Chinese in the esoteric schoo"s a#ove descri#ed, there is much that is simi"ar in recent +uropean specu"ation. >e see here the *inite &oin& #ac$ into the (#so"ute, the denia" of the existence of ever/thin& #ut se"f, the identit/ of se"f and 1od, and of the su#3ect and o#3ect. That a#straction %hich is the pantheist5s 1od, ma/, %ithout vio"ence to the meanin& of %ords, #e considered as the correspondin& term to Buddha in this s/stem. *or 1od, as the (#so"ute, is the state to%ards %hich nature and man are returnin&, a description %hich ans%ers to the notion here a""uded to of the state ca""ed Buddha. >hen, ho%ever, in the manner of the o"der schoo"s, Buddha is "oo$ed upon as havin& historica" persona"it/, it #ecomes at once incorrect to sa/ that he is 1odQ his persona"it/ #ein& strict"/ human, and not divine. There is, ho%ever, a difference. The (siatic specu"ator underta$es to rea"ise his s/stem, and emp"o/s the monastic institute or other aids for the purpose, hopin& thus to escape from the chains of sense and passion into the freedom of pure a#straction. The +uropean theoriser, on the other hand, even if he attempts to sho% ho% a practica" re"i&ion ma/ #e #ased on a s/stem of a#stractionsas %as done #/ *ichtenever serious"/ thin$s of carr/in& it into execution. Neander, fo""o%in& chmidt and Baur, represents Buddhism as one form of pantheism, on the &round that the doctrine of metemps/chosis ma$es a"" nature instinct %ith p. BAK "ife, and that that "ife is the Deit/ assumin& different forms of persona"it/, that Deit/ not #ein& a se"f2conscious free actin& *irst cause, #ut an a""2pervadin& spirit. The esoteric Buddhists of China, $eepin& ri&id"/ to their one doctrine, sa/ nothin& of the metemps/chosis, the paradise of the >estern heaven, or an/ other of the more materia" parts of the Buddhist s/stem. The Indian Buddhists %ere professed atheistsQ #ut those of China, instead of den/in& the existence of 1od, usua""/ content themse"ves %ith sa/in& nothin& a#out !im. To den/ or affirm an/ specia" existence, fact or do&ma, %ou"d in their vie% #e e:ua""/ inconsistent. Their aim is to $eep the mind from an/ distinct action or movement of an/ $ind. The/ "oo$, therefore, %ith pit/ on %orshippers of ever/ c"ass as necessari"/ missin& %hat the/ aim at, and that #ecause the/ aim at itQ and as havin& no prospect of escapin& from the miser/ of "ife unti" the/ a#andon a"" specia" dependencies and doctrines, "oo$ %ithin instead of %ithout, and attend to the voice"ess teachin& of the mind itse"f. This s/stem a"so exists in 4apan, and the same su#divisions into schoo"s occur there amon& its fo""o%ers. ? ee Bur&er5s account of re"i&ious sects in 4apan, Chin,&Rep., vo". ii. pp. CBE2CHF.@ It is in hi&h estimation amon& the ref"ectin& c"ass of Chinese, %ho "oo$ %ith contempt on the ima&e %orship of the mu"titude. (n account of the 8+xoteric sects,8 the Kiau-min of Chinese Buddhism, %i"" no% #e presented to the reader.

ha$/amuni is said to have foreto"d that, for five centuries after his death, the true doctrine %ou"d #e fo""o%ed. (fter that, for a thousand /ears, a s/stem of forms or 8Ima&e %orship,8 Siang-kiaou, %ou"d prevai". This %ou"d su#se:uent"/ &ive p"ace to another ca""ed the 8fina" s/stem,8 %hich %ou"d terminate the present kalpa. The popu"ar Buddhism of China #e"on&s to the second of these deve"opments. It %as this form that it first assumed p. BAE on enterin& China. Buddha is said to have tau&ht the doctrines of this s/stem in ear"/ "ife, %hi"e the more a#struse and m/stica" parts of his teachin& %ere de"ivered %hen he %as #ecome an o"d man. (fter his entrance into the Nirv9na, (nanda compi"ed the 8 utras8 ? King@. In the counci" that %as then he"d, these utras %ere adopted as an authentic account of the Buddhist doctrine, and the/ are the first of the Three co""ections that constitute the standard #oo$s of Buddhism. The #io&raphica" notices of the principa" trans"ators of the utras, and founders of the Kiau2men, are #/ the author of the San-kiau-yi-su p"aced #efore the five schoo"s into %hich he divides the exoteric Buddhists. The first of the ei&ht %ho are thus distin&uished is Kashiapmadan&a. >hen he came to )o2/an& in the first centur/ of our era, he "od&ed in the !e-ma&s ?>hite horse temp"e@. !ence the residences of Buddhist priests %ere ca""ed s ?ga-lam, 8monasteriesQ8 for the anscrit, sangarama@. (ssociated %ith his countr/man Chu2fa2"an, he trans"ated five utras. The "atter after%ards trans"ated five more, consistin& of thirteen 8chapters8 ? kiuen@. 8Kumara3iva5s8 ?Kieu-mo-to-sh@ name is the third, and the fourth that of 8Buddo3an&a8 ?Fo-tu-cheng@, %ho is #etter $no%n as a %onder %or$er and a founder of monasteries ?he erected ETC@ than a trans"ator. ( commentar/ on the Tau-te-king of )au2tsi came from his pen. The remainin& four names most noted in the ear"/ histor/ of Chinese Buddhism are ChM2tun, Tau2an, ,au2chM, and han2h%ei. The/ %ere a"" natives of China, noted for their %ritin&s and pu#"ic discussions in exp"anation and defence of the Buddhist s/stem. The five su#divisions of exoteric Buddhism %i"" no% #e considered. ?B.@ That named from the 0ina/a or second division of the sacred #oo$s, is the first. The %riter of the 80ina/a8 ?L@ and founder of this schoo" %as 8Up_"i8 ? eu&po-li: in o"d Chinese, '-pa-li@, one of the ten chief discip"es of ha$/amuni. !e %rote the i pu2"it, %hich p. BAT %as admitted into the 8Three pita$a8 ?San-tsang@ at the counci" he"d after Buddha5s death ?/ide !ard/5s 9astern&#onachism@. (mon& the nine "eaders of this schoo", t%o other !indoos are mentioned. The first Chinese amon& them is in the fifth centur/. !e tau&ht the s/stem of the %or$ ca""ed 8Discip"ine of *our Divisions.8 The name of this schoo" is Hing-s-+ang-+ei-ch-ngo, indicatin& that its aim is in action to &uard a&ainst error and chec$ vice. It is a"so ca""ed the 6an-shan ? outhern hi""@ schoo". ,riests of this schoo" at the present time dress in #"ac$. There %as at Nan$in&, #efore the TJai2pin& re#e""ion, a monaster/ %here this s/stem %as in operation. ?H.@ -o2&a2mi2$iau, 8The secret teachin& of -o&a.8 The founder of this s/stem is ca""ed Kin-kang-sat-wa ?0a3rasatt%a@. It %as #rou&ht to China a#out (.D. KHG #/ Kin-kang-ch ?0a3ramati@, %ho %as succeeded #/ ,u2$Jun&. event/2t%o %or$s came from the pen of the "atter, and %ere p"aced in the nationa" co""ection of Buddhist #oo$s. !is numerous discip"es "earned to repeat charms %ith &reat effect, and this seems to #e the proper #usiness of the schoo". The %ord oga is exp"ained as 8Correspondence8 and, it is added, is emp"o/ed as a &enera" term for #oo$s 8containin& secret doctrines8 ?referrin& to ma&ic@. To this schoo" #e"on&s the ver/ popu"ar festiva" of the hun&r/ &hosts, he"d in the seventh month. The -o&a or -o&achara schoo" is a"so ca""ed the Tantra schoo", #ecause it tau&ht the use of ma&ic formu"= or uninte""i&i#"e charms used for rain, for protection in storms, Oc. The/ are %ritten in anscrit or Thi#etan "etters.? ee in +ite", under the %ord 8-o&atchara.8@ ?C.@ >ei2shi2sian&2$iau. This schoo" occupied itse"f %ith the stud/ of the hastra 5ei-sh-lun, and simi"ar %or$s. These #oo$s %ere %ritten #/ the t%o Bodhisatt%as >u2cho B and TJien2tsJin. Kiai2hien, a !indoo residin& p. BKG at the monaster/ Na"anda, %as their most distin&uished discip"e, and %as principa""/ concerned in esta#"ishin& this schoo", and arran&in& those forms of Buddhist instruction ca""ed the Three 8Deve"opments8 ? ana@. Next to him %as the trave""er !iuen2tsan&, %ho received the hastra mentioned a#ove from Kiai2hien, and ori&inated the schoo" in his native countr/. !e %as succeeded #/ his pupi" K%ei2$i. This schoo" is ca""ed Fa-siang-tsung, or the 8 choo" that exhi#its the nature8 and meanin& of the Buddhist %ritten doctrines. ?F.@ (nother of these schoo"s derives its name from the hastra ca""ed Chung-lun. That %or$ %as %ritten #/ the !indoo Lung-shu, 8Na&ar3una8 ?Dra&on tree@. The founder of the schoo" #ased on the doctrines of that #oo$ %as a Chinese of the Northern TJsi $in&dom in the sixth centur/. !is successor %as a mon$ of one of the sects that fo""o%ed the teachin& of Bodhidharma, !%ei2sM of Nan2n&o. !e %as succeeded #/ ChM2$Jai of TJien2tJai shan, %ho deve"oped the s/stem to a much &reater extent, and divided it into four su#ordinate schoo"s, named from their su#3ects, those of the %ritten doctrine, true human nature, the use of the senses, and action. ?D.@ The "ast exoteric schoo" is that %hich %as founded #/ *a2shun, a native of Tun2h%an&, an ancient $in&dom in %hat is no% Thi#et. !e &ave his chief attention to the 8!%a2/en utra.8 The third "eader of the schoo" %as !ien2sheu, the #est $no%n of them a"". !is name is often &iven to the s/stem that he %ith his predecessors and successors recommended. It is ca""ed usua""/ Fa-sing-tsung, the 8 choo" of the true nature8 of the %ritten doctrine. (nother exoteric schoo" para""e" %ith these, #ut p"aced separate"/ in the c"assification, is that ca""ed Lien-tsung ?)otus schoo"@, or Tsing-tu ?,ure "and@. To it #e"on&s the popu"ar "e&end of the >estern heaven, the a#ode of p. BKB ;para&raph continues< 8(mida Buddha8 ?*-mi-to&Fo@, a fa#u"ous persona&e %orshipped assiduous"/"i$e K%an2/in#/ the Northern Buddhists, #ut un$no%n in iam, Birmah, and Ce/"on. The founder of this schoo" in China %as a native of han2si, !%ei2/uen, of the Tsin d/nast/ ?fourth centur/@. The second 8patriarch8 ? tsu@ of this schoo" %as K%an&2min& of the seventh centur/. *or more than thirt/ /ears he tau&ht the doctrine of the 8,ure "and,8 persuadin& mu"titudes to adopt it. ,an2 cheu, his successor, %as honoured %ith the tit"e Kwo-sh ?Nationa" instructor@ in the rei&n of TJai2tsun& ?KAG (.D.@. The sixth in order %as ChM2$io. !is vie%s differed "itt"e from those of TJien2tJai, !iuen2tsan&, and !ien2sheu. !e %as ver/ fond of savin& fish and cra#s from #ein& $i""ed and eaten. even chiefs of this sect are enumerated. To the same schoo" #e"on&s Chu2hun&, the priest %ho opposed .atteo Ricci. in %or$s and "etters sti"" extant, and founded the -In2tsi monaster/ near !an&2cheu. The >estern paradise promised to the %orshippers of (mida Buddha is, as has #een pointed out #/ chott in his %or$ on the Buddhism of !i&h (sia and China, inconsistent %ith the doctrine of Nirv9na. It promises immorta"it/ instead of annihi"ation. The &reat anti:uit/ of this schoo" is evident from the ear"/ date of the trans"ation of the *mida&Sutra, %hich came from the hands of Kumara3iva, and of the 5u-liang-sheu-king, datin& from the !an d/nast/. Its extent of inf"uence is seen in the attachment of the Thi#etans and .on&o"s to the %orship of this Buddha, and in the fact that the name of this fictitious persona&e is more common"/ heard in the dai"/ conversation of the Chinese peop"e than that of the historica" Buddha ha$/amuni.

The on"/ remainin& schoo" is that of TJien2tJai, a"read/ partia""/ descri#ed. In the "atter part of the sixth centur/ !%ei2%en, a native of 8Northern China8 ? !e-tsi@, studied the Chung-lun ?Centra" hastra@, %ritten #/ the !indoo ca""ed 8Con:ueror of the Dra&on8 ?Lung-sheng or p. BKH ;para&raph continues< Lung-shu@, the fourteenth patriarch. Convinced of its exce""ence, he instituted 8three sorts of meditation8 ? san-kwan@, vie%in& the %or"d as ?B.@ empt/, ?H.@ fa"se, or ?C.@ centra". This he re&arded as the "imit of re"i&ious meditation on the surroundin& universe, and therefore ca""ed his s/stem Ch-kwan, 8Ref"ection carried to its "imitin& point.8 !e a"so founded his doctrine part"/ on the Fa-hwa-king, and %as fo""o%ed #/ !%ei2sM and ChM2che of TJien2tJai, %ho &ave his name to the schoo". The fo""o%in& verses trans"ated from the poetr/ of the Tsin&2tu sect %i"" serve to i""ustrate the doctrine of that schoo". It is not much of the Buddhist s/stem that easi"/ admits of #ein& put into this form of composition. There is nothin& a$in to the spirit of poetr/ in the tur&id sp"endour and %earisome reiteration of the "e&ends that a#ound in the #oo$s of this re"i&ion. Chinese versifiers have, ho%ever, found some materia"s more to their taste in the >estern heaven of (mida Buddha. If the reader shou"d thin$ the conceptions are poor, the/ are at "east a &enuine description, so far as the/ &o, of the heaven of the Northern Buddhists. UT!+ >+ T+RN !+(0+N. 8The pure "and of the >est, sa/ %hat "an&ua&e can te"" Its #eaut/ and ma3est/ There ever d%e"" The men of this %or"d and the Devas B of heaven, (nd to each has the same %reath of &"or/ #een &iven. The secrets of %isdom unvei"ed the/ #eho"d, (nd the soi" that the/ tread on is #ri&ht /e""o% &o"d. In that "and of true p"easure the f"o%ers never fade, +ach terraced ascent is of diamond and 3ade. The "a% of Tath9&ata H sun& #/ each #ird *rom thic$et and &rove in s%eet music is heard. The un%itherin& Upata, C fairest of f"o%ers, heds fra&rance around in those thrice "ove"/ #o%ers. p. BKC There, each from the %or"d that he &overns, are found (ssem#"ed in conference "on& and profound, The ten supreme Buddhas %ho cease not to te"" The praise of the "and %here the &enii B d%e"". *or there is no re&ion so happ/ and #"est, (s the heaven of &reat (mida far in the %est. On the moment of reachin& it #/ a ne% #irth, The materia" #od/ of men %hi"e on earth Is exchan&ed for another etherea" and #ri&ht, That is seen from afar to #e &"o%in& %ith "i&ht. !app/ the/ %ho to that 3o/fu" re&ion have &oneW In num#er"ess kalpas their time f"o%s on. (round are &reen %oods, and a#ove them c"ear s$ies, The sun never scorches, co"d %inds never rise, Neither summer nor %inter are there ever $no%n In the "and of the )a% and the Diamond ThroneQ ("" errors corrected, a"" m/steries made c"ear, Their rest is un#ro$en #/ care or #/ fear. (nd the truth that #efore "a/ in dar$ness concea"ed )i$e a &em %ithout fracture or f"a% is revea"ed.8 The %ord 8diamond8 is used in the sense of 8uncon:uered and uncon:uera#"e,8 and ma/ refer either to Buddha5s po%er as a teacher, or to the divinities that support his throne and act as his protectors. U(.ID( BUDD!(. 8 ee %here, streamin& forth radiance for thousands of mi"es, +ver sits the compassionate Buddha, and smi"es, 1ivin& 3o/ to the victims of sorro% and strife >ho are saved #/ his "a% from the sorro%s of "ife. ("" his features of #eaut/ no %ords can express, *or the sands of the 1an&es in num#er are "essQ .ar$ the f"o%ers of the "otus encirc"in& his seat (s if of themse"ves the/ spran& up round his feet. >hoever %ou"d enter the home of the #"est In his innermost thou&hts shou"d incessant"/ rest On that #eautifu" form "i$e the c"ear moon on hi&h >hen she marches fu""2or#ed throu&h an unc"ouded s$/. B/ that ha"o of "i&ht that encirc"es his head, On a"" "ivin& #ein&s a radiance is shed. The sun at noonda/ is "ess &"orious than #e, !is compassion resem#"es a #ottom"ess sea. p. BKF >ithout ceasin& his arms are outstretched to re"ieve The aff"icted that %eep, and the orphans that &rieve, *or his merc/ is such as none e"se can disp"a/, (nd "on& a&es of &ratitude cannot repa/.8 These descriptions are ta$en from a co""ection of poems ca""ed Tsing-tu-sh. The measure in the ori&ina" is the usua" one of seven %ords in a "ine. The Chinese %ords are monos/""a#"es, and the diction conse:uent"/ ver/ terse. Our +n&"ish ton&ue is different. ( metre "i$e that here adopted has more room in it than others for unaccented s/""a#"es. This circumstance renders it convenient. It has often #een used #/ trans"ators.

In these descriptions there is a prominent materia"ism in the expressions. Buddha in the >estern heavens is thou&ht of as "i$e the monstrous &i"t ima&e seen #/ the %orshippers as the/ &o to a temp"e on a &a"a da/. Ido"atr/ "oves to #orro% from nature. !ere there are f"o%ers, and sin&in&2#irds, and the favourite 3ade2stone. Buddha is here made popu"arQ there is no a#struse specu"ation. The #oasted Nirv9na is a#andoned, and a paradise &ratif/in& to the senses ta$es its p"ace. .an/ a simp"e2minded dreamer spends his da/s in meditatin& on this picture, and indu"&in& his ima&ination %ith the hope that he %i"" one da/ #e #orn from a "otus f"o%er, in the ver/ 3o/fu" %or"d of (mida, and "ive there for ever &aRin& on his sacred form.

Footnotes BDASB Transactions&o+&the&Royal&*siatic&Society, vo". i p. DCE. BDASH Rhode, R2ligiose&)ildung&u,&s,&w,&der&Hindus. BACSB This description is ta$en from a "itt"e %or$ of the TJan& d/nast/, ca""ed Twan-tsi-sin-yau. BATSB *sengha, 8>ithout attachment,8 %as ori&ina""/ a fo""o%er of the .ahashasa$a schoo". !e first tau&ht the .aha/ana s/stem, and %rote the #oo$s %hich contain the >ei2shi doctrines. Then he #ecause the founder p. BKG of the -o&a schoo", and %rote a #oo$ %hich he said %as dictated to him #/ .aitre/a in the Tushita paradise. ? ee in +ite".@ BKHSB $e/as, the 8&ods8 of the !indoos ?in Chinese, tien@. The/ are inferior in po%er and sp"endour to human nature %hen e"evated to the ran$ of the Buddhas and Bodhisatt%as. BKHSH Tath.gata, a tit"e of BuddhaQ in Chinese, 4ulai. 8The "a%,8 is the doctrine proc"aimed #/ Buddha. BKHSC ("so spe"t Utampata"a. BKCSB 81enii.8 In anscrit, Rishi: in Chinese, Sien-"en.

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CHAPTER VIII.

ON CHI-KAI AND THE TIEN-TAI SCHOOL OF BUDDHISM. TJien2tJai, a p"ace of &reat note in Chinese BuddhismChM2$Jai resided there in the sixth centur/!is c"oa$ and rice #o%"*u2"un&2fen&*an&2$%an& sM and the roc$ #rid&e)e&end of the )o2hansT%e"ve monasteries founded!e tau&ht the Fa-hwa-king /stem of threefo"d contemp"ation ix connectives+i&ht modes of characterisin& BuddhismTen steps in pro&ressDerived much from Na&ar3unaTJien2tJai, a midd"e s/stemRe&u"ations. T!+R+ is no Buddhist esta#"ishment #etter $no%n in China than TJien2tJai. It has much natura" #eaut/, #ut its interest, so far as it is historica", centres chief"/ round the ancient mon$ %ho is the su#3ect of this notice. It had #een visited #efore #/ Tauist rec"uses, #ut it %as he that #/ se"ectin& it for his a#ode &ave it its hi&h reputation as a spot consecrated to the meditative "ife. The c"uster of hi""s that compose TJien2tJai terminate a#rupt"/ to the south2%est. ChJih2chJen&, B an imposin& hi"" cro%ned %ith a pa&oda, is conspicuous from the time%orn %a""s of the cit/ of TJien2tJai, BEG mi"es south2east of !an&2cheu. This is the southern extremit/ of the hi""/ re&ion $no%n #/ the same name. *rom a va""e/ on its "eft f"o%s a mountain stream, %hich, increasin& in %idth as it traverses the p"ain, is capa#"e of #earin& #oats of considera#"e siRe %hen it reaches the #us/ "itt"e cit/ 3ust mentioned. ,assin& on it #ends to the south2east, and arrivin& at TJai2chen, an important sea2port, pours its p. BKA %aters, after a short course of ten or fifteen mi"es, into the ocean. It %as up one of the feeders of this stream that, near the end of the sixth centur/, ChM2$Jai %ended his %a/ in search of a "one"/ mountain residence suited to his meditative cast of mind. )eavin& the #eautifu" site %here after%ards stood the K%o2tsJin& monaster/, 3ust #e"o% four hi""s no% covered to their summits %ith rich

fo"ia&e, he ascended a "on& and romantic va""e/. !e %as trave""in& in a re&ion threaded #/ fe% paths, and in a direction that seemed to "ead no%here #ut farther a%a/ from the ha#itations of men. In this %i"derness of hi""s and va""e/s, occup/in& man/ s:uare mi"es, %hich he no% entered, a"thou&h un$no%n to the a&ricu"turist, he /et found some fe% residin& %hose vie%s of human "ife %ere con&enia" to his o%n. )oca" traditions point out %here he "ived and ref"ected. (n anti:ue mauso"eum, %ith a "on& inscription of the ui d/nast/, mar$s the p"ace %here his ashes %ere deposited. (t a "itt"e distance from it the Kau2min& monaster/ comes into vie%. It is in a deep va""e/ shut a"" round #/ %ooded hei&hts. The #ui"din& has an o"d "oo$, #efittin& the re"ics of our hero sti"" preserved there. The visitor %i"" have sho%n to him a "ar&e s:uare si"$ &arment. It is said to have #een the c"oa$ %orn #/ ChM2$Jai. It is handsome"/ em#roidered after a pattern evident"/ ver/ anti:ue. ( meta" #o%", %orn #/ "on& use, and capa#"e of ho"din& severa" mea"s of rice for an a#stemious mon$, is another curiosit/. These memoria"s of this ear"/ Buddhist %i"" appear, ho%ever, to one %ho is not a specia" admirer of the monastic "ife, secondar/ in interest to a anscrit manuscript %hich escaped a fire some centuries a&o, and is one of the fe% remains of that "iterature sti"" existin& in China. The histor/ of the manuscript, its name and contents, are un$no%n to the resident priests. This monaster/ is even no% difficu"t of access. But the va""e/ %here it stands, in ChM2$Jai5s time had scarce"/ ever p. BKK #een visited. B It %as fi""ed %ith forest trees and thic$ #rush%ood, and formed a favourite cover for deer. The %oodcutter and herdsman se"dom %andered to this %i"d spot. (n accident "ed our hero there. On the hi"" a#ove*u2"un&2fen&near %here the 8stJupa8 ? tah@ that contains his ashes is sti"" standin&, he %as one da/ exp"ainin& to his discip"es the Tsing-ming-king ? utra of ,ure name@ %hen a &ust of %ind #"e% a%a/ the "eaves far into the deep ho""o% #e"o%. >ith his tin2headed staff in his hand to assist him in the search, he set out to recover the fu&itive #oo$. (fter a pursuit of a mi"e and a ha"f the %ind ceased, and the #oo$ fe"" to the &round. !e caused a #ui"din& to #e erected at the spot, in commemoration of the circumstance, %hich #ecame one of the t%e"ve esta#"ishments that o%e their ori&in to him. It %as not, ho%ever, ti"" man/ /ears after that the present monaster/ %as erected and its modern name assi&ned to it. >hen the K%o2tsJin& monaster/ %as destro/ed #/ fire, the manuscript spo$en of a#ove %as removed to Kau2min& for &reater safet/. (fter penetratin& severa" mi"es farther to the north%est in this hi""/ and deso"ate re&ion, ChM2$Jai arrived H at the remar$a#"e roc$ #rid&e %here the *an&2$%an& monaster/ no% stands. The "oud roar of the %aterfa"", and the c"ose2set %oods on the hi""s around, the t%o mountain #roo$s unitin& #efore the/ reach the cataract, then passin& #eneath the natura" #rid&e do%n the fa"", and thence pursuin& their %a/ to the north, united to &ive this spot an air of &randeur in the hermit5s mind. It seemed a home for supernatura" #ein&s. It is the/ that cause the unusua" appearances of nature. The )o2hans, those exa"ted discip"es of Buddha %hose po%er and $no%"ed&e are so &reat, mi&ht reside here. In fact a "e&end on the su#3ect soon &re% into pu#"ic #e"ief, and the music of the )o2hans %as said to #e heard at times a "itt"e #efore da%n #/ priests "/in& a%a$e in their ce""s. ( choir of five hundred p. BKE at that si"ent hour made the %oods resound %ith harmon/. uch a co"on/ of Buddha5s superhuman discip"es served to invest this %i"d mountainous district %ith a sacred character. In ever/ monaster/ of this re&ion a ha"" devoted to ima&es of the five hundred )o2hans no% exists, and on the side of the natura" #rid&e is a sma"" shrine containin& five hundred sma"" stone fi&ures, %hich are %orshipped #/ those %ho venture to cross #/ the narro% and dan&erous path that spans the cataract. Our hero continued his %anderin&s in this e"evated re&ion, %here the va""e/s do not sin$ farther than BDGG feet a#ove the sea2"eve", and %hich is #/ its "one"iness %e"" suited for the ascetic. o"itude rei&ns here for man/ mi"es round, in one of the most dense"/2popu"ated provinces of China. !e did not ta$e up his a#ode at one p"ace exc"usive"/. No fe%er than t%e"ve monasteries mar$ the spots %here he formed a cotta&e of stones and stra%, or caused a modest #ui"din& to #e erected. (s he approached the pea$ of !%a2tin&, near"/ FGGG feet hi&h, and five mi"es to the east of the natura" #rid&e, he met on the TJien2fen& rid&e an o"d man %ho said to him, 8 ir, if /ou see$ a residence for contemp"ation, se"ect the p"ace %here /ou meet a roc$.8 The mon$ soon after encountered a Buddhist from Corea named !an-sh ?Roc$@, %ho encoura&ed him to sta/ there, and &ive himse"f up to stud/. !e accordin&"/ constructed a hut there, in %hich he remained sixteen /ears, and composed a commentar/ on the 8Boo$ of the Nirv9na.8 ( "itt"e farther to the north is !%a2tin&, the hi&hest &round in Che2$ian& exceptin& TJien2mu shan. The monaster/, #earin& the same name as the mountain, had a"read/ #een erected #/ Te2shau, a ce"e#rated Buddhist %ho "ived a centur/ anterior to ChM2$Jai. evera" hundred mon$s no% #e"on& to the societ/, a "ar&e part of them residin& in hermita&es on the hi"". The monaster/ is an extensive thatched ran&e of #ui"din&s, more comforta#"e than the #"ea$ huts %here, out of si&ht of an/ human p. BKT #ein&, the more se"f2den/in& spend their da/s and ni&hts chantin& in honour of Buddha. Certain"/ theirs is a &"oom/ home. ( thic$ mist usua""/ rests on the summit and spreads do%n the sides of the mountain, enve"opin& these rude cotta&es %ith their visionar/ inmatesQ and sno% often remains unme"ted for man/ months. It is hard to exp"ain ho% a peop"e so socia" as the Chinese, so fond of cities and cro%ds, and so averse to mountain trave""in&, can supp"/ hermits to "ive in residences "i$e these. That ChM2$Jai, the founder of a f"ourishin& sect, a man of deep ref"ection, and in "ove %ith so"itude, shou"d choose such an a#ode, is not so surprisin& as that common Chinese minds, %ithout his profound thin$in&, or his "ove of %i"d nature, shou"d sti"" fo""o% his examp"e. (nother spot %here ChM2$Jai once resided is i2tso, at some distance to the %est of the roc$ #rid&e, and near the >an2nien monaster/. !ere he composed his s/stem of doctrine ca""ed Ch-kwan, 8)imited or perfected o#servation.8 ChM2$Jai had in ear"/ "ife fo""o%ed the teachin& of the schoo" esta#"ished #/ Bodhidharma, the !indoo patriarch %ho had died in Northern China thirt/ /ears #efore. !e after%ards #ecame dissatisfied %ith the Chan-men ?Contemp"ative schoo"@, as that sect is ca""ed, not a&reein& %ith its princip"e that #oo$ "earnin& shou"d #e discarded, even that %hich consisted of Buddha5s o%n %ords, and the heart nurse itse"f into a state of perfection #/ re3ectin& ever/thin& externa" and &ivin& itse"f up to an unconscious s"eep2"i$e existence. ChM2$Jai &re% tired of this s/stem, and formed the out"ines of another, %hich he tau&ht to mu"titudes of admirin& discip"es. !e resided at Nan$in&, the capita" of the $in&dom ?ChJen d/nast/@, and maintained a hi&h reputation. >hen he determined on removin& to TJien2tJai, the emperor for#ade him, #ut a""o%ed him to "eave %hen he sa% that his mind %as made up. Three times after%ards an imperia" messa&e re:uired his attendance at court, #ut he p. BEG p"eaded indisposition and remained at TJien2tJai. !e comp"ied on one occasion on"/, and exp"ained the sacred #oo$s of his re"i&ion to the emperor and his court. !e a"so made one visit home to !u2nan, #ut returned to die at the mountain residence to %hich he %as so much attached. !e expired %hi"e sittin& cross2"e&&ed and &ivin& instruction to his fo""o%ers. !e %rote commentaries on the Fa-hwa-king, Kin-kang-king, and *-mi-ta-king, %ith severa" ori&ina" %or$s. These #oo$s %ere in the /ear (.D. BGHF, a"" inc"uded in the Buddhist Tripita$a ?Co""ection of sacred %ritin&s@ of China.

!is schoo" continued to f"ourish for a "on& period at the K%o2tsJin& and *u2"un& monasteries. The #iau&+a-lien-hwa-king ?)otus of the 1ood )a%@ %as his favourite #oo$. !e thus exp"ained its nameS8(s the "otus &ro%s out of the mire and /et preserves its freshness and purit/, so the doctrines of this #oo$, the &ood "a%, assist men to retain their ori&ina" nature unsu""ied and undistur#ed amidst the miser/ and corruption around them.8 In the course of the #oo$, he addedS 8Truth is sometimes tau&ht in a#stract, at other times #/ i""ustration, sometimes it is exp"ained and e"se%here defended, 3ust as the "otus f"o%er #uds, #"ossoms, fades, and fa""s #/ a succession of chan&es, and at "ast produces fruit.8 ChM2$Jai divided the teachin& of ha$/amuni into five periods. #e&innin& %ith the Hwa-yen-king, and endin& %ith the Fa-hwa-king and the Nirv9na. (fter this c"assification of the sacred #oo$s, he introduced to his fo""o%ers his o%n s/stem. To restore man5s true mora" nature there must #e 8o#servation8 ? kwan, 8to see8@ of human actions. In re&ard to opinions, there are three $indsthe true, the common, and the mean. The true is 8destructive of a"" methods and doctrines8 ?idea"ism@, the popu"ar #rin&s them into existence, and the mean p"aces them a"" to&ether and chooses the midd"e path. The deceptions that prevent men from perceivin& the truth are threefo"dS i&norance, the dust of the %or"d, and the activit/ of the p. BEB thou&hts and senses. These ta$en in their order hide from vie% the #eaut/ of the re"i&ious "ife, prevent mora" improvement, and operate a&ainst pure menta" vacanc/. The fee"in& of Buddha, on o#servin& the %or"d in this state, %as that men5s o%n notions are fa"se and not to #e trustedQ that in true $no%"ed&e there is no distinction of %hat is m/se"f and %hat is not m/se"f, and that the conception of a "ivin& persona" Buddha shou"d #e a#andoned. Other%ise men cou"d not return to their true mora" nature. !avin& proceeded thus far, ChM2$Jai deve"oped his threefo"d s/stem of o#servation, %hich, as he #e"ieves it to #e conc"usive of controvers/ and perfect"/ satisfactor/, he ca""ed Ch-kwan, 8,erfected o#servation.8 This o#servation is 8empt/8 ?kung@, 8h/pothetica"8 ?kia@, or 8media"8 ?chung@. *or removin& the deceptions that #"ind men5s minds, the most successfu" method is to vie% a"" thin&s in 8vacanc/8 ?kung@. *or constructin& doctrines and institutions, the 8inventive8 ?kia@ method is the #est. *or esta#"ishin& and confirmin& man5s mora" nature, the media" method is the most effective. These three modes of vie%in& the %or"d are comp"ete in each other and insepara#"e, resem#"in& the three e/es of the &od .aha Ish%ara. The vacant mode destro/s the i""usions of the senses, assertin& their nothin&ness, and constructs the virtue of !ra"na ?Kno%"ed&e@. The inventive mode destro/s the de"udin& effects of the dust of the %or"d, and constructs the virtue of 8rescue ?from a"" errors and evi"s@,8 kiai-to. The media" method destro/s the de"usion that resu"ts from i&norance, and constructs the 8re"i&ious character8 ?+a-shen@. ti"" fearin& "est his fo""o%ers shou"d #e in error as to the method of se"f2reformation, and fa"" into one2sided vie%s, he formed a series of %hat he ca""ed the ix connectives. B. 8Reason8 ?li@. ("" "ivin& #ein&s, do%n to the sma""est insects, have received a mora" nature, and have Buddha p. BEH %ithin them. Constant"/ restin& in this, the/ attain their perfection, #ecause the &ift of reason is e:ua""/ #esto%ed. H. Names and terms. ("thou&h reason is the same in a"" #ein&s, /et in the course of the %or"d, the/ %i"" not come to the $no%"ed&e and use of it, and therefore instruction is necessar/ to produce #e"ief and remove %hat is fa"se. C. O#servation of human action. Instruction havin& #een imparted and #e"ief produced, the threefo"d mode of vie%in& the %or"d, as a"read/ exp"ained, must then #e emp"o/ed. F. )i$eness. ,erfection itse"f #ein& difficu"t to &ain, the "i$eness to it ma/ #e reached. D. The true deve"opment of human nature. A. Confirmation. I&norance is for ever &one. The mind #ecomes perfect"/ inte""i&ent. +ach of these six steps #ein& Buddha, the three em#odiments of the re"i&ious "ife are thus comp"etedviR., 8em#odiment8 ? shen@ of the 8"a%8 ?faAB of 8recompense8 ?pau@, of 8renovation8 ?hwa@. B ChM2$Jai divided the Buddhist s/stem accordin& to its characteristics into 8+i&ht parts8 ?!a-kiau@S?B.@ The comp"iantQ ?H.@ The &radua"Q ?C.@ The secretQ ?F.@ The indeterminateQ ?D.@ Co""ectionQ ?A.@ ,ro&ressQ ?K.@ DistinctionQ ?E.@ Comp"etion. The "ast four are ca""ed ChM2$Jai5s 8*our modes of contemp"ation8 ? S-kwan@. >ith re&ard to Collection, the sacred #oo$s %ere em#raced in three divisions, king, l, lun, or sutra, /inaya, and a(idharma. These inc"ude, under the head of sufferin&, the t%ent/2five c"asses of #ein&s that inha#it heaven, earth, and he""Q a"so the ei&ht/2ei&ht causes of human de"usionQ and further, thirt/2seven steps in se"f2 $no%"ed&e and improvement. The/ a"so em#race the five c"asses of instructed and en"i&htened #ein&sS?B.@ The discip"e, in severa" su#divisionsQ ?H.@ The %ise, in four &rades uda%an, ida&am, (na&am, (rhanQ ?C.@ The perfect"/ inte""i&entQ ?F.@ The Bodhisatt%aQ ?D.@ The Buddha. p. BEC >ith re&ard to !rogress, there are ten stepsviR., unproductive $no%"ed&e, mora" nature a%a$in&, the ei&ht convictions of the true sa&e, perception, first advances, con:uest of the passions, the %ron& set ri&ht, the ,rat/e$a Buddha, the Bodhisatt%a, and the Buddha. In these successive steps of mora" improvement there is some resem#"ance to the common Buddhist vie% of the materia" universe. The/ re&ard it as divided accordin& to a mora" sca"e into sta&es accurate"/ defina#"e. The metemps/chosis, #/ a ri&id "a% of mora" retri#ution, assi&ns at death the position of ever/ sou" in the fift/ or sixt/ &rades of #ein& #e"on&in& to heaven, earth, and he"". (#ove these are found the states of Buddha5s discip"es and that %hich is itse"f ca""ed Buddha. >ith re&ard to the exce""ence termed $istinction, %hich is reached #/ the Bodhisatt%a on"/, there are em#raced in it Ten modes of faith, Ten modes of firm adherence, Ten modes of action, Ten inc"inations, Ten menta" states, to&ether %ith the hi&hest $no%"ed&e in t%o separate forms. In reference to the "ast c"ass, that of Completion, ever/thin& is vie%ed as perfect. There are five states %hich the student ma/ occup/viR., p"easure. recitation,

instructin&, puttin& in practice the ten ru"es, correct practice of the ten ru"es. ( series of t%ent/2five auxi"iaries to $no%"ed&e and virtue, and of ten modes of o#servin& the true nature and end of human actions, fo""o% the precedin&. B To &ive these numerous divisions of Buddhist doctrine more minute"/ is here unnecessar/. o much as is here presented %i"" i""ustrate the manner in %hich ref"ectin& Buddhists comment on the doctrines of their re"i&ion. It contains a s$etch of the opinions of one of the o"dest and most inf"uentia" schoo"s in China, and exhi#its the same fondness for a numerica" arran&ement of propositions ramif/in& end"ess"/, %hich a"so #e"on&s to other Buddhist p. BEF schoo"s. This s/mmetrica" c"assification of doctrines in round num#ers pervades the %ho"e Buddhist "iterature, and su&&ests a resem#"ance to the ha#its of the +uropean schoo"men. The fundamenta" su#division of the TJien2tJai s/stem into three modes of contemp"ation, the empt/, the inventive, and the media", ori&inated %ith 8Na&ar3una8 ? Lung& shu@, %ho "ived in North2%estern India a#out t%o centuries after Christ. The vie%s %hich the TJien2tJai2$iau have #orro%ed from him are contained in the 8.edia" hastra8 ?Chung-lun@, a %or$ in five hundred stanRas #ased on the princip"es of the ,ra3na paramita, and trans"ated into Chinese ear"/ in the fifth centur/. This %or$ &ave rise to the #adhyamika schoo" ?the Centra" phi"osoph/@ in Thi#et. The author sa/s in this %or$S 8The methods and doctrines sprin&in& from various causes, I dec"are to #e a"" 5emptiness5 ?kung@. The/ ma/ a"so #e ca""ed 5invented5 ?kia@ names. *urther, the/ ma/ #e said to contain the meanin& of the media" ?chung@ path.8 !%ei2%en erected a s/stem on this, as the #asis, and ChM2$Jai, fo""o%in& him, mou"ded it to its present form as the TJien2tJai2$iau. The fo""o%in& extract from a commentar/ on the Fa-hwa-king %i"" i""ustrate the %a/ in %hich the princip"es of this schoo" are app"ied in interpretin& the sacred #oo$sS U("" %ere 5(rhans5 ?Lo-hans@ %hose defects %ere o#"iterated, for %hom there %as no more sufferin&, %ho had o#tained #enefits for themse"ves, %ho had #ro$en a"" ties, and in their hearts possessed peace.8 This is the text. The commentator sa/sS 8The %ord (rhan expresses rank, and %hat fo""o%s, character. (rhan is various"/ exp"ained as the 5true man,5 or the 5extricated man.5 ome sa/ it contains three meanin&s, viR., freedom from #irth, $i""er of ro##ers in the sense of #ein& de"ivered from perceptions and sensations, the ro##ers of the mind, and deservin& honour. This is the sense accordin& to the p. BED princip"es of ?B.@ Co""ection, and ?H.@ ,ro&ress. But for the t%o hi&her princip"es, ?C.@ Distinction, and ?F.@ Comp"etion, the %ord imp"ies, not on"/ the $i""in& of ro##ers, #ut of non2ro##ers, i,e,, the Nirv9na, %hich in the hi&her re&ion of these t%o princip"es is a"so deservin& of extinction. *reedom from #irth expresses their comp"ete rescue from "ife and death, and that is the meanin& of their defects havin& #een o#"iterated. Because the/ can &ive happiness to a"" the nine c"asses of #ein&s, therefore the/ are said to deserve honour. B/ their em#odiment of the re"i&ious "ife, the/ #enefit themse"ves. B/ their %isdom, the/ o#tain de"iverance from "ife and death. B/ expe""in& i&norance and evi", the/ $i"" ro##ers. UInterpretin& accordin& to the Threefo"d contemp"ation, empt/, inventive, and media", the first is exemp"ified in their %isdom, the second in their expu"sion of evi", and the third in their em#odiment of the re"i&ious "ife. In the transition from the inventive to the empt/, there are a"so three modifications of the sense, viR., arriva" at the centra" point of contemp"ation, $i""in& the thieves of i&norance, and $eepin& the heart from a one2sided position. 8Interpretin& accordin& to the contemp"ation of the heart, fo""o%in& the midd"e path, and ta$in& the correct vie%, the/ do not err on the side of the empt/ or inventive mode of o#servation. The sorro% of the heart is &one. >hen a man sees the true mora" nature of his mind, that is ca""ed the hi&her state of confirmation. )i$e a hidden treasure, reserved for m/se"f, is the #enefit %hich the (rhans have o#tained.8 >hen Brahma appears #efore Buddha as a discip"e, the commentar/ sa/sS 8The %ord )rahma means 5"eavin& the desires, a#andonin& earth"/ ties, and ascendin& to the co"oured heavens.5 It is a"so said to mean 5hi&h5 and pure.5 This Brahma is one of the %hee" $in&s of a sin&"e &eneration, %ho as$s instruction of Buddha, %hich he receives accordin& to his %ish and capacit/. Interpretin& the idea of )rahma, accordin& to that method %hich o#serves p. BEA the heart, it means 5contemp"atin& the remova" of a"" po""utions.58 B These extracts exemp"if/ ho% the m/tho"o&ica" apparatus of the Buddhist utras, or 8 acred #oo$s of the first c"ass,8 is exp"ained a%a/. The %ho"e machiner/ of Buddhas and Bodhisatt%as, $in&s and divinities, disappears under this process. +astern and >estern pantheism are a"i$e in this, that the/ %i"" not #e content %ith an independent se"f2evo"ved structure of metaph/sica" thou&ht, #ut assumin& the critica" office, aim at the overthro% of a"" the o#3ects of popu"ar #e"ief. Kno%"ed&e, se"f, the a#so"utethese are the on"/ existences a""o%ed #/ this arro&ant phi"osoph/ to remain in the universe. +ven these are made identica", and fina""/ exp"ained into nothin&. >hi"e the ref"ectin& Buddhists ho"d these vie%s, the/ encoura&e the faith of the vu"&ar in the !indoo m/tho"o&/ and the more recent inventions of their o%n s/stem. Their denia" of the rea"it/ of %or"d"/ phenomena, and of the va"idit/ of the information afforded #/ our senses, has not #een a chec$ to popu"ar ima&e %orship, #ut rather promoted it, from the "icense that it &ave them to countenance "/in& "e&ends and invent ne% additions ad&li(itum to the !indoo pantheon. The specia" o#3ect of the TJien2tJai schoo" has #een to stri$e a midd"e path #et%een the credu"ous acceptance of the sacred #oo$s as "itera""/ true, and their entire re3ection #/ extreme idea"ism. It %as thou&ht #est to reco&nise #oth these modifications of Buddhism as &enuine deve"opments of the s/stem, and to add a third reconci"in& princip"e %hich distin&uishes the others, compares and com#ines them, and then chooses the path #et%een them. In conformit/ %ith this vie%, re&u"ations for the practice of his fo""o%ers %ere instituted #/ ChM2$JaiS?B.@ Constant sittin&, to attain the state of samadhi or reverie tau&ht to .an3usiriQ ?H.@ Constant movin&, to attain another state of samadhi tau&ht #/ BuddhaQ ?C.@ ,art"/ p. BEK sittin& and part"/ movin&, to attain the state of samadhi tau&ht #/ him to ,Ju2hienQ ?F.@ Neither sittin& nor movin&, to attain sti"" another form of re"i&ious reverie. The re&u"ations for chantin& as fo""o%ed #/ this schoo" %ere e"a#orated #/ a priest named *a2chM %ho "ived some centuries after ChM2$Jai. The/ are ver/ minute, and are intended to produce more reverentia" fee"in&s in the minds of those en&a&in& in the ceremonia" than is common in Buddhist %orship. B

Footnotes BKDSB The 8Red %a"",8 so ca""ed from its co"our and precipitous appearance. BKKSB Tien-tai-shan-ch. BKKSH (.D. DKD, Bio&raph/ in Tien-tai-han-ch. BEHSB Ch-yue-lu. BECSB San-kiau-yi-su. BEASB Fa-hwa-hwei-i. BEKSB Re&u"ations of the TJien2tJai2$iau, in the "itur&ica" %or$ ca""ed Ta-pei-tsan.

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CHAPTER I .

THE BUDDHIST MORAL SYSTEM. The Ten virtues and Ten vicesThe cause of human stupidit/ is in the passionsThe *ive prohi#itionsThe Ten prohi#itionsK"aproth5s praise of BuddhismBut it is atheistic, and therefore this praise shou"d #e :ua"ifiedKindness to anima"s #ased on the fiction of transmi&rationBuddhism teaches compassion for sufferin& %ithout incu"catin& o#edience to divine "a% tor/ of ha$/amuni in not distin&uished from miser/Buddhists teach that the mora" sense is innateThe/ assi&n a mora" nature to anima"sThe ix paths of the metemps/chosis!indoo notions of heaven and he""Count"ess a&es of 3o/ and sufferin&+xamp"es+xemption from punishment &ained #/ meritorious actionsTen $in&s of future 3ud&ment*ate or KarmaBuddhism depreciates heaven and the &odsBuddha not 1od, #ut a aviour.ora" inf"uence of the ,aradise of the >estern heaven*i&urative interpretation of this "e&endThe contemp"ative schoo" identifies &ood and evi"No mora" distinctions in the Nirv9naBuddhism has fai"ed to produce hi&h mora"it/The Confucianist condemnation of the Buddhists.r. ,. !ordern5s praise of Buddhism in BirmahThe Birmese inte""ectua""/ inferior to the ChineseKindness to anima"s $no%n to the Chinese #efore the/ received BuddhismBuddha5s reasons for not eatin& f"esh. T!+ #oo$s of primitive Buddhism exhi#it a hi&her mora" tone than is found in the "ar&er %or$s fu"" of metaph/sica" a#stractions, %hich succeeded them. The 8Boo$ of *ort/2t%o ections,8 trans"ated in the first centur/, and #e"on&in& to the former c"ass, spea$s of Ten vices and Ten virtues as #e"on&in& to man$ind. The vices areS three of the #od/$i""in&, stea"in&, and adu"ter/Q four of the "ipss"anderin&, revi"in&, "/in&, and e"e&ant %ords ?uttered p. BET %ith a vicious intention@Q three of the mind3ea"ous/, hatred, and 8fo""/8 ?ch@, the "ast of %hich inc"udes not #e"ievin& in 8the !onoured Three8 ?)uddha, $harma, Sanga@, and ho"din& erroneous opinions. The opposites of these are the Ten virtues. In the same %or$ Buddha sa/sS 8That %hich causes the stupidit/ and de"usion of man is "ove and the desires.8 8.an havin& man/ fau"ts, if he does not repent, #ut a""o%s his heart to #e at rest, sins %i"" rush upon him "i$e %ater to the sea. >hen vice has thus #ecome more po%erfu" it is sti"" harder than #efore to a#andon it. If a #ad man #ecomes sensi#"e of his fau"ts, a#andons them and acts virtuous"/, his sin %i"" da/ #/ da/ diminish and #e destro/ed, ti"" he o#tains fu"" en"i&htenment.8 In the %or$ Kiau-cheng-+a-shu, the three vices of the mind are descri#ed ascovetousness, hatred, and fo""/. The Ten virtues that correspond to the Ten vices are there stated to #epreservin& "ife, a"ms&ivin&, a 8pure and virtuous "ife8 ?+an-hing@, peacefu" %ords, /ie"din& %ords, truthfu" %ords, p"ain unadorned %ords, a#stinence from :uarre""in&, merc/, and 8actin& from &ood causes8 ?yin2yuen@. !ard/, in descri#in& the Buddhism of Ce/"on, states the four sins of speech to #e"/in&, s"ander, a#use, and unprofita#"e conversation. The three sins of the mind he states to #ecovetousness, ma"ice, and scepticism.

The discip"e of Buddha, %hether he enters a monaster/ or %ears the prescri#ed dress and continues in the fami"/, must p"ed&e himse"f to the five fo""o%in& thin&sS ?B.@ not to $i""Q ?H.@ not to stea"Q ?C.@ not to commit adu"ter/Q ?F.@ not to "ieQ ?D.@ not to drin$ %ine. These are ca""ed 5u-kiai, 8The five prohi#itions.8 In !ard/5s #anual& o+&)uddhism, five evi"s to #e avoided are mentionedviR., ?B.@ drin$in& intoxicatin& "i:uorsQ ?H.@ &am#"in&Q ?C.@ id"enessQ ?F.@ improper associationQ ?D.@ fre:uentin& p"aces of amusement. In the %or$ ca""ed Sheng-tien-shh-kiai-king, 8The #oo$ p. BTG of #irth in heaven throu&h $eepin& the ten prohi#itions,8 a Deva informs Buddha that he %as #orn in the 8heaven of the Thirt/2three Devas8 ?that of Indra ha$ra@, as a re%ard for reverencin& the 8Three ,recious Ones8 ?Buddha, the )a%, and the ,riesthood@, for not inf"ictin& death, or stea"in&, or committin& adu"ter/, or s"anderin&, or deceivin&, or "/in&, or drin$in& %ine, or eatin& f"esh, or covetin&, or ho"din& fa"se opinions. In the %or$ Kiau-cheng&+a-shu, the Ten prohi#itions are stated to #eS?B.@ $i""in&Q ?H.@ stea"in&Q ?C.@ adu"ter/Q ?F.@ "/in&Q ?D.@ se""in& %ineQ ?A.@ spea$in& of others5 fau"tsQ ?K.@ praisin& one5s2se"f and defamin& othersQ ?E.@ parsimon/ 3oined %ith scoffin&Q ?T.@ an&er, and refusin& to #e correctedQ ?BG.@ revi"in& the Three ,recious Ones. In the comment on the Fan-wang-king, a %or$ of the 1reat Deve"opment schoo" in the Discip"ine division, #/ ChM2hiI, the Ten prohi#itions are identified %ith the Ten vices, #ut in the text the prohi#itions are &iven as in the "ast :uotation. Other "ists of prohi#itions mi&ht #e transcri#ed amountin& to t%o hundred and fift/, and even hi&her num#ers. *or these it %i"" #e sufficient to refer to the %or$s a"read/ mentioned. K"aproth, havin& in vie% these mora" precepts, and their effects on the character of nations, spea$s of Buddhism as #ein& of a"" re"i&ions next to Christianit/ in e"evatin& the human race. !e sa/sS 8The %i"d nomades of Centra" (sia have #een chan&ed #/ it into amia#"e and virtuous men, and its #eneficent inf"uence has #een fe"t even in Northern i#eria.8 The #eneficent inf"uence of this re"i&ion %ou"d have #een much &reater had it reco&nised the "ove and fear of 1od as the first of a"" the virtues. Buddhism, #/ ascri#in& the creation, continuance, and destruction of the %or"d to an ever2chan&in& fate, avoided the necessit/ of admittin& a supreme 1od. This %as the side the Buddhists too$ in their controversies %ith the Brahmans in India. p. BTB (theism is one point in the faith of the outhern Buddhists. B/ the Chinese Buddhists each %or"d is he"d to #e presided over #/ an individua" Buddha, #ut the/ do not ho"d that one supreme spirit ru"es over the %ho"e co""ection of %or"ds. K"aproth affirms that, accordin& to, the Buddhists and the other !indoos, 8the universe is animated #/ a sin&"e spirit, individua"ised under innumera#"e forms, 5#/5 ?par@ matter %hich does not exist except in i""usion.8 This spirit, ho%ever, is not 1od, the universa" Creator and ,reserver, and separated from the %or"d #/ !is ever"astin& persona"it/. 1ood has resu"ted dou#t"ess in man/ instances from the prominent exhi#ition made #/ this s/stem of the virtues and vices enumerated. But much more &ood %ou"d have #een done if the/ had rested on a #etter #asis, and #een supported #/ a different vie% of the future state. The crime of $i""in& rests chief"/ on the doctrine of metemps/chosis, %hich ascri#es the same immorta" sou" to anima"s that it does to man. *aithfu" Buddhists are to"d not to $i"" the "east insect, "est in so doin& the/ shou"d cause death to some deceased re"ative or ancestor %hose sou" animates the insect. On this account the correspondin& virtue is stated to #e +ang-sheng, 8to save "ife,8 constant"/ app"ied #/ the Buddhist priests and common peop"e of China to the preservation of the "ives of anima"s. The mon$s are ve&etarians for the same reasons. The/ a#stain from f"esh #ecause the/ %i"" not share in the s"au&hter of "ivin& #ein&s. The/ a"so construct reservoirs of %ater near the monasteries, in %hich fish, sna$es, tortoises, and sma"" she""2fish, #rou&ht #/ %orshippers of Buddha, are p"aced to preserve them from death. 1oats and other "and anima"s are a"so &iven over sometimes to the care of the mon$s, and it is a custom in some monasteries, as at TJien2tJun&, near Nin&po, to feed a #ird %ith a fe% &rains of rice 3ust #efore the mornin& mea" has commenced. >hen the priest appears at the door, the "itt"e #ird, %hich is %atchin& in the nei&h#ourhood, p. BTH and $no%s ho% to act on the occasion, f"ies to receive the &ift. In the Buddhist account of human sins and duties no o#"i&ation is inc"uded except the dut/ of "essenin& the sum of human miser/ and promotin& happiness. This accords %ith the anecdote a"read/ re"ated of ha$/amuni in his /outh. !is father, remem#erin& the fore%arnin& of a hermit, that the prince his son %ou"d %ish to a#andon the %or"d, erected for him three pa"aces, %here ever/thin& fascinatin& %as p"aced to $eep him from such a purpose. The son of a Deva came do%n to praise the #eaut/ of the &ardens and &roves. But the prince, then ei&hteen /ears o"d, %ished to &o out and see the cit/. The $in& sent him %ith a %ise minister to attend him. ( Deva appeared at one of the cit/ &ates transformed into an o"d man restin& on a staff. (t another &ate a Deva appeared as a sic$ person in pain and he"p"ess. (t another &ate he sa% a corpse attac$ed #/ ravensa"so a Deva. The prince as$ed in each case the reason of %hat he sa%. The %ise counse""or to"d him these sufferin&s came from the natura" state of the %or"d, and cou"d not #e avoided. ,eop"e must &ro% o"d, must suffer from sic$ness, and must die. The prince %as not satisfied, and the next da/, seein& a Deva dressed as a mon$, he dismounted from his horse and as$ed him %ho he %as. The rep"/ %as, 8( hamen B %ho has "eft the %or"d.8 The prince as$ed him %h/ he had "eft the %or"d. !e said, #ecause he sa% men exposed to the evi"s of #irth, o"d a&e, sic$ness, and deathQ he therefore "eft the %or"d to see$ truth and save "ivin& #ein&s. The dis&uised Deva then ascended into the air and disappeared. (t nineteen, assisted #/ the Devas, ha$/amuni is said to have &one throu&h the air on horse#ac$ t%o hundred and fift/ mi"es to Ba&a, a mountain #e"on&in& to the p. BTC ;para&raph continues< !ima"a/as. !ere he "ived as a hermit for six /ears, and #ecame prepared for the office he %as to assume. (ccordin& to the vie% thus presented of the &reat o#3ect of Buddha5s teachin&, it is to de"iver men from sufferin&. This is done #/ persuadin& them to enter on the monastic or hermit "ife, and act in o#edience to the directions of Buddha. This s/stem "oo$s on man$ind as invo"ved in miser/ rather than &ui"t. The Ten vices are

rather to #e re&arded as fau"ts, into %hich men fa"" from de"usion and i&norance, than positive sins. The common peop"e in China, %hose phraseo"o&/ is extensive"/ infected %ith Buddhist ideas, see in ever/ attac$ of sic$ness, and in other misfortunes, a c"ose connection %ith 8sin8 ?tsui@. The/ ho"d that sin is the cause of sufferin&. -et the/ do not mean #/ this %i"fu" sin, #ut some improper act done unconscious"/, or in chi"dhood, as treadin& on an insect, %astin& rice2crum#s, or misusin& paper that has the native characters upon it. Or the/ refer the ca"amit/ to the sins of a former "ife. !ence the/ re&ard themse"ves as more to #e pitied than #"amed for the tsui or 8sin8 of %hich their i"" fortune &ives evidence. This is an examp"e of the mode in %hich the #etter tendencies of the Buddhist s/stem are neutra"ised #/ its omissions. Its mora" precepts, &ood as most of them are, %ou"d have more po%er, and the true character of sin #e more fe"t #/ the peop"e, if the authorit/ of 1od %ere reco&nised as the &reat reason for actin& %e""the source of mora" o#"i&ation. Buddhism shoo$ the faith of the Chinese in !eaven as a persona" ru"er, and put the Buddhas and Bodhisatt%as in the p"ace of that persona" ru"er. The effect of Buddhism in part %as to ur&e the Chinese mind to see in !eaven on"/ impersona" and materia" po%er. Thus the &ood effect of its mora" teachin& %as neutra"isedQ and then the Chinese had &ood mora" teachin& #efore. The :uestion that has #een raised #/ +uropean mora"ists as to %hether man has from his natura" constitution an p. BTF in#orn mora" sense, is decided #/ the Buddhists, thou&h %ithout ho"din& a controvers/ on the su#3ect, in the affirmative. The/ ma/ #e said to appea" to a natura" conscience, %hen the/ teach that a"" men have %ithin them a &ood mora" nature, and that this princip"e of &ood is on"/ prevented from ma$in& men virtuous and happ/ #/ contact %ith the %or"d and the de"usions of the senses. This is simi"ar to the Confucian doctrine, that a"" men are #orn &ood, and it is on"/ #/ fa""in& into evi" ha#its su#se:uent"/ that the/ #ecome vicious. .ost s/stems of mora"s, indeed, B in %ords or #/ imp"ication, admit the existence of conscience, #ecause a"" men possess it, and cannot #e made to understand mora" distinctions %ithout it. H The existence of a s/stem of virtues and vices sho%s the operation of conscience on the ma$er of it, as the use of that s/stem in mora" instruction invo"ves an appea" to conscience in the discip"e. The identification of conscience, ho%ever, %ith natura" &oodness, #/ the Confucianists and the Buddhists, o#scures its true character as the 3ud&e #et%een ri&ht and %ron&. (nd to te"" men that the/ are natura""/ &ood is not on"/ assumin&, in comp"iment to human nature, a fact that shou"d #e proved, #ut it is a"so "i$e"/ to induce those %ho are thus tau&ht to "oo$ "enient"/ on their o%n vices as ori&inatin& so"e"/ in the inf"uences of the outside %or"d. The fee#"eness of the Buddhist appea" to conscience, as the source of mora" o#"i&ation, is further increased #/ its assi&nin& the same ori&ina""/ &ood nature to each mem#er of the anima" creation that it does to man. The motives to %e""2doin&, dra%n from a future state of retri#ution in this s/stem, are derived from the !indoo popu"ar account of heaven and he"". The ix "ife2paths into %hich "ivin& #ein&s can #e #orn are?B.@ 8Devas8 p. BTD ;para&raph continues< ?&ods@Q ?H.@ menQ ?C.@ 8(suras8 ?monsters@Q ?F.@ 8he""8 ?nara$a@Q ?D.@ hun&r/ &hostsQ ?A.@ anima"s. The first three are assi&ned to the &ood, the "atter three to the %ic$ed. The mora" action is ca""ed yin ?cause@, and its recompense kwo ?fruit@. ("" #ein&s, %hether virtuous or vicious, continue to #e re2#orn in one of these six states, unti" saved #/ the teachin& of Buddha. Buddha saidS 8To "eave the three evi" states is difficu"t. >hen the state of man has #een attained, to "eave the fema"e sex and #e #orn in the ma"e, is difficu"t. To have the senses and mind and #od/ a"" sound is hard. >hen this is attained, to #e #orn in Centra" India is hard.8 !e continues to sa/, that to meet Buddha and #e instructed, to #e #orn in the time of a &ood $in&, to #e #orn in the fami"/ of a Bodhisatt%a, and to #e"ieve %ith the heart in the Three !onoured Ones, are a"" difficu"t. Buddha said, B in a discourse de"ivered in the heaven of Indra ha$ra, that %hatever &ood man or %oman heard the name of Ti2tsan& Bodhisatt%a, and in conse:uence performed an act of praise or %orship, or repeated that Bodhisatt%a5s name, or made an offerin& to him, or dre% a picture of him, such a person %ou"d certain"/ #e #orn in the heaven of Indra ha$ra. The same Bodhisatt%a te""s the mother of Buddha, %ho resides in the paradise 3ust mentioned, that Udiso#edience to parents, %ith s"a/in&, and %oundin&, are punished %ith an a#ode in the p"ace of sufferin& ca""ed 5u-kien-ti-y. "anderin& the Three ,recious Ones, or %oundin& the person of Buddha, or dishonourin& the sacred #oo$s, or #rea$in& the vo%s, or stea"in& from a mon$, are punished in a simi"ar %a/. Their punishment %i"" "ast for ten mi""ions of mi""ions of kalpas. Then their sin #ein& compensated for #/ sufficient sufferin&, the/ %i"" #e re"eased. 8If a %oman %ith an u&"/ countenance and sic$"/ constitution pra/s to this Bodhisatt%a, she %i"", for a mi""ion of kalpas, #e #orn %ith a #eautifu" countenance.8 If an/ p. BTA men or %omen perform music #efore the ima&e of the same deit/, sin&, and offer incense, the/ sha"" have hundreds and thousands of spirits to protect them da/ and ni&ht, so that no unp"easant sound ma/ enter their ears. (n/ one %ho s"anders or ridicu"es a %orshipper of this Bodhisatt%a %i"" #e transported to the 8(vichi nara$a8 ?;-pi&ti-y@ ti"" the end of this kalpa. !e %i"" then #e #orn a %anderin& hun&r/ &host, and, after a thousand kalpas #ecome an anima". (fter a thousand $a"pas more he %i"" a&ain #ecome a man. uch are a fe% specimens of the doctrine of retri#ution as tau&ht to the popu"ar mind. It is eas/ to see that such sensua" conceptions of the future existence of man must de&rade the common notions of the peop"e on dut/ and virtue. The o#3ects for %hich the common peop"e in China %orship in the Buddhist temp"es are a"most a"" of a ver/ inferior nature. Re"i&ious %orship, %hich ou&ht to concern the recover/ of man to pure virtue, and the restoration of direct communication %ith 1od #/ the for&iveness of sin, is chan&ed into an instrument for ac:uirin& various $inds of materia" happiness. The opinion the Buddhists ho"d on the for&iveness of sin is, that it can #e attained #/ repentance and meritorious actions. ( definite amount of &ifts and %orship %i"" &ain the remova" of a correspondin& amount of sin and its attendant sufferin&. Thus, a fi"ia" dau&hter, #/ a certain num#er of da/s spent in %orshippin& a Bodhisatt%a, or a Buddha, can o#tain the rescue of a mother from he"". In the popu"ar vie% of the future state, the !indoo $in& of death, 8-ama8 ? en-lo@ ho"ds a hi&h p"ace as the administrator of the punishments of he"". Nine others are 3oined %ith him of Chinese ori&in. The/ are ca""ed the Ten $in&s. The %ic$ed at death are conducted to them to receive 3ud&ment. The decree #/ %hich men are #orn into the ix states of the metemps/chosis is mere"/ that of fate, expressed in the %ords yin-kwo, 8cause and effect,8 or, emp"o/in& one

p. BTK factor on"/, yin-yuen, 8causation,8 or 8fate8 ?karma@. 81ood actions8 are a"so sometimes ca""ed yin-yuen, #ecause the/ u"timate"/ #rin& happiness to the doer. The motive to a &ood "ife, dra%n from heaven"/ happiness, cannot #e considered a stron& one, %hen the Devas and their fe"icit/ are s/stematica""/ depreciated, as the/ are in Buddhism. The 8Devas8 ?or popu"ar !indoo &odsQ in Chinese, tien@ are a"" morta", and "imited in po%er. The state of man ma/ #e so e"evated as to approach to that of the paradise of the Devas. ome men attain to near"/ the same po%er as the &ods, e,g,, Krishna. outhe/, in the Curse&o+&Kehama, has made that persona&e, a"thou&h a man, a terror to the $in&s of the Devas, and such a representation is in accordance %ith !indoo notions. o in Chinese Buddhist temp"es, the visitor sees the hi&hest of ce"estia" #ein&s "istenin& hum#"/ to Buddha. It ma/ #e said that it is not correct to institute or imp"/ a para""e" #et%een 1od as !e is in the vie% of the Christian, and the !indoo deities. It ma/ #e said that a para""e" #et%een 1od and Buddha %ou"d #e more 3ust. But Buddha is a %or"d2#orn man, %ho %ashes a%a/ his sins "i$e others, #/ penances, offerin&s, and the teachin& of some en"i&htened instructor. !e is not said to create the universe, nor to act as the 3ud&e of man$ind. !e is simp"/ a teacher of the most exa"ted $ind, %ho, #/ superior $no%"ed&e, passes out of the %or"d of de"usion, and &radua""/ attains the Nirv9na. !is attitude to%ards his discip"es is simp"/ that of an instructor, not an authoritative superior. The tie #/ %hich the discip"e is attached to him is that of vo"untar/ not compu"sor/ o#edience. In fact, the character ascri#ed to Buddha is rather that of a aviour than that of 1od. The o#3ect of his "ife and teachin& is to rescue "ivin& #ein&s from their miser/. >hi"e such is the character of Buddha as he is descri#ed in #oo$s, he is, as an o#3ect of popu"ar %orship, "i$e the &reat Bodhisatt%as, simp"/ re&arded as a po%erfu" divinit/. p. BTE ( #rief notice %i"" here #e ta$en of the ethica" vie%s of some of the Chinese sects. The Tsin&2tu schoo" su#stitutes a paradise of pure"/ Buddhist invention for that of !indoo m/tho"o&/. It ma$es #irth in the >estern heaven, the a#ode of (mita#ha Buddha, the re%ard of virtue. The description of this paradise consists entire"/ of thin&s p"easin& to the senses. It is popu"ar"/ re&arded as rea", #ut the founder of the -In2tsJi schoo" in his commentar/ on the 8(mita#ha utra,8 B exp"ains it as fi&urative. (ccordin& to this exp"anation, the >estern heaven means the mora" nature, confirmed, pure, and at rest. (mita#ha means the mind, c"ear, and en"i&htened. The ro%s of trees mean the mind cu"tivatin& the virtues. The music means the harmon/ of virtues in the mind. The f"o%ers, and particu"ar"/ the "otus, mean the mind openin& to consciousness and inte""i&ence. The #eautifu" #irds mean the mind #ecomin& chan&ed and renovated. It is evident that, on adoptin& this mode of commentin& on the fa#"e of the >estern heaven, it cannot an/ "on&er #e honest"/ he"d out as a future state of re%ard, to attract men to &ood actions. The o#3ect of this fi&urative interpretation of the >estern paradise of (mita#ha %as, dou#t"ess, to redeem the Tsin&2tu schoo" from the discredit into %hich it had fa""en, #/ a#andonin& the Nirv9na in favour of a sensua" heaven. The ori&ina" inventors of the fiction must a"so have had such a notion of it as that here &iven, %hi"e the/ did not tr/ to prevent its #ein& accepted as rea" #/ the i&norant and unin:uirin&. In the contemp"ative schoo", founded #/ Bodhidharma, the distinction of vice and virtue is "ost. To the mind that is &iven up to its o%n a#stract meditations, the outer %or"d #ecomes o#"iterated. ( person %ho attends simp"/ to his o%n heart ma/ revi"e Buddha %ithout sin, for nothin& is sin to him. !e does not ma$e offerin&s or pra/. ("" actions are the same to him. This s/stemQ p. BTT ho%ever, is not in opposition to ethica" distinctions. It on"/ aims to enter a hi&her sphere. It see$s to attain a sort of Nirv9na even in the present "ife. In the #oo$s of this schoo", as in others %here the unrea"it/ of a"" sensi#"e phenomena is maintained, virtue and vice occup/ an inferior position. These notions on"/ come into existence throu&h the imperfection of the present state. The/ disappear a"to&ether %hen an escape from it is effected, #/ admission into the hi&her re&ion of pure en"i&htenment. 0irtue and vice, "ife and death, happiness and miser/, the antithetica" states ori&inated in the %or"d of de"usions to %hich %e #e"on&, are a"" condemned to&ether as constitutin& a "o%er state of existence. ("" #ein&s shou"d strive to #e freed from them, and to rise #/ Buddha5s teachin& to that perfection %here ever/ such diversit/, mora" or ph/sica", %i"" #e "ost in unit/. The Nirv9na does not admit an/ such distinctions as those 3ust mentioned. It is a#so"ute and pure i""umination, %ithout an/thin& definite attached to it, %hether &ood or evi", pain or p"easure. Thus there is no p"ace for ethics, except in the "o%er modes of "ife. It is common for inte""i&ent priests in China of the contemp"ative schoo" to defend their s/stem of ido"atr/ #/ sa/in& that the/ do not %orship ima&es themse"ves. The/ are intended for the i&norant %ho cannot comprehend the deeper princip"es of their re"i&ion. Re"i&ion #ein& pure"/ a matter of the heart, offerin&s and prostrations are rea""/ unnecessar/. This exemp"ifies ho% %hat is re&arded as a hi&h"/ virtuous action in the common peop"e, ceases to #e so in the case of one %ho, as he thin$s, has made some pro&ress to%ards the state of Buddha. (ccordin& to this vie% the consistent Buddhist %i"" offer %orship to no #ein& %hatever. !e simp"/ aims to raise himse"f a#ove a"" the common fee"in&s of human "ife. >e cannot %onder that the Buddhist s/stem of ethics havin& such deficiencies and such fau"ts as have #een pointed out, has fai"ed to produce hi&h mora"it/ amon& its p. HGG votaries. The mass of the peop"e have &ained from it the notion of a future retri#ution, #ut %hat is the use of this %hen the promised state #e/ond death consists mere"/ of c"ums/ fictionL The metemps/chosis, administered #/ a mora" fate, has on"/ provided them %ith a convenient means for char&in& their sinfu"ness and their misfortunes on a former "ife. >hat virtue the peop"e have amon& them is due to the Confucian s/stem. Buddhism has added to it on"/ ido"atr/, and a fa"se vie% of the future state, #ut has not contri#uted to ma$e the peop"e more virtuous. K"aproth comp"ains of 8a %orth/ and "earned +n&"ish missionar/8 ?Dr. .arshman of erampore@ for sa/in&, 8Unhappi"/ for man$ind, Buddhism . . . %as no% fitted to spread its #anefu" inf"uence to an/ extent.8 These modes of expression are not, ho%ever, #/ an/ means too stron& to descri#e the effects of this re"i&ion in China if %e accept the Confucianist vie% of Buddhism. No thorou&h2&oin& discip"e of Confucius %ou"d thin$ this "an&ua&e too stron& if on"/ Buddhism #e 3ud&ed from the standpoint of po"itica" and socia" mora"it/. ure"/ if the Confucianist cannot see ho% the mon$, %ho forsa$es his fami"/ and his duties as a %or$in& citiRen, is to #e excused from heav/ condemnation, the Christian a"so ma/ #e permitted to criticise %ith severit/ a s/stem %hich denies the authorit/ of 1od, identifies the mora" nature of men and anima"s, teaches man$ind to "oo$ to man instead of to 1od for redemption, and amuses the ima&ination %ith the most monstrous fictions of the unseen %or"d and of the future state.

The mora"it/ of Buddhism has received ver/ hi&h praise from more recent %riters. ,rofessor .ax .I""er sa/s, 8The mora" code of Buddhism is one of the most perfect the %or"d has ever $no%n.8 .r. ,. !ordern, the Director of ,u#"ic Instruction in Birmah, sa/s, UThe poor heathen is &uided in his dai"/ "ife #/ precepts o"der and not "ess no#"e than the precepts of Christianit/. Centuries p. HGB #efore the #irth of Christ men %ere tau&ht #/ the "ife and doctrine of one of the &reatest men %ho ever "ived "essons of the purest mora"it/. The chi"d %as tau&ht to o#e/ his parents and to #e tender of a"" anima" "ife, the man to "ove his nei&h#our as himse"f, to #e true and 3ust in a"" his dea"in&s, and to "oo$ #e/ond the vain sho%s of the %or"d for true happiness. +ver/ shade of vice %as &uarded #/ specia" precepts. )ove in its %idest sense of universa" charit/ %as dec"ared to #e the mother of a"" the virtues, and even the pecu"iar"/ Christian precepts of the for&iveness of in3uries and the mee$ acceptance of insu"t %ere a"read/ tau&ht in the farthest +ast. 8Throu&hout Birmah it is a dai"/ thin& to see men, %omen, and chi"dren $nee"in& on the road side, their hands c"asped, and their faces turned devout"/ to a distant pa&odaQ %hi"e at the %ee$"/ festiva"s, or the fu"" moons, the devotions of the mass of the popu"ation is amon& the most interestin& spectac"es in the %ho"e +ast.8 It is other%ise in China. Thou&h the Buddhists have &ood precepts the/ are ver/ much ne&"ected, even in the teachin&. Boo$s containin& hard metaph/sica" do&ma such as the non2existence of matter, form much more the su#3ect of dai"/ readin&. The mon$s are su#3ect constant"/ to the Confucianist criticism that the/ are not fi"ia" to parents nor usefu" %or$in& mem#ers of the common%ea"th. ( %ide"/2extended monastic s/stem does not approve itse"f to the Chinese po"itica" consciousness an/ more than it has done to +uropean &overnments in times of revo"ution. The char&e of "aRiness and ne&"ect of socia" duties %as made the &round of persecution in former da/s. (t present, %hi"e Confucianism has ceased to persecute Buddhism, it has never %ithdra%n its indictment a&ainst it on the &round of mora"it/. Indeed, a"" the force of the mora" teachin& of the Chinese is in Confucianism and not in Buddhism. It is the mora" sense of the Chinese themse"ves that is ener&etic and inf"uentia" so far as the/ are rea""/ a mora" peop"e. The Buddhist p. HGH mora" code is fee#"eness itse"f compared %ith the Confucianist. This is part"/ #ecause it is entan&"ed #/ the coexistence %ith it of mon$er/ as a "ife, and of the metemps/chosis and metaph/sica" nihi"ism as do&ma. Then in re&ard to the po%er of Buddhism to e"evate a peop"e a#ove the vain sho%s of the %or"d and render then devotiona", the conc"usion to #e dra%n from the effect of this re"i&ion in the Chinese is ver/ different from that adopted #/ .r. !ordern in re&ard to Birmah. The Chinese inte""ect is stron& and independent in its 3ud&ments, and it does not accept the fictions of Buddhism. The !indoo mind cannot dominate the Chinese mind, and the contemp"ative "ife has no attractions for the countr/men of Confucius. The forei&n resident in China does not %itness the appearance of devotion %hich has %on the admiration of .r. !ordern in Birmah. The po%er sho%n #/ Buddhism to %in the faith of the Birmese I shou"d rather trace to the superiorit/ of the !indoo race over the mountain tri#es of the Indo2Chinese peninsu"a. The Birmese #e"on&, %ith the Thi#etans, to the Bod race, %hich, havin& no inte""ectua" deve"opment of its o%n, accepted the !indoo re"i&ion %hen #rou&ht them #/ the Buddhist teachers. The superiorit/ of !indoo arts and civi"isation he"ped Buddhism to ma$e this con:uest. Bishop Bi&andet B sa/sS UThe Birmese %ant the capa#i"it/ to understand the Buddhist metaph/sics. If the Buddhist mora" code in itse"f has the po%er to inf"uence a peop"e so far as to render them virtuous and devotiona", independent"/ of the e"ement of inte""ectua" superiorit/, %e sti"" "ac$ the evidence of it. 8The success of Buddhism is in this respect the reverse of the success of Christianit/, %hich, ori&inatin& in 4udea, su#3u&ated #oth 1reece and Rome %ithout aid from inte""ectua" superiorit/.8 I 3ust add here that the Confucianists do not a""o% that $indness to anima"s %as first tau&ht them #/ Buddhism. p. HGC ;para&raph continues< The/ find it in their o%n ancient #oo$s. Thus .encius made the compassion fe"t #/ a prince, Tsi iuen2%an&, for a #u""oc$ a#out to #e s"au&htered, a &round for his exhi#itin& compassion sti"" more for the peop"e he &overned. !e had #een distressed at the shudderin& of the #u""oc$ chosen for sacrifice, and ordered it to #e chan&ed for a sheep, %hich %as done. Confucianism assumes that pit/ for anima"s is natura" for the human heart. The mother of .encius moved her residence from the nei&h#ourhood of a #utcher5s shop #ecause she %ou"d not have her #o/, %hi"e of tender /ears, %itness dai"/ that %hich %ou"d ma$e him crue". -et it cannot fair"/ #e denied that #eneficia" effects must fo""o% from the &reat prominence and pu#"icit/ assi&ned to compassion as an attri#ute of Buddha to #e imitated #/ ever/ devout #e"iever. The sa"vation of mu"titudes from sufferin& is he"d up as his &reat achievement, and to this he %as prompted #/ disinterested pit/. This the Confucianists %ou"d pro#a#"/ admit, %hi"e the/ %ou"d never a""o% that there is an/ &round to #e"ieve in the Buddhist metemps/chosis, on %hich pit/ for anima"s is often made to rest for its #asis. >ith Buddhist temp"es and mon$s ever/%here, the Chinese do not accept the teachin& that the sou"s of men mi&rate into anima"s, nor do the mon$s cordia""/ maintain it. (mon& the reasons the Buddhists &ive for sparin& the "ife of a"" anima"s, the/ do not mention the dut/ of not inf"ictin& unnecessar/ pain, nor do the/ sa/ that Buddha has a soverei&n po%er to ma$e "a%s, and he havin& made this "a% it must #e o#e/ed. Their reasons are of a "o%er sort, or the/ are #ased on do&matised necessit/. This, "i$e other matters, is #/ the Buddhists treated in a thorou&h"/ uti"itarian and se"fish %a/. On"/ in one point it is not so. The/ are invaria#"/ conscious of 8mora" fate,8 the karma, pervadin& the universe #/ an inevita#"e and uncon:uera#"e p. HGF force. Kindness to anima"s is sure to #rin& happiness, as crue"t/ %i"" cause misfortune. The fo""o%in& are the reasons &iven #/ Buddha for a#stinence from anima" foodS First, In the end"ess chan&es of the metemps/chosis, persons in the re"ation to me of an/ of the six divisions of $indred have #ecome, from time to time, some of the anima"s used for food. To avoid eatin& m/ re"ations I ou&ht to a#stain. Second, The sme"" and taste are not c"ean.

Third, The sme"" causes fear amon& the various anima"s. Fourth, To eat anima" food prevents charms and other ma&ica" devices from ta$in& effect. The %riter %ho invented these reasons and put them in the mouth of Buddha, did not add the certaint/ of the retri#ution of the karma, as an additiona" motive for sho%in& compassion to o#3ects possessed of "ife, #ut this is understood and "ies underneath a"" Buddhistic thou&ht.

Footnotes BTHSB In anscrit, Shramana: #ut accordin& to the commentator on the 8)ife of Buddha,8 ha$amanan&a, meanin& 8Di"i&ence and cessation.8 BTFSB ,a"e/ and those %ho side %ith him, %ho have attempted to construct a mora" s/stem %ithout a natura" sense of ri&ht and %ron& in man, must #e excepted. BTFSH .ora"it/ is no% accounted for #/ evo"ution. The choo" of Dar%in and pencer refuses to accept mora" "a% as eterna". -et a"" the (siatic re"i&ions ma$e it their #asis. BTDSB 0ide Ti-tsang-king. BTESB ;-mi-to-king-su-tsau, #/ )ieu2sM2ta2shM. HGHSB ee <ie&de&-audama, p. FBH.

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CHAPTER .

THE BUDDHIST CALENDAR. Nationa" festiva"s*estiva"s in honour of ce"estia" #ein&sIn honour of the Buddhas and Bodhisatt%asIn honour of characters in Chinese Buddhist histor/ upp"ementa" anniversaries in&ha"ese Buddhists $eep a different da/ for Buddha5s #irthda/In the TJan& d/nast/ !indoo astronomers reformed the ca"endar 1audamsiddhaThe %ee$ of India and Ba#/"on $no%n to the Chinese>ord mit for unda/,eacoc$ utraThe !indoo Rahu and Ketu. ON+ of the most instructive i""ustrations of a re"i&ion is its ca"endar. Not on"/ do the fasts and festiva"s $ept #/ a peop"e point out in succession %ho are the persona&es he"d #/ them in the hi&hest honourQ the/ a"so contain an epitome of the histor/ and doctrines of the re"i&ion the/ #e"ieve, and especia""/ aid in openin& to o#servation the popu"ar re"i&ious "ife. The %or$ ca""ed Tsing-kwei, 8Re&u"ations of the ,riesthood,8 contains instructions for the o#servance of a"" fasts and festiva"s throu&h the /ear. *rom it are extracted the fo""o%in& detai"s of anniversariesS B. N(TION(). 9mperorCs&(irthday.The ceremonia" for this anniversar/ "asts a %ee$, em#racin& three da/s #efore and three after the da/ in :uestion. It is ca""ed Sheng-tsie, 8 acred festiva".8 9mpressCs&(irthday. $ay&o+&recei/ing&an&imperial&message&at&the&monastery. ix persons are sent out 8five li8 ?near"/ t%o mi"es@ to p. HGA

meet it. On its approach, the mon$s, headed #/ their chief, issue from the monaster/, and #o% their foreheads to the &round three times. Four&monthly&+easts.These are at the ne% and fu"" moons, and on the Eth and HCd of the month. The/ are ca""ed Kin-ming&s-chai, 8The four feasts i""ustrious"/ decreed.8 The "ast t%o %ords refer to a decree of an emperor of the ui d/nast/ in (.D. DEF, re:uirin& the specia" o#servance of the month"/ feasts in the Bst, Dth, and Tth monthsQ #ecause then the &reat outhern continent %as pra/ed for, in %hich China is inc"uded. *nni/ersaries&o+&emperors1&deaths.Those of the present d/nast/ on"/ are inc"uded. H. C+)+ TI() B+IN1 $ay&o+&worshipping&the&$e/as ?Kung-Tien@.("" the chief persona&es, %hether Devas, spirits, demons, (suras, Ra$shas, Oc., of the !indoo o"der m/tho"o&/, are %orshipped on this occasion. This o#servance rests for its authorit/ on the Kin-kwang-ming-king, 8The Bri&ht utra of 1o"den )i&ht.8 9clipses&o+&the&Sun&and&#oon.In the services for these da/s, the sun and moon are addressed as 8Bodhisatt%as8 ?!u-sa@, and the po%er of Buddha is invo$ed to de"iver them. !ence the name of the service, Hu-", Hu-yue, 8De"iverin& the sun and moon.8 The pra/ers offered for them are considered as &ratitude for their "i&ht. Sacri+ice&to&the&#oon, Eth&month, BDth&day.The &round for this o#servance is that this da/ is, accordin& to nationa" tradition, the moon5s #irthda/. (s in the service for ec"ipses, 6amo, 8!onour to,8 the introductor/ formu"a of %orship, is used in addressin& the moon. he is ca""ed in fu"" ue-kung-tai-yin-tsun-tien-pu-sa, 8The moon in her mansion, "uminar/ of ni&ht, honoured Deva and Bodhisatt%a.8 !rayer&+or&+ine&weather.,ra/er to various Buddhas, and other divinities. p. HGK !rayer&+or&rain.>orship is performed to%ards the +ast, and pra/ers offered to the Dra&on $in&, the various Buddhas, Oc. !rayer&+or&snow.Ditto. !rayer&against&locusts.To various Devas and spirits. !rayer&to&5ei-to ?0eda@.The Deva >ei2to is the protector of the Buddhist re"i&ion. >hen the supp"ies of the monaster/ fai", he is pra/ed to, to rep"enish them. !e is chief &enera" of the arm/ of the four .ahadevas. )irthday&o+&5ei-to, Ath&month, Cd&day:&according&to&some&the BCth&day.>ei2to is a deit/ of !indoo m/tho"o&/, %ho protects three of the four continents into %hich the %or"d is divided. ? ee Remusat5s Notes to Fo% kou%&ki.@ )irthdays&o+&the&di/ine&protectors&o+&the&monasteries.The/ are threeS?B.@ !%a2$%an&, Tth month, HEth da/Q ?H.@ Lung-wang, or 6aga-ra"a, the 8Dra&on Kin&Q8 ?C.@ Kwan-ti, the 81od of %ar,8 Dth month, BCth da/, accordin& to the common accountQ #ut accordin& to his #io&raph/ in the nationa" anna"s, Ath month, HFth da/. These three persona&es ta$e the p"ace of ei&hteen %orshipped in India. One of them is the %e""2$no%n hero of the 8Three Kin&doms.8 The/ receive the same honours that are a%arded to >ei2to. )irthday&o+&the&Kitchen&god, Ath&month, HFth&day, Eth&month, Cd&day, and BHth&month, HFth&day.The Buddhists sa/, to excuse themse"ves for adoptin& a Tauist superstition, that the Kitchen &od the/ %orship is not the Tsau2$iIn venerated common"/ #/ the peop"e, #ut a $in& of the 8Kinnaras8 ?a fa#u"ous race of ce"estia" #ein&s@, %ho #ecame a Chinese priest in the TJan& d/nast/, and %as appointed at death to preside over the ve&etarian diet of the mon$s. This is a "ame defence of %hat is evident"/ a se"f2interested accommodation to popu"ar notions. C. T!+ BUDD!( (ND BOD!I (TT>( . )irthday&o+&Shakyamuni, Fth&month, Eth&day.!e is a"so ca""ed Buddha, 8Tath9&ata8 or 4ulai, and 1autama, p. HGE and is revered as !un-sh, the 8Teacher of the %or"d durin& the present kalpa.8 *nni/ersary&o+&ShakyamuniCs&ele/ation&to&the&rank&o+&)uddha, BHth&month, Eth&day.The phrase in use is Cheng-tau, 8(ttained the summit of $no%"ed&e and virtue.8 *nni/ersary&o+&)uddhaCs&entrance&into&the&6ir/.na, Hd&month, BDth&day. )irthday&o+& o-sh&Fo ?The Buddha %ho instructs in hea"in&, Bhaisha3/a&uru Buddha@, Tth&month, CGth&day.The %or"d &overned #/ this Buddha is in the +ast. )irthday&o+&;-mi-to&Fo&or 8*mida8 ?(mita#ha@ )uddha, BBth&month, BKth&day.The Buddha %ho ru"es in the universe to the %est of that &overned #/ ha$/a, and &rants the re:uest of a"" those %ho pra/ to him to admit them to the >estern heaven. )irthday&o+&#i-li&Fo ?.aitre/a Buddha@, Bst&month, Bst&day.The Buddha %ho is to succeed ha$/amuni in the &overnment of the %or"d. .aitre/a %as visited in one of the paradises #/ ha$/amuni, and foreto"d his destin/. )irthday&o+&the&+emale&)uddhaB&Chun-ti, Cd&month, Ath&day.1reat po%ers of sorcer/ are attri#uted to this persona&e. )irthday&o+ 85en-shu&pu-sa8 ?.an3usiri Bodhisatt%a@, Fth&month, Fth&day.One of the Bodhisatt%as of Northern Buddhism.

)irthday&o+ 8!u-hien&pu-sa8 ? amanta#hadra@, Hd&month, HBst&day.( fictitious Bodhisatt%a of Northern Buddhism. )irthday&o+ 8Kwan-sh-yin&pu-sa8 ?(va"X$it`sh%ara@, Hd&month, BTth&day.This fa#u"ous Bodhisatt%a has in China #een usua""/ represented %ith fema"e attri#utes. In the Fa-hwa-king, Kwan-yin is descri#ed as #ein& a#"e to assume an/ form at p"easure, %hether that of Buddhas, Devas, men, or others, and as #ein& &uided in such vo"untar/ metamorphoses #/ a constant desire to proc"aim the Buddhist doctrine to those %ho need it, in the form most "i$e"/ to effect the o#3ect. K%an2/in is thus a#"e to save p. HGT an/ of the inha#itants of the Saha ?or a#a@ %or"d, i,e,, the present race of man$ind. >hen Kwan-yin is trans"ated, not inappropriate"/, 81oddess of merc/,8 it shou"d #e remem#ered that fema"e attri#utes are on"/ temporari"/ assumed #/ the Bodhisatt%a in :uestion. ? ee the 8K%an2/in8 section, near the end of the Fa-hwa-king.@ )irthday&o+&Ta-sh-ch&pu-sa, Kth&month, BCth&day.The position of this Bodhisatt%a is to the ri&ht of (mita#ha Buddha, %hi"e K%an2/in ta$es the "eft. The/ are st/"ed to&ether, 8the Three a&es of the >est8 ?Si-+ang-san-sheng@. )irthday&o+&Ti-tsang&pu-sa, Kth&month, CGth&day. F. C!(R(CT+R IN C!IN+ + BUDD!I T !I TOR-. *nni/ersary&o+&the&death&o+ 8)odhidharma8 ?Ta-mo@, BGth&month, Dth&day.The first of the six patriarchs. $eath&o+&!e-Chang, Bst&month, BTth&day.!e %as a teacher of Bodhidharma5s s/stem in the TJan& d/nast/. !e %rote the %or$ Tsing-kwei from %hich these notices of fasts and festiva"s are ta$en. $eath&o+&Ch-kai, BBth&month, HFth&day.The founder of the TJien2tJai schoo". $eath&o+&Hien-sheu, BBth&month, BFth&day.( founder of a schoo" #earin& his name, and advocatin& the 81reat Deve"opment8 s/stem ?Ta-cheng@. $eath&o+&Tau-siuen, BGth&month, Cd&day.( founder of the Discip"ine schoo". $eath&o+&Hwei-yuen, Eth&month, Ath&day.( founder of the Tsin&2tu schoo". $eath&o+&the&+ounder&o+&the&monastery,a"so of a priest5s o%n re"i&ious instructor, of the priests %ho admitted him to the vo%s, and of his parents. D. U,,)+.+NT(R- (NNI0+R (RI+ . Commencement&o+&summer ?Li-hia@, Fth&month, BAth&day.This anniversar/ is traced to the usa&e of the ear"iest !indoo Buddhists, %ho, %hen summer arrived, came to&ether p. HBG and remained associated under strict monastic ru"e durin& the hot months. This period over, the/ #e&an their #e&&in& excursions afresh. 8 -lan-pen8 ?'-lam@ ceremonyB&+or&+eeding&hungry&ghosts, Kth&month, BDth&day.The authorit/ for this festiva" is the -lan-pen&Sutra, trans"ated into Chinese a#out (.D. HKG. It terminates the summer, as the precedin& #e&an it. 9nd&o+&summer, Kth&month, BAth&day. Commencement&and&end&o+&winter ?Li-tung, Kiai-tung@, BGth&month, BDth&day, and Bst&month, BDth&day. First&day&o+&the&year. pecia" %orship. )irthday&o+&Shakra, Bst&month, Tth&day. ha$ra, or Indra, &od of the atmosphere, is, in the modern editions of !e-chang-tsing-kwei, 8.anua" of Buddhist Re&u"ations and *estiva"s,8 identified %ith the %e""2$no%n Tauist divinit/ -ti. Orienta" re"i&ions are so mutua""/ comp"imentar/, that the/ sometimes adopt each other5s divinities %ithout scrup"e. The anscrit 5Indra ha$ra5 is rendered in Chinese Ti-sh ?former"/ shak@. )irthday&o+ 8 o-wang&pu-sa8 ?)h.isha"yar."a@, 8.edica" $in& and Bodhisatt%a,8 Fth&month, BDth&day. )irthday&o+&the&)odhisattwa 8Lung-shu8 ?6agar"una@, or 8Dra&on2tree,8 Kth&month, HDth&day.!e %as the fourteenth patriarch, and author of the 8!undred Discourses,8 one of the most noted of the Buddhist hastras. )irthday&o+&the&ancient&)uddha&4an-teng, 8)i&ht "amp8 ?$ipankara&)uddha@, Eth&month, HHd&day. ha$/amuni in a former $a"pa %as a discip"e of this Buddha. 5inter&solstice. pecia" %orship. )irthday&o+&the&)odhisattwa&Hwa-yen, BHth&month, HTth&day. The method of o#servin& these anniversaries, and the pra/ers to #e used, are ver/ minute"/ detai"ed in the #oo$ from %hich these notices are trans"ated.

The dates are those of the "unar months of the Chinese nationa" a"manac. p. HBB It ma/ #e dou#ted %hether more than a ver/ fe% of them are identica" %ith the festiva"s of the outhern Buddhists, viR., those of Ce/"on, iam, and Birmah, there #ein& severa" of the &reat Bodhisatt%as %ho are not mentioned in %or$s #/ forei&n authors treatin& of the Buddhism of those countries. In Ce/"on the preva"ent "e&end of 1autama5s "ife states that he %as #orn on the da/ of the fu"" moon in the second month of sprin&. This differs irreconci"a#"/. In this popu"ar ca"endar, there is no mention of an/thin& astronomica"Q /et in the TJan& d/nast/ Buddhist ca"cu"ators from India %ere invited to underta$e the improvement of the imperia" ca"endar. 1audamsiddha, in the ei&hth centur/, pu#"ished a %or$ ca""ed Kieu-ch-li. It is a trans"ation from a !indoo ori&ina". In it the da/s of the %ee$ are apportioned amon& the p"anets in the fo""o%in& orderS ung-hwo, 8.arsQ8 Chen-sing, 8.ercur/Q8 Sui-sing, 84upiterQ8 Tai-pe, 80enusQ8 Chen-sing, 8 aturn.8 B These p"anets, %ith the sun and moon, form the tsi-yau, 8seven #ri&ht ce"estia" o#3ects.8 The/ constitute the m/tho"o&ica" %ee$ of seven da/s, %hich spran& up in Ba#/"onia, and spread to India, and a"so to +urope in the da/s of the Roman empire. ome Chinese a"manacs ca"" unda/ the da/ of #it, the ,ersian 8.ithras,8 a name for the sun. #it is spo$en of as a Hwei-hwei %ord. This term Hwei-hwei is one of the names for the ,ersian "an&ua&e amon& the Chinese. It is the %ord ouighour. In the Kung-chio-king, 8,eacoc$ utra,8 the da/s of the %ee$ are a"so &iven. This %or$ is a trans"ation #/ a Chinese priest named -i2tsin&. >hen .r. >/"ie %as visitin& ,e$in& on one occasion, he %ent %ith me to a monaster/ to consu"t the 8,eacoc$ utra8 in the "i#rar/. p. HBH ;para&raph continues< >e %ere courteous"/ received, and a""o%ed to ta$e it home %ith us for a fe% da/s. .an/ superstitious #e"iefs and o#servances native to India %ere imported to China #/ the !indoo Buddhists. The/ tau&ht much that %as not at a"" pure"/ Buddhist. The education the/ received em#raced a %ide ran&e. .etaph/sics, astronom/, medicine, and other su#3ects %ere tau&ht in India in the o"d times of Buddhist prosperit/, pro#a#"/ much as the/ are no% in the "amaseries of .on&o"ia. Thus the ascendin& and descendin& nodes of the moon5s or#it %ere $no%n as t%o monsters, ca""ed 8Rahu8 and 8Ketu,8 in modern Chinese, Lo-heu and Ki-tu. (t ec"ipses, the Chinese stor/ of a %i"d do& eatin& the sun and moon is derived from this piece of !indoo m/tho"o&/. In native a"manacs these names are preserved in the nomenc"ature of astro"o&/, and the conception is encoura&ed that the earth5s shado% crossin& the moon is a dar$ heaven"/ #od/, and a sort of p"anet of a dar$ nature, #ecomin& risi#"e on"/ at ec"ipses. The Indian /ear of three seasons is descri#ed, #ut no attempt has #een made to interfere %ith the Chinese seasons of three months each. The Buddhists have arran&ed their ca"endar of festiva"s and fasts to suit the Chinese months.

Footnotes HBBSB ee Chinese&Recorder, BEKH. .r. >/"ie, 8On the Kno%"ed&e of a %ee$"/ a##ath in China,8 pp. FG2FD. But add to .r. >/"ie5s ver/ fu"" and interestin& statements, that #it is 8.ithras8 here, and in pa&e E.

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CHAPTER I.

RELATION OF BUDDHISM TO THE OLDER HINDOO MYTHOLOGY. Buddhism accepted the !indoo m/tho"o&/, %ith the sacred #oo$s of the Brahmans, so far as it a&reed %ith its o%n do&masThe &ods Indra, Brahma, and Ish%ara "isten as discip"es to Buddha+i&ht c"asses of Devas*our $in&s of Devas-a$shas.ahora&as,retas.aras-ama, $in& of the deadCreation is denied to the !indoo &ods in the Chung-lun and other %or$s. *O))O>IN1 the &uidance of the Buddhist #oo$s, the existence of the 0edas and their m/tho"o&/ at "east five or six centuries #efore the Christian era must #e re&arded as an esta#"ished fact. Re"i&ious divisions had then a"read/ arisen in the socia" "ife of the !indoos, and numerous adherents of a"" castes %ere 3oinin& the ne%"/2raised standard of Buddhism. Co"one" /$es and others have maintained the h/pothesis that Buddhism %as the ori&ina" re"i&ion of !indostan, and that the 0edas %ith their re"i&ion, the four castes, and the anscrit "an&ua&e itse"f %ere a"" invented at a "ater date #/ the Brahmans. This con3ecture has "itt"e to support it from an/ source of evidence, and is perfect"/ untena#"e %hen recourse is had for information to the Buddhist #oo$s. *rom them it is c"ear that the Brahmans %ere in anta&onism %ith the s/stem of ha$/amuni from the first, that the four 0edas %ere a"read/ venerated as the sacred #oo$s of the nation, and that the truth of their m/tho"o&/ %as not denied #/ the founder of Buddhism or his fo""o%ers. o far from opposin& the popu"ar #e"ief in such #ein&s as p. HBF ;para&raph continues< Indra and -ama, the (suras, Devas, and 1andharvas, the/ are inc"uded in the m/tho"o&ica" personnel of the ne% re"i&ion, and these names have thus #ecome $no%n from 4apan to ,ersia, and from 4ava to the ("tai mountains. No m/tho"o&/ perhaps has ever spread so far as the !indoo, formin& as it does a part of the peop"e5s re"i&ion in a"" Buddhist countries, as %e"" as in its mother2"and. (n account of the openin& scene of the Saddharma-pundarika, or 8)otus of the 1ood )a%,8 in Chinese Fa-hwa-king, %i"" sho% the p"ace assi&ned in the utras of the 1reat Deve"opment c"ass to these fictitious #ein&s. The anscrit names in most instances are ta$en from Burnouf5s trans"ation of the Nepau"ese ori&ina". 8Thus have I heard. On a time Buddha %as residin& at the cit/ 5Ra3a&riha5 ?5ang-she@, on the mountain 1ridhra$uta, %ith t%o thousand Bi$shus, a"" of them (rhans.8 !ere fo""o% the names of man/ of Buddha5s discip"es. 8There %ere a"so t%o thousand more, some havin& $no%"ed&e and some havin& none. #a-ha-pa-"a-pa-ti B ?.ah9pra39pat\@ came %ith fema"e discip"es and their fo""o%ers, in a"" six thousand.8 8Of Bodhisatt%as, ei&ht/ thousand a"so came.8 8Their names are .an3usiri, K%an2shM2/in, Oc.8 There came a"so Shak-de-wan-yin ? ha$ra, the Indra of the Devas@, H %ith a retinue of t%ent/ thousand sons of Devas. There %ere a"so the sons of the Devas Chandra, amanta&andha, and Ratnapra#ha. Besides these there %ere the four 81reat $in&s8 of the Devas ? #ahara"a@, %ith a suite of ten thousand sons of Devas. Then there %ere the sons of the 5Deva Ish%ara5 ?Ts-tsai-tien@ and of the 5Deva .ah`sh%ara5 ?Ta-ts-tsai-tien@, and their retinue of thirt/ thousand sons of Devas. The "ord of the universe 8 a#a8 ?Saha@, the 5Kin& of the Brahma p. HBD heaven5 ?Fan-tien-wang@ a"so came, %ith the t%o &reat Brahmas, hi$hin and 4/otishpra#ha, and their retinue of t%ent/ thousand. There %ere a"so ei&ht 5Dra&on $in&s5 ?6agara"a@, %ith their retinues, four $in&s of the Kinnaras, four of the 1andharvas, four of the (suras, and four of the 1arudas. The son of >a\d`h\, (3atashatru $in& of .a&adha ?Bahar@ and father of (shX$a, %ith a suite of man/ thousands, %as a"so there.8 These constitute Buddha5s audience %hi"e he de"ivers the instructions contained in this utra. .ost of the names, the descriptive passa&es, and man/ notices of the retinues of the $in&s, are omitted for #revit/. The %ho"e account, ho%ever, in the Chinese version is one2third shorter than in that of the *rench trans"ator, %ho has fo""o%ed the anscrit text. Kumara3iva did not scrup"e to pare off the redundancies of this and other %or$s that he trans"ated, %hich is perhaps one reason of their permanent popu"arit/. T%o of the principa" !indoo divinities occur in this extract, ha$ra and Brahma. The "atter is the first in the %e""2$no%n triumvirate of &ods, )rahma, <ishnu, and Shi/a, or the 8Creator,8 8,reserver,8 and 8Destro/er.8 !ere he occupies a hum#"er position, #ein& mere"/ the discip"e of Buddha. ha$ra or Indra is met %ith in Buddhist "e&ends more fre:uent"/ than Brahma. In some Chinese temp"es their ima&es are said to form a pair amon& the auditors of ha$/amuni. The Buddhist compi"ation, Fa-yuen-chu-lin, contains an extract from the 8Centra" (&ama utra,8 %here severa" names #/ %hich ha$ra is common"/ $no%n are exp"ained. Indra, his most fre:uent appe""ation, is a term of office, 8)ord8 or 8Ru"er,8 and as such is trans"ated into Chinese #/ Ti or Chu. It is often app"ied to others of the chief Devas or &ods %ith distinctive names. T%o other Brahmas %i"" #e o#served to accompan/ the chief Brahma. The %ord Ish%ara, rendered #/ ts-tsai, 8se"f2existent,8 is the term used #/ missionaries in India for 1od, in the p. HBA ;para&raph continues< Christian sense. .r. >en&er5s "etter, inserted in Dr. )e&&e5s 6otions&o+&the&Chinese&concerning&-od&and&Spirits, sa/s, that this term is app"ied to hiva and 0ishnu as a tit"e of authorit/Q 8#ut shou"d an/ other of the innumera#"e de/atas #e ca""ed Ish%ara, it %ou"d #e an unusua" thin&, and ca"" for somethin& "i$e an exp"anation.8 In the Buddhist passa&e cited a#ove, the term is app"ied as a distinctive name to t%o of these de/atas, indicatin& a difference in the Brahmanica" and Buddhist use of the %ord. The commentator on the 8*an2%an& utra8 identifies the &reat Ish%ara %ith Brahma, #ut this is not authorised #/ the text, and disa&rees %ith common usa&e, %hich ma$es them different persona&es. !e adds, 8In the %ho"e universe there is #ut one $in&, and this is he.8 (ccordin& to the Chinese renderin&, 8 e"f2existent,8 the term =shwara stron&"/ resem#"es the !e#re% name 4eho/ah. The four #ahara"as, or 81reat $in&s8 of the Devas, preside each over one of the four continents into %hich the !indoos divide the %or"d. 0isitors in Chinese temp"es %i"" have noticed t%o %ar"i$e ima&es on each side, 3ust %ithin the enterin& door. The/ are the Devas here a""uded to. +ach "eads an arm/ of spiritua" #ein&s to protect man$ind and Buddhism. (t the head of the 1andharvas and 0aisha3as is Dhritar9shtra, for the +astern continent. The inha#itants of the outh, 4am#udvipa, are protected #/ 0irudha$a %ith an arm/ of Ku#9ndas. In the >est, 0irupa$sha commands an arm/ of 8dra&ons8 ? nagas@ and ,utanas. In the North, 0aishramana is at the head of the -a$shas and Ra$shasas. The names of various c"asses of m/tho"o&ica" #ein&s are sometimes trans"ated, and at other times transferred, in Chinese Buddhist %or$s. The 8Na&as,8 from their form, are rendered #/ the %ord Lung, 5Dra&on.5 The (psaras are ca""ed Tien-n or 8*ema"e Devas.8 The Devas, inc"udin& a"" the !indoo &ods that are mentioned, %hether &reat or sma"", are ca""ed Tien ?!eaven@. The Kinnaras are ce"estia" choristers "oo$in& "i$e horses %ith horned p. HBK

heads. The 1andharvas are a"so musicians %ho p"a/ and sin& for the amusement of the Devas. The (suras are #ein&s of &i&antic siRe, d%e""in& in so"itar/ %oods and mountain ho""o%s. The/ ma$e %ar %ith the Devas, and are connected %ith ec"ipses ? /ide !ard/5s #anual&o+&)uddhism@. The 1arudas are &o"den2%in&ed #irds %ho are "ar&e enou&h to devour the Na&as. Bein&s inferior to the Devas are ca""ed co""ective"/ the 8+i&ht c"asses8 ? !a-pu@. The/ are ca""ed 6ats #/ the Birmese. It %i"" #e o#served that a"" these #ein&s, inc"udin& the most venerated and po%erfu" of the &ods, are introduced as discip"es of Buddha. The com#ination of ascetic eminence and profound phi"osoph/ in ha$/amuni raise him to a position hi&her than an/ of them. Bein&s of ever/ ran$ in earth or heaven confess their inferiorit/ to the human Buddha #/ #ecomin& his hum#"e and attentive auditors. The !indoos havin& #ecome acute metaph/sicians, thou&ht themse"ves superior to ever/ #ein& in the universe. *urther on in the same %or$ other names occur. The -a$shas are a species of demons "ivin& in the earth and %aters, often represented as ma"i&nant in their disposition to%ards man. The .ahora&as are the &enii of the "ar&e serpent ca""ed in Chinese the .an&. The Ra$shasas resem#"e the -a$shas, #ut the/ have not the po%er "i$e them to assume an/ shape at p"easure. >hen the/ appear to men it must #e in their o%n form. The/ "ive in the forest of !im9"a, and feed on the f"esh of the dead ? /ide !ard/5s #anual&o+&)uddhism@. The 8Brahmas8 ?Fan: former"/ )am, or <am@ are the inha#itants of the heaven ca""ed 8Brahma2"o$a8 ?Fan-tien@, over %hich Fan-tienwang ?.aha#rahma@ or the chief Brahma presides. The ,retas, in Chinese, kwei, 8demon,8 are the inha#itants of the narakas or 8su#terranean8 and 8other prisons8 ca""ed ti-y, 8he"".8 .an/ of them former"/ #e"on&ed to the %or"d of men. ome are condemned #/ -ama to certain prisons. Others haunt the &raves %here their former p. HBE #odies are interred. The ,retas, hun&er for food, and hence the custom so preva"ent in China of feedin& the hun&r/ &hosts #oth of re"atives and of others. The .aras are enemies of Buddha5s doctrine. On this account the/ are considered as demons, a"thou&h the/ inha#it one of the lokas or 8heavens8 of the !indoo cosmo&on/. The $in& of the 8.aras8 ?#o-kwei@ is ca""ed !o-sin and #o2?#a@ wang. The %ord #ara is exp"ained, 8he %ho $i""s,8 a"so 8the cu"prit.8 The kwei are, in some instances, of a &ood disposition. (mon& such are rec$onedas a Buddhist %or$ :uoted in the Fa-yuen-chu-lin informs usthe shen or 8&enii8 of mountains, seas, and other natura" o#3ects. The %ord shen is a"so used &enerica""/ for the ei&ht c"asses of #ein&s #efore mentioned, from the dra&ons do%n%ards, and is ver/ fre:uent"/ emp"o/ed #/ the Buddhists for the sou" of man, perhaps more than in an/ other sense. The ear"/ Buddhist apo"o&ists, in p"eadin& for the immorta"it/ of the sou" as a part of the doctrine of metemps/chosis, constant"/ used shen for 8sou".8 The $in& of the kwei or 8demons8 is -ama, in !indoo m/tho"o&/ the ru"er of the dead. *rom his office as 3ud&e of future punishments, his name constant"/ occurs in the conversation of the common peop"e in China. !e is ca""ed en-mo-lo-she ?former"/ 4am-ma-la-"a@, %hich is a##reviated to en-lo. The usua" !indoo name ma/ #e reco&nised in en-ma and em-ma, %hich are other desi&nations app"ied to him in Chinese #oo$s. 4am-ma-ra"a means the 8Ro/a" pair,8 a #rother and sister, %ho 3ud&e men and %omen respective"/. (ssociated %ith -en2"o are nine $in&s %ho preside to&ether over the state of the dead. !is ima&e is p"aced %ith theirs in temp"es, accompanied %ith various representations suited to remind the spectator of the %or"d of torment. In the Ti-tsang&Sutra, he is descri#ed as comin& from the iron mountain %a"" %here the Buddhist he"" is situated, to the Tau2"i heaven, to hear ha$/amuni Buddha de"iver a utra there. !e is c"assed amon& the sons of Devas, and is attended #/ man/ thousand p. HBT $in&s of demons. !e ma/ #e pointed to as the most remar$a#"e examp"e of the inf"uence of !indoo m/tho"o&/ on the popu"ar mind of China. The common peop"e a"" expect to meet en-lo-wang ?-ama@ after death, and #e 3ud&ed #/ him %ith the strictest impartia"it/. The/ #e"ieve that he fixes the hour of disso"ution, and that the decision once made, nothin& can a"ter or postpone it. These various #ein&s, %hen in the utras the/ appear #efore Buddha, perform to him an act of %orship, and as$ for instruction "i$e an/ other of his auditors. Their po%er is &reat, #ut it is surpassed #/ that of Buddha, and it is a"" emp"o/ed to extend his fame and doctrines. Their authorit/ as ru"ers of the %or"d is sti"" reco&nised, #ut Buddhism #/ a simp"e stretch of the ima&ination ma$es a universe a thousand times as "ar&e to form the $in&dom of Buddha. The/ promote virtue and the Buddhist re"i&ion. *or this the/ "ive and ru"e. The ver/ hi&hest acts of deit/, such as the creation of a"" thin&s, or in the "an&ua&e of idea"ism the causation of a"" sensationa" phenomena, are denied them. The 8Centra" hastra8 ?Chung-lun@ sets out %ith provin& that creation %as not the act of the &reat 8 e"f2existent &od8 ?=shwara&$e/a@, nor of the &od 80ishnu8 ?<e-nu&$e/a: a"so %ritten <e-shi-nu@Q nor did concourse and commixture, or time, or the nature of thin&s, or chan&e, or necessit/, or minute atoms, cause the creation of the universe. In the Buddhist vie%, these deities are a"so su#3ect to death, and men #/ certain virtuous acts %hich are specified, ma/ #e #orn at some future period to #ecome their successors. Buddhism, %hi"e it thus aimed to find some inte""i&ence and po%er hi&her than those of the popu"ar divinities, fai"ed to perceive that the creation and &overnment of the universe are united in one a""2%ise eterna" mind. It "oo$ed no further than the %isdom of a human sa&e, and the innate &oodness and se"f2e"evatin& po%er of the human mind. It &ives to the %ise man the honour that is due on"/ to 1od. In formin& an estimate of the extent to %hich the o"der p. HHG ;para&raph continues< !indoo m/tho"o&/ has #een spread in China, it shou"d #e remem#ered that the Tauists have copied from the Buddhist #oo$s in the most s"avish manner. ome names are ne%, #ut the ma3orit/ are adopted %ithout a"teration. Brahmas, Devas, (suras, and .aras fi&ure in the %ritin&s of this native sect. The pra/er2#oo$s used in chantin& #/ the Tauist priests are from #e&innin& to end an imitation of the Buddhist utras. B/ the com#ined inf"uence of these t%o re"i&ions, the !indoo vie% of the universe, %ith its numerous c"asses of #ein&s hi&her than and inferior to man, and its mu"tip"icit/ of %or"ds, some for happiness, and others for torment, has #ecome the common #e"ief of the Chinese peop"e. Other !indoo &ods, such as the modern hiva and Dur&a, Rama and Krishna, do not occur, un"ess concea"ed under names %hich c"oser examination ma/ decipher. The rise of their %orship in India %as at too recent a date to a""o% of their #ein& introduced into the ear"/ Buddhist "iterature. The unexamp"ed viciousness of the recent !indoo %orship %ou"d a"so he an insupera#"e #ar to its adoption in China. In the Buddhist #oo$s of China there is a#undance of %hat is pueri"e, superstitious, and incredi#"e, #ut nothin& open"/ opposed to &ood mora"it/. In such a countr/ on"/ %hat is decorous in the ima&es and %orship of an/ sect cou"d #e to"erated. ince neither 0ishnu nor hiva occur amon& the auditors of Buddha, on occasions %hen a"" the chief persons in the universe are present, it must #e supposed that the extended popu"ar %orship of #oth these %e""2$no%n deities %as su#se:uent to the time %hen the Buddhist #oo$s %ere %ritten, and %ithin the Christian era.

Footnotes HBFSB This %as ha$/amuni5s aunt, %ho too$ care of him %hen an infant at the death of his mother. he #ecame a "eader in the fema"e propa&anda of Buddhism, and acted a conspicuous part in the scene of Buddha5s entrance into the Nirv9na. HBFSH $e-wan is 8the Devas.8 in is 8Indra.8

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CHAPTER II.

THE BUDDHIST UNIVERSE. The universe passes throu&h incessant chan&esKalpas of various "en&thsKalpas of esta#"ishment, of destruction, Oc. aha %or"d umeru mountainThe outhern continent is 4am#udvipa!eaven of the thirt/2threeTushita paradiseUpper tier of paradises!eavens of form and of desire!eavens %ithout form Brahma5s paradiseNo %ise man is #orn there, #ecause Brahma sa/s he created the universeThe he""s tor/ from the 8Ti2tsan& utra.8 T!+ universe, accordin& to the Buddhists, is in a constant state of chan&e. The periods in %hich its chan&es ta$e p"ace are ca""ed kalpas ?kie-po or kie.@ +i&ht/ sma"" kalpas ma$e one "ar&e kalpa. The inha#itants of the Brahma heaven "ive throu&h t%ent/ sma"" kalpas, and their chief, .aha#rahma, throu&h sixt/. Kalpas are divided into the sma"" kalpa, the kalpa of esta#"ishment and destruction, and the &reat kalpa. In the sma"" kalpa, the a&e of man$ind diminishes from an immeasura#"e "en&th to ten /ears, and then increases to a "en&th of from ten to ei&ht/ thousand /ears. In t%ent/ of such periods the %or"d is comp"eted. Throu&h t%ent/ more it remains in the same state. (fter t%ent/ more the %or"d is destro/ed, and there remains nothin& #ut vacanc/ durin& t%ent/ more. The first fort/ mean kalpas ma$e up the kalpa of esta#"ishment. The other fort/ compose that of destruction. ("" of them ta$en to&ether form a &reat kalpa. >e "ive in the second intermediate kalpa, or that p. HHH in %hich the %or"d continues in its comp"eted state, in a period ca""ed the hien&kalpa or 8(&e of %ise men8 ?#aha(hadra-kalpa@. There are sti"" e"even sma"" $a"pas to #e passed #efore the a&e of destruction commences. Durin& the 8ei&hth kalpa8 ?#andu-kalpa@, immediate"/ precedin& the present, a hundred Buddhas successive"/ appear. ha$/amuni is the fourth Buddha of the #aha(hadra-kalpa. In his time the a&e of man had a"read/ &radua""/ diminished to a hundred /ears, and the same process of &radua" su#traction #/ one /ear at a time is sti"" &oin& on. In the centre of the aha %or"d, or that ru"ed #/ ha$/amuni, is the umeru mountain. ( %ide sea separates this from ei&ht other mountains. Outside these mountains, #e/ond another %ide sea, is a &reat circu"ar mountain mass of iron. ( thousand such circu"ar iron mountain chains constitute one 8sma"" %or"d8 ?siau-tsien-sh-kiai@. Three thousand such %a""s form a 8&reat %or"d8 ?ta-tsien-sh-kiai@. This is the aha %or"d. >ithin each iron %a"" are four continents, and a sun and moon to shine upon them. It is in the southernmost of these continents, 4am#udvipa in the case of our o%n %or"d, that India and a"" countries $no%n to the !indoos are situated. *ar to the north is the umeru mountain, one mi""ion one hundred and t%ent/ thousand mi"es hi&h, and %hose depth in the sea is e:ua""/ &reat. It is composed of &o"d on its east side, of 8"apis2"aRu"i8 ? lieu-li, spe"t in fu"", accordin& to the o"d pronunciation, (e-luli and (e-du-li: in anscrit, /aiduria B@ on the south, of 8cr/sta"8 ?po-li, 8&"assQ8 in anscrit, spatika@ on the north, and si"ver on the %est. Trave""in& south from 4am#udvipa across the outhern p. HHC ocean, there are three hundred and sixt/ thousand six hundred and sixt/2three 8/o3anas8 B ?yeu-sin@ to the circu"ar mountain mass of iron. This mountain5s depth in the sea is three hundred and t%e"ve /o3anas, and its hei&ht a#out the same. Its circumference is three mi""ion six hundred and ten thousand three hundred and fift/ /o3anas. +ach iron2#ound %or"d has a umeru mountain in its centre. upposin& the %or"d to #e under the eterna" "a% of chan&e s$etched a#ove, Buddhist authorities &ive no account of its first ori&in, not fee"in& the need of a doctrine of creation. The ph/sica" causes en&a&ed in its periodica" formation and destruction are %ater, %ind, and fire. These are three of the four e"ements ti, shui, hwo, +eng, 8earth, %ater, fire, and air,8 %hich are supposed to form the #asis of a"" thin&s. The/ are perhaps to #e ta$en in the sense of e"ementa" causes rather than e"ementa" atoms. Over and under this %or"d of mountains, seas, and continents are t%o others, heaven and he"". Of ce"estia" re&ions there are thirt/2t%o inha#ited #/ the divinities of the o"der !indoo m/tho"o&/. *or the Buddhas and Bodhisatt%as, pecu"iar to Buddhism, other a#odes are found. (mon& the thirt/2t%o heaven"/ re&ions, ten are ca""ed %or"ds of desireQ inc"udin&, amon& others, the heaven of the sun and moon, the heaven of the four $in&s of Devas, and the heaven of the thirt/2three or paradise of Indra ha$ra, %ho has under him thirt/2three po%erfu" Devas. There are a"so the -ama paradise, the Tushita paradise, the 8Nima"a paradise8 ? Hwa-lo@, and the paradise of 8,aranimita8 ?Ta-hwa-ts-tsai@. (t the #ase of the umeru mountain reside shens, 8spirits,8 and -a$shas. !a"f2%a/ up the mountain is the paradise of the *our $in&s of Devas. On the summit is the Tau-li or 8Tra/astrinsha8 ?thirt/2three@ heaven,

p. HHF i,e,, the paradise of ha$ra, $in& of the &ods. The rest of these ce"estia" a#odes are fixed in vacanc/, each as hi&h a&ain as the one #eneath it. The next tier of these paradisiaca" re&ions consists of ei&hteen. The/ are ca""ed heavens of form, denotin& that the senses are sti"" in activit/ there, thou&h there is freedom from that inf"uence of the passions %hich is sti"" fe"t in the re&ions of desire near the %or"d of men. The ei&hteen heavens of form are divided into sta&es of contemp"ation. Three #e"on& to the first, second, and third sta&es, and nine to the fourth. The first sta&e is appropriated to the Brahmas, divided into three c"asses, the ?.aha#rahma or@ 8$in&,8 officers of state, and peop"e. +ach of these c"asses has a paradise assi&ned to it. The heavens a#ove these have various names compounded of the ideas of purit/, "i&ht, virtue, a#straction, and tran:ui""it/. In the hi&hest of them a"", ($anitJa, resides 8.aha Ish%ara,8 or #a-he-shwa-ra. The uppermost tier of four, 8form"ess,8 as the/ are ca""ed, derive their names from the notions of vacanc/, $no%"ed&e, destitution of a"" properties, and ne&ation of a"" thou&ht. Of these thirt/2t%o heavens, five are inha#ited on"/ #/ sa&es, t%ent/2five #/ sa&es and common men to&ether, and t%o #/ common men a"one. One of the "atter is the paradise of .aha#rahma. ( %ise man can never #e #orn in the a#ode of Brahma, sa/ the Buddhist cosmo&onists, #ecause that deit/, in his i&norance of causes, asserts that he can create heaven, earth, and a"" thin&s. !e #ein& so arro&ant as this, no %ise man %ou"d &o to "ive in his heaven. The other is the paradise of a#straction, %here those heretics %ho dis#e"ieve in the Nirv9na, #ut aim to &ain a state of perfect menta" a#straction, %i"" hereafter #e #orn. The/ %i"" there en3o/ five hundred /ears of freedom from the sufferin&s of "ife in a state of mind"ess vacanc/Q #ut since the/ %i"" not tread the path of the Nirv9na, evi" desires must after%ards arise, and the/ must p. HHD #e #orn su#se:uent"/ in he"". No %ise man, therefore, %ou"d %i""in&"/ &o to that heaven. One of the hi&her %or"ds is assi&ned for the residence of those discip"es of Buddha %ho have attained the ran$ of (na&amins and )o2hares. Those %ho are short"/ to #ecome Buddha are first #orn into the Tushita paradise. .ara, $in& of the 8demons8 ?mo-kwei@, resides in the space #e"o% the Brahma heaven. These heavens are peop"ed #/ Devas. .en from the four continents of our o%n %or"d ma/ #e #orn into them #/ transmi&ration into the #od/ of a Deva. The Devas are #orn and die, their #odies are of &reat stature, the/ %ear c"othin&, have horses and e"ephants to ride upon, marr/, eat and drin$, and perform man/ other actions resem#"in& man$ind. (#ove the %or"ds of desire, there is no distinction of sexes. To #ecome an inha#itant of these %or"ds is re&arded as a re%ard for &ood actions, for those %ho have "ived previous"/ in "o%er states of existence. But it is sti"" a punishment %hen vie%ed in comparison %ith the attainment of Nirv9na or an/ of the hi&her &rades of discip"eship under the teachin& of Buddha. The Buddhist 8he""s8 ?in anscrit, niliya or naraka@, the prisons of the "ost, are in some cases situated under the re&ion inha#ited #/ man. T%ent/ thousand /o3anas ?HEG,GGG mi"es@ #e"o% the 4am#u continent is one ca""ed the */ichi&naraka, or the 8!e"" of unintermitted torments.8 The -ama nara$a is ha"f2%a/ #et%een. Others are amon& fa#"ed mountains, or on the shores of a &reat sea. In Chinese #oo$s the/ are ca""ed #/ a common name ti-y, 8earth2prisons.8 In the 8Ti2tsan& utra8 is a stor/ of a maiden of the Brahman caste, %hose mother had #een condemned to the 5u-kien&ti-y, or 8(vichi nara$a.8 *u"" of distress, she %ent to a temp"e to pra/ for he"p from an ancient Buddha %hose ima&e %as there adored. In rep"/ to her offerin&s and pra/ers a voice addressed herthat of the Buddha p. HHA represented #/ the ima&e. he %as to"d to sit at home and meditate on the name of the same Buddha. >hi"e doin& so she fe"", after a da/ thus spent, into a state of deep reverie, and found herse"f on the #an$s of an ocean. !ere she sa% man/ #easts of pre/ %ith iron #odies, f"/in& and %a"$in& on the sea. .u"titudes of unhapp/ men and %omen %ere a"so s%immin& there, and %ere constant"/ #itten #/ these ferocious anima"s. The maiden, supported #/ the po%er of Buddha, did not fee" terrified. ( demon $in& addressed her $ind"/, and informed her that she %as come to the &reat iron mountain &ird"e that surrounds the %or"d. 8I have heard,8 said the maiden, 8that he"" is hereQ ho% can I reach itL8 *ns. 8On"/ #/ spiritua" po%er, and of merit se"f2ac:uired.8 Du. 8(nd %ho are these unhapp/ crimina"s sufferin& in this seaL8 *ns. 8The/ are the %ic$ed inha#itants of the 4am#u continent %ho have recent"/ died. (fter fort/2five da/s, if no one performs an/ meritorious act for their #enefit, the/ must first #e transported to this p"ace. +ast%ard are t%o other 5seas of miser/5 ?ku-hai@, %here the punishment inf"icted is sti"" &reater.8 Du. 8But %here is he""L8 *ns. 8>ithin these three seas there are man/ thousand prisons, #ut of the "ar&er $ind on"/ ei&hteen.8 Du. 8./ mother died not "on& sinceQ %here no% is her sou"L8 The &ood2hearted demon $in& ans%ered this :uestion #/ another. Du. 8O Bodhisatt%a, %hat sort of "ife did /our mother former"/ "eadL8 *ns. 8./ mother he"d heretica" opinions. he ridicu"ed and s"andered the 5Three treasures5 ?Buddha, the )a%, and the ,riesthood@. If she #ecame a #e"iever for a time, she soon ceased to honour them.8 Du. 8>hat %as her nameL8 *ns. 8./ father and mother %ere #oth of the Brahman caste. Their names %ere hira and -eti"i.8 The demon $in&, ho"din& up his 3oined hands respectfu""/ to the Bodhisatt%a, said, 8!o"/ maiden, return. Dismiss a"" sad thou&hts. It is no% three da/s since the sinfu" -eti"i %as #orn an inha#itant of paradise. The fi"ia" "ove that prompted such acts to save a parent, and such piet/ p. HHK to%ards an ancient Buddha, are sufficient not on"/ to preserve a mother from he"", #ut a"so to raise innumera#"e other persons to heaven.8 The Brahman maiden then returned to consciousness as from a dream. Ref"ectin& on %hat had happened, she visited a&ain the shrine of the ancient Buddha, and made a vo% that throu&h innumera#"e comin& kalpas she %ou"d perform acts of merit for the de"iverance from sufferin& of mu"titudes of "ivin& #ein&s. ha$/amuni Buddha added, addressin& .an3usiri, 8That demon $in& and Brahman maiden have no% #ecome the Tsai2sheu Bodhisatt%a and the Ti2tsan& Bodhisatt%a.8 This stor/ must serve instead of a detai"ed description of the Buddhist he""s. It %i"" #e sufficient to sa/ of them that the/ com#ine a"" that is horri#"e to each of the senses. +ver/ form of torment, menta" and ph/sica", that can #efa"" the unhapp/ vio"ators of a &ood conscience and of the Buddhist "a%, are found there. The extremes of co"d and heat, cuttin&, f"a/in&, #itin&, insu"tin&, and tanta"isin&, have to #e endured #/ such persons accordin& to their deserts. Demons of the most monstrous shapes and most crue" dispositions terrif/ them in ever/ possi#"e %a/. ("" that fire and %ater, $nives and c"u#s, can #/ in&enuit/ #e made to do in tormentin&, is there done. The precedin& #rief s$etch of the 8three %or"ds8 ?san-kiai@ a"most a"" refers to %hat is common to the other native !indoo sects. Buddhism adopted the nationa" #e"ief in re&ard to the form of the universe, inc"udin& the %or"ds of re%ard and punishment. It #e"on&s to a"" forms of Buddhism in China or e"se%here.

The Northern Buddhists have, ho%ever, &one further, and framed a much more extensive cosmo&on/, %hich deserves a separate consideration.

Footnotes HHHSB The d and t in these t%o anscrit %ords are the cere#ra" d and t, usua""/ printed %ith a dot under them. The/ approach the sound of l. The Buddhist dictionar/, i-tsie-king-yin-i, sa/s, that the %ord p1o-li is in its fu"" anscrit form, sa-pa-ti-ka. In KJan&2hi, %e are to"d, 8the Roman empire has &"ass of five co"ours,8 ta-tsinyeu-wu-se-po-li. In Buddhist #oo$s it means 8roc$ cr/sta".8 >h/ the aspirate is not preserved in the common co""o:uia" term po-li 8&"ass,8 is not c"ear. HHCSB There are t%o $inds of yo"ana. One consists of four goshalas, the other of ei&ht. ( goshala is the distance at %hich the #e""o%in& of a #u"" can #e heard, or near"/ t%o mi"es.

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CHAPTER III.

THE E TENDED UNIVERSE OF THE NORTHERN BUDDHISTS. ,rimitive Buddhism aimed at mora" improvement and the Nirv9naIts m/tho"o&/ %as of popu"ar &ro%thThe .aha/ana m/tho"o&/ %as introduced #/ the metaph/sicians of Buddhism itse"fNa&ar3una, the chief inventorHwa-yen-king(n extended universe invented to i""ustrate do&maTen %or"ds #e/ond the aha %or"d in ten different directionsNe% divinities to %orship(mita#ha!is %or"d in the >estK%an2/in and Ta2shM2chMThe %or"d of (chJo#h/a Buddha in the +ast>or"d of -o2shM *o, the hea"in& teacher.erc/, %isdom, Oc., are s/m#o"ised in the Bodhisatt%as>u2tJai shan in China is introduced in the Hwa-yen-king. (BOUT four centuries after the time of ha$/amuni, or 1autama as he is more common"/ ca""ed in Birmah and Ce/"on, a &reat increase to the anscrit "iterature of the Buddhist re"i&ion #e&an to #e made. 0er/ "itt"e had #een added to the nationa" m/tho"o&/ #/ the founder and first propa&ators of this s/stem, except %hat respected Buddha himse"f. Their aim %as to incu"cate virtue, encoura&e the ascetic "ife, and ur&e persons of a"" castes and #oth sexes to aim at de"iverance from the evi"s of existence and the attainment of the Nirv9na. The/ #ased their teachin& on the existin& doctrine of metemps/chosis, of the &ods and other c"asses of #ein&s, and of heaven and he"". These had #een united from the ear"iest infanc/ of the !indoo nation in one s/stem. B/ the transmi&ration of sou"s, a"" in heaven or earth, %hether &ods, men, demons, or inferior anima"s, are "in$ed to&ether into one chain of animated existence, and compose one %or"d. It is the p. HHT #usiness of a Buddha and a Bodhisatt%a to instruct these #ein&s in mora" truths, and assist them to escape from a"" the six forms of "ife, into a state of perfect en"i&htenment and tran:ui""it/. The m/tho"o&ica" e"ement, as it existed in ear"/ Buddhism, %as even then an o"d creation of the popu"ar mind that had &ro%n up %ith the first "iterar/ efforts of the nation. In this respect it a&rees %ith most other m/tho"o&ies, in the fact of its ori&inatin&, not in phi"osophica" schoo"s, #ut amon& the peop"e themse"ves. To this %as added a "e&endar/ e"ement. )on& ta"es %ere invented to i""ustrate the &reat merits and po%ers of Buddha. *ree use %as made in these narratives of those vast periods of time into %hich the !indoos divide the past histor/ of the %or"d. The #io&raph/ of the &reat sa&e %as extended #/ attri#utin& to him num#er"ess previous "ives. The manner in %hich, from sma"" #e&innin&s, he rose #/ se"f2sacrificin& and meritorious acts to #e "ord of the %or"d, and 8teacher of &ods and men8 ?tien-"en-sh@, is minute"/ recorded. But the scene is not extended in an/ other %a/. Ne% %or"ds are not invented in far distant space. The %riters of these "e&ends, %hi"e the/ represent their hero as visitin& the ce"estia" re&ions to instruct their inha#itants, or as #ecomin& #/ transmi&ration an inha#itant of those paradisiaca" residences for "on& terms of /ears, do not trans&ress the "imits of the popu"ar !indoo universe. The Northern Buddhists, ho%ever, a#out the #e&innin& of the Christian era, pushed the #ounds of their s/stem much further. .en appeared at that time in Northern India devoted to metaph/sica" discussion, %ho aimed to deve"op to the utmost the princip"es of Buddhism. B In addin& to the num#er of Buddhas and Bodhisatt%as, the/ fe"t it necessar/ to frame ne% %or"ds to serve as suita#"e a#odes for them. >ith their pecu"iar phi"osoph/ it %as eas/ to do this. Not #e"ievin& in the existence of the p. HCG %or"d of the senses, there %as no more difficu"t/ in admittin& to their s/stem an un"imited num#er of fictitious %or"ds and fictitious Buddhas than in continuin& to reco&nise the universe of their predecessors. The/ named their s/stem .aha/ana, Ta-cheng, or 81reat Deve"opment.8 (mon& these teachers the "eadin& mind %as Lung-shu, or 8Na&ar3una,8 as he is ca""ed #/ the Thi#etans. Csoma Karasi, cited in !ard/5s #anual&o+&)uddhism, sa/s, 8>ith Na&ar3una ori&inated %hat is $no%n in Thi#et as the .adh/ami$a s/stem in phi"osoph/. The phi"osophers in India had tau&ht either a perpetua" duration or a tota" annihi"ation %ith respect to the sou". !e

chose a midd"e %a/, hence the name of this sect.8 The Chinese 8Centra" hastra8 ? Chung-lun@, %hich #ears his name as the author, contains this s/stem, and his opinions ma/ therefore #e re&arded as near"/ those of the TJien2tJai schoo", %hose doctrine is #ased on that %or$, and of %hich )un&2shu is conse:uent"/ re&arded as the first founder. This circumstance thro%s "i&ht on the o#3ects of )un&2shu in composin& the utras of %hich he %as the author. *or this schoo" &ives a s/m#o"ica" interpretation to the m/tho"o&/ of the Buddhist #oo$s. The ver/ popu"ar and inf"uentia" utra ca""ed Hwa-yen-king came from the pen of )un&2shu. The Chinese preface to that %or$ sa/s that )un&2shu pJu2sa, havin& exhausted the stud/ of a"" human "iterature, entered the Dra&on pa"ace to examine the Buddhist 8pita$a8 ?san-tsang@. !e there found three forms of the Hwa-yen-king. The "ar&est %as divided into sections %hose num#er is expressed #/ the partic"es contained in a %or"d of dust. The next consisted of t%e"ve hundred sections, and the sma""est of fort/2ei&ht sections. The "ast and "east he &ave to the %or"d %ith its present tit"e, and he must therefore #e re&arded as its author. This and other %or$s of the 1reat Deve"opment c"ass contain a &reat extension of the m/tho"o&ica" e"ement of Buddhism. .an/ ne% Buddhas and Bodhisatt%as here appear, distin&uished #/ various hi&h attri#utes of p. HCB &oodness, $no%"ed&e, and ma&ica" po%er. To afford room for the disp"a/ of these attri#utes, ne% %or"ds are "ocated at p"easure in the #ound"ess re&ions of space. But the %ho"e of this ima&inative creation %as pro#a#"/ intended #/ the authors to #e s/m#o"ica". (ccordin& to the exp"anation of the TJien2tJai schoo", and of the esoteric Buddhists, the %ho"e of this fictitious universe %as meant to i""ustrate certain Buddhist do&mas. It %as the extreme scepticism of the Buddhist phi"osophers that paved their %a/ to this mode of teachin& their s/stem. In the TJien2tJai commentar/ on the Fa-hwa-king, the s/m#o"ica" method of interpretin& this m/tho"o&ica" creation of the fanc/ ma/ #e seen exemp"ified.? ee Fa-hwa-hwei-i@. ome specimens of this m/tho"o&/ %i"" no% #e &iven. The Hwa-yen-king sa/s that, on one occasion, Buddha %as presidin& over an assem#"/ at a p"ace of meetin& ca""ed (ran/a$a, in the $in&dom of .a&adha. !e sa% approachin& a mu"titude of Bodhisatt%as from distant %or"ds. The/ as$ed to #e instructed in re&ard to the 8"ands %here the Buddhas resided.8 ? Fo 8chah,8 spe""ed in fu"" in the o"d pronunciation, cha-ta-la: in anscrit, ksh0tra, 8"and.8 B@ Buddha accordin&"/ entered on a description of the $in&doms of the Buddhas. To the east, after passin& %or"ds e:ua" in num#er to the dust of ten of these $in&doms, there is one termed the &o"den2co"oured %or"d. The Buddha of 8%isdom unmoved8 presides there. 5en-shu ?.an3usiri@ and a cro%d of other Bodhisatt%as attend his instructions, as he sits on a "ion dais surrounded #/ "otus f"o%ers. To the south, %est, and north, and to the north2east, south2east, south2%est, and north2%est, are other %or"ds at a distance e:ua""/ &reat. To%ards the Renith and nadir t%o other %or"ds ma$e up the num#er ten, each havin& a &overnin& Buddha, p. HCH and a count"ess num#er of Bodhisatt%as, %ho perform to him an act of %orship, and hum#"/ receive his instructions. The same %or$ a"so descri#es the ten %or"ds that come next to the one in %hich %e "ive, on the east, south, %est, and north, and the other directions as #efore. +ach of them is ru"ed #/ a Buddha, to %hom pra/ers are to #e offered, in %hich he is to #e addressed under ten different names. The mora" import of these %or"ds and their Buddhas is contained in the names that are &iven them. These names are formed s/mmetrica""/, and carr/ the reader and the %orshipper round a circ"e of Buddhist ideas. Thus the si&nifications of the appe""ations &iven to the Buddhas are such as surpassin& %isdom, se"f2possessed %isdom, Brahmanica" %isdom, Oc. The "eadin& Bodhisatt%as receive such denominations as chief in the "a%, chief in merit, chief in visua" po%er, Oc. It %as thus that these Buddhist phi"osophers emp"o/ed the ima&ination as an instrument of mora" instruction, 3ust as %estern authors %rite a poem or a nove" for a simi"ar end. The/ %ere men %hose minds %ere cu"tivated to the utmost su#t"et/ in ar&ument, as the hastras, %or$s #/ the same authors, and ta$en up exc"usive"/ %ith phi"osophica" discussions, a#undant"/ sho%. The/ did not, therefore, #e"ieve in the truth of these fancifu" creations. Their metaph/sica" creed %ou"d prevent it, and there is not %antin& such indirect evidence to the fact as has #een a"read/ adduced. But %hat sha"" #e said to the mora"it/ of such modes of teachin& a re"i&ionL These sceptica" %riters cannot #e shie"ded from the char&e of practisin& a vast and s/stematic deception on the common peop"e, in inducin& them to re&ard these ima&inar/ #ein&s %ith re"i&ious reverence. *a"sehood is invo"ved in the ver/ form of the Buddhist utras, for the/ are attri#uted unhesitatin&"/ in a"" their mu"titudinous variet/ and vo"uminous extent to ha$/amuni himse"f. (nanda, the cousin and favourite discip"e of the sa&e in his dec"inin& /ears, is put p. HCC for%ard as the compi"er from memor/ of a"" these %or$s. The practice of %orshippin& the divinities introduced in these ne% m/tho"o&ica" creations %as a"so direct"/ encoura&ed, and this ne% ido"atr/ spread %ith &reat rapidit/ throu&hout the countries %here Northern Buddhism prevai"s. To i""ustrate these statements more fu""/, reference must #e made to the more popu"ar persona&es and #etter2$no%n %or"ds in the ne% m/tho"o&/. (mon& these fa#"ed %or"ds "ocated in distant space, the #est $no%n is the paradise of (mita#ha. In the 5u-liang-sheu-king ?(mita#ha utra@, Buddha te""s a ta"e of a $in& in a former kalpa %ho "eft the %or"d, adopted the mon$ish "ife, assumed the name Fa-tsang, 8Treasure of the "a%,8 and #ecame, #/ his rapid &ro%th in $no%"ed&e and virtue, a Bodhisatt%a. To the Buddha %ho %as his teacher he uttered fort/2ei&ht %ishes, havin& reference to the &ood he desired to accomp"ish for a"" "ivin& #ein&s, if he shou"d attain the ran$ of Buddha. Ten kalpas since, he received that tit"e %ith the name 8(mita#ha8 ?;-mi-to&Fo@, and no% resides in a %or"d far in the >est, to fu"fi" his fort/2ei&ht %ishes for the #enefit of man$ind. Ten mi""ion $in&doms of Buddhas separate his %or"d from our o%n. It is composed of &o"d, si"ver, "apis2"aRu"i, cora", am#er, a stone ca""ed cha-ku, and corne"ian. There is there no umeru mountain, nor iron mountain &ird"e, nor are there an/ prisons for punishment. There is no fear of #ecomin& a hun&r/ &host, or an anima" #/ transmi&ration, for such modes of "ife are un$no%n there. There are a"" $inds of #eautifu" f"o%ers, %hich the inha#itants p"uc$ to present as offerin&s to the thousands and mi""ions of Buddhas that reside in other parts of space. Birds of the most #eautifu" p"uma&e sin& da/ and ni&ht of the five princip"es of virtue, the five sources of mora" po%er, and the seven steps in $no%"ed&e. The "istener is so affected #/ their music, that he can thin$ on"/ of Buddha, the )a%, and the ,riesthood. The "ife2time of this Buddha is %ithout "imit, "astin& throu&h p. HCF count"ess kalpas, and therefore he is ca""ed 8(mita#ha8 ?5u-liang-sheu, 8Bound"ess a&e8@. T%o Bodhisatt%as reside there, anxious to save a mu"titude of "ivin& #ein&s, %ho, %ith (mita#ha, are %orshipped assiduous"/ #/ the Northern Buddhists. The/ are, sa/s the 5u-liang-sheu-king, K%an2shM2/in and Ta2shM2chM. The/ radiate "i&ht over three thousand &reat %or"ds. The/ attained their ran$ #/ &ood deeds performed in our o%n %or"d, and %ere re%arded #/ #irth into the >estern paradise of (mita#ha. The *mita(ha&Sutra, after minute"/ di"atin& on this paradise, descri#es nine other %or"ds at a correspondin& distance from our o%n, and occup/in&, as in the former

case, the cardina" points and intermediate positions, %ith the Renith and nadir. (chJo#h/a and other Buddhas ru"e in the +ast, numerous as the sands of the 1an&es, each proc"aimin& the doctrine that instructs and saves to the inha#itants of his o%n $in&dom. ( simi"ar account is &iven of the other %or"ds and their Buddhas. The t%o utras a"read/ cited, to&ether %ith one ca""ed Kwan-wu-liang-sheu-king, are entire"/ occupied %ith (mita#ha and his paradise. These three %or$s form the text#oo$s of the Tsin&2tu schoo", %hose ver/ numerous pu#"ications, suited to the popu"ar taste, and #ased on the doctrine of these utras, are ver/ %ide"/ disseminated amon& the Chinese peop"e at the present da/. In the "ast2mentioned %or$, Buddha, %hen seated in the midst of his discip"es, is said to have poured forth from his e/e#ro%s a f"ood of &o"den "i&ht %hich shone to a"" the surroundin& %or"ds. This "i&ht returnin& %as seen #/ the assem#"/ to form itse"f into a &o"den to%er on Buddha5s head. It %as "i$e the umeru mountain, and #/ its sp"endour man/ $in&doms of Buddhas %ere revea"ed to vie%. One %as constructed of the even precious stones and meta"s, another of "otus f"o%ers, another %as "i$e the pa"ace of Ish%ara, another "i$e a cr/sta" mirror. ( discip"e, struc$ #/ this ma&nificent disp"a/, p. HCD expressed a desire to #e #orn in the >estern heaven, and Buddha to"d him ho% he mi&ht have his desire &ratified. This is an examp"e of the manner in %hich the inventors of this m/tho"o&/ intended, #/ scenes of vastness and sp"endour, to affect the reader5s or "istener5s mind. *ee"in&s favoura#"e to the inf"uence of Buddhist ideas %ere thus to #e ca""ed into action. (nother of these creations %hich has &ained considera#"e notoriet/ is a %or"d in the +ast ru"ed #/ o-sh&Fo ?Bhaisha3/a&uru Buddha@. There intervene #et%een that %or"d and ours, $in&doms of Buddhas to the num#er of ten times the sands of the 1an&es. This persona&e, %hen he %as a Bodhisatt%a, uttered t%e"ve &reat %ishes for the #enefit of "ivin& #ein&s, inc"udin& the remova" of various #odi"/ and menta" ca"amities from those %ho are aff"icted %ith them, and the "en&thenin& of their "ife. !ence his name, 8The hea"in& Teacher.8 In attendance on him are t%o "eadin& Bodhisatt%as, %hose names, 4i-kwang-pien-chau, and ue-kwang-pien-chau, si&nif/ the 8*ar2shinin& "i&ht of the sun8 and 8of the moon.8 The %or"d in %hich he resides is composed of "apis2"aRu"i, its %a""s and pa"aces of the seven precious stones and meta"s, its streets of &o"d, thus resem#"in&, as is o#served #/ the author of the o-sh-king, the Ki-to-sh-kiai, or 8,aradise of (mita#ha.8 !e is %orshipped as a deit/ %ho removes sufferin&s and "en&thens "ife, and is in fact the s/m#o" of these ideas. >hi"e man/ of the fa#u"ous #ein&s introduced in the "iterature of Northern Buddhism have no ima&e or shrine in the temp"es of the present da/, -o2shM *o is one of those %ho are ver/ se"dom omitted in the arran&ement of these edifices. The freedom of ima&ination in creatin& ne% %or"ds and ne% deities, in %hich the authors of this "iterature indu"&ed, %ou"d natura""/ "ead to incon&ruities. Ne%"/2 invented %or"ds %ou"d #e "ocated in re&ions a"read/ appropriated #/ previous %riters. In the Fa-hwa-king, a circ"e of ei&ht %or"ds, %ith t%o Buddhas to each, is descri#ed. p. HCA ;para&raph continues< (mita#ha and (chJo#h/a occur in the %est and east respective"/, the account a&reein& in this respect %ith that in the *mita(ha&Sutra, #ut the other names do not harmoniseQ so that in severa" cases ne% Buddhas are ima&ined in re&ions preoccupied #/ those created at an ear"ier date. (ccounts of man/ more of these fancied %or"ds mi&ht #e co""ected from other %or$s. *or examp"e, in the !ei-hwa-king, one in the south2east %ith its Buddha, is descri#ed %ith minuteness. The s/m#o"ica" character of this m/tho"o&/ is seen ver/ c"ear"/ in the attri#utes of the Bodhisatt%as, %ho p"a/ in it such an important part, and %ho are the o#3ects of such extended popu"ar %orship in the Buddhist countries of the North. In K%an2/in, merc/ is s/m#o"isedQ %isdom, in >en2shuQ and happiness, in ,Ju2hien. To the phi"osophic Buddhists, these persona&es, %ith (mita#ha, -o2shM *o and the others are nothin& #ut si&ns of ideas. The uninstructed Buddhists #e"ieve in their rea" existence, #ut a"" the evidence &oes to sho% that the/ %ere invented #/ the former c"ass of Buddhists, and pa"med upon the peop"e #/ them as rea" #ein&s proper to #e %orshipped. ( near para""e" to this is the settin& up of the ima&e of Reason to #e popu"ar"/ adored, #/ the atheists of the first *rench revo"ution. If, as some thin$, the pantheism of 1erman/ %i"", accordin& to the common "a% of pro&ress in human perversit/, resu"t in po"/theism, %e have here an examp"e of the %a/ in %hich such a ne% ido"atr/ %i"" possi#"/ #e introduced. I append here some further account of .an3usiri, the Bodhisatt%a honoured at >u2tJai shah in North China. These notices %i"" a"so sho% ho% in the expansion of the m/tho"o&/ %hich %e meet %ith in the utras of the 1reat Deve"opment, even China is made one of the countries, and >u2tJai one of the mountains, %here Buddha de"ivered discourses. >e "earn from the .on&o" account of >u2tJai, that p. HCK ;para&raph continues< .an3usiri is addressed in pra/er as the en"i&htener of the %or"d. !is %isdom is perfect, and is s/m#o"ised #/ the s%ord he ho"ds in his ri&ht handQ #ecause his inte""ect pierces the deepest recesses of Buddhist thou&ht, and cuts $nots %hich cannot other%ise #e so"ved. !e is a"so represented as ho"din& in his hand a vo"ume of Buddha5s teachin&, of %hich a f"o%er is the s/m#o". !e is st/"ed a"so the "amp of %isdom and of supernatura" po%er. !e is said to drive a%a/ fa"sehood and i&norance from the minds of a"" "ivin& #ein&s, and on this &round the "ama %ho compi"es the #oo$s pra/s to him for $no%"ed&e in reverentia" terms. The Hwa-yen-king, ca""ed in .on&o" ;langgi&sodar, is cited in this %or$ as recordin& an assem#"/ of num#er"ess Bodhisatt%as at >u2tJai, amon& %hom .an3usiri is conspicuous in po%er and in honour. To faithfu" Buddhists, the mention, in a discourse of Buddha, of a Chinese mountain, is evidence of the superhuman $no%"ed&e of the sa&e. But as %e $no% that Na&ar3una %as the rea" %riter of this %or$, %e "oo$ upon it rather as proof that the &eo&raph/ of China %as $no%n to the trans"ators of the %or$s of this copious author, and that the/ "ived in a time %hen this mountain had a"read/ #ecome a favourite a#ode of the devotees of this re"i&ion in that countr/. In another #oo$ :uoted #/ the author, .an3usiri is informed #/ Buddha, that it is his dut/ to see$ the instruction and sa"vation of the Chinese #/ ma$in& his home at

>u2tJai, and there causin& the %hee" of the "a% to revo"ve incessant"/ on the five mountains of the five different co"ours, and cro%ned #/ five various"/2shaped pa&odas. The "otus %i"" not &ro% at >u2tJai. It is too co"d. !o% sha"" .an3usiri #e #orn from its amp"e couch of "eavesL The ma&ica" po%er of Buddha causes a "otus to &ro% from the seed of a certain tree. Thus he %as %ithout father or mother, and %as not stained %ith the 8po""ution of the common %or"d8 ?orchilang@. p. HCE The "e&end of .an3usiri at >u2tJai seemed to re:uire the authorit/ of Buddha. The trans"ators of the .aha/ana utras in the TJan& d/nast/in order to supp"/ this %antdid not scrup"e to insert %hat the/ p"eased in their trans"ations. Certain"/ >u2tJai %as not a Buddhist esta#"ishment ti"" some centuries after Na&ar3una. If some anscrit scho"ar %ou"d consu"t the Nepau"ese Hwa-yen-king, he %ou"d pro#a#"/ find nothin& there a#out >u2tJai shan. It %ou"d #e curious to note %hat the ori&ina" sa/s in those passa&es %here China is introduced #/ the trans"ators.

Footnotes HHTSB <ide Burnouf5s account of the third Buddhist counci" he"d in Cashmere, in his =ntroduction&?&l1Histoire&du&)uddhisme&=ndien. HCBSB The dictionar/ i-tsie-king-yin-i adds, that this %ord, used for 8"and or 8$in&dom,8 is the root of the %ord Kshatrya, the second of the four castes, to %hich #e"on& the ro/a" fami"ies of India, the Kshatryas #ein& )ords of the soi".

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CHAPTER IV.

BUDDHIST IMAGES AND IMAGE !ORSHIP. Temp"es+nterin& ha"", S-ta-tien-wangThese four $in&s descri#edThe "au&hin& Buddha, .i2"i *oBehind him, >ei2toChief ha"" Ta-hiung-pau-tien ha$/amuni(nandaKashiapaK%an2/in, >en2shu, and other Bodhisatt%asBuddha represented as teachin&Buddha of the past, present, and future Chape"s to O2mi2to *o, Ti2tsan&, and the Ten $in&sRepresentation of the ei&ht miseries from %hich K%an2/in de"iversTemp"es in Ce/"onIma&es in temp"es near ,e$in&Tan2cho2sM sna$e,i2/In2sM!a"" of )o2hansDiamond throne of BuddhaCo"ossa" ima&es of .aitre/a.usica" instrumentsRef"ections. T!+ temp"es of the Buddhists, "i$e other Chinese structures, usua""/ "oo$ south. Their architecture a"so is simi"ar. Temp"es cut in roc$, "i$e those of the same re"i&ion in India and 4ava, are not found. In natura" caves, ho%ever, and on hi"" sides ima&es are sometimes cut from the stone. Temp"es consist of severa" ha""s and chape"s ca""ed #/ a common name, tien. In the 8enterin& ha""8 ?s-iien&wang-tien@, t%o co"ossa" %ooden statues meet the e/e on each side. These are the #ah.r."as, or 8*our &reat $in&s of Devas,8 or S-ta-tien-wang. The anscrit names are exp"ainedS 80aishramana8 ?!i-sha-men@, 8!e %ho has heard muchQ8 8Dhritarashtra8 ?Ti-to-lo-to@, 8,rotector of $in&domsQ8 80irudha$a8 ?!ileu-le-cha@, 8Increased &randeurQ8 and 0irupa$sha ?!i-lieu-pa-cha@, 8)ar&e e/es.8 The/ are ca""ed in Chinese To-wen, Ch-kwo, Tseng-chang, and Kwang-mu. The/ &overn the continents "/in& in the direction of the four cardina" points from .ount umeru, the supposed centre of the %or"d. p. HFG In the Kin-kwang-ming-king, the/ are descri#ed as active"/ interferin& in the affairs of the %or"d. >hen $in&s and nations ne&"ect the "a% of Buddha, the/ %ithdra% their protection. The/ #esto% a"" $inds of happiness on those that honour the San-pau ?Three treasures@, viR., Buddha, the )a%, and the ,riesthood. ,roper"/ the/ are a"" %ar"i$e, #ut as seen in temp"es the/ are dressed in different modes. !e of the outh ho"ds a s%ord. !e has a #"ac$ countenance and ferocious expression. The others have #"ue, red, and %hite faces. One ho"ds in his hands a 8&uitar8 ?pJi2pa@, at the sound of %hich a"" the %or"d #e&ins to "isten, or, as some sa/, the camps of his enemies ta$e fire. (nother has an um#re""a in his hand, at the e"evation of %hich a vio"ent storm of thunder and rain commencesQ or, accordin& to others, universa" dar$ness ensues. (nother ho"ds in his hand a sna$e, or some other anima" hosti"e to man, #ut #/ his po%er made su#missive and instrumenta" to the %ishes of its con:ueror.

Bet%een them and the south %a"" are sometimes p"aced t%o fi&ures in mi"itar/ attire and %ith fierce countenances, ca""ed Heng-Ho-er-tsiang, 8the t%o &enera"s Heng and Ho.8 In the same #ui"din&, opposite the door, is usua""/ an ima&e of 8.aitre/a Buddha8 ?#i-li&Fo@, or the Buddha to come. The anscrit name, .aitre/a, means the 8.ercifu" one.8 !e is a"%a/s represented as ver/ stout, %ith the #reast and upper a#domen exposed to vie%. !is face has a "au&hin& expression. (fter three thousand /ears he %i"" appear in the %or"d and open a ne% era. (n ima&e of K%an2fu2tsM the Chinese deified hero, in his capacit/ as protector of the Buddhist re"i&ion, is a"so sometimes p"aced in this ha"" on one side of the north door. Behind .aitre/a is the ima&e of 5ei-to, a Deva %ho is sti"ed Hu-+a-wei-to, or the 8Deva %ho protects the Buddhist re"i&ion.8 !e is represented c"ad in comp"ete armour and ho"ds a sceptre2shaped %eapon of assau"t p. HFB usua""/ restin& on the &round. !e is &enera" under the *our $in&s. The shrine in %hich these t%o ido"s are p"aced forms a screen to a door #ehind, %hich opens into the court of the 81reat ha""8 ca""ed Ta-hiung-pau-tien. This is appropriated to the ima&es of ha$/amuni Buddha and a se"ect num#er of his discip"es. !e is represented in an attitude of contemp"ation, sittin& on a "otus2"eaf dbisQ (nanda, a /oun&2"oo$in& fi&ure, and Kashiapa, an o"d man, are p"aced on his ri&ht and "eft. On the east and %est sides of the ha"" are arran&ed ei&hteen fi&ures of 8(rhans8 ?Lo-hans@. The/ are represented as possessin& various $inds of supernatura" po%er, s/m#o"ised in some instances #/ %i"d anima"s crouchin& su#missive"/ #eside them. The/ "isten to Buddha, some %ith thou&htfu"ness, some %ith p"easure. ("on& the north %a"" are often to #e seen the ima&es of 4an2ten&, an ancient Buddha, and of six Bodhisatt%as and discip"es of ha$/amuni, viR., K%an2/in, ,Ju2hien, hM2chM, >en2shu, hariputra, and .aud&a"/a/ana. This is the arran&ement at the K%an&2fu2sM, the principa" monaster/ in han&hai. >en2shu and ,Ju2hien often ta$e the ri&ht and "eft of the centra" Buddha. Behind the three centra" ima&es, and "oo$in& north%ards, is usua""/ p"aced an ima&e of K%an2/in %ith roc$, c"oud, and ocean scener/ rude"/ carved in %ood and &audi"/ painted. This Bodhisatt%a, %ith >en2shu and ,Ju2hien, is sometimes p"aced in front, as at )un&2h%a, near han&hai, K%an2/in occup/in& the centre, immediate"/ #ehind ha$/amuni, %ho then sits a"one on his dbis in the midst of the ha"". This ha"", the hi&hest and "ar&est #ui"din& in the %ho"e monaster/, ta$es its name from one of Buddha5s tit"es, Ta-hiung, or 81reat hero8in anscrit, <irah%ith the addition of the %ord pau, 8precious.8 The ima&e of K%an2/in has severa" forms correspondin& to the various metamorphoses %hich he or she assumes. T%o of the commonest are those of the Northern and outhern sea. In the "ar&e c"oud2and2%ater picture in p. HFH a"to2re"ievo, of %hich he so often forms the principa" fi&ure, severa" sma""er persona&es are added to "end variet/ to the scene. The *our $in&s of Devas are occasiona""/ emp"o/ed for this purpose, and sti"" more fre:uent"/ a fema"e fi&ure, Lung-n, 8Dau&hter of the Dra&on $in&,8 and a /outh ca""ed Shan-tsai, %ho form inter"ocutors in some of the utras. (nother metamorphosis of K%an2/in is represented in a fema"e fi&ure, ho"din& in her arms a chi"d. It is in reference to this ima&e that a para""e" has often #een instituted #et%een K%an2/in and the 0ir&in .ar/. ( stran&er %ho did not ta$e notice of minute pecu"iarities in dress, %ou"d ver/ natura""/ have the idea of simi"arit/ presented to him, and mista$e the chi"d %hich the &oddess presents to mothers pra/in& for posterit/, for the infant aviour. It is in part from such resem#"ances that !ue has adopted the h/pothesis that the modern form of Buddhism in Thi#et arose from a mixture of Christianit/ %ith that re"i&ion. ometimes K%an2/in appears %ith a thousand hands, s/m#o"isin& his desire to save a"" man$ind. The interva" #et%een the ha"" of the *our &reat $in&s of the Devas, and that of ha$/amuni, is occasiona""/ occupied #/ another ha"". K%an2/in of the outhern sea ma/ #e seen here pictured %ith his usua" attendants. Behind, "oo$in& north%ards, is often found a scene in honour of Ti2tsan& Bodhisatt%a. !e is surrounded %ith c"oud and roc$ carvin&, on the a#utments of %hich are seen the ten $in&s of he"". The/ a"" "isten to the instructions of this Bodhisatt%a, %ho see$s to save man$ind from the punishments over the inf"iction of %hich the/ preside. The !indoo &od 8-ama8 ? en-to-wang@ is the fifth of them. ometimes in this intermediate space there is a structure ca""ed the ha"" of the )o2hans, %here are found on the east and %est %a""s, sma"" carved fi&ures of the five hundred (rhans of Buddhist "e&ends. The/ are p"aced on the protu#erances of a rou&h a"to2re"ievo scene such as those a#ove descri#ed. In other instances this representation p. HFC of the five hundred (rhans is p"aced over the more po%erfu" and #etter $no%n ei&hteen (rhans in the ha"" of ha$/amuni. In the centra" ha"", representatives of a"" the four ran$s a#ove the ran&e of the metemps/chosis are found, as %i"" #e seen from the precedin& detai"s. Discip"es of the "o%er ran$s, %ho are, ho%ever, de"ivered from the %or"d of "ife and death, and are ca""ed sheng-wen, 8"isteners,8 are represented in (nanda and KashiapaQ the one ho"din& a %ritten scro"" em#"ematic of his &reat %or$, the compi"ation of the utrasQ the other restin& on a staff, the s/m#o" of his office, as successor of Buddha in the patriarchate. The/ are #areheaded and c"ose shaved. The 8(rhans8 ?*-lo-han@, ei&hteen in num#er, spea$ for themse"ves as to the extraordinar/ po%er, $no%"ed&e, and &ratification %hich the/ have &ained throu&h "istenin& to the teachin& of Buddha, #/ their attitudes as con:uerors of evi", and defenders of &ood, and #/ the expression of inte""i&ence and p"easure %hich the artist has attempted to depict on their countenances. The ran$ a#ove this, that of Bodhisatt%a, unitin& &reat $no%"ed&e and po%er %ith stron& desire to save those #ein&s %ho are sti"" invo"ved in the metemps/chosis, is represented in >en2shu and ,Ju2hien %earin& cro%ns &i"t and ornamented in the "otus2"eaf shape. To the hi&hest ran$ of a"" in %isdom and po%er, that of Buddha, #e"on& ha$/amuni, and his instructor in a former "ife, 4an2ten&. The/ have short cur"/ hair formed of she""s, and painted a dar$ #"ue. Devas sometimes appear there, e,g,, 8Brahma8 ?Fan-tien@ and 8 ha$ra8 ?Ti-shih@, %ho in some temp"es ma$e t%o of six auditors of Buddha, the others #ein& (nanda and Kashiapa, ,Ju2hien and >enshu. (s the principa" ha"" is appropriated to the four hi&hest c"asses of #ein&s reco&nised #/ Buddhism, so the ha"" of the *our Diamond $in&s, or $in&s of the Devas, contains the ima&es of those #ein&s sti"" invo"ved in the %hee" of the metemps/chosis, so far as the/ are considered #/ the p. HFF ;para&raph continues< Buddhists as proper to #e %orshipped. >ei2to and the *our $in&s %ith their attendants a"" #e"on& to the c"ass of Devas or inha#itants of heaven. The presence of .aitre/a there ma/ #e accounted for #/ the fact, that he as the predicted successor of ha$/amuni in the office of Buddha, no% resides in the Tushita paradise, from %hich at the appointed time he %i"" descend to the earth, to assume the duties assi&ned him. !e is not /et therefore exempt from the metemps/chosis. In the monasteries of Ce/"on, a sma"" temp"e termed De%9"a is p"aced #efore the chief #ui"din&, and dedicated to the %orship of the Devas ? /ide !ard/5s 9astern& #onachism@. Thus in #oth cases, the visitor arrives first at the ha"" %here the metemps/chosis sti"" prevai"s, and after%ards passes on to the a#ode of the Buddhas and Bodhisatt%as. )oo$in& at the arran&ements of these t%o parts of a Buddhist temp"e from another point of vie%, the "ar&e centra" ha"" a"read/ descri#ed is intended to s/m#o"ise

Buddha &ivin& his instructions to an assem#"/ of discip"es, %hi"e the "eadin& idea of the enterin& ha"" is the representation of the po%erfu" protection #/ ce"estia" #ein&s en3o/ed #/ the Buddhist re"i&ion and its professors. In some "ar&e temp"es, >ei2to, and a $in& of the Devas, ho"din& a pa&oda in his hand, stand %ith the usua" fi&ures on the ri&ht and "eft of ha$/amuni. T%ent/ Devas, ten on each side, are a"so sometimes p"aced at the south end of the t%o ro%s of (rhans that "ine the eastern and %estern %a""s. This accords %ith the descriptions &iven in the utras of the audience &athered round Buddha on remar$a#"e occasions, %hen the inha#itants of the various ce"estia" mansions ho"d a conspicuous position amon& the cro%d of his discip"es. The carr/in& out of this thou&ht is dou#t"ess the prevai"in& aim in the choice of persona&es, attitudes, dress, and positions, and a"" is in a&reement %ith the 8Deve"oped8 utras or those of the .aha/ana c"ass used #/ the Northern Buddhists. p. HFD +xceptions to this ru"e occur. *or examp"e, fi&ures i""ustratin& the thirt/2t%o points of persona" #eaut/ #e"on&in& to Buddha are in some temp"es p"aced %here the (rhans are usua""/ found. o a"so, in "ar&e temp"es, instead of the t%o discip"es on each side of 4u"ai, are t%o other fi&ures of Buddha, representin& the future and the past, as the centra" one does the present. The three ima&es are much a"i$e, and each of them %ears the c"ose2fittin& s$u""2cap of painted she""s %hich is a"%a/s appropriated to Buddha. *acts of this "atter c"ass point to another aim as inf"uencin& the arran&ement of the fi&ures, that of presentin& to the mind of the visitor a picture of the conception of Buddha, in its most expanded form, each ima&e exhi#itin& a distinct feature of the idea" %ho"e to the contemp"ation of the %orshipper. This princip"e of arran&ement is, ho%ever, fo""o%ed much "ess fre:uent"/ than the former. The idea of ce"estia" protection as prevai"in& in the arran&ement of the enterin& ha"", has a"read/ #een i""ustrated in the description of the *our $in&s and of >ei2to. It ma/ #e further o#served, that the #ein&s ca""ed Kia-lan ?1a2"am@ or protectors of the 8monasteries8 ?sangarama@, viR., K%an2ti, the &od of %ar, and others, are p"aced here in vacant spaces, as in a suita#"e spot. The other 8chape"s8 ?tien@ or ha""s are erected on the side of or #ehind the centra" structure. The/ are appropriated to -o2shM *o, O2mi2to *o, Ti2tsan& pJu2sa, and the ten $in&s of he"". Other names occur, such as the ha"" of the thousand Buddhas, Oc., #ut these are the most common. In some instances, as for examp"e in the K%an2/in2tien, there are t%o ima&es, one "i&ht enou&h to #e carried in a sedan chair for processions, another "ar&er for dai"/ %orship. K%an2/in is sometimes represented in ei&ht metamorphoses, assumed for the purpose of savin& men from ei&ht $inds of sufferin&. hip%rec$ed sai"ors, in one part of the carvin&, are seen reachin& the shore. In p. HFA another some trave""er escapes from a %i"d #east. The de"iverer K%an2/in stands #/. In a scene of this $ind, the ima&e of this divinit/ is thus repeated ei&ht times, #esides the "ar&er one in the centre. The %ho"e is ca""ed !a-nan&Kwan-yin, 8the K%an2/in of ei&ht $inds of sufferin&.8 K%an2/in is a"so occasiona""/ found in a su#ordinate position, as one of the t%o supporters of 8(mita#ha Buddha8 ? ;-mi-to&Fo@, hM2chM #ein& the other. The/ are ca""ed to&ether the three sa&es of the %est. O2mi2to is a"so ca""ed Tsie-yin&Fe, or the 8Buddha %ho recei/es sufferin& morta"s to the rest of the >estern paradise over %hich he presides, and to %hich he guides them.8 The usua" ri&ht and "eft supporters of -o2shM *o, the Buddha of the +ast, are -o2tsan& pJu2sa and -o2%an& pJu2sa. These preside over medicine, #ut the 3urisdiction of the Buddha himse"f is not "imited to hea"in&Q it inc"udes a"" $inds of ca"amit/. !e is sometimes represented "i$e ha$/amuni %ith three ima&es, denotin& the past, present, and future. Ti2tsan& is often attended #/ the ten $in&s of he"", from %hose punishments he see$s to save man$ind. ("" of them, except -ama, have Chinese names. ome of them point to particu"ar "oca"ities, as ,ien2ch6en&, or the cit/ of KJai2fen& fu. TJai2shan is a mountain of han2tun&. Others refer to attri#utes, as ping-teng, 8even,8 chuenlun, the 8turner of the %hee" ?of doctrine@.8 Crimina"s receivin& punishments and attendants are a"so represented #/ sma"" earthen or %ooden fi&ures. The ten $in&s a"" stand %hen in the presence of Ti2tsan& pJu2saQ #ut if Tun&2n&o2ti2$iIn, a Tauist divinit/, presides, the/ ma/ sit, he #ein& "itt"e superior to them in ran$. .ost of the names of these ten $in&s are of Chinese ori&in and not man/ centuries o"d. Ti2tsan& is represented #/ the priests as the son of a $in& of iam. !e has a fu"" round countenance of mi"d aspect, %ith a "otus2"eaf cro%n, the usua" head furniture of a Bodhisatt%a. p. HFK The fi&ures on his ri&ht and "eft are sometimes .uh2$ien2"ien and ,Jan&2$I2shM, discip"es of ha$/amuni Buddha. +"se%here .in2$un& and .in2tsi ta$e this position. The former %as a Chinese %ho &ave the "and at Kieu2h%a, the hi"" some mi"es %est of Nan$in&, on %hich is erected a "ar&e monaster/ in honour of Ti2tsan&. .in2tsi is his son. T%o other discip"es, %ho act as 8servants8 of the Bodhisatt%a ?sh-che@, are a"so represented #/ t%o other sma""er fi&ures. The ido"s ca""ed ,Ju2sa sit %hen in their o%n shrines, #ut if in the presence of Buddha the/ stand. Tauist ido"s are numerous"/ emp"o/ed in the Buddhist temp"es. K%an2ti, )un&2%an&, and !%a2$%an& have #een forma""/ adopted #/ the sect as protectin& divinities. evera" of a medica" character are a"so extensive"/ made use of, o#vious"/ to attract those %ho in time of sic$ness see$ aid from supernatura" sources. Diseases of the e/e, u"cers, the sma""2pox, and #odi"/ ai"ments in &enera" are assi&ned to the care of various heaven"/ #ein&s, and the sic$ in "ar&e num#ers see$ their assistance. 8!e %ho presides over riches,8 Tsai-shen, %hose popu"arit/ is unriva""ed amon& a"" the Chinese divinities, has a"so a shrine #esto%ed on him. There are a"so man/ others, such as San-kwan, -ti, Oc., %hich, as proper"/ #e"on&in& to Tauism, %i"" not #e descri#ed here. Ce"e#rated Chinese Buddhists have a"so ima&es %here the arran&ements of a temp"e are comp"ete. That of 8Bodhidharma8 ? Ta-mo&chu-sh@ is fre:uent"/ met %ith in temp"es %here priests of the tsun&2men reside, as a"so that of the founder of the monaster/. (ccordin& to the exp"anations of the phi"osophic Buddhists, the princip"e of arran&ement and the use of ido"s tit a"" must #e vie%ed as s/m#o"ica", as a"read/ remar$ed. >hen the %orshipper enters he is met %ith the idea of 8protection8 from ce"estia" #ein&s. (s he advances into the presence of Buddha, he sees in his ima&e 8inte""i&ence,8 the fruit of "on& and thou&htfu" contemp"ation. In the p. HFE

;para&raph continues< Bodhisatt%as are exhi#ited 8$no%"ed&e and merc/8 com#ined. In the (rhans he sees those %ho have #ecome 8venera#"e8 #/ /ears, %isdom, and a "on& course of asceticism. In the sheng-wen, the #areheaded 8discip"e,8 he sees the first step in pro&ress to%ards the Nirv9na, the introduction to the other three. >hen he #o%s #efore these ima&es, and ma$es his offerin& of incense, cand"es, and &i"t paper, this a"so is a s/m#o". It on"/ means the reverence %ith %hich he receives the instructions of Buddhism. The common peop"e, ho%ever, as happens in Christian countries %here the %orship of ima&es prevai"s, see in each ido" a po%erfu" divinit/, and "osin& si&ht of the mora" and inte""ectua" o#3ects of the s/stem, pra/ to #e freed from sic$ness, povert/, chi"d"essness, an ear"/ death, and other dreaded evi"s. uch a faith in the o#3ects of their ido"atr/ is of course encoura&ed to the utmost #/ the priests, %hose prosperit/ depends upon the num#er of the %orshippers. In (pri" BEDE, I visited at 1a""e, in Ce/"on, t%o Buddhist temp"es. The ima&e of Buddha is remar$a#"/ "i$e %hat it is in China. The s$u""2cap, the posture, and the form of the #od/ are the same. It is made of mud and &i"t in the same manner. Three Buddhas %ere represented, and the/ %ere a"" ca""ed 1odam and ha$/amuni. The discip"es %ere .o&a""ana, hariputra, Ra2hu"a, (nanda, and Kashiapa. The "ast t%o of these do not, as in China, occup/ the nearest p"ace to Buddha. Brahma and 0ishnu %ere the $in&s of the Devas represented. I noticed a pictoria" representation of heaven and he"", and I $no% not %hat more, upon the four faces of a s:uare screen that comp"ete"/ surrounded Buddha5s ima&e. On the inside face of the screen %ere ima&es of 0ishnu and Brahma, %ith other Devas. ( 1aruda attended 0ishnu. Beside the sma""er temp"e %as a stupa or 8tom#8 of Buddha. It %as a handsome circu"ar mauso"eum, apparent"/ p. HFT of stone, t%e"ve or fourteen feet in hei&ht. In China this %ou"d #e a pa&oda. In the series of painted ta#"eaux, he"" %as on the "eft, and heaven on the ri&ht. !eaven %as a"so on the #ac$ of the screen. Beside each temp"e "ives a priest in a /e""o% $asha, %ith his pupi"s, %hom he teaches to read. *resh f"o%ers of the stron&est odours are constant"/ p"aced in a#undance on the a"tar #efore Buddha. There %ere a"so oi" "amps, %hich %ere not "it. Both temp"es %ere on an eminence in sec"uded spots and encirc"ed #/ trees. ( fe% cotta&es of the in&ha"ese %ere near. The/ "oo$ed %retched"/ poor. ( friend %ith me from iam, .r. ("a#aster, informed me that the temp"es in Ce/"on are entire"/ different in appearance from %hat the/ are in iam. The fo""o%in& is the arran&ement of the ima&es in a temp"e at the >estern hi""s near ,e$in&. In the centre, ha$/amuniQ on his ri&ht, K%an2/inQ on his "eft, hM2chM. In front there are three "ar&e fans ?a c/"indrica" c"oth is so ca""ed@, em#roidered %ith inscriptions, han&in& from the roof2#eams. The dbis on %hich are the three ima&es is supported #/ "ions, e"ephants, and &riffins. The horse2shoe shaped aureo"e %hich encirc"es Buddha5s head is carved %ith %in&ed monsters and %arriors. ,aper ru##in&s of the sixteen )ohans from !an&2cheu han& on the side %a""s. These are ce"e#rated as havin& #een carved in the TJan& d/nast/. The/ %ere made ei&hteen at a "ater period. The sixteen %ere !indoo, and there are anscrit characters on the fifth in order. The addition of t%o is due to Chinese "ove of chan&e, ori&inatin& %ith %e do not $no% %hom. If the o#server is reminded in the carved enta#"atures of stone pa&odas of o"d date, that there is a resem#"ance to 1ree$ and Roman scu"pture, "et him meditate on the idea that ("exander5s con:uest of ,ersia and invasion of India %as a si&na" for a host of ne% thou&hts to ori&inate p. HDG in the countries con:uered. tone scu"pture ma/ have come in this %a/ into India, and e"evated the ruder art there prevai"in&. In ,e$in& and its nei&h#ourhood meta" ima&es are not uncommon. ha$/amuni and the t%o favourite discip"es %ho usua""/ accompan/ him are sometimes seen made of copper or %hite copper, a#out six feet hi&h, %ith han&in& #ands of /e""o% c"oth suspended in front of them. To these #ands sma"" #e""s are attached, %hich rin& %hen sha$en %ith the %ind, or %hen touched #/ the priests or #/ visitors comin& for%ard to #urn incense. In North China it is a"so common to see pictures of Buddhist su#3ects painted more or "ess rude"/ on the %a""s of the ha""s %here the ima&es are seen. One of the forms, as said a"read/, in %hich the &oddess of merc/ is adored is as the 8K%an2/in of the ei&ht misfortunes8 %hich attend unprotected trave""ers. In paintin& them on %a""s trave""ers are seen, for examp"e, on a mountain attac$ed #/ ro##ers, %ho dra% their #o%s at their intended victims. 4ust at this moment the &oddess and her attendant appear in the air, and save the trave""ers #/ renderin& them invisi#"e. This is accomp"ished #/ pourin& a f"uid from a #ott"e %hich #ecomes a c"oud in its descent, and intervenes #et%een the trave""ers and the #anditti. In the monasteries in North China are sometimes found a tooth of Buddha, or some other re"ic. One tooth I sa% at the temp"e ca""ed Teu2sh%ai2sM %as t%o inches and a ha"f thic$ and ten #/ thirteen in %idth. Re"ics are $ept in #ott"es and sho%n to visitors. In the TJan& d/nast/ a vast num#er of temp"es and pa&odas %ere erected. It #ecame the fashion then, under the inf"uence of the superstition of +eng-shui, %hich came into vo&ue in the time of that d/nast/, to #ui"d pa&odas for "uc$ as %e"" as to contain re"ics. The pa&oda of TJien2nin&2sM, near ,e$in&, on the south2%est, and datin& from the ui d/nast/, must have #een then in the o"d cit/. The p. HDB ;para&raph continues< ,a2"i2ch%an& pa&oda %ou"d #e a +eng-shui protector on the north of the ancient cit/. On #oth these pa&odas, %hich are stron&"/ #ui"t of stone, there are carved Buddhas and Deva $in&s on "ar&e enta#"atures. The former and o"der of these pa&odas &ro%s narro%er as it rises. The other is a"most as %ide a#ove as #e"o%. The ,e$in& custom in ma$in& "ar&e ima&es, %hether the/ are of #rass, iron, %ood, or c"a/, is to construct them %ith the interna" or&ans as comp"ete as possi#"e. >hi"e the sma""er ima&es are fi""ed %ith Thi#etan incense or cotton %oo", the "ar&er have the interior arran&ed accordin& to Chinese notions of anatom/. The heads are a"%a/s empt/. The chief viscera of the chest and a#domen are a"%a/s represented. The/ are of si"$ or satin, and their shape is that found in dra%in&s of the or&ans in

native medica" %or$s. ( round red piece of si"$ represents the heart, %hose e"ement is fire. It is the siRe of a do""ar. It and the "un&s, %hich are %hite, and divided into three "o#es, are attached to a piece of %ood, round %hich is %ound a piece of /e""o% paper, havin& on it a Thi#etan pra/er. To the %ood is attached, #/ si"$ threads of five co"ours, a meta""ic mirror ca""ed ming-king. This represents inte""i&ence, the heart #ein& re&arded as the seat of mind. The "un&s cover the heart as an um#re""a or "id, as if to preserve it from in3ur/. In the a#domen the intestines are made of "on& narro% pieces of si"$ %ith cotton %oo" stitched a"on& the concave #order. This ma/ represent fat or the mesenter/. +m#racin& a"", "i$e the peritoneum, is a "ar&e piece of si"$ covered %ith pra/ers or charms. Inside are a"so to #e found "itt"e #a&s containin& the five $inds of &rain, %ith pear"s, 3ade, sma"" in&ots of si"ver, and &o"d of five candareens6 %ei&ht, and #its of so"der of various shapes to represent si"ver. The "ar&er and o"der ido"s have, in ver/ man/ cases, #een rif"ed of these "itt"e va"ua#"es, no one $no%s %hen. ,oor priests in %ant of mone/, if the fear of sacri"e&e is p. HDH not stron& in their minds, $no% %here to &et he"p, so that ido"s, in the interior of %hich &o"d and si"ver %ere once deposited, have no% none. In the meta""ic ima&es, the %a/ to &et to the inside is from the #ottom. (s the/ are ver/ heav/, the/ have usua""/ escaped #ein& ro##ed. But the c"a/ and %ooden ima&es are pac$ed from a ho"e in the #ac$, and are more "ia#"e to thievish depredation. >hen the ido"s are set up there is a ceremon/ of consecration. The priests prostrate themse"ves #efore them, and a fi"m of c"a/ or some other su#stance is c"eared a%a/ from the e/es of the ido"s. It is ca""ed the ceremon/ of openin& to the "i&ht, and the da/ is spo$en of as k1ai-kwang-"-ts. I am inde#ted to Dr. Dud&eon for the precedin& statement of the contents of Buddhist ima&es in ,e$in&. The richest temp"e at the >estern hi""s near ,e$in& is that ca""ed Tan2cho2sM. It has a revenue of t%e"ve thousand taels of si"ver a /ear. This is #et%een three and four thousand pounds. In BEAA I arrived there one evenin& %ith some friends and s"ept in a &uest room. (t the evenin& service there %ere a#out fort/ priests performin&. In addition to chantin& the/ struc$ the %ooden fish, c"ashed c/m#a"s to&ether, and had severa" other $inds of simp"e instruments. (t the end of the service the/ a"" %a"$ed in sin&"e fi"e round the ha"" t%ice #ehind the ima&es. The reason %h/ the three principa" ima&es in front of the &reat centra" door are p"aced %ith a space #ehind them is, that a procession #ehind ma/ #e practica#"e. It is a"so convenient to have a door there, and in front of the door an ima&e or picture, %hich is, conse:uent"/, at the #ac$ of the three principa" ido"s. In a #ox &iven a centur/ a&o to this monaster/ #/ the emperor, and p"aced near the %estern %a"" of the "ar&e ha"", is a sna$e t%o feet "on&. Beside it is a porce"ain tra/ of fresh %ater. >hen a rap on the #ox is &iven #/ the attendant priest, the sna$e moves its ton&ue out a#out ha"f an inch, vi#ratin& it in to$en of reverence and p. HDC su#mission. It ta$es nothin& #ut %ater. o the priest assured us. If %e are to #e"ieve him, it had #een there for t%o thousand /ears. The sna$e is not %orshipped as a divinit/, #ut rather represents the po%er of Buddha in charmin& and tamin& a sava&e nature. It %as a sna$e %ith #ro%n #od/ and #"ac$ spots, and its head %as sma"". The po%er of Buddha $eeps the anima" in su#3ection. That is the theor/. If the sna$e &oes out of the #ox, as it does occasiona""/ to ta$e an airin&, it returns to it as to its home. >e a"so sa% a structure ca""ed the Leng-yen-tan. It has ei&ht sides, and is used as an a"tar to represent in its carved ornaments the scenes of the Leng-yen-king. The centra" fi&ure is %hat is ca""ed a ,rat/e$a Buddha. Round it on the ei&ht sides are carved ei&ht representatives of ha$/amuni. (#ove them are cro%ns of f"o%ers. in&u"ar"/ enou&h there are p"aced here six ,ortu&uese sai"ors, %ith iron cuirasses and #road2#rimmed hats, in +uropean fashion. +ach of them $nee"s on one $nee, and ho"ds up %ith #oth hands an offerin& to Buddha. The/ are sma"" iron fi&ures, made in the time of the .in& d/nast/, and are ca""ed Si-yang-"en. This is the name #/ %hich the ,ortu&uese are $no%n in China. There is #ehind the Leng-yen-tan an a"tar for receivin& ne% mon$s to the vo%s, that is, a Kiai-tan, consistin& of t%o stories. On the upper stor/ or terrace are arran&ed chairs for the a##ot and his assessors. The a##ot sits on the centra" chair, and six mon$s on each side. The neoph/te $nee"s %ith his face to%ard the 8a##ot8 or +ang-chang, from %hom he is separated #/ a ta#"e. The ru"es are read #/ the a##ot %hi"e the neoph/te $nee"s. Tan a"so #e"on&s to the schoo" of the 80ina/a8 or L-men. There had #een a storm of rain, and %e %ere invited #/ a friend"/ priest to &o and see the foamin& and dashin& %ater near the &reat &ate of the monaster/. The #ed of the stream is steep, and fi""ed %ith "ar&e stones. The %ater comin& do%n the mountain after a storm rushes p. HDF mad"/ over #ou"ders and &rave" to the #rid&e, and is sho%n to ever/ visitor. Near this spot is a sma"" temp"e in honour of ,rat/e$a Buddha. The temp"e is ca""ed *n-lo-yen-sheu-tang. The terrace on %hich is p"aced the ima&e of ,rat/e$a Buddha is supported #/ four protectors of the "a% of Buddha. These four persona&es %ere once in a ro##er #and of five hundred men, and the/ "ived at that time for nothin& #ut crime. The/ %ere su#dued to virtue #/ the teachin& of Buddha. In &ratitude for the en"i&htenment the/ received, the/ offered to carr/ Buddha henceforth on their shou"ders. The ,rat/e$a Buddha %ears the s$u""2cap of the ordinar/ Buddha. It is supposed to #e the form assumed #/ the hair after severa" /ears of ascetic retirement in mountain so"itudes. (t ,i2/In sM, a temp"e t%e"ve mi"es %est of ,e$in&, there is a ha"" of five hundred )o2hans. The #ui"din& is a "ar&e s:uare, and contains six &a""eries. It is entered from the north. The first fi&ure met #/ the visitor is .aitre/a. !e faces the door. Be/ond and #ehind him is the centra" north and south &a""er/. On each side of it, as of the other five &a""eries, are seated fu""2siRed fi&ures of )o2hans. The/ are of c"a/ and seated on a stone terrace t%o feet in hei&ht. To the ri&ht and "eft are para""e" &a""eries. *our sma"" courts in the centres of the four :uarters of the "ar&e s:uare &ive "i&ht #/ continuous ro%s of paper %indo%s to the &a""eries. On a #eam overhead, near the entrance, is a sma"" fi&ure, the five hundred and first, %hich %as p"aced there as a supp"ementar/ ima&e. The stor/ is that this )o2han came too "ate, the p"aces %ere a"" fi""ed, and, therefore, he %as accommodated %ith a seat in the roof. In another court are representations of the future state. .ountain scener/, c"ouds, #rid&es, "a$es, as %e"" as men and other "ivin& #ein&s, are represented in c"a/. The

five principa" Bodhisatt%as preside, and especia""/ Ti-tsang. 1ood Buddhists are seen crossin& a #rid&e %ith happ/ p. HDD faces. Bad men are pushed #/ demons into a p"ace of torture #e"o%. 0arious crue" punishments are represented. +ver/thin& is in carefu""/ mou"ded and co"oured c"a/. Kwan-yin is associated %ith Ti-tsang in presidin& in the side ha""s. ("on& %ith the three other divinities, 5en-shu, !u-hien, and Ta-sh-ch, the/ preside %ith e:ua" honour in the centre ha"". On the co"oured roc$2%or$, the tortures of the %ic$ed and the happiness of the &ood are mixed, to indicate the resu"ts of Buddhist teachin& as imparted #/ the five divine instructors. (#ove these courts is the chief court of the temp"e %ith ha$/amuni5s ha"", the residences of the priests, and the &uest rooms. In the principa" &uest room there is a "ar&e picture hun& on the %a"" descriptive of an ancient Chinese princess, Chau2chiIn, %ho %as demanded #/ the $in& of the !iun&2nu Tartars as an indispensa#"e condition of peace, and %as sent to Tartar/ accordin&"/. he "eaped into the B"ac$ River and %as dro%ned. In the picture she "oo$s unhapp/ at the forced exi"e from her home and countr/. (t some distance #ehind her is the han2/I or emperor of the !iun&2nu. (#ove this ha"" is a ver/ handsome mar#"e &ate%a/. It is f"an$ed #/ "ar&e stone "ions. The pi""ars are surmounted a"so #/ "ions. The cross2#eams are carved %ith phoenixes a#ove and dra&ons #e"o%. T%o "ar&e enta#"atures have carved scenes representin& the triumph of the four virtues hiau, 8fi"ia" piet/,8 chung, 8"o/a"t/,8 lien, 8officia" purit/ uncorrupted #/ #ri#es,8 and tsie, 8chastit/.8 Certain ce"e#rated persons are here represented. (#ove this is a pa&oda of the shape ca""ed Kin-hang& pau-tso, 8Diamond throne.8 It is ver/ massive and is #ui"t %ith #"oc$s of mar#"e. On the s:uare f"at summit are seven sma"" pa&odas surmounted %ith #ronRe caps. The "ar&er ones have thirteen stories, #ut the/ are ver/ sha""o%. There are various inscriptions cut in the stone, Thi#etan and Chinese. The vie% of ,e$in& from the summit is ver/ fine. In the province of Che2$ian& I have seen t%o "ar&e p. HDA stone ima&es of Buddha cut out of mountain roc$. One is at !an&2cheu, and the other at a to%n ca""ed in2chan&. The second of these is the "ar&er of the t%o. The road to it extends a mi"e and a ha"f to the south2east of the cit/, and it is sevent/ feet hi&h. That at !an&2cheu is not, I #e"ieve, more than fort/. The in2chan& ima&e is more than a thousand /ears o"d, and %as cut #/ the "a#our of a father, son, and &randson, re:uirin& the chise""in& of three &enerations. It is an ima&e of .aitre/a, the comin& Buddha. Bein& so ma3estic in hei&ht, the si&ht of this ima&e is ver/ impressive. It is a#out the hei&ht of Ne#uchadneRRar5s ima&e on the p"ains of Dura, and has a ref"ectin& #enevo"ent aspect. The %ooden ima&e of .aitre/a in ,e$in&, at the "ar&e "amaser/, -un&2ho2$un&, is sti"" hi&her. The traditiona" hei&ht of ha$/amuni, the historica" Buddha, is sixteen feet. That of .aitre/a appears to #e sixt/. )et it #e remem#ered that teeth of Buddha and a"so his footsteps in roc$s are of monstrous siRe. In !iuen2tsan&5s trave"s he mentions a statue of %ood at Dardu, to the north of Cashmere and the ,un3a#. It %as a hundred feet hi&h, and %as executed #/ the )o2han .adh/anti$a, %ho converted to Buddhism the $in& of Cashmere and a"" his peop"e. B/ ma&ic he raised a scu"ptor to the Tushita paradise to see for himse"f the %onderfu" form of .aitre/a. (fter &oin& up three times he executed this ima&e. (n enormous tope, or Buddhist to%er, %as seen #/ the trave""er ten li east of ,esha%ur, in the ,un3a#. It %as three hundred and fift/ feet round, and ei&ht hundred feet hi&h. +ver/ Buddhist structure in China is d%arfish #eside this. *rom its erection ti"" the /ear (.D. DDG, a period of ei&ht hundred and fort/2t%o /ears %ere said to have passed. This %ou"d sho% that in B.C. HTH Buddhism %as the preva"ent faith in the ,un3a# ?Koeppen, p. BTB@. .odern trave""ers have found it %est of the cit/, and sti"" remar$a#"e for its immense siRe. It %as #ui"tif this statement can #e acceptedin the rei&n of Chandra&upta p. HDK ?cdefgdhijjik@, %ith %hom e"eucus conc"uded a treat/, and at %hose court at ,ata"iputra, the 1ree$ historian .e&asthenes appeared as an am#assador. But the Chinese trave""ers ascri#e it to Kanish$aQ and this can #e #e"ieved, for it is on"/ in the time of po%erfu" monarchs that monuments of this siRe can #e erectedQ and Kanish$a %as a most devoted Buddhist. !e %as a contemporar/ of (u&ustus and (nton/, as is $no%n #/ coins. ? ee in Koeppen, p. BTH.@ The pra/ers are chanted #/ the priests either sittin&, $nee"in&, or standin&. The/ consist of extracts from utras, or specia" #oo$s containin& charms. The extracts are statements of doctrine, of the merc/ and %isdom of Buddha, and the &"or/ attachin& to him. The pra/ers are not pra/ers in our sense. The/ %or$ a sort of ma&ica" effect. The "a% of a secret causation connects itse"f %ith the act of the reader of the "a%, or the offerer of incense, f"o%ers, and fruits. .usic accompanies the %orship. The fo""o%in& instruments I have noticedSthe drum, sma"" #e""s, c/m#a"s, tang-ts, ching, %ooden fish, yin-ching, and the "ar&e #e"". The drum has a c"apper ca""ed ku-chui. The c/m#a"s are of #rass. +ach has a c"oth ho"der throu&h the centre tied inside. The 8c/m#a"8 is ca""ed kwo. The tang-ts is a sma"" &on&, and is he"d #/ a ha"f cross, to %hich it is tied #/ strin&s. It is of #rass, and is struc$ #/ a sma"" c"apper. The ching is a f"at meta""ic p"ate cut in the shape of f"o%ers. It is supported #/ a %ooden c/"indrica" #ox, and this a&ain rests on a "o% ta#"e. It has a c"oth2covered c"apper. ( sma"" $ind of ching is ca""ed yin-ching. ( thin iron rod stri$es it to $eep time for the chanters. This yin-ching is t%o inches "on& #/ one deep, and is fastened ti&ht"/ to a "on& carved %ooden hand"e. The "ar&e #e"" is struc$ #/ a %ooden ma""et.

In the ima&es and the %orship offered to them #/ the p. HDE ;para&raph continues< Buddhist mon$ish communit/, ma/ #e found a $e/ to the so"ution of the :uestion, ho% Buddhism as a re"i&ion has "asted so "on&. It does not need faith, or conviction, or Rea". The mon$5s "ife is a :uiet one. !is %or$ is ver/ "i&ht. Nothin& is expected of him #ut order"/ conduct, and the chantin& of the instructions of Buddha, %ith invocations and the #eatin& of the %ooden fish. The indo"ent #ecome mon$s. Of rea" re"i&ious activit/ there is none. There is no 1od to %orship #ut Buddha, and Buddha is a teacher, an uncro%ned &od, in the sense in %hich Confucius %as an uncro%ned $in&. The mon$s $nee" to adore ima&es, not to pra/. >hen seated in a "ar&e ha"", the/ recite to&ether the teachin&s of their ha$/amuni, it is to favour contemp"ation and ref"ection. The ref"ex inf"uence of the ima&es on their minds is a""2important. 1ood "uc$ is expected, not throu&h the %i"" of an/ &od, #ut throu&h an impersona" fate. -et the/ &o #e/ond this, and rest their faith on the "e&ends, %ith %hich their #oo$s are cro%ded, re"atin& the po%erfu" interference of the Buddhas and Bodhisatt%asQ and thus these persona&es #ecome, in the re"i&ious faith of the peop"e, virtua" divinities. If ho%ever this is so, there are no printed pra/ers. If O2mi2to *o, or hM2$ia *o, or Kwan-yin&pu-sa, are #e"ieved in as &ods #/ the more credu"ous, the %orship is not a"tered on that account. The mon$s sti"" read the traditiona" passa&es out of the #oo$s of Buddha %hich teach the nothin&ness of the universe, and seem to #e so man/ sermons on the o"d text in +cc"esiastes, 80anit/ of vanities, a"" is vanit/.8 In the Buddhist "iterature, pra/ers %ith specia" ends in vie%, direct"/ addressed to either of these persona&es, I do not remem#er ever havin& seen more than once or t%ice. There is nothin& #ut praise and invocation in an exceedin&"/ #rief form. It is a pra/er"ess and &od"ess re"i&ion, if "oo$ed at from the Christian point of vie%.

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CHAPTER V.

MONASTERIES AT PU-TO. This esta#"ishment more modern than TJien2tJai and >u2tJai.an/ Thi#etan inscriptions*re:uent visits of ,e$in& "amasDedicated to K%an2/in1ifts #/ KJan&2hiIma&esCaves,a&odasInscriptionsResident defenders of BuddhismThe ,ota"a of 4eho" in .on&o"iaIt is a"so the name of the pa"aceTemp"e of the Da"ai )amaIn China an is"and %as preferred to #e the tau-chang of K%an2/in. T!I is"and has "on& #een $no%n to forei&ners as a ce"e#rated spot, to %hich mu"titudes of Rea"ous Buddhists ma$e pi"&rima&es. It has of "ate /ears #een a favourite summer residence of forei&ners, and has #een fre:uent"/ descri#ed in recent #oo$s on China, so that its natura" features need not #e here repeated. The pecu"iarities of the monasteries, ho%ever, need some remar$s, for trave""ers have hitherto said nothin& to exp"ain them. Their interest is modern compared %ith that of some other ce"e#rated seats of the Buddhist re"i&ion. *or anti:uities the/ cannot vie %ith TJien2tJai, or %ith >u2tJai shan in han2si. The/ are remar$a#"e rather as formin& a connectin& "in$ %ith the "ama Buddhism of Thi#et and .on&o"ia. This connection is seen in severa" circumstances. K%an2/in is the patron deit/ of Thi#et and a"so of ,Ju2to, "eadin& to a pecu"iar arran&ement of the ima&es in the monasteries, and the su#stitution of this deit/ for ha$/amuni Buddha in the centre of the &reat ha"". )ama priests at ,e$in& have a"%a/s #een accustomed to visit the is"and, and perform %orship p. HAG there ti"" recent"/, of %hich Thi#etan inscriptions sti"" on the is"and are monuments. The monastic esta#"ishments no% on the is"and date principa""/ from the .on&o"ian d/nast/ in the fourteenth centur/, and the .anchu emperors have, from motives of po"ic/, a"%a/s sho%n favour to the nationa" re"i&ion of their >estern tri#utaries. -et the re&u"ations of the monasteries are a"" Chinese, and the schoo"s to %hich the mon$s #e"on& are those %hich have sprun& up in China itse"f. One esta#"ishment #e"on&s to the )in2tsi schoo", and the other to that of TsJau2tun&. The fo""o%in& is the mode of teachin& in these schoo"s. The instructor utters a fe% sentences to his pupi"s adapted to en"i&hten them on some point considered of importance. The pupi"s in the Tsun&2men division of Chinese Buddhism, to %hich #oth these schoo"s #e"on&, depend not on #oo$s or on a re&u"ar course of stud/, #ut simp"/ on the "ivin& teacher. The founder of the )in2tsi once said, in ans%er to a discip"e5s :uestions, 8>hat is rea""/ BuddhaL >hat is dharma ?the "a%@L >hat is re"i&ious pro&ressL88That the heart #e pure and ca"m, is Buddha. That the mind #e c"ear and #ri&ht, is dharma. That hindrances in a"" directions #e removed, and the mind ca"m and #ri&ht, is 5re"i&ious pro&ress5 ?tau@.8 There appear to #e more monasteries no% #e"on&in& to this schoo" than to an/ other.

The visitor to the Buddhist sacred is"and %i"" notice the &reen and /e""o% ti"in& of the t%o "ar&e monasteries. The same materia" %as emp"o/ed in the Nan$in& porce"ain to%er no% destro/ed, and is found in the monasteries of the "amas in ,e$in&. This &"aRed potter/ is of the five co"ours at Nan$in&, viR., #"ue, /e""o%, red, #"ac$, and %hite. !ere it is on"/ &reen and /e""o%. It is ca""ed lieu-li-wa. Lieu-li is a %ord introduced to China, "i$e po-li 8&"ass,8 #/ the Buddhists. It is one of the +i&ht precious thin&s, and is ca""ed at fu"" "en&th in anscrit <aiduria. This name appears to #e &iven #/ the !indoos to a natura" and an artificia" su#stance ?as in the case a"so of 8spJati$a8 or po-li, 8&"ass8@. p. HAB The #ui"din&s are on a "ar&e sca"e. Thus the &reat ha"" of K%an2/in, in the first monaster/, is fift/ /ards "on& and thirt/ %ide. Both the "ar&e monasteries are dedicated to K%an2/in pJu2sa, instead of to ha$/amuni Buddha. In other monasteries the centra" position and the most monstrous ima&e are a"%a/s assi&ned to ha$/a, the Buddha rei&nin& in the present kalpa, and the teacher to %hom ever/ mon$ unites himse"f %hen he ta$es the vo%s. !ere, ho%ever, K%an2/in presides, and is therefore ca""ed Chu&Fo, 8the Ru"in& Buddha,8 of the monasteries and of the is"and. Instead of the usua" name Ta-hiung-pau-tien, 8The precious ha"" of the &reat hero,8 a""udin& to ha$/amuni, %e have the Ta-yuen-t1ung-tien, 8The ha"" of the comp"ete and correct doctrine,8 referrin& to K%an2/in. In this ha"" is a "ar&e ima&e of earthen%are %ith pedesta" and canop/, a"" #rou&ht from Thi#et, #/ order of the emperor KJan&2hi, and presented to each of the monasteries. The fi&ure is &i"t, and is that of a fema"e sittin& cross2"e&&ed in the Buddhist manner. There is no dress on it except rin&s on the arms, a fe% "otus "eaves, and the usua" cro%n of the Bodhisatt%as. In one of the monasteries, a /e""o% si"$ c"oa$ is thro%n over the ima&e. Round the canop/, %hich is of %ood, are fi&ures of Bodhisatt%as, and on the pedesta" severa" %hite e"ephants and "ions carved in %ood, %hich are a"so forei&n. Behind the Thi#etan ima&e is a monstrous ma"e K%an2/in, %ith the ,Ji2"u cro%n, representin& the ru"er of the monaster/. Over his head is a "ar&e circ"e, on %hich nine dra&ons t%ine themse"ves. *rom them the ha"" is a"so sometimes ca""ed Kieu-lung-tien. (#ove, on a ta#"et, is a sentence &iven #/ KJan&2hi, !u-tsi-kin-ling, 8The universa" saviour of a"" "ivin& #ein&s.8 This is said in praise of K%an2/in. On the "eft of this ima&e is a fi&ure of %ood, representin& (mita#ha, the fictitious Buddha of the >estern heaven, %hose name is constant"/ on the "ips of the Chinese p. HAH and Thi#etan priests, and is seen ever/%here painted on %a""s and carved on stone. K%an2/in p"a/s a principa" part in the "e&end of the 8,eacefu" "and8 or Tsing-tu, 8The >estern heaven,8 and is one of the 8three sa&es8 ?san-sheng@ supposed to reside there, the other t%o #ein& Ta-sh-ch&pu-sa and (mita#ha. On the ri&ht is another K%an2/in, ca""ed Kwo-hai K%an2/in, a""udin& to a 8passa&e across the sea8 of this deit/ to the is"and ,uta"o$a, the Indian archet/pe of !u-to itse"f. ("on& the east and %est %a""s of the ha"" are ran&ed thirt/2t%o ima&es, representin& the metamorphoses of K%an2/in. The/ are ca""ed Kwan-yin&san-sh-rsiang: the/ are a"" ma"e, and are individua"ised #/ varieties in posture, dress, and head2coverin&s. The name K%an2tsM2tsai is used in some of the inscriptions for K%an2shM2/in. This is a ne% name introduced #/ !iuen2tsan& the trave""er, from the anscrit (va"X$it`sh%ara, in p"ace of the o"der one trans"ated #/ Kumara3iva from the shorter !indoo name (va"o$ite. There are other representations of this deit/. The +i&ht2faced K%an2/in, the Thousand2handed K%an2/in, and 8The &iver of sons8 are found here, and common"/ in Buddhist temp"es. The "ast of these, Sung-ts2K%an2/in, is a fema"e fi&ure. Before the principa" ido" is a stand for an incense urn, Oc. It is ca""ed 5u-sh-hiang-pau, 8The five2vesse"2incense stand.8 The five vesse"s arean incense urn in the midd"e, t%o cand"e supporters, and t%o urns for f"o%ers. The same five vesse"s are a"so p"aced on the pavement in front of the ha"". (rtificia" f"o%ers on"/ are used. There is much simi"arit/ in the arran&ements of the t%o monasteries. Both have t%o imperia" ta#"ets %ith ha""s specia""/ erected for their reception. >hen these #ui"din&s are in3ured #/ time, it is not permitted to repair them %ithout an order from the emperor. !ence some of them have #ecome much di"apidated. )amas used to #e sent ever/ /ear from ,e$in& to the is"and, to %orship K%an2/in p. HAC in the emperor5s name, and investi&ate the condition of the monasteries. None, ho%ever, have &one there durin& the "ast fort/ /ears. The t%o Thi#etan inscriptions on the road side "eadin& to the first monaster/ %ere made #/ these "amas. The o"der one dates from the time of Kia2$Jin&, (.D. BKTA to BEBT. The other is no ear"ier than the rei&n of Tau2$%an&. In #oth monasteries the ei&hteen Lo-hans ?(rhans@, usua""/ p"aced in the centra" ha"" of temp"es, are found in side chape"s, their p"ace #ein& occupied #/ the thirt/2t%o fi&ures of K%an2/in. These supposed #ein&s are a step inferior to the ran$ of Bodhisatt%aQ #oth are inferior to Buddha. The reverence paid to K%an2/in is not, ho%ever, "ess on this account. )i$e other deities of the same ran$, K%an2/in has refused for a time to #ecome Buddha, preferrin& to save man$ind #/ discoursin& to them on the doctrines of this re"i&ion, and inducin& them to enter on the path to the Nirv9na. In a sma"" temp"e ca""ed !un&2fa2tJan&, 3ust #e/ond the first monaster/, is an interestin& representation of the ei&hteen (rhans crossin& the sea. The/ are seated on various sea anima"s. The proper names of these persona&es are a"" !indoo, and unfami"iar in their sound, from the circumstance that the/ do not occur in current "e&ends, #ut on"/ in more recondite ones, contained in some amon& the &reat co""ection of %or$s termed Tsang-king. The names of %e""2$no%n deities are therefore fre:uent"/ su#stituted for them, such as K%an2/in, .aitre/a, and Ti2tsan&2%an&. The "ast of these is seated on a "ar&e sea :uadruped in the representation here referred to. >hi"e he s"eeps, a star %ith a stream of "i&ht issues from his head. Beside him, sittin& on a dra&on, are t%o /ouths ca""ed 84o/8 ? Ki-king@ and 8Rest8 ?)ing-an@. The one, in a p"a/fu" humour, %ishes to %a$e his s"eepin& nei&h#our, #ut he is chec$ed #/ his companion. Bodhidharma, the founder of the contemp"ative schoo" in China, is introduced seated on %hat is termed a 8one2horned immorta" #u"".8 !e carries a p. HAF po"e on his shou"der %ith one shoe suspended on it. The stor/ is that, on crossin& the -an&2tsRe $ean&, he dropped the other, %hich %as pic$ed up #/ a countr/man,

and %as found to possess %onderfu" po%ers. .an3usiri is seated on a sea demon. ( ti&er is %hisperin& at his ear. !e thus "earns %hat peop"e at a distance are doin&. It shou"d #e remem#ered that the attri#ute of this &reat Bodhisatt%a is %isdom. In the same representation K%an2/in sits on some other sea anima". !e is pourin& the e"ixir of "ife from a &ourd. (s it f"o%s out it #ecomes the &enius of a star. There is no difficu"t/ fe"t #/ the arran&ers of temp"es in p"acin& the Bodhisatt%as amon& the (rhans, #ecause the/ have a"" necessari"/ passed throu&h that state #efore arrivin& at their present position. o the (rhan is on"/ such after passin& throu&h three &rades of discip"eship, %hich are the first steps on the road to the Nirv9na. The Buddha himse"f must &o throu&h a"" these sta&es from the first introduction to the sacred "ife up to the state of Bodhisatt%a. The/ form the "adder from the actua" %or"d of human "ife to that c"oud2"and of a#stractions %hich the contemp"ative Buddhist hopes to reach at "ast. In accordance %ith this, the hermit "ife of ha$/amuni Buddha is depicted on the %a""s of the same temp"e. (#ove the ei&hteen (rhans 3ust descri#ed, is a representation, in painted c"a/, of the !ima"a/as. !ere is seen a hut of rushes inha#ited #/ the future Buddha. .on$e/s and sacred &eese #rin& him food, and dra&ons, ti&ers, and %hite ra##its are his near nei&h#ours. In the third monaster/, hi&h on the hi"" ca""ed *o2tin& shan, is a some%hat remar$a#"e representation of the !indoo &ods. The/ are presided over #/ -I2h%an& of the Brahma heaven. I cou"d not, ho%ever, o#tain an inte""i&ent account of them from the i""iterate priest %ho %as residin& there. !e %as an artisan from Kieu2$ian& in Kian&2si, %ho had "eft his %ife and fami"/ in char&e of his e"dest son, and #ecome a mon$. p. HAD (t another sma""er temp"e, %here there are severa" caves, each %ith one or more sma"" stone Buddhas seated inside, sho%n to visitors as em#"ematic of the hermit "ife, I found a /oun& priest ver/ read/ to defend his s/stem. >hen the %orship of Buddha %as o#3ected to, on the &round that it su#stituted the creature for the Creator, he rep"ied that ha$/amuni Buddha, #ein& at the head of the !%a2tsan& universe, %as far hi&her in di&nit/ than !e %ho ru"ed this "esser universe. !e %as reminded in rep"/ that the vast Hwa-tsang-sh-kiai, a con&eries of an immense num#er of "esser %or"ds, %as nothin& #ut an invention of the author of the Hwa-yen-king, and that in rea"it/ there %as no existence or %or"d not inc"uded %ithin the dominions of 1od. !e did not attempt to continue the ar&ument. *acin& the first monaster/ is a sma"" pa&oda, dedicated to the .in& emperor, $no%n as >an2"i h%an&2ti. This prince #efore ascendin& the throne had conferred #enefits on the institutions of the is"and, and this pa&oda %as named after him Tai-ts-ta, 8,a&oda of the cro%n prince.8 On its four sides are p"aced stone ima&es of the four &reat Bodhisatt%as, to each of %hom one of the four e"ements is assi&ned. Ti2tsan&, under %hose 3urisdiction he"" is supposed to #e, presides over earth. !e is said to have #ecome incarnate in a former iamese prince. !e is %orshipped specia""/ in the outh at Kieu2h%a, near Nan$in&. K%an2/in presides over %ater. !is attri#ute is merc/, and he is %orshipped in the +ast at ,Ju2to. ,Ju2hien presides over fire. !is attri#ute is happiness, and he is %orshipped in the >est at the >oo2%ei mountain in M2chJ%en. .an3usiri presides over air ?%ind@, and is %orshipped in han2si. !is attri#ute is %isdom. Inscriptions on roc$s "inin& the paths are ver/ numerous at ,Ju2to. .ost of them are Buddhistic. ome specimens of them %i"" #e no% &iven. Hwei-teu-sh-an, 8-ou have #ut to turn #ac$ and /ou %i"" have reached the shore.8 Teng-pei-an, 81o up on that shore.8 The Buddhists sa/ that sa"vation is in $no%"ed&e. The discip"e p. HAA is "ed #/ the teachin& of Buddha, from the sea of i&norance to the 8 hore of true %isdom8 ?,ra3na paramita, !o-"e&po-lo-mi-to@, Kin-sheng-kio-lu, 8The &o"den thread that &uides into the path of inte""i&ence.8 Hwei-"-tung-sheng, 8The sun of %isdom rises in the east.8 Teng-ta-yuen-cheu, 8(scend the ship of &reat %ishes.8 The &reat %ish of a Buddha or a ,Ju2sa is to save man$ind and a"" "ivin& #ein&s. The/ rescue those %ho are stru&&"in& in the sea of "ife and death, and vice and virtue, and conve/ them to the shore of true $no%"ed&e. !ence K%an2/in is ca""ed Ts-hang, 80esse" of merc/.8 Fa-lun-chang-chwen, 8The %hee" of the "a% constant"/ revo"ves.8 This refers to the unceasin& proc"amation #/ #oo$s and mon$s of the doctrines of ha$/amuni. The metaphor #/ %hich Buddhist preachin& is ca""ed the revo"vin& of the %hee", is seen practica""/ exemp"ified in the pra/in&2%hee"s of .on&o"ia, #/ the turnin& of %hich an accumu"ation of merit is o#tained. o in China, the %ho"e Buddhist "i#rar/ of severa" thousand vo"umes is p"aced in a "ar&e octa&ona" revo"vin& #oo$case, %hich is pushed round at the instance of the visitor. (t 4eho", a#out a hundred and t%ent/ mi"es north2east of ,e$in&, there is a nest of "ama monasteries, in a va""e/ c"ose to the emperor5s huntin&2"od&e and summer pa"ace. (mon& these monasteries are some of Thi#etan architecture, the chief of %hich is ,ota"a. It is mode""ed after the ,ota"a in %hich the Da"ai )ama "ives at )hassa in Thi#et. The Da"ai )ama is a "ivin& incarnation of K%an2/in, and therefore his pa"ace2temp"e %as ca""ed ,ota"a. This name is app"ied various"/ to a sea2port at the mouth of the Indus, the seat of ha$/amuni5s ancestors, and to a mountain ran&e near or part of the Ni"&herries %here (va"X$it`sh%ara %as fond of &oin&, in addition to the is"and in the Indian Ocean, the pa"ace at )hassa, and the Chinese ,Ju2to. *or particu"ars, see in +ite", p. TC. ,erhaps the is"and ma/ have #een at the mouth of the p. HAK ;para&raph continues< Indus, and "eft its name in the present Tatta, the !attala of the 1ree$s. The settin& apart of the is"and ,Ju2to, in the Chusan (rchipe"a&o, is proof that the Buddhist ima&ination, in se"ectin& a p"ace for the specia" %orship of K%an2/in in China, preferred an is"and. This a&reed #est %ith the "e&ends. !ere K%an2/in %ou"d, in expoundin& the dharma that is to save "ivin& #ein&s, seem more in her p"ace than on a mountain of the main2"and. This is an appropriate tauchang B for her, %here she can #e at hand to rescue sai"ors from the dan&ers of the sea, and %here cro%ds of pi"&rims %i"" in fair %eather not #e %antin& to receive the #enefit of her instructions.

Footnotes HAKSB Tau-chang, 8,"ace of doctrine.8

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CHAPTER VI.

BUDDHIST PROCESSIONS" ASSOCIATIONS" PILGRIMAGES" AND CEREMONIES FOR THE DEAD. -lan-hwei, 8(ssociation for &ivin& food to the dead8>orship of ancestors)itur&ica" services in the houses of the rich, for the "i#eration of the sou"s of the dead from he""0i""a&e processionsBased on the o"d rura" processions of c"assica" times.as:uerades,"a/s,i"&rima&es to .iau2fen& shan,i"&rims %earin& iron chains upposed efficac/ of the pra/ers of the priestsPea" of the "ait/ in promotin& pi"&rima&es to ce"e#rated shrines. ( TRIKIN1 examp"e of the popu"ar inf"uence of Buddhism is found in the associations ca""ed -lan-hwei. The da/ for feedin& hun&r/ &hosts, the professed o#3ect of this association, is the BDth of the seventh month. The ori&ina" hun&r/ &hosts %ere the !indoo ,retas. In China the hun&r/ &hosts are the spirits of the dead, especia""/ of ancestors. Buddhists are appea"ed to on #eha"f of the dead %ho have no descendants to %orship them, and feed them #/ sacrifices. Thus the sentiment of compassion for the ne&"ected dead and of ancestors is in&enious"/ made #/ Buddhism into an instrument for promotin& its o%n inf"uence amon& the peop"e. The #e"ief in the metemps/chosis amon& the !indoos connected itse"f %ith the Chinese sacrifices to ancestors. The t%o thin&s com#ined formed an en&ine of &reat po%er for affectin& the pu#"ic mind. >hen the rich die in ,e$in&, priests are invited to read "itur&ies for three da/s in their houses. +i&ht men are p. HAT sent. ( priest to"d me that the/ read five #oo$s in particu"ar on one occasion recent"/, %hen I made in:uir/. The/ %ere the Leng-yen-king, the Kin-kang-king, the Fahwa-king ?)otus of the 1ood )a%@, the Ti-tsang-king, and the Ta&pei-chan, a Tantra of the TJan& d/nast/. The/ read for a#out six hours each da/, %ith a particu"ar intonation, %hich is determined #/ a certain musica" notation and is "earned specia""/. The/ too$ %ith them cand"estic$s, a picture of Buddha, and the %ooden fish, and had no musica" instruments. Their o#3ect %as #/ pra/ers to "i#erate as ear"/ as possi#"e the sou" of the dead from miser/. Buddhism found vi""a&e processions of a re"i&ious character a"read/ existin& in the countr/, and accepted them so far as seemed fittin&. >hen it is considered that in the o"d re"i&ion of 1reece and Rome, rura" processions %ere in those countries a favourite amusement mixed %ith re"i&ious ideas, the examination of simi"ar customs in China is of specia" interest. In the discourses of Confucius it is said, that %hen the a&ricu"tura" "a#ourers came out to drin$ %ine, or to perform a ceremon/ intended to drive a%a/ pesti"entia" diseases, and the o"d men appeared "eanin& on their croo$s, Confucius himse"f a"so came from his house in his court ro#es and stood on the east side on the stone steps. This %as an indication of his desire to conform to the ha#its of the countr/. !e a#horred a"" irre&u"arit/. The p"a/ or spectac"e here a""uded to %as a procession of sin&ers. It %as ca""ed 6o. The custom at present representin& the ceremon/ of the No is ca""ed ang-ko. The performers, a#out ten in num#er, &o a#out the vi""a&es and ham"ets on hi&h sti"ts in fanc/ costumes. One is a fisherman, another is a %ood2&atherer ca""ed Chai-wang, 8,rince of fue".8 There is a 8#e&&in& priest,8 or ho-shang, and an o"d %oman ca""ed tso-ts, and some others. The/ sin& as the/ &o. The %ord ko is 8son&,8 and /an& is 8to raise.8 The 8sti"ts8 are ca""ed kau-kiau. These processions are seen in the p. HKG countr/ at the end of *e#ruar/. The o"d custom of Confucius6 a&e has died out, to #e revived afresh in this modern form %ith a Buddhist priest as one of the performers. It is re&arded #/ the "iterati as a mere theatrica" performance and an amusement of the rura" popu"ation. ome trace it to the son of )ieu ,ei, %ho rei&ned in M2chJ%en, (.D. HEG. But then there %ere fe% priests, %hich is an o#3ection to this vie%. In the Cheu-li, the ancient soverei&ns of China or their deputies are represented as performin& certain ceremonies for the remova" of pesti"entia" diseases four times in the /earonce for each season. The vie% then he"d %as that the wen-yi or 8sic$ness,8 prevai"in& at certain times of the /ear, is caused #/ demons ca""ed li or dit. These customs cou"d on"/ #e introduced on their present #asis at a time %hen Buddhism %as rife and shorn priests %ere found in ever/ vi""a&e. ,ro#a#"/ the/ are ear"ier than the TJan& d/nast/. ome natives thin$ the/ #e"on& to the un&, #ecause it is customar/ to represent in mas:uerade the ro##ers of the nove" ca""ed ShuE-hu, the scene of %hich is "aid at the mountain )ian&2shan in han2tun&. These ro##ers a"" at "ast su#mit to contro", and are made officers of the &overnment, %hich %as that of the un& d/nast/, %hen ,ien2"ian& %as the capita". But the main o#3ect of these vi""a&e amusements #ein& re"i&ious, it is perhaps #etter to re&ard them as Buddhist, and as para""e" %ith the theatrica" sho%s of the "amas in their monasteries in ,e$in& and .on&o"ia. Buddhist nunneries in ,e$in& have theatrica" sho%s once a /ear. ( "ar&e mat shed is erected, and p"a/ actors are invited to perform an ordinar/ p"a/. The nuns %ait on the spectators of the p"a/, and the mone/ co""ected he"ps to defra/ the expenses of the nunner/ for the current /ear. ,"a/s are considered re"i&ious, #ecause the/ are supposed to #e performed to amuse the &ods in %hose temp"es the/ are performed. +ver/ /ear, in the third and ninth months,our (pri" p. HKB and Octo#er,a procession is or&anised in ,e$in& to .iau2fen& shan, a Buddhist p"ace of pi"&rima&eQ the 3ourne/ to %hich #/ the pi"&rims occupies three, four, or five da/s. .one/ is su#scri#ed, and is p"aced in the hands of a committee %ho erect "oft/ mat sheds on the "ine of route for the entertainment of the pi"&rims. The %orship

consists of #o%in&s, $nee"in&s, head2$noc$in&s, #urnin& incense, and offerin& of mone/ to the attendant priest. )ar&e pits are fi""ed %ith copper mone/ to a depth of t%o, three, or five feet. >ith the mone/ thus o#tained the priests return to their monasteries, "eavin& this particu"ar temp"e shut up and unoccupied at the end of the season, ti"" the time of pi"&rima&e comes round a&ain, six months "ater, in the autumn or sprin& as the case ma/ #e. The chief divinit/ is ,i2hia -uen2chiIn, a Tauist persona&e, #ut the temp"e is cared for #/ Buddhist priests. It is p"aced amon& the mountains to the north %est of ,e$in&. On one occasion I passed a pi"&rim &oin& from ,e$in& to .iau2fen& shan to fu"fi" a vo%. !e %as a .anchu of t%ent/2seven /ears of a&e. !e had #een i"", and %hi"e i"" had vo%ed to %a"$ in chains to the temp"e and #ac$. (n iron chain #ound his feet and hands. It %as #orro%ed from a temp"e %here such &ear is $ept for the occasiona" use of pi"&rims. The next da/ I met another such pi"&rim returnin&, #ut stron&er in #od/ and "ive"ier in appearance than the one I conversed %ith the da/ #efore. Both %ere attended #/ a companion, and #oth %ore a red dress in to$en of their #ein& ma"efactorsQ for the pi"&rims st/"e themse"ves on these occasions crimina"s, and the chain is a si&n of vo"untar/ #onda&e underta$en in the spirit of confession of demerit. The/ at first "oo$ "i$e prisoners in char&e of po"ice, #ut their su#missive air and the red dress sho% that the/ are devotees. Three sisters, ca""ed the three niang-niang, are %orshipped at .iau2fen& shan. The second of the three is chief"/ p. HKH %orshipped there. The e"dest is honoured at some p"ace in han2tun& %ith specia" reverence. The pra/ers of the ho-shang are supposed to have the po%er to #rea$ open the caverns of he"". The/ chant to&ether in the houses of the rich to %hich the/ are invited, proceedin& throu&h a se"ection of favourite "itur&ica" #oo$s. This is ca""ed tso-kung-te, 8performin& meritorious acts.8 +ver/ act of merit is a +u-yuen, 8cause of happiness.8 There never /et %as a &ood man %hose &oodness %as "eft %ithout re%ard. The pra/ers of the priest must have their effect. The chantin& of the #oo$s cannot fai" to #rin& happiness. uch is the operation of the karma, or 8mora" necessit/.8 I conversed, in the sprin& of BEKT, %ith a %oman %ho #rou&ht a sic$ mem#er of her fami"/ to ,e$in& to #e under the care of Dr. Dud&eon, at the )ondon .ission !ospita". The/ sta/ed for some da/s, and "earned Christian doctrine from a Bi#"e2%oman. The %oman had #een an or&aniser of Buddhist pi"&rima&es to a monaster/ ca""ed i2/I sM in the mountains %est of ,e$in&. he "ives at a sma"" to%n in the countr/ t%o da/s6 trave""in& from the monaster/. +ver/ sprin& she has exerted her inf"uence for man/ /ears past to persuade her nei&h#ours to &o to&ether to this monaster/ to %orship. he headed the arran&ements. The procession usua""/ consisted of mu"e carts to the num#er of a#out fifteen. he expressed her determination to &ive this up and #ecome a Christian. )a/ Buddhists appear to #e far more active in stirrin& up the peop"e to &o on pi"&rima&e to mountain temp"es than the priests themse"ves. >hen mone/ is to #e co""ected for the repair of temp"es, the priests ta$e the "eadQ #ut in vo"untar/ associations for a re"i&ious 3aunt in sprin& or autumn %eather, the Rea" of the "ait/ is much more conspicuous.

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CHAPTER VII.

BUDDHIST LITERATURE. Buddhist "i#raries presented to monasteries #/ emperorsChJen&2tsu, of the .in& d/nast/, %as the first to print the entire series of the Buddhist accepted #oo$s !ra"na&paramita, ei&ht/ times as "ar&e as our Ne% TestamentThe ,ei2tsan&, or second printed edition, dates from the sixteenth centur/The Kia2hin& edition of the ,ei2tsan&Division into King, L, Lun*irst Counci">or$ of (nandaThe .aha/ana of Northern BuddhismCounci" of Cashmere(uthors of the .aha/ana )un&2 shu %rote the Hwa-yen-kingContrasts #et%een the primitive and .aha/ana #oo$s)ist of trans"ators (.D. KG to (.D. KGD ixteen hundred %or$s are c"assified, inc"usive of those #/ Chinese authorsOn the counci"s for sett"in& the canonTrans"ations #/ Burnouf and others)otusBoo$ of *ort/2t%o ections Character of this and other ear"/ %or$s tories i""ustrative of ancient "ifeFan-wang-kingChan-ts-king trans"ated #/ Bea",ratimo$sha. T!+ first fixin& of the Buddhist canon %as at the Counci"s of Ra3a&riha and ,ata"iputra. The Northern and outhern Buddhists he"d to&ether ti"" the Counci" of ,ata"iputra, under (shX$a. >hen an immense missionar/ deve"opment fo""o%ed on the meetin& of this Counci", the separation %as a natura" resu"t, #ecause of the vast extent of countr/ over %hich Buddhism short"/ #ecame the preva"ent re"i&ion. The ori&in of the primitive Buddhist #oo$s %hich are Common to the Northern and outhern Buddhists is, then, anterior to B.C. HFAQ and the addition to the canon of the .aha/ana #oo$s containin& the "e&ends of K%an2/in and of the >estern heaven %ith its Buddha, (mita#ha, %as p. HKF

a"so previous to the Counci" of Cashmere, a "itt"e #efore the #e&innin& of our era. >hen the first #oo$s %ere trans"ated into Chinese from anscrit, it %as #efore the time of the introduction of paper. Bam#oo ta#"ets %ere sti"" emp"o/ed, and the/ %ere painted on %ith a #rush. ,aper2ma$in& soon came into use, and in the fourth centur/ the present s/stem of Chinese %ritin& %as fu""/ in use. *rom that time ti"" the invention of printin&, seven hundred /ears "ater, copies of the sacred #oo$s %ou"d #e made from time to time in the monasteries. (s in countries %here the pa"m &ro%s the mon$s have continued to %rite on the pa"m2"eaf, so in China, ti"" printin& %as $no%n, transcri#ed copies of a"" needed #oo$s %ou"d #e made and preserved in monasteries. The "i#rar/ of the "ar&er Buddhist monasteries consists of a comp"ete co""ectionpresented #/ some former emperorof the 8#oo$s of the re"i&ion8 ? tsang-king@. The visitor %i"" see them in ei&ht or ten "ar&e #oo$cases. In man/ instances the/ are preserved %ith &reat care and are hi&h"/ va"ued. +ven if %orm2eaten and in3ured #/ damp, the priests a"%a/s express un%i""in&ness to part %ith an/ portions of them. Thou&h the/ se"dom ma$e use of this "i#rar/ themse"ves, the/ consider that it %ou"d #e an offence a&ainst the emperor to a""o% an/ of the #oo$s it contains to #e removed. The preface to one of the "ast imperia" editions is dated (.D. BFBG, in the ung-lo period of the third emperor of the .in& d/nast/. In addition to the erection of the porce"ain to%er at Nan$in&, previous to the remova" of his residence from that p"ace to ,e$in&, he further si&na"ised his Rea" for Buddhism #/ causin& #"oc$s to #e cut for the first time for the entire series of Buddhist #oo$s. The/ reached the num#er of AKKB kiuen or 8sections.8 ( "itt"e more than three2fourths of this extensive "iterature consists of trans"ations from anscrit. (ccordin& to a rou&h ca"cu"ation, the %ho"e %or$ of the !indoo trans"ators in China, to&ether %ith that of !iuen2tsan& the p. HKD trave""er, amounts to a#out seven hundred times the siRe of the Ne% Testament in Chinese form. In this estimate "ost trans"ations, %hich are numerous, are not inc"uded. One of these %or$s, the #aha&!ra"na&paramita ?Ta-poh-"e-king@, consists of a hundred and t%ent/ vo"umes. It is perhaps the most extensive sin&"e #oo$ ever trans"ated in an/ a&e or countr/, #ein& a#out ei&ht/ times as "ar&e as the Ne% Testament. The ce"e#rated Chinese trans"ator, !iuen2tsan&, %as en&a&ed on it four /ears. The edition of Buddhist #oo$s printed in the period -un&2"o is ca""ed 6an-tsang, the 8 outhern co""ection.8 There %as another made in the time of >an2"i in the c"osin& part of the sixteenth centur/. The imperia" residence havin& #een a"read/ removed from Nan$in& to ,e$in&, this edition %as ca""ed the !ei-tsang or 8Northern co""ection.8 ( ne% set of #"oc$s %as cut at the expense of private persons from this "ast, #/ a priest ca""ed TsM2pe to2shM, not man/ /ears after. The/ %ere p"aced in the )en&2/en monaster/ at Kia2hin& near !an&2che%, and %ere sti"" there #efore the TJai2pin& re#e""ion. In BKHC, a former &overnor of Che2$ian& repaired the #"oc$s, and %rote a preface to a cata"o&ue of these #oo$s under the tit"e of !ei-tsang-mu-lu. It contains a reprint of the imperia" preface to the first comp"ete edition datin& in the seventh centur/ ?TJan& Chun&2tsun&@. This document a""udes to the "a#ours of the successive trans"ators, and d%e""s especia""/ on the adventures of !iuen2tsan& %ho had recent"/ returned from his t%ent/ /ears6 trave"s in India, and had come to #e re&arded, on account of his successfu" 3ourne/ and "iterar/ "a#ours, as the most remar$a#"e of a"" the Chinese Buddhists. The primar/ division of the Buddhist #oo$s is into three parts, King, L, Lun, or 8 utra, 0ina/a, and (#hidharma.8 The first contains the immediate instructions of Buddha on do&ma. It detai"s those present as "isteners, p. HKA an/ remar$a#"e circumstances that occurred, the conversations that too$ p"ace #et%een Buddha and an/ of his audience, and the direct instructions that he communicated to them. The 0ina/a re"ates the discip"ine appointed #/ Buddha for his fo""o%ers, and the circumstances that "ed to the esta#"ishment of particu"ar ru"es and o#servances. The scene, audience, and conversations are detai"ed much in the manner of the utras or %or$s of the first c"ass. The %ord king is indeed often app"ied to %or$s that are p"aced in the 0ina/a division. The third part, (#hidharma, consists of discussions, in man/ instances #/ $no%n authors, on the Buddhist creed and on heresies. The/ are not then "i$e the %or$s found in the first and second c"asses, necessari"/ spo$enaccordin& to Buddhist faith#/ ha$/amuniQ #ut inc"ude man/ that %ere %ritten, in the first centuries after his death, #/ the more distin&uished of his fo""o%ers. (fter Buddha5s entrance into the Nirv9na, %e are to"d his discip"es met to a&ree on the #oo$s that shou"d #e re&arded as the true traditions of their master5s instructions. Kashiapa assem#"ed them at the mountain -i-"a-ku-ta ?1ridhra$uta@. The/ came there #/ the exercise of miracu"ous po%er. (nanda, %ho %as /oun&, had not /et attained to the ran$ of (rhan %hen the meetin& #e&an, #ut 3ust at this time he %as raised to the necessar/ e"evation and too$ his seat %ith the rest. Kashiapa then saidS 8The 5Bi$shu (nanda5 ?;-nan&!i-6eu@ has &reat %isdom. )i$e a vesse" receivin& %ater, he im#i#ed the doctrine of Buddha, retainin& no more and no "ess than %hat the teacher uttered. )et him #e invited to compi"e the Sutra&!itaka ?Co""ection of the $in& or discourses of ha$/amuni@.8 The assem#"/ remained si"ent. Kashiapa then addressed (nandaS 8It is for /ou no% to promu"&ate the 5e/e of the doctrine5 ?+a-yen@.8 (nanda assented, and after o#servin& the countenances of the audience, saidS 8Bi$shus and a"" here present. >ithout Buddha nothin& is no#"e or #eautifu", as in the expanse p. HKK a#ove, the stars cannot spare the moon.8 !e then #o%ed to the assem#"/, and ascended the rostrum. !e #e&anS 8Thus have I heard(t a certain time, %hen Buddha %as a certain p"ace, he de"ivered such instructions.8 In each instance Kashiapa as$ed the Bi$shus if such %ere rea""/ the %ords of Buddha, and the/ a"" rep"ied, 8The/ %ere 3ust these %ords.8 B ( simi"ar account is retained #/ the in&ha"ese of the ori&in of the utras. H The 0ina/a division of the #oo$s %as, accordin& to their traditions, prepared #/ Upa"i, and the hastras or (#hidharma #/ Kashiapa. o far as this threefo"d arran&ement of the #oo$s, the Northern and outhern Buddhists are at one. But for the "iterature of the North a further division must no% #e noticed. The distinction of #ahayana ?Ta-ch1eng@, or 81reat Deve"opment,8 and Hinayana ?Siau-ch1eng@, or 8)esser Deve"opment,8 runs throu&h the %or$s of a"" the three c"asses a#ove descri#ed. The %or$s of the 8)esser Deve"opment8 ?or vehic"e@ there can #e "itt"e dou#t are the ori&ina" #oo$s of Buddha, for their do&mas and "e&ends a&ree %ith the re"i&ion as it is sti"" professed in Ce/"on and #/ a"" the outhern Buddhists. The .aha/ana is, on the other hand, un$no%n there. Burnouf attri#utes the #oo$s of the )esser Deve"opment to the first Buddhist counci" a"read/ descri#ed, and those of the 1reater Deve"opment to another he"d a "itt"e more than four hundred /ears after ha$/amuni5s death. It is his opinion that the .aha/ana #oo$s %ere composed in Cashmere, in the rei&n of Kanish$a, C a $in& of Northern India ?Ca#u"@. ( counci"the third or fourth%as then ca""ed to decide %hat #oo$s shou"d #e canonica", and it %as then that these extensive additions to the Tripitaka& or 8Three co""ections8 %ere a&reed upon. The same "earned %riter

p. HKE interposes another counci" a hundred and ten /ears after the first, in the rei&n of (shX$a a"so ca""ed ,i/adasi. This prince, from his extensive empire and his patrona&e of Buddhism, is ca""ed a %hee"2$in&, i,e,, a Buddhist $in& to %hom the %or"d is su#3ect, and %ho causes the %hee" of the ho"/ doctrine to #e $ept turnin&. There need #e no hesitation in adoptin& Burnouf5s vie%, for %e $no% the names and man/ of the %ritin&s of inf"uentia" Buddhists %ho "ived at the time and p"ace indicated, and %hose opinions and :ua"ifications %ere such as to render them fitted for the authorship of the Ta-ch1eng or 8.aha/ana8 #oo$s, and much presumptive evidence of the fact %i"" #e found to exist. (mon& them %ere?B.@ #a-ming, or 8(sh%a&osha,8 the t%e"fth patriarch, %ho %rote Ki-sin-lun, the 8 hastra for a%a$enin& faith.8 B ?H.@ Lung-shu, or 8Na&ar3una,8 the fourteenth patriarch, author of <i(hasha-lun, Chung-lun, Ta-ch-tu-lun, !ra"na-teng-lun, Sh-er-men-lun, and severa" other %or$s, inc"udin& the most venerated of a"" the Buddhist #oo$s in China, the Hwa-yen-king. ?C.@ Tien-tsin, or 80asu#andu.8 It is said of him, that %hen he first #ecame a mon$ he %as a #itter enem/ of the .aha/ana #oo$s, and destro/ed them %henever he had opportunit/. B/ the inf"uence of his e"der #rother (sen&ha, H he %as #rou&ht to chan&e his vie%s. !is remorse %as such that he %ou"d have %renched out his ton&ue, #ut (sen&ha said to him, 8as he had former"/ used his ton&ue to revi"e the 1reat Deve"opment #oo$s, he shou"d no% emp"o/ it to praise them. This %ou"d #e an expiation for his fau"t.8 (fter this he %rote more than a hundred %or$s, %hich %ere p"aced in the third division of the sacred #oo$s. C p. HKT ?F.@ 5u-cho, or 8(sen&ha,8 #rother of the "ast. ?D.@ Hu-+a, or 8Dharmapara8 ?,rotector of the "a%@. !e %as #orn in the Dravida countr/ in outh India. !e %rote the hastra Cheng-wei-sh-lun. ?A.@ .aitre/a. ?K.@ Deva. ?E.@ hen&2tJien. These and one or t%o more are mentioned amon& the authors of hastras. ("" these persons are di&nified %ith the name of Bodhisatt%a. The authorship of the Hwa-yen-king ma/ #e ascri#ed to )un&2shu, on the &round that he is said in a Chinese preface to have discovered it in the 8Dra&on pa"ace,8 and first promu"&ated it as one of the .aha/ana utras, or #oo$s of the 81reat vehic"e.8 !e cou"d not prefix his name to it as to %or$s of the third division, #ecause it is essentia" to a utra that it #e a discourse of Buddha. In conformit/ %ith this princip"e, the 1reat Deve"opment 8 utras,8 or as the/ are ca""ed in Chinese King, are #/ a fiction ascri#ed to ha$/amuni, thou&h their rea" authors %ere, as there is ever/ reason to suppose, the acute2minded !indoos %hose names have 3ust #een &iven. T%o principa" divisions of the Buddhist #oo$s, in reference to the time of their composition, are thus o#tained. The former #e"on&in& to the fifth centur/ B.C. contain, amon& other thin&s, the monastic institutions, the mora" code, the ascetic "ife, the metemps/chosis, and the Nirv9na, of %hich the first t%o are Buddhist, and the "atter three common to the native re"i&ions of India. The %ho"e is inter%oven %ith the fantastic notions of the !indoos on &eo&raph/, astronom/, and supernatura" #ein&s. The second division em#races "ater deve"opments in metaph/sics and cosmo&on/. In the !ra"na&paramita, throu&h a hundred and t%ent/ vo"umes, the favourite do&ma of extreme idea"ism, the non2existence of mind and matter in a"" their forms, is reiterated to satiet/. In the "e&ends of the +astern and >estern paradisethat of (chJo#h/a and that of (mita#haand re&ardin& the formation of various other vast %or"ds and po%erfu" divinities, the ne% m/tho"o&ica" tendencies of this s/stem p. HEG are exhi#ited. These #oo$s must #e assi&ned to a#out the first centur/ B.C. B/ he"p of the cata"o&ue of Buddhist #oo$s pu#"ished (.D. KCG ?Kai-yuen-shi-kiau-lu@, the ear"iest and most noted trans"ators ma/ #e divided #et%een these t%o schoo"s. >or$s of the Siau-cheng or 8)esser Deve"opment,8 i,e,, primitive Buddhism, %ere introduced #/ the fo""o%in& personsS Trans"ator. Kashiapmadan&a Chu2fa2"an (n2shM2$au Chi2/au KJan&2men&2tsJian& Dharmati Chu2"iI2/en Chi2$ian K6an&2sen&2h%ei *a2$I Chu2dharma2"an 1audamsen&hadlva Cophen Centra" India Centra" India (nsi India KJan&2$u ?Thi#et@ (nsi India 8.assa&et=8 or Ta2/ue2chi KJan&2$u ?Thi#et@ India Countr/. Date (.D. KG KG BFK BED BTF HDF HCG HDG HDG CGG CEG CTG

(mon& the trans"ators of the #oo$s of the )ar&er Deve"opment, %ere the fo""o%in& individua"sS Name. (n2shM2$au Chi2"u2$a2tsJan KJan&2sen&2$Jai ,eh2/en Chi2$ian Chu2dharmara$sha .a"achJa Da#adara Kumara3iva *a2hien Dharmara$sha 1una#adara ,aramoda !iuen2tsan& Bodhiruchi p. HEB To assist in num#erin& and distin&uishin& the #oo$s #e"on&in& to the &reat threefo"d co""ection, the characters contained in the 8Boo$ of a Thousand Characters8 ?Tsien-ts-wen@ are made use of. The first su#division of the 8 utras8 or King under the headin&, Ta-ch1eng, 81reat Deve"opment,8 is that of 8,ra3na8 ?!o-"e@. It contains the %or$ #aha-pra"naparamita in six hundred chapters, to mar$ %hich, sixt/ characters from the 8Thousand Character C"assic8 are emp"o/ed. +i&hteen other %or$s are p"aced in the same su#division. These are fo""o%ed #/ #oo$s containin& the "e&ends of (mita#ha and (chJo#h/a, the >estern and +astern Buddhas. These, %ith others, compose the !au-tsi su#division. (fter this comes that ca""ed Ta-tsi, or 81reat Co""ection.8 Then succeed those ca""ed Hwa-yen, so named from the common #oo$ of that tit"e in ei&ht/ chapters. The fifth comprises #oo$s on the Nirv9na. (fter these five chief su#divisions are arran&ed the names of man/ others, %hether trans"ated once or oftener. >ith the precedin& the/ ma$e in a"" five hundred and thirt/2six utras of the 1reat Deve"opment c"ass. Of the ma""er Deve"opment schoo" t%o hundred and t%ent/2ei&ht %or$s are contained in the co""ection, the chief of them #e"on&in& to the *gama su#division. There %ere added in the un& and -uen d/nasties three hundred a"to&ether. Their names fo""o% in the cata"o&ue. .an/ of these %or$s are ver/ sma"", ten or more #ein& often p"aced to&ether under one "etter. Under the denomination 80ina/a8 or L, 8Discip"ine,8 t%ent/2five %or$s #e"on& to the 1reat Deve"opment schoo", %hi"e fift/2nine are assi&ned to the Siau-ch1eng department. (mon& the %or$s #e"on&in& to the third c"ass, 8(#hidharma8 or Lun, are ninet/2three of the 1reat Deve"opment schoo", and thirt/2seven of the )esser. To these t%ent/2three %ere added in the un& and -uen d/nasties. p. HEH (fter this occur %or$s #/ various >estern authors, in num#er ninet/2seven, %hich do not admit of #ein& c"assed %ith those that precede. .an/ of these consist of "itur&ica" re&u"ations and #io&raphies of !indoo Buddhists. (nsi .assa&et= India India .assa&et= .assa&et= Udin Centra" India India China Centra" India Centra" India >estern India ?Ou3ein@ China outhern India Countr/. Date (.D. BFK BFK HDF HDE HDG CBC HTT FGG FGB FBF FCC FCD DFG ADG KGD

(t the end of the co""ection are p"aced %or$s #/ Chinese authors, in a"" a hundred and ninet/2six. These consist of commentaries, #io&raphica" %or$s, c/c"op=dias, trave"s in Buddhist countries, apo"o&etic treatises, "itur&ica" %or$s, and the ori&ina" %or$s of authors #e"on&in& to the various native schoo"s of Buddhism. Of these fort/ %ere appended in the .in& d/nast/as in a"" such cases#/ imperia" order. These num#ers &ive a tota" of a#out sixteen hundred separate %or$s, of %hich fourteen hundred are trans"ations from anscrit. evera" hundred others are "ost. .an/ productions of "ess importance, pro#a#"/ amountin& to severa" hundreds in num#er, #/ native authors, are common"/ read. In an estimate of the extent of Chinese Buddhist "iterature these shou"d #e inc"uded. The/ consist of popu"ar treatises, %ith anecdotes of the po%er of the Buddhas and Bodhisatt%as, and the #enefits of chantin& the sacred #oo$s. >oodcuts are much used in these #oo$s, i""ustrative of the Buddhist future state, of ha$/amuni instructin& his discip"es, and of the !indoo cosmo&on/ and &eo&raph/. Descriptions of remar$a#"e monasteries and sacred p"aces, and man/ %or$s on the various schoo"s of this re"i&ion in China, shou"d #e added to the "ist. I p"ace here some remar$s on the counci"s he"d #/ the ear"/ Buddhists. ,rofessor .ax .I""er sa/sS 8The Northern Buddhists $no% #ut one (shX$a, the &randson of Chandra&upta, and #ut one counci" he"d in his rei&n, viR., the Counci" of ,ata"iputra, under DharmashX$a, and this the/ p"ace a hundred and ten /ears after Buddha5s death.8 The in&ha"ese Buddhists spea$ of t%o (shX$as, viR., p. HEC ;para&raph continues< Ka"ashX$a and DharmashX$a. T%e"ve $in&s intervened #et%een them. ( counci" %as he"d under each (shX$a. If %e admit the "ast, it must have ta$en p"ace either B.C. HFH or B.C. HFA at ,ata"iputra. The fourth counci", under Kanish$a, presided over #/ 0asumitra, %as pro#a#"/ a "itt"e #efore the Christian era. Na&ar3una5s %or$s and s/stem %ere reco&nised, and from this time the 81reat Deve"opment8 spread amon& a"" the Northern Buddhists. The attention of the student of Buddhism ma/ #e directed especia""/ to those %or$s in the San-tsang, or 8Three pita$a,8 of %hich trans"ations have #een made. Of these the most e"a#orate is that of the Fa-hwa-king, 8)otus of the 1ood )a%,8 #/ +u&ene Burnouf. It is rendered from the anscrit, and i""ustrated #/ a vast #od/ of notes. On comparin& it %ith the Chinese version of Kumara3iva, I found considera#"e "acun= in the Chinese cop/. Kumara3iva came under the inf"uence of the Chinese "iterati, to %hom the ponderous ver#osit/ and extensive repetitions of the ori&ina" %ere into"era#"e. !e %ise"/ cut it do%n, and made a much shorter #oo$ of it. Burnouf %ou"d have #een %ise to do so too. The sma"" #oo$s %ith a prominent mora" e"ement are extreme"/ interestin&. ome of these are trans"ated #/ .r. Bea" in his Catena. The 8Boo$ of *ort/2t%o ections8 %as trans"ated from anscrit #/ the first !indoo missionaries. (n edition in five vo"umes, %ith ver/ fu"" notes, #/ I *a, and pu#"ished a centur/ and a ha"f a&o, is a si&na" examp"e of the industr/ and fu"ness of i""ustration and comment of a Chinese scho"ar %hen editin& an ancient #oo$. In this and other sma"" #ut interestin& %or$s ma/ #e seen the princip"es of primitive Buddhism as tau&ht #/ ha$/amuni. The monastic "ife is here portra/ed, and the duties of those %ho entered upon it are c"ear"/ pointed out. p. HEF But thou&h vo%s of ce"i#ac/, and "ivin& in societ/ %ith fe""o%2#e"ievers in the Buddhist doctrine, or in so"itude in %oods and caves, %ere recommended #/ ha$/amuni as the most suita#"e mode of carr/in& out his s/stem, he did not ma$e them a#so"ute"/ essentia". In the 8>ei2ma utra,8 <imakita ?5ei-mo-kie@, a "a/man native of 0aisha"i, "ivin& in societ/, is represented as havin& made &reat pro&ress in the $no%"ed&e of the princip"es of Buddhism. !e is contrasted %ith man/ %ho had ta$en the vo%s, #ut %ere far inferior to him. 8.an3usiri8 ?5en-shu&pu-sa@ and 0ima$ita are he"d up as e:ua""/ &ood mode"s of Buddhist exce""enceS the one, as to form, #ein& %ithout a riva" in the monastic societ/Q the other, as to action, #ein& the most advanced student of the Buddhist "a% outside the circ"e of those %ho had ta$en the vo%s. .an/ of the Buddhist #oo$s are va"ua#"e, on account of the stories i""ustrative of ancient "ife %hich the/ contain. The fo""o%in& stor/ of trave""ers $i""in& a &uide, to sacrifice to the Devas of a certain p"ace, reminds the reader irresisti#"/ of the narrative of 4onah. U( compan/ of merchants underta$in& a 3ourne/ se"ected a &uide. >ith him the/ set out across an uninha#ited re&ion. On the %a/ the/ arrived at a temp"e to the Devas, at %hich it %as the custom, that a man must #e sacrificed #efore the trave""ers cou"d pass on. UThe/ consu"ted as to %hat shou"d #e done, and said one to anotherS 5>e are a"" friends, nei&h#ours, and re"ations. None of us can #e sacrificed. On"/ the &uide can #e.5 >hen the/ had put him to death and finished the offerin&, the/ proceeded and "ost their %a/. >ear/ and #ro$enhearted, a"" one #/ one died. 8 o it is %ith men. The/ %ish to enter the sea of doctrine in order to &et the pear"s hidden in its depths. The/ must ta$e virtue for their &uide. If the/ s"ander and destro/ virtue the/ %i"" #e sure to "ose their %a/, and never emer&e from the desert of "ife and death. Their sufferin&s must "ast for "on& a&es.8 p. HED ( stor/ of the shado% of &o"d in %ater is to"d to i""ustrate ho% i&norant men see$ for &o"den doctrine in p"aces %here the/ %i"" never find it. The stor/ sa/s that

8former"/ a foo"ish man %ent to a "a$e and sa% at the #ottom of the %ater a shado% of %hat seemed true &o"d. !e ca""ed out, 5!ere is &o"d.5 !e then %ent into the %ater and sou&ht it in vain ti"" he %as tired and the %ater &re% mudd/. !e sat do%n and %aited ti"" the %ater %as c"ear, %hen he sa% it a&ain, and once more he tried fruit"ess"/ to &et it. (t "ast the father came to "oo$ for his son, and as$ed him %h/ he %as so %ear/. On "earnin&, he said, after seein& the shado%, 5This &o"d is on the tree a#ove. ( #ird must have ta$en it in his #ea$ and p"aced it there.5 The son c"im#ed the tree and found it.8 To i""ustrate the difficu"t/ of creatin&, a stor/ is to"d a&ainst the Brahmans, %ho ascri#e creation to Brahma. The/ ca"" him .aha Brahma Deva, and sa/ that he is the father of the %or"d, and can create a"" thin&s. The stor/ states that 8this so2ca""ed creator had a discip"e %ho said he cou"d create a"" thin&s. !e %as foo"ish, #ut thou&ht himse"f %ise. !e said one da/ to Brahma, 5I desire to create a"" thin&s.5 Brahma rep"ied, 5Do not thin$ of it. -ou cannot create. >ithout #ein& a#"e to use the "an&ua&e of the Devas, /ou have the desire to create thin&s.5 Brahma sa% %hat his discip"e had made, and noticed that the head %as too "ar&e and the cro%n too sma"", or the hand too "ar&e and the arm too sma"", or the foot too "ar&e and the "e& too sma"". In fact, it %as "i$e the ,ish9cha demons.8 B 8>e thus "earn,8 continues the narrator, 8that %hat ever/ one #rin&s into existence is not the creation of Brahma.8 T!+ TOR- O* T!+ BR(!.(N >!O KI))+D !I ON.

8Once there %as a Brahman, %ho, accordin& to his o%n statement, %as extreme"/ %ise, and $ne% a"" the arts of p. HEA astro"o&ers and 3u&&"ers. >ishin& to sho% his po%ers he %ent to another countr/, carr/in& his son in his arms, and %eepin&. >hen as$ed, 5>h/ do /ou %eepL5 he rep"ied, This /oun& chi"d is to die in seven da/s. I mourn over his short "ife.5 The peop"e of the countr/ remar$ed, 5It is hard to $no% %hen men %i"" die. It is eas/ to err in such ca"cu"ations. >ait ti"" the seven da/s are past, and perhaps he %i"" not die. >h/ %eep no%L5 The Brahman ans%ered, 5The sun and moon ma/ #e dar$ened, the stars ma/ fa"", #ut %hat I have said cannot fai" of fu"fi"ment.5 On the seventh da/, for the sa$e of fame and profit, the Brahman $i""ed his son to confirm the truth of his o%n %ords. >hen men heard that the Brahman5s son %as dead precise"/ seven da/s after the time of the prediction, the/ a"" admired the %isdom of the Brahman, %hose %ords proved true, and came to "isten to his instructions. It is so amon& the four c"asses of Buddha5s discip"es, %ith those %ho for &ain sa/ the/ have attained eminent en"i&htenment. B/ their foo"ish doctrine the/ destro/ the son of the &ood, fa"se"/ assume a #enevo"ent character, and must in conse:uence endure much sufferin&. The/ resem#"e the Brahman %ho $i""ed his son.8 The #oo$ proceeds to spea$ of the Buddhas and their teachin&. The/ are not "ia#"e to the errors of such men. The Buddhas in &ivin& instruction $eep a midd"e path, %ithout encroachment on either side. The/ are neither too constant on the one hand, nor are the/ too interrupted and inconstant on the other. There is in their actions and teachin& no disproportion. 0arious pretenders, ho%ever, tr/ to imitate them, and fa"" into the errors of #oastin&, "/in&, and extrava&ance. .en, in exhi#itin& the form of the "a%, fai" to present to vie% the true "a%. These extracts are ta$en from the 8Boo$ of a !undred ,ara#"es,8 !e-y-king, chapter ii., trans"ated #/ 1una#idi. There is a #oo$ of mora" instructions, arran&ed in the form of the -.tha, %ith headin&s, such as teachin&, conversation, merc/, Oc. It is ca""ed Fa-k-king, 8Boo$ of p. HEK the Dharma in entences.8 There are five hundred of these sentences. In India ever/ student read this #oo$ at the #e&innin& of his course. If he did not read this amon& the man/ #oo$s of his re"i&ion, he omitted the preface. The sentences are of the fo""o%in& natureS>hen risin& in the mornin& /ou shou"d thin$, 8./ "ife %i"" not "ast "on&. It is "i$e the vesse" of the potter, easi"/ #ro$en. !e %ho dies does not return.8 On this is &rounded an appea" to men to "earn Buddha5s "a%. It %as trans"ated from the %or$ of Tau-lio #/ Kumara3iva. There are some other %or$s specia""/ devoted to fa#"es and para#"es, such as Tsa-y-king, 8Boo$ of .isce""aneous ,ara#"es.8 (mon& %or$s specia""/ deservin& attention is Fan-wang-king. This #oo$ on the 8Discip"ine8 or <inaya, is the Brahma3a"a, 8Net of Brahma.8 .r. 1o&er"/, in the Ceylon&Friend, pu#"ished a #rief trans"ation of the %or$. ee Bea" in Second&Congress&o+&;rientalists, p. BCF. It states the ru"es %hich &uide the Bodhisatt%a. The Chinese Fo-pen-hing-tsi-king is in anscrit 8(#hinish$ramana Vtra.8 It has #een trans"ated #/ Bea", %ho thin$s the narratives it contains %i"" exp"ain the 8 anchi topes,8 the inscriptions on %hich are hard to identif/ in an/ #oo$s. It is a "ife of Buddha, %ith man/ episodes, %hich ma/ a"so i""ustrate the inscriptions at Bharhut, (mravati, Oc. .r. Bea" finds in the Chan-ts-king the 8 9ma 49ta$a,8 %hich contains part of the stor/ of Dasaratha and Rama, and refers to an a""usion in the trave"s of *a2hien, to a festiva" in Ce/"on, %hich ma/ have "i&ht thro%n on it #/ this #oo$. 9ma %as ha$/amuni Buddha in a former "ife, "ivin& in a forest %ith his father and mother, %ho %ere #"ind. !e fed them %ith fruits, fetched %ater for them, and %as p. HEE #e"oved #/ the deer and other %i"d anima"s of the %oods. (t "ast the $in& came on a huntin& expedition, shot an arro% into a "ar&e herd of ?"eer #/ the %ater side, and $i""ed 9ma %ith it, %ho happened to #e in the midd"e of the herd. 9ma died, and the $in& %as most penitent, %hi"e the parents %ept over their son. The &ods seein& this sad spectac"ethe parents "amentin& over their son, and the s/mpathisin& Ra3acame and restored him to "ife. The %or$ !ratimoksha is mentioned in the "ast instructions of Buddha. It contains the ru"es of discip"ine for the discip"es of Buddha. !e "eft this, %hen d/in&, in the hands of his fo""o%ers, as their &uide for ho"/ conduct. ( trans"ation of the first chapter of the Leng-yen-king and of a short hastra here fo""o%.

The Leng-yen-king is praised #/ Chu !i and other Confucianists as the #est %orth readin& of the Buddhist sacred #oo$s.

Footnotes HKKSB Ch-yue-luh. 8Bio&raph/ of 5Kashiapa5 ?Kia-she@.8 HKKSH !ard/5s 9astern&#onachism. HKKSC Kanish$a con:uered the &reater part of India. !e %as a second (shX$a in his patrona&e of Buddhism. !e rei&ned B.C. BD to (.D. FD, durin& the patriarchate of 0asumitra and others. HKESB Tsing-tu-sheng-hien-luh contains notices of ?B@ to ?F@. HKESH +ite" separates 0asu#andu from (sen&ha #/ an interva" of some centuries. ./ authorit/ for ma$in& them #rothers is the introduction to Cheng-wei-sh-lun. The/ %ere natives of ,urusha in 1andhara ?north end of the ,un3a#@. HKESC *or the names of severa" of his %or$s and those of (sen&ha, see Kai-yuen-shi-kiau-lu, a cata"o&ue of Buddhist #oo$s pu#"ished in the TJan& d/nast/. HEDSB ( sort of vampires. Retinue of the Deva $in& Dhritarashtra.

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p. HET

CHAPTER VIII.

THE LENG-YEN-KING.#FIRST CHAPTER. The utra of firm esta#"ishment in a"" doctrine, descri#in& c"ear"/ the secret merit and attainments in the re"i&ious "ife of Tath9&ata, %ho appears as Buddha in his &reat and unsurpassed statureQ a"so the man/ acts of the Bodhisatt%as. IT is ca""ed a"so Chung-yin-tu-na-lan-to-ta-tau-ch1ang-king. 8The utra of Na"anda, the &reat seat of %orship, in Centra" India.8 The monaster/ of Na"anda, in the $in&dom of .a&adha, the present Bahar, %as of &reat siRe, and "asted throu&h more than seven centuries. The Chinese trave""er !iuen2tsan& visited it. !e found there ten thousand mon$s "ivin& in six #ui"din&s erected #/ as man/ monarchs, formin& to&ether one &reat ascetic esta#"ishment, the most sp"endid in India. It %as ce"e#rated as a p"ace of stud/ #oth for the Brahmanica" #oo$s and those of Buddhism, and %as devoted to the stud/ of that #ranch of Buddhist doctrine ca""ed the 81reater Deve"opment.8 *or "e&ends connected %ith this f"ourishin& seat of Buddhism, the trans"ation #/ .. 4u"ien of !iuen2tsan&5s trave"s, from %hich I have derived these facts, ma/ #e consu"ted. It "a/ a#out thirt/ mi"es south2east of the modern ,atna. The Chinese trans"ation of the Leng-yen-king %as made in the /ear KGD (.D., #/ ,aramiti, a !indoo Buddhist mon$ at Canton. !e %as assisted #/ -un&2pi, a Chinese, and p. HTG ;para&raph continues< .i&asha$/a, a native of Ud/ana, a countr/ "/in& north%est of Cashmere. TR(N )(TION. Thus have I heardSOn a time, Buddha %as at the cit/ hravasti, in the chape" in the &rove of 4eta. !e %as there %ith t%e"ve hundred and fift/ Bi$shus, his discip"es, %ho had a"" attained the ran$ of (rhan. These chi"dren of Buddha %ere at rest in their minds, &raspin& firm"/ the doctrine of their master, and exce""in& in &oodness. The/ mi&ht in an/ countr/ #e patterns of virtue and di&nit/. The/ attended to the 8monastic ru"es8 ?<inaya@ %ith exemp"ar/ carefu"ness. (ssumin& %ithout "imitation %hatever #odi"/ form %as needed, the/ cou"d save men from miser/. Their names %ere hariputra, .aha .aud&a"/a/ana, .aha Kuhi"a, the son of ,uruna, .itarani, u#hVti, Upanishata, and others.

Besides these, innumera#"e ,rat/e$as, to&ether %ith man/ %ho had 3ust #e&un to desire improvement in $no%"ed&e, came to the p"ace %here Buddha %as, at the c"ose of summer, repentin& of their former evi" acts. Remarks. hravasti %as situated in %hat is no% the province of Oude. ,rat/e$as are ca""ed in Chinese either !it-ti, or !it-ti-ka-la. The/ are in anscrit denominated 8,rat/e$a8 Buddha, and in Chinese uen-kioh, 8those %ho have attained inte""i&ence #/ the stud/ of causes,8 >hen a period occurs in the %or"d5s histor/ %ithout a Buddha, the ,rat/e$as appear, and, arrivin& at the perception of doctrine in his a#sence, ta$e his p"ace as teacher ti"" he arrives. It happened to #e the time %hen the Bi$shus at the c"ose of summer %ere re"eased from restraint. *rom ever/ re&ion Bodhisatt%as came to as$ :uestions and have their dou#ts removed. The/ "istened respectfu""/, and sou&ht to $no% the secret thou&hts of their teacher. Tath9&ata sat in a tran:ui" attitude, and addressed to his audience profound doctrines %hich the/ had not #efore heard. !is voice, "i$e the sin&in& of the Ka"avin&$a, penetrated to the #oundaries of the %or"d. Bodhisatt%as, numerous as p. HTB the sands of the 1an&es, cro%ded to the assem#"/, and .an3usiri %as chief amon& them. (t this time $in& ,rasena3it had, in memor/ of his father5s death, prepared a ve&eta#"e repast for Buddha. !e invited Buddha to the interior apartments of his pa"ace, and came himse"f to conduct him in. !e a"so invited the Bodhisatt%as. In the cit/ there %as a man of ran$ %ho had a"so #idden the mon$s to a feast, and %as %aitin& the arriva" of Buddha. Buddha directed .an3usiri to send some of the Bodhisatt%as and (rhans to attend the feast in p"ace of himse"f. (nanda a"one had #een invited e"se%here at some distance, and had not returned. !e %as too "ate to ta$e his p"ace %ith the others, and there %as no o"der mon$ %ith him nor an (23e2"i to admonish him. !e %as comin& #ac$ a"one and empt/2handed. (s he passed a"on& the streets he he"d in his hand a rice #o%", and as$ed a"ms from door to door. !e %as desirin& that he mi&ht #e entertained #/ some one %ho had not a"read/ invited the mon$s. !e %ou"d not as$ if the viands %ere p"easant to the taste or not, %hether the host %as of the Kshatr/a caste, or #e"on&ed to the Chendaras. *ee"in& the same $ind disposition to%ards rich and poor, he did not choose honour in preference to povert/, #ut %as anxious that a"" %ith %hom he met shou"d o#tain unmeasured happiness ?#/ a"ms&ivin&@. (nanda $ne% that Buddha had #"amed u#hVti and Kashiapa, #ecause the/ had not o#tained the evenhanded 3ustice of the (rhans, and he had reverent"/ "istened to his %ise advice for re"ievin& scrup"es and preventin& suspicions and s"anders. !e crossed the moat, and s"o%"/ approached the &ate. !is demeanour %as &rave. It %as that of one %ho reverent"/ o#served the dietetic re&u"ations. !e passed on his %a/ the house of a prostitute, and fe"" under the inf"uence of enchantment. .aten&a, #/ means p. HTH of a charm o#tained from Brahma #/ one of the a#i$aras, dre% him to her couch, and he %as a#out to #rea$ his vo% of chastit/. Tath9&ata $ne% that he had #een enthra""ed #/ the charm. On returnin& from the repast to %hich he had #een invited, the $in&, his courtiers, and man/ persons of reputation in the cit/, came to hear Buddha discourse. )i&ht shone from the head of Tath9&ata, seemin& to com#ine the severa" ra/s of a"" precious stones. Out of this mi"d radiance %as seen to sprin& a "otus f"o%er %ith a profusion of peta"s, and upon it Buddha sat cross"e&&ed %ith metamorphosed #od/, utterin& a mi&ht/ charm. !e sent this charm #/ the hand of .an3usiri to save (nanda. The messen&er %ent, and the inf"uence of the %ic$ed charm #ein& #ro$en, he #rou&ht (nanda %ith .aten&a to the presence of Tath9&ata. Remarks.The #ird ca""ed Ka"avin&$a had a ver/ soft, rich voice. ,rasena3it, the $in& of hravasti, %as ver/ favoura#"e to the Buddhist re"i&ion. It %as his minister udatta %ho #ou&ht the &arden of 4eta from the prince of that name, and erected in it a residence for Buddha. ? ee 4u"ien5s #emoires&sur&les&Contr2es&;ccidentales.@ .an/ of the utras attri#uted to Buddha are said to have #een de"ivered here. (t the time of !iuen2tsan&5s visit the cit/ %as most"/ in ruins. !e o#served the remains of the monaster/ former"/ standin& on the site of the &arden of 4eta, t%o mi"es #e"o% the cit/. ? ee 4u"ien5s Histoire&de&la&<ie&de&Hiouen-thsang@. It %as here that the Bi$shus assem#"ed to "isten to Buddha. Durin& three months in summer the Bi$shus "ived in sec"usion, for#idden to trave" or to see Buddha. (t the end of this time the/ met #efore Buddha, and &ave "i#ert/ to each other to point out an/ fau"ts in their conduct, in order that the/ mi&ht under&o a penance appointed #/ Buddha. The %ord (23e2"i means an instructor in the ascetic discip"ine. It %as re:uired that, in &oin& to a distance, at "east three shou"d #e in compan/. ( mon$ in the position of (nanda shou"d have had %ith him a superior in ran$ and a"so an (23e2"i. >hen Buddhism %as f"ourishin& in India, the Kshatr/as and Chendaras %ere at the t%o extremes of the socia" sca"e. The $in&s p. HTC and no#"es #e"on&ed to the Kshatr/a caste. The Chendaras %ere #utchers, and #e"on&ed to various hum#"e trades. u#hVti as$ed a"ms on"/ from the rich, #ecause the/ %ere a#"e to &ive. Kashiapa preferred to #e& of the poor, desirin& to increase their happiness. Buddha #"amed them #oth for trans&ressin& the ru"e of 3ustice. The a#i$aras %ere a heretica" sect, %ith #ro%n hair, %ho fasted on rice. The/ o#tained this charm #/ specia" %orship of the &od Brahma. It %as capa#"e of #ein& communicated to others, and .aten&a made use of it. The commentator, Te2tsJin&, a Chinese Buddhist mon$ of the .in& d/nast/, sa/s that a superficia" reader mi&ht %onder %h/ this utra, %hich unvei"s the hidden nature of man, points out a secure p"ace of rest, and unfo"ds a doctrine in a"" respects comp"ete, shou"d ma$e such an ordinar/ incident as the temptation of (nanda its

point of departure. !e sa/s, in exp"anation, that it is the passions %hich prevent men from attainin& the Nirv9na. (mon& the passions sensua" "ust is the most po%erfu", and therefore it needs a remed/ of correspondin& stren&th to remove it. (nanda, on seein& Buddha, #o%ed his head to the &round and #itter"/ %ept. !e &rieved that he had not /et made a successfu" #e&innin&, and that, after a"" the instruction he had received, he shou"d sti"" #e deficient in mora" stren&th. >ith earnestness he as$ed to $no% ho% the Buddhas of a"" %or"ds had o#tained entrance to the re&ion of rest and contemp"ation. The auditors, numerous as the sands of the 1an&es, sat si"ent, %aitin& for Buddha to address them. !e then said to (nandaS8-ou and I are a$in #/ #irth. >e are thus caused #/ heaven to "ove each other. -ou former"/ fe"t a desire to fo""o% m/ teachin&. >hat #eautifu" appearance %as it %hich "ed /ou to forsa$e the %or"d5s deep "oveL8 (nanda rep"iedS 8I sa% the thirt/2t%o #eauties of Tath9&ata. B The/ are inexpressi#"/ "ove"/, and the #odi"/ form to %hich the/ #e"on& is transparent as cr/sta". I ref"ected that such a form cannot #e produced #/ earth"/ "ove. Because the #odi"/ desires are p. HTF coarse and i""2sme""in& "usts, and the/ cannot &ive ori&in to a pure #ri&ht form radiatin& a purp"e &o"den "i&ht "i$e that of Tath9&ataQ therefore I thirsted to fo""o% Buddha and #e shorn of m/ hair, in to$en of m/ a#andonment of a %or"d"/ "ife.8 Buddha rep"iedS8-ou spea$ %e"", (nanda. ("" men continue to "ive and die, and "ive and die a&ain, #ecause the/ do not $no% that the mind shou"d rest in a state of constant purit/, and their nature #e $ept c"ear and true to itse"f. Ideas arise in their minds %hich are not true, and perforce the/ enter the %hee" of cease"ess revo"ution. If /ou %ou"d attain the hi&hest $no%"ed&e and deve"op /our true nature in its c"earness, ans%er honest"/ m/ in:uiries. The Buddhas have trodden one path to escape from "ife and death. The/ have $ept their hearts ri&ht. Their hearts and %ords %ere ri&ht, and the/ have therefore #e&un %e"" and ended %e"". Thus the/ have no %ron& thou&hts or pernicious chan&es. I no% as$ /ou, (nanda, %hen /our heart %as attracted to%ards the thirt/2t%o #eauties of Tath9&ata, %hat %as it that sa%, and %hat %as it that "ovedL8 (nanda rep"iedS 8This "ove came from the use of m/ heart and m/ e/e. ./ e/e sa% the transcendent #eaut/ of Buddha, and m/ heart fe"t "ove. Therefore it %as that I desired to #ecome freed from "ife and death.8 Buddha ans%eredS8 ince this "ove came from the heart and the e/e, /ou must $no% %here these or&ans resideQ other%ise /ou cannot overcome the evi"s caused #/ the 5o#3ects of sense5 ?chen@. >hen a countr/ is rava&ed, the troops sent to chastise the marauders must $no% %here the/ are to #e found. I as$, then, %here the heart and e/e, the enemies %ho have done /ou harm, resideL8 Remarks.The passions are the cause of men #ein& su#3ect to "ife and death. To set them at rest is the means of attainin& to the state of Buddha. (nanda had #een "ed a%a/ #/ passion, and he as$s to p. HTD #e reinstructed in the mode of escape. !e fe"t the evi" to #e &reat, and that some ver/ po%erfu" a&enc/ %as needed to destro/ it. !e desired to commence se"f2 reformation afresh, #ut not $no%in& %here to #e&in, he as$s for information. The first step is to o#serve, contemp"ate, and "oosen the heart from its attachments. Buddha does not proceed at once to descri#e the three modes of contemp"ation, #ut first in:uires of him %h/, in the first instance, he had commenced the ascetic "ife. The ans%er of (nanda revea"ed the cause of his %ant of success. )ove had #een a%a$ened in his mind #/ the si&ht of #eautifu" forms. This %as #ecause his mode of thin$in& %as %ron&. !e had on"/ exchan&ed one "ove for another. !is heart had #een attracted #/ a #eautifu" visionQ #ut he had not seen Buddha in his hi&her character. If he %as ri&ht in "ovin& Buddha, mi&ht he not a"so "ove .aten&aL Not on"/ is (nanda the victim of %ron& thou&hts. ("" men are soQ and therefore it is that the/ do not emer&e from the re&ion of "ife and death. But man5s true nature cannot #e deve"oped %here %ron& thou&hts prevai". The excitin& causes of this %ron& state of thin&s must #e examined into. It is the %or$ of the senses. The senses are the six enemies that distur# the ori&ina" tran:ui""it/ of man5s nature. These six thieves, as the/ are ca""ed, are ru"ed #/ the heart and the e/e. The p"ace %here the/ reside must #e discovered. The ans%er of (nanda %as that 8"ivin& #ein&s, of a"" the ten different $inds, %ithout exception re&ard the perceivin& facu"t/ and the heart or mind as #ein& %ithin the #od/. The/ a"so see that Buddha5s e/e forms a part of Buddha5s countenance. This e/e of mine and three other or&ans of sense are a part of m/ face. ./ 5heart5 ?mind@, then the perceivin& or&an, is certain"/ %ithin m/ #od/.8 Buddha rep"ied to himS8-ou are sittin& in this house. -ou see the &rove of 4eta. I as$ /ou %here it isL8 8It is,8 ans%ered (nanda, 8outside of this ha"". This house is in the &arden of (n_thapindi$a. (nd assured"/ the &rove is outside of the house.8 Buddha a&ain in:uiredS 8In this house %hat do /ou first seeL8 (nanda rep"iedS 8I first see Tath9&ata, then the audience, and farther off the trees and the &arden.8 Buddha continuedS 8In "oo$in& p. HTA to%ards the trees and the &arden, ho% do /ou perceive themL8 (nanda rep"iedS 8B/ the door and other openin&s.8 Buddha then stretched out his &o"den arm, and touchin& the head of (nanda, saidS 8There is a samadhi ca""ed that of the Sheu-leng-yen Ra3ah, %ho is Buddha2"i$e in siRe and stature. It em#races a"" &ood actions, and descri#es ho% a"" the Buddhas %ere rescued from the %or"d of sense and entered the &"orious path that "eads to confirmed rest. )istenW8 (nanda made a prostration, and %aited to hear. Remarks.!iuen2tsan& re"ates that the &rove of 4eta is 8six li8 ?t%o mi"es@ south of the cit/ hravasti. In this &rove %as the &arden of (n_thapindi$a or (n_thapindada. (t the time %hen the Chinese trave""er visited it, the convent %hich %as former"/ there %as in ruins. 4eta so"d the "and to udatta, and himse"f &ave the &rove. *nFthapindika means 8!e %ho &ives to orphans.8 udatta %as so named on account of his charities. Samadhi is a sort of %a$in& dream or reverie, occurrin& to Buddha or his discip"es %hen en&a&ed in deep contemp"ation, and in %hich an impression or vision teachin& certain re"i&ious do&mas seems present to the mind5s e/e. The commentator Te2tsJin& remar$s that men &enera""/ fa"" into the error of (nanda. The/ thin$ that the mind is enc"osed in the visi#"e #od/. Continuance in the sphere of the metemps/chosis arises from men5s mista$en opinion that the #od/, the mind, and 8their actions8 ?wu-yn@ constitute m/se"f. This fa"se vie% must #e first com#ated. Buddha, #ein& a#out to su#vert the cherished opinions of (nanda, $ind"/ p"aced his hand upon his head to inspire him %ith confidence, "est he shou"d fee" pained.

BuddhaS8(ccordin& to %hat /ou sa/ /ou are in this ha"", and throu&h the open doors /ou see the &arden and the &rove. If /ou cou"d not see Tath9&ata, %ou"d /ou #e a#"e to see %hat is outside of the ha""L8 (nandaS8That cou"d not #e.8 BuddhaS8This to /our mind is perfect"/ c"ear. No%, if that mind %hich perceives it #e %ithin the #od/, men ou&ht first to see %hat is %ithin the #od/ and after%ards p. HTK %hat is outside. ince %e do not see the heart, "iver, and other viscera, %hi"e %e can perceive the &ro%th of nai"s and hair, and the movements of musc"es and pu"ses, the heart cannot reside %ithin the #od/.8 (nanda ?#o%in&@S8(s I hear the instructions of Tath9&ata, I am made to perceive the truth, that m/ mind resides outside of m/ #od/. *or it is "i$e a "amp "i&hted in a house. It first shines on %hat is %ithin the house, and then throu&h the door upon the portico. ince men see on"/ %hat is outside the #od/, the perceivin& mind cannot reside %ithin them. This statement is incontroverti#"/ ri&ht.8 BuddhaS>hen these Bi$shus come to see$ me in this cit/ of hravasti, and assem#"e at the &rove of 4eta, shou"d /ou see one of them eatin&, %ou"d a"" of them #e there#/ re"ieved from hun&erL8 (nandaS8NoW for a"thou&h the/ %ere (rhans and share in a different $ind of existence, ho% cou"d one man5s ta$in& food remove hun&er from the restL8 BuddhaS8The mind and #od/ #ein& entire"/ separate from each other, neither of them can $no% %hat is $no%n to the other. I no% sho% /ou m/ hand. -our e/e sees it, #ut does /our mind distin&uish itL8 (nandaS8-es, !onoured Chief of the %or"dW8 BuddhaS8If #oth perceive it, then it is %ron& to sa/ that the/ are separate from each other, and that the mind d%e""s outside of the #od/.8 (nandaS8Buddha has said that the mind, not seein& %hat is %ithin the #od/, cannot reside there. *urther, he has said that %hen the mind and #od/ #oth $no% %hat is $no%n to the other, the/ cannot #e outside of each other, #ut must #e in one p"ace.8 BuddhaS8>here, then, is the mind p"acedL8 (nandaS8I thin$ it must #e hidden in the or&ans of sense. The e/e is to the mind "i$e a piece of &"ass %hich does not interfere %ith vision. >henever the e/e sees, p. HTE the mind at once distin&uishes. The reason %h/ the mind does not see the interior of the #od/ is #ecause it resides in the sensoria" or&ans, and its position there ena#"es it to notice o#3ects outside of the #od/.8 BuddhaS8 upposin& that it is so, I as$ %hat a man %i"" see %hen a &"ass is p"aced #efore his e/esL >hen he sees the hi""s and mountains #e/ond, %i"" he see the &"ass a"soL8 (nandaS8!e %i"" see the &"ass.8 BuddhaS8If so, %h/ shou"d not the e/e #e seen at the time %hen hi""s and rivers are visi#"e throu&h itL But if the e/e #e seen it is a part of the scener/ o#served #/ the mind, and there is no interdependence #et%een the t%o, so that the mind shou"d at once perceive %hat is an o#3ect of vision to the e/e. But if the mind does not see the e/e, then it cannot #e said that the mind resides in the or&ans of sense.8 (nandaS8I have no% thou&ht upon another thin&. The viscera are in the interior of the #od/, %hi"e the various apertures are outside. There is dar$ness in the one and "i&ht in the other. >hi"e I "oo$ at Buddha m/ e/e is open and sees "i&ht. In this case I see %hat is externa". >hen I c"ose m/ e/es I see dar$ness. In this case I see %hat is interna". Is this a correct distinctionL8 BuddhaS8>hen /ou c"ose /our e/es and "oo$ on dar$ness, is the dar$ness %hich /ou see 5o#3ective to the e/e5 ? wei--yen-tui@, or notL If the dar$ness #e o#3ective, it is somethin& #efore the e/e, and it is therefore %ron& to sa/ that it is interna". If, on the other hand, the dar$ness #e interna", then the dar$ness /ou see in a room %here no "i&ht can enter is nothin& #ut the interior of /our #od/. If, ho%ever, the dar$ness #e not 5o#3ective5 ?tui@ to the e/e, it cannot #e said to #e seen. If the dar$ness #e interna", and is /et seen o#3ective"/ #/ the e/e, %h/ do /ou not see /our face %hen %ith open e/es /ou "oo$ p. HTT on #ri&htnessL If /ou see /our face, the perceivin& mind %ith the or&an of vision must #e in vacanc/. The/ cannot then #e %ithin the #od/, nor can the/ #e a part of it. *or if the/ %ere a part of /our #od/, then I %ho no% see /our face shou"d #e part of /our #od/. B/ means of /our e/e %hich is in vacanc/, /ou $no% that /our #od/ does not perceive o#3ects. -ou must therefore ho"d that there are t%o acts of perceivin& and t%o perceivin& a&ents. -ou %ou"d thus #ecome t%o persons. It cannot therefore #e said, that in c"osin& the e/e and "oo$in& on dar$ness /ou see %hat is %ithin.8 (nandaS8I have heard Buddha sa/ that actions sprin& from the mind, and the mind from action ?i,e,, mind and action are necessar/ to each other, and e:ua""/ unrea"@. It appears to me that m/ thou&hts are m/ mind, and that %herever m/ thou&ht is, there is m/ mind. Thus the seat of the mind need not #e %ithin or %ithout, or in an intermediate position.8 BuddhaS8The mind, (nanda, cannot #e %here the thou&ht isQ for it is %ithout 5su#stance5 ?ti@, and cannot #e at an/ p"ace. *or if an unsu#stantia" thin& cou"d #e said to #e at a p"ace, the ei&hteen "imitin& points %hich excite sensations %ou"d #ecome nineteen, and the six o#3ects of sense %ou"d #ecome seven. But that the mind is unsu#stantia" can easi"/ #e sho%n. >hen I touch m/se"f %ith m/ hand, the $no%in& mind ?the resu"tin& act of $no%"ed&e@ must come from %ithin out%ards, or from

%ithout in%ards. If the former, the interior of the #od/ %ou"d #e visi#"eQ if the "atter, I shou"d first see m/ face. ince I see neither, m/ mind must #e unsu#stantia".8 (nandaS8It is the e/e that seesQ thou&h it is not the e/e that $no%s. To sa/ that the mind sees is incorrect.8 BuddhaS8If the e/e cou"d see, the door of the house in %hich /ou are mi&ht a"so #e a#"e to see. The e/e of the dead sees nothin&. *urther, (nanda, the mind, if it has p. CGG su#stance, must #e one su#stance or man/. -our mind must pervade /our entire #od/ or not. If /our mind #e a sin&"e su#stance, %hen /ou touch one "im# a"" the "im#s shou"d fee" the pressure. If it %ere fe"t ever/%here, the sensation %ou"d not #e referred to an/ particu"ar spot. If the sensation #e"on&s to one part, /ou %ho are the su#3ect of it cannot form a sin&"e su#stance. But neither can /ou #e man/ su#stances, for then /ou %ou"d #e man/ men. If the su#stance of /our mind pervade /our entire #od/, a sensation of pressure %ou"d #e fe"t in ever/ part. If it pervaded the #od/ partia""/, a portion of it %ou"d #e suscepti#"e to touch, %hi"e the remainin& parts %ere not so. ince this is not the case, /our supposition, that the mind is %herever thou&ht is, fa""s to the &round.8 (nandaS8*ormer"/ I heard Buddha discoursin& %ith .an3usiri and others on the true nature of thin&s %hich appear. -ou then said the mind is neither %ithin nor %ithout the #od/. It seems to me that %ithout interior perception there can #e no externa" $no%"ed&e. >hat is in the #od/ must #e perceived, if %e are to $no% %hat is outside of the #od/Q e"se the mind cannot #e %ithin the #od/ at a"". (s it is, %e on"/ perceive %hat is outside, and not %hat is %ithin. The mind, therefore, must #e neither %ithin nor %ithout, #ut #et%een the t%o.8 Buddha, in his rep"/, ar&ues that (nanda is %ron&, and that the p"ace of the mind is not #et%een the inside and the outside, an/ more than it is %ithin the #od/ or %ithout in the materia" thin&s %hich are the o#3ects of sensations. o ends the first chapter of this #oo$. Remarks.The ei&hteen "imitin& 8#oundaries8 ?kiai@ of the sensations aree/es, ears, nose, ton&ue, #od/, mind, co"our, sound, sme"", taste, 8contact8 ?chu@, "a%, seein&, hearin&, sme""in&, tastin&, fee"in&, and thin$in&. p. CGB These ei&hteen items are other%ise arran&ed as six roots, the sensoria" or&ans, six $inds of dust, co"our, taste, sme"", Oc., and six $inds of sensationa" $no%"ed&e. The second &roup of six are a"so ca""ed the six thieves, as #ein& the causes of de"usion to a"" man$ind %ho #e"ieve in matter. The first six are a"so ca""ed the six su#3ects that 8"ove8 ?ai@, and the six thin&s that 8fee"8 ?tsing@.

Footnotes HTCSB 8Tath9&ata,8 an appe""ation of Buddha, is, in Chinese, 4u-lai, 8Ca"m"/ approachin&.5

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p. CGH

CHAPTER I .

THE EKASHLOKA SHASTRA. The 8+$ash"o$a hastra,8 trans"ated from the Chinese, %ith an ana"/sis and notes. B T!+ author of the ori&ina" %or$, of %hich a trans"ation is here &iven from the Chinese version, %as the patriarch 8Na&ar3una8 ?or Lung-shu@, of %hom much has #een said in the precedin& part of this #oo$. Beside #ein& the %riter of man/ of the more important hastras, he a"so composed severa" of the utras, thou&h these %or$s are &enera""/ attri#uted to ha$/amuni Buddha. ( $een reasoner, acute thin$er, and vo"uminous author, such as Na&ar3una, deserves to #e #etter $no%n, and it is hoped that the fo""o%in& trans"ation of one of his "esser %or$s %i"" prove not a"to&ether use"ess in the e"ucidation of Buddhism.

It is ca""ed ih-shu-lu-kia-lun, the 8 hastra of One sh"o$a.8 The three characters shu-lu-kia are in o"d Chinese pronunciation sho-lo-ka. >hen a dou#"e consonant #e&ins a s/""a#"e, it is usua" to emp"o/ the same vo%e" after each consonant in transcri#in& them in Chinese characters. h"o$a is a anscrit term for 8verse,8 and particu"ar"/ for a coup"et of a certain $ind. I ta$e the fo""o%in& account of it from >i""iams6 anscrit 1rammarS8The Institutes of .anu are %ritten in the Sloka, or *nushtu(h p. CGC metre. This is the commonest of a"" the infinite variet/ of anscrit metres, and is that %hich chief"/ prevai"s in the &reat epic poems of the +ast. It consists of t%o "ines of sixteen s/""a#"es each, #ut the ru"es %hich re&u"ate one "ine app"/ e:ua""/ to the other.8 8The Bst, Hd, Cd, Fth, Tth, BGth, BBth, and BHth s/""a#"es ma/ #e either "on& or short. The BAth, as endin& the "ine, is a"so commonQ so too the Eth.8 8The Dth s/""a#"e ou&ht a"%a/s to #e short. The Ath ma/ #e either "on& or shortQ #ut if "on&, then the Kth ou&ht to #e "on& a"soQ and if short, then the Kth ou&ht to #e short a"so.8 8The "ast four s/""a#"es form t%o iam#ics.8 The !indoo author has in the present instance ta$en a sin&"e coup"et as his theme, and hence the name of his short treatise. This coup"et, consistin& in its Chinese form of four short sentences, appears at the commencement. >e are a"so informed #/ an introductor/ note that the treatise %as trans"ated into Chinese, from the ori&ina" of )un&2shu pJu2sa, #/ the Brahman 1audama ,ra3na"uti, at the cit/ of )o2/an&, in the rei&n of the -uen2>ei d/nast/. This cit/ is that no% ca""ed !o2nan fu, on the south #an$ of the -e""o% River, in !o2nan province. The time of the trans"ation is the fourth centur/ of our era. TR(N )(TION O* 8-I!2 !U2)U2KI(2)UN8 ?T!+ !( TR( O* ON+ !)OK(@. 8./ #od/ ?or su#stance@ in its nature is not permanentQ Thus, then, m/ #od/ is not a #od/. ./ #od/ in its nature not #ein& a #od/, I therefore sa/ that it is empt/ and not permanent.8 UIt is as$ed, >h/ %rite this UstanRam ?-.tha@L >hat is its meanin&L >hat man5s opinions is it intended to overthro%L I rep"/, It is %ritten on account of those, %ho in readin& hastras of &reat "en&th &ro% %ear/Q and a"so for those inte""i&ent persons, %ho have studied man/ hastras, and exercised their thou&hts ?deep"/@ in the sea of Buddha5s "a%, #ut &ro%in& fati&ued have #e&un to dou#t p. CGF a#out the doctrine, not #/ an/ means to #e :uestioned or suspected, of the non2permanence of thin&s and the nothin&ness of m/ o%n #od/. To destro/ such dou#ts I have composed this hastra. U>hat sa/s m/ doctrineL That a"" $inds of Uactin&m ?+a@ are non2permanent, and m/ o%n #od/ is nothin&. The non2rea"it/ of m/ #od/ is not separate from the non2 permanence of a"" action, m/ nature and m/ #od/ #ein& nothin&. Therefore there is no such thin& as permanence. U("" the Buddhas, and their discip"es of the t%o c"asses uen-kioh and Sheng-wen ?U)isteners,m Shr./aka@, have o#tained their "i#eration from i&norance #/ means of this princip"e of nothin&nessQ not #/ the opposite princip"e, %hich maintains the existence of #rea$in& off, and of permanence in actions. The -.tha sa/sS 8)ose si&ht of this princip"e of nothin&ness, and prefer to reside in #od/Q -ou then o#tain a vie% of thin&s as permanent. If /ou sa/ that after%ards the/ are to #e destro/ed, -ou thus come to see thin&s as havin& cessation.8 U>ith this meanin& I spea$ of a"" actions as #ein& in themse"ves %ithout rea" em#odiment. The Buddhas, the 5+n"i&htened5 ? uen-kioh@, the )isteners, and the (rhans have &ained their #enefits and successes #/ #e"ievin& in this princip"e. UI %i"" no% spea$ of %hat men are to #e opposed. If a man %ho has &ained some $no%"ed&e sa/s that, %ithout reference to 5action5 ? hing@, there is non2permanence, his vie% is not the correct one. If the so2ca""ed non2permanence is separated from 5existence,5 yeu-wei, or ?actua"it/@, in order to #e ca""ed non2permanent, then permanence #ecomes nothin&. Thus, then, actua"it/ and non2rea"it/ are not essentia""/ different. If actua"it/ and non2rea"it/ com#ine, the actua" #ein& 3oined to the unrea", a #ott"e cannot #e #ro$en ?%hich is a#surd, a #ott"e #ein& an actual thin&@. If the unrea" and the actua" com#ine, the unrea" p. CGD #ein& 3oined to the actua", the Nirv9na is destructi#"e ?%hich is a#surd, the Nirv9na #ein& not an actua" thin&@. If the actua" and the unrea" are, as thus ar&ued, identica", a"" $inds of 5teachin&5 ?or 5action,5 +a@ are indestructi#"e, "i$e the Nirv9na, %hich is permanent, and is, therefore, not produced from an/ cause. If 5actions5 ? hing@ are not produced from causes, the/ do not differ from the empt/ Nirv9na. In this case, the method or state of 5actua"it/5 ?yeu-wei@ need not #e ca""ed constant. But if the thin&s done, #ein& not produced from causes, are sti"" non2permanent, then the empt/ Nirv9na is not ca""ed permanent, If this #e true, the methods of actua"it/ and of non2 rea"it/ are neither of them &ood. If the non2permanent is parted from actua"it/ and is sti"" ca""ed non2permanent, then actua"it/ apart from constanc/ ou&ht to #e ca""ed constant. But this is not correct reasonin&. In %hich of the utras are there such %ords as theseL U>hat ideas are to #e discoursed uponL >hat meanin& is there in that %hich /ou no% sa/L There is much in it that is unreasona#"e, such as /our croo$ed mind cannot fathom. Therefore %hat /ou sa/, is not correct doctrine. If men, %ho have &ained some $no%"ed&e, maintain that the ?action or@ 5"a%5 of the past, present, and future is in each case comp"eted from and in itse"f, this is to #e re&arded as a fa"se vie%. >h/ soL Because it is a vie% %hich omits the notion of cause. If %e spea$ of the future as not #ein& produced from causes, #ut as formed from and in itse"f, then the present is a"so not produced from causes, #ut is formed from its o%n nature. *or the future and the present are, in their o%n nature, even and e:ua", %ithout an/ difference. If so, and the "a% of the present comes from causes, %h/, in this case, shou"d not the "a% of the future come from causes a"soL -ou &round this vie% either on the utras, or upon /our o%n 3ud&ment. But the statement is incorrect and unreasona#"e. Bein& unreasona#"e, it is not to #e #e"ieved. If the "a% that re&ards the future is not produced from causes, #ut

p. CGA comes from its o%n nature, it must #e an empt/ thin&. Bein& cut off from an/ connection %ith causes, it cannot #e produced from an/ cause. It is, therefore, not tru"/ future in itse"f. But if the future is non2existent, then the present and past are a"so non2existent. The present and the past #ein& non2existent, then time in its threefo"d aspect is rea""/ nothin& in itse"f. If it #e said that it has a rea" existence, this is to sa/ that it is permanent, and is produced %ithout a cause. UIf the discip"e of Buddha thin$s so, %ho has reached some depth in perception, he does not differ from the heretica" teachers, Kapi"a and others. This hastra, ho%ever, is not made for such as Kapi"a and U"u$a, #ut for /ou %ho ho"d the same vie%s %ith me. >hat I have thus far said, in opposition to the opinions of certain persons, is for the sa$e of /ou %ho have made some advancement, that /ou ma/ re3ect incorrect vie%s. UIt is on this account that I have compi"ed this hastra and the 5-.tha of one shloka5 ? i-sho-lo-ka-lun@, %hich commences m/ #oo$. I sha"" no% exp"ain the meanin& of this -.tha. U>hen it is said, 5./ #od/, in its nature, is not permanent,5 5m/ #od/5 refers to that %hich is #orn and acts, and %hich is, therefore, ca""ed 5m/ #od/.5 !e %ho has made advancement in ri&ht perception, #ein& in the midst of this actin&, thin$s out for himse"f that this is the #od/ ?or ta$es it to #e the #od/@. This actin& commences in the re&ion of the ph/sica" and menta" operations. B In it are invo"ved a"so the Sheng-wen and uen-kioh, %ho %ander circuitous"/ ?in this "o%er re&ion@. Thus, %hen %e spea$ of #odies, as one, t%o, or severa"Q or of men, as one, t%o, or severa"Q each is considered as havin& a #od/ independent of the rest, and the/ are common"/ spo$en of as such. (s earth, %ater, fire, and %ind are respective"/ hard, moist, hot, and mova#"e, each accordin& to its natureQ so ever/ p. CGK man ?and thin&@ has his o%n form and su#stance. !ence the expression, 5m/ #od/.5 UIf he %ho has made some advancement in $no%"ed&e sa/s that man in his #irth, in his continued "ife, and in his death, is the same in form, he spea$s erroneous"/. The #od/ of man is, in its nature, not permanent, and, therefore, its #ein& ca""ed #od/ has arisen from the circumstance that men %ho have advanced some%hat in true $no%"ed&e have made this distinction. Therefore apart from the various modes of action, there is no non2permanent #od/Q #ecause man is, in his form, not permanent. UTherefore Buddha, in instructin& the Bi$shus respectin& various acts, represents them a"" as not constant. This is on account of %hat has #een a"read/ said. UIf it #e maintained that, apart from actin&, men and thin&s are non2permanent, retainin& their o%n form, such an opinion is %ron&. hou"d /ou not understand %h/ the phrase non2permanent is used, I %i"" no% exp"ain it. It is #ecause of %hat is said in the openin& stanRa, 5Bod/ is not #od/.5 The notions of #od/ and not #od/ /ou easi"/ distin&uish. The non2permanent, %hat is itL It is %ithout #od/. Therefore it is, that #od/ is not #od/. In its o%n nature it is not #od/, and therefore it is forma""/ stated to #e %ithout #od/. U>hen it is said, 5./ su#stance, in its nature, is not su#stance,5 it is asserted that there is no su#stance #ut that %hich is 5not su#stance5 ? wu-ti@. *or this reason it is said that su#stance in itse"f is not such. If /ou ho"d that there is some su#stance existin& #eside wu-ti, /ou are %ron&Q this mode of ar&uin& is not that of the utras. If /ou assert that the 5a#sence of #od/5 ?wu-ti@ is %hat constitutes su#stance, this a"so is incorrectQ #ecause the utras do not sa/ so. In %hat utra has Buddha, the >or"d5s !onoured one, tau&ht such a doctrineL It is not to #e found in an/ utra, for it is not 5correct teachin&5 ?king-shwo, the 5teachin& of the c"assics5@Q such ar&uments cannot succeed, #ecause the/ are not the doctrine of the &reat p. CGE ho"/ utrasQ the/ ou&ht not, therefore, to #e #e"ieved. It is, then, not on"/ m/ o%n %ords that I #rin& as evidence. UThe "ast sentence sa/s, 5Therefore it is stated to #e empt/ and not permanent.5 Refer, for examp"e, to the utra, Tiau-+uh-san-mih-ti-king, 5Narrative of Buddha pacif/in& and su#duin& amidhi,5 %hich sa/s, that Buddha addressed amidhi %ith the %ords, 5The e/e of man is empt/ and not permanent. There is no e/e that does not move, that does not perish, that does not chan&e. (nd %h/L It is its nature so to do. The ear, nose, ton&ue, #od/, and mind have a"" the same chan&ea#"e and destructi#"e nature.5 UBuddha, the >or"d5s !onoured one, spea$in& in this utra of emptiness and of non2permanence, on this account expressed the opinion here stated. Thus %e $no% that a"" acts are empt/ and non2permanent. Bein& not permanent, the/ are %ithout 5#od/5 ?ti@. Conse:uent"/ a"" acts are, in their nature and of themse"ves, %ithout #odi"/ form. It is in this %a/ that the meanin& of the %ords wu-ti, 5%ithout #od/,5 is esta#"ished. UIf, in this manner, an opinion #e tested #/ the utras, it %i"" #e %e"" esta#"ished. If it %i"" not #ear this test, it must fa"" to the &round. In m/ vie%, %hat is in the utras must #e comp"ete"/ satisfactor/. Therefore it is that the opinion, that 5?m/@ nature ?sing@ is in itse"f %ithout #od/,5 has #een no% emp"o/ed to #rin& to its comp"etion the hastra of one h"o$a.5 U("" $inds of action ?or existence@, such as #od/, nature, 5act5 ?doctrine@, thin&, matter, existence5 ?/eu@, are different in name, #ut the same in meanin&. >hichever of these %e spea$ of, the on"/ difference #et%een them is in the %ord yeu, 5to #e.5 8This %ord yeu is, in the ori&ina" "an&ua&e, su(ha/a. B It p. CGT is trans"ated in severa" %a/s, as 5the su#stance %hich &ives su#stance to itse"f5 ?ts-ti-ti@, or as 5%ithout action and %ith action5 ?wu-+a-yeu-+a@, or as 5the nature %hich has no nature of its o%n5 ?wu-ts-sing-sing@.8

*nalysis&and&Remarks.The author #e&ins %ith statin&, in a rh/thmica" form, the princip"es he is a#out to esta#"ish. ./ su#stance or #od/, i,e,, m/ %ho"e nature, materia" and inte""ectua", is a passin&, chan&in& thin&, and is, conse:uent"/, not a rea" su#stance at a"". It is, therefore, on"/ ri&ht to sa/ of it that it is empt/ and not permanent.

This princip"e a&rees %ith the description &iven of the Buddhists #/ Co"e#roo$e, %ho o#serves that the/ are ca""ed #/ their adversaries the orthodox !indoos, Sar/a/ainFsicas, or 8Those %ho ar&ue tota" perisha#"eness.8 The/ den/ the permanent existence of atoms, and on"/ a""o% that ima&es of thin&s are formed %hich immediate"/ pass a%a/. The author then &ives his reasons for composin& the treatise, and the -.tha or rh/thmica" statement %ith %hich it commences. !e %rote it for the sa$e of such persons as cannot read throu&h the ver/ "on& and tedious %or$s found in the Buddhist "i#rar/. !e a"so %ished to p"ace in a short compass the ar&ument for the transitor/, unrea" nature of a"" existin& thin&s, for the use of advanced studentsQ "est the/ shou"d #e inf"uenced #/ those ar&uments, se"f2su&&ested or presented #/ others, %hich &o to prove that the %or"d is rea" and that the information &iven #/ the senses is trust%orth/. The composition of Buddhist %or$s is varied #/ the fre:uent introduction of passa&es in a rh/thmica" form, not indeed %ith rh/mes or an/ fixed succession of "on& and short s/""a#"es, #ut %ith "ines constant"/ of the same "en&th. In the Nepau" ori&ina"s, there is a"so a difference in dia"ect #et%een the prosaic and rh/thmica" parts, the anscrit and ,racrit #ein& interchan&ed. There is no such transition of dia"ects in the Chinese trans"ations. p. CBG ;para&raph continues< The rh/thmica" parts are ca""ed 8-.tha,8 KiGQ in the o"d Chinese pronunciation, -at. The author "a/s do%n as his order of procedure, that he %i"" first unfo"d his meanin&, then attac$ the upho"ders of opposite vie%s, and after%ards support his o%n opinions. !e ho"ds that a"" $inds of action are transitor/ and not "astin&, that the actor or o#server is himse"f nothin& rea", and that these t%o thin&s are connected. !ence the doctrine of non2permanence. The Buddhas and their discip"es, he sa/s, had in the #e"ief of the princip"e of nothin&ness o#tained 8"i#eration8 ?mHksha@ from the #onds %hich restrain the sou". The opposite doctrine, %hich ho"ds that thin&s are permanent, or #rea$ off, has never had such an exemp"ification of its truth. Co"e#roo$e sa/s that the fo""o%ers of Kan_de maintained that thin&s are part"/ perisha#"e and transitor/, #ut in part a"so unchan&ea#"e. !is fo""o%ers are ca""ed 0aisnshi$as. The discip"es of Buddha here a""uded to, uen-kioh and Sheng-wen, occup/ the third and fourth ran$ in the Buddhist sca"e of #ein&. Their position %i"" #e understood #/ the fo""o%in& scheme copied from a Buddhist %or$S *our de&rees in 8ho"iness8 ?sheng@. Buddha. Bodhisatt%a. -uen2$io. hen&2%en. Devas. (suras. .en. ,retas. (nima"s. Nara$a. Inte""i&ence. Kno%"ed&e and merc/. ,erception &ained #/ the stud/ of causes. 8)isteners,8 Shra/akas. 81ods,8 Tien. .onsters, demons. !un&r/ &hosts. !e"".

ix states of 8i&norance8 ?+an@.

*our "ines in the form of -.tha are here introduced, representin& the doctrines of opponents. T%o vie%s are &iventhat %hich re&ards the universe as permanent, and p. CBB that %hich descri#es it as "ia#"e to cessation. Both are considered as erroneous #/ the champion of Buddhism. afet/ is on"/ to #e found in the doctrine of nihi"it/. In a&ain appea"in& to the testimon/ of the Buddhas and their discip"es, he mentions the (rhans. These form the "ast in a series of four &rades of discip"eship. The attainment of a certain amount of en"i&htenment in the Buddhist doctrine is represented as 8fruit.8 These four &rades of discip"eship, or 8fruits,8 are ca""ed, Su-da-wan, Si-da-gam, *-na-gam, and *-la-han. In anscrit these names are read 8 rXt9panna,8 8 a&arda&am,8 8(na&amin,8 and 8(rhan.8 The/ are a"so ca""ed the four paths to the Nirv9na. )un&2shu proceeds to controvert #/ ar&ument, the opinions of t%o c"asses of reasoners, and first of those %ho ho"d the doctrine of non2permanence in an incorrect manner. It ou&ht not to #e he"d so as to den/ the rea"it/ of action, or so as to confound action and inaction. These terms in Chinese, yeu-wei, wu-wei, ma/ perhaps #e trans"ated 8actua"it/8 and 8non2rea"it/.8 Their meanin& %i"" #e seen #/ the i""ustrations used. (n earthen%are #ott"e is adduced as an examp"e of an 8actua" thin&8 ? yeuwei@, %hi"e the Nirv9na #e"on&s to the 8non2actua"8 or wu-wei c"ass. These instances are #rou&ht for%ard to sho% that thin&s of the t%o c"asses of o#3ects must not #e confounded. *or if actua"it/ #e identified %ith non2rea"it/, a #ott"e, it is said, %ou"d #ecome a non2actua" thin&, and it %ou"d #e %ron& to sa/ that it %as destructi#"e. o if non2actua" thin&s %ere identified %ith %hat is actua", the Nirv9na %ou"d cease to #e indestructi#"e. The distinction, then, #et%een the actua" and the non2actua" must #e preserved. The utras are a&ain appea"ed to in proof of this doctrine. These %or$s are thus seen to #e, in the vie% of the Buddhist, the standard of truth. The/ contain the ver/ %ords of Buddha, %hich are he"d to #e necessari"/ true. evera" hundreds of these #oo$s, thus sho%n to constitute the scriptures of this re"i&ion, have #een trans"ated p. CBH into the "an&ua&e of China, and of the other countries %here Buddhism prevai"s. These treatises are not said to #e divine, or to #e inspired, for the Buddhist has neither 1od nor inspiration in his creed. !e on"/ $no%s Buddha, the se"f2e"evated human inte""ect, as the most exa"ted #ein&Q and he "oo$s on his teachin& to #e the purest truth and the hi&hest %isdom. Throu&hout the hastra, %hich is no% presented to the reader, )un&2shu supports his opinions #/ the authorit/ of the utras %hich Buddha has "eft for the use of his discip"es as the repositor/ of his doctrine.

!e &oes on to overthro% the notion that the past, the present, and the future are se"f2produced, and do not come from the action of causes. !e o#serves that the present and the future are as to their nature simi"ar, and contro""ed #/ the same "a%sQ #ut the present resu"ts from causes, and therefore the future must a"so ori&inate in the same manner. If the past, present, and future do not come from causes, he ar&ues that the/ can #e nothin& rea". at a"". The ho"der of such vie%s %ou"d thus fa"" into the error of Kapi"a and other heretica" teachers. Kapi"a, here referred to, %as a remar$a#"e persona&e, perhaps the most noted of the Indian phi"osophers. !e founded the an$h/a schoo". 8This s/stem,8 sa/s Cousin, in his History&o+&#odern&!hilosophy, B 8is at once a s/stem of ph/sics, ps/cho"o&/, dia"ectics, and metaph/sics. It is a universa" s/stem, a comp"ete phi"osoph/.8 Cousin sa/s of Kapi"a that he advocated sensua"ism, and that 8one of the ideas %hich are most opposed to sensua"ism #ein& that of cause, Kapi"a made an effort to destro/ it. The ar&umentation of Kapi"a is, in the histor/ of phi"osoph/, the antecedent of that of onesidemus and that of !ume. (ccordin& to Kapi"a, there is no proper notion of cause, and that %hich %e ca"" a cause is on"/ an effect in its re"ation to the cause %hich precedes it, %hich is a"so an effect for the same reason, and continua""/ thus, so p. CBC that the %ho"e is a necessar/ concatenation of effects, %ithout verita#"e and independent cause.8 ,rofessor >i"son, in his "earned comment on the Sankhya&Karika, criticises this statement of the *rench phi"osopher, and denies that Kapi"a asserts the non2existence of cause. !e admits, ho%ever, that 8he ma/ so far a&ree %ith the phi"osophers referred to, in reco&nisin& no difference #et%een material&cause&and&material&e++ects:8 and adds that 8his doctrine is that of Bro%n in his "ectures on po%er, cause, and effect.8 There #ein& such a difference of opinion on the vie%s of this !indoo phi"osopher, it is interestin& to notice in the treatise of )un&2shu, that Kapi"a is incidenta""/ condemned for den/in& the existence of cause. Our Chinese evidence &oes to upho"d the statement of the *rench phi"osopher, %here he is ca""ed in :uestion #/ his +n&"ish critic. Co"e#roo$e :uestions %hether Kapi"a #e not a"to&ether a m/tho"o&ica" persona&e. >ith this distinct a""usion to him in our "itt"e %or$, datin& indu#ita#"/ from near the #e&innin& of the Christian era, %e ma/ perhaps infer his historica" rea"it/, and %e a"so o#tain an approximation to the period in %hich he "ived. )un&2shu proceeds to sa/ that he did not %rite for the purpose of confutin& such phi"osophers as Kapi"a and U"u$a, B #ut for the sa$e of correctin& and confirmin& the vie%s of the discip"es of Buddhism. The phi"osopher, U"u$a, I have not found mentioned #/ Co"e#roo$e or other %riters on the metaph/sica" s/stems of India. It appears to me that )un&2shu is not exp"icit enou&h in his ar&ument for the production of events from causes, %here he asserts that the present proceeds from causes, and therefore the future does a"so, #ein& in a"" respects simi"ar to the present in its nature. !e does not first ma$e p"ain that the present proceeds from cause. H p. CBF (s a"read/ remar$ed, )un&2shu appea"s repeated"/ to the authorit/ of the utras. o the advocates of the an$h/a phi"osoph/ appea" to the utras of Kapi"a, %hich are, ho%ever, #rief aphorisms, and not, "i$e those of Buddha, "on& treatises. -et )un&2shu has #esides this another test of the va"idit/ of doctrines, name"/, their reasona#"eness or unreasona#"eness. To this second test he here #rin&s the doctrines he opposes and condemns them. In exp"ainin& the introductor/ stanRa, )un&2shu first discusses the ori&in of the phrase 8m/ #od/.8 !e o#serves that it consists of the #od/ and its actionsQ i,e,, it means mysel+. In the re&ion of menta" and ph/sica" actions, %e come to the consciousness of mysel+. In this re&ion the inferior c"asses of Buddha5s discip"es continue to %ander partia""/ en"i&htened. (dvancin& from this incomp"ete vie%, %e spea$ ordinari"/ of men and thin&s, in the sin&u"ar, dua", and p"ura" num#ers, as separate #ein&s existin& independent"/ of each other, thus increasin& the first error. The four e"ements, earth, %ater, fire, and %ind, differ in their nature, as #ein& hard, moist, hot, and movin&, and so each man and thin& is "oo$ed at as havin& its characteristic differences from others. !ence the common #ut erroneous expression my&(odyB&my&sel+. )un&2shu comp"ains that some persons maintain #irth, duration, and destruction to #e the same thin&. !e then proceeds to state that the #od/ in its nature is not permanent, that its #ein& ca""ed (ody has arisen from the distinctions %hich men in their i&norance have made, and that the correct doctrine of the #od/ #ein& non2 permanent is insepara#"/ connected %ith the various ph/sica" and menta" operations %hich sprin& from the #od/Q #ecause, he adds, man is in his entire form non2 permanent. Buddha, in the instructions he &ave to the Bi$shus his discip"es, a"%a/s he"d the doctrine that actions are nonpermanent. This must ever #e $ept in mind in ma$in& the statement that the #od/ is non2permanent. p. CBD Bi$shu is one of the names &iven to the fo""o%ers of Buddha &enera""/. The/ are a"so ca""ed Shamen and Ho-shang. The author then underta$es to prove the second sentence of his theme, name"/, 8Thus, then, m/ #od/ is not a #od/.8 The doctrine of non2permanence has #een introduced to aid in provin& this. The non2permanent is necessari"/ unsu#stantia". The thin&s %e see are "ia#"e to perish. Therefore the/ are not rea" thin&s. >e must spea$ of thin&s as the/ rea""/ are. !ence the %ords 8m/ #od/ is not #od/,8 are correct and appropriate. The third sentence, %hen it sa/s, 8./ #od/ in its nature is not #od/,8 asserts that, apart from the unsu#stantia" and the vanishin&, no #od/ existsQ and that therefore it is ri&ht to sa/ of m/ o%n #od/, that it does not exist. Cousin, in his "ectures a"read/ referred to, spea$s of the ps/cho"o&/ of Buddhism as #ein& contained in t%o propositions, extracted #/ Burnouf from Buddhist #oo$s. Bst, Thou&ht or spiritfor the facu"t/ is not distin&uished from the su#3ectappears on"/ %ith sensation, and does not survive it. Hd, The spirit cannot itse"f "a/ ho"d of itse"fQ and in directin& its attention to itse"f, it dra%s from it on"/ the conviction of its po%er"essness to see itse"f other%ise than

as successive and transitor/. Burnouf adds, these theses are radica""/ opposed to Brahmanism, %hose first artic"e of faith is the perpetuit/ of the thin$in& su#3ect. >e see that the non2permanence of thin&s, %hich is so important a princip"e %ith our author, a"so pervades the #oo$s of Nepau" %hich Burnouf studied, and constitutes a %atch%ord of Buddhism. )un&2shu proceeds to o#serve that some persons ho"d fa"se vie%s on this su#3ect. One opinion is that independent"/ of the unsu#stantia" there is su#stance, #ut this is contrar/ to the utras. Others sa/ the unsu#stantia" is m/ #od/, #ut this is %ron& ?a"thou&h it is correct to p. CBA sa/ that m/ #od/ is unsu#stantia"@, #ecause it is not found in the utras. uch are not the %ords of Buddha, nor are the/ met %ith in the &reat ho"/ utras, and the/ must not #e #e"ieved. The "ast sentence, 8I therefore sa/ that it is empt/ and not permanent,8 is i""ustrated #/ appea"in& to the teachin& of Buddha in one of the utras. !e ta$es the e/e as an examp"e. There is no e/e that does not move, that is not destro/ed, that does not chan&e. It is therefore empt/ and non2permanent. o it is %ith the other sensoria" or&ans. The nature of them a"" is to chan&e and deca/. The Buddhists in enumeratin& the or&ans of sense, after mentionin& the e/e, ear, nose, ton&ue, and #od/, add the mind. )un&2shu does so in this passa&e. The mind, as the or&an of consciousness, is vie%ed as a sense. >e "imit the term sensoria" or&ans to those %hich are materia", #ut the Buddhist, not #e"ievin& in the rea"it/ of materia" thin&s, ca""s ever/ or&an #/ %hich impressions are communicated a sense. Buddha havin& thus expressed his opinion in the utras, it is added, %e $no% that a"" acts are empt/, non2permanent, and therefore %ithout #od/. Thus %e arrive at the doctrine that #od/ does not exist. It shou"d #e remem#ered that the Buddhists re&ard the acts of the thin$in& #ein& as one %ith his su#stance. The/ do not distin&uish #et%een the a&ent and the act, #ut den/ the rea"it/ and permanence of #oth in their unit/. Thus the/ %i"" sa/, as in this case, 8a"" acts8 ?yih-tsiG-+a@ are %ithout #od/, instead of predicatin& this of the actor. !ence a"so he proceeds to sa/, that human nature is %ithout #od/, restin& his doctrine on the authorit/ of the utras, and addin& that it is the o#3ect of this entire treatise, 8The hastra of one h"o$a,8 to i""ustrate it. The same confusion of the a&ent %ith his acts presents itse"f in the c"osin& sentences of the treatise, %here it is p. CBK asserted that a"" $inds of action, inc"udin& #od/, nature, acts, thin&, #ein&, are #ut different names for the same thin&. ("" these varieties in phraseo"o&/, he adds, are #ut differences in the term yeu, 8#ein&.8 The ori&ina" %ord, adds the trans"ator into Chinese, is su(ha/a, %hich is various"/ exp"ained 8the su#stance %hich &ives su#stance to itse"f,8 8%ithout action and %ith action,8 and 8the nature %hich has no nature of its o%n.8 )hawo, sa/s 1o&er"/ in his 9ssay&on&)uddhism, B is t%ofo"d, consistin& of mora" causative acts and the state of #ein&. Of these, he adds, kamma-(hawo, or 8mora" causative acts,8 are merit, demerit, and a"" those actions %hich "ead to existence. The various %or"ds of the Buddhist universe are desi&nated #/ the term (hawo. 8>or"ds of sensua" p"easure and pain8 are kama-(hawo. The 8Brahma %or"ds8 are rIpa-(hawo. The 8incorporea" %or"ds8 are arIpa-(hawo, and so on. !ere the term (ha/a means 8states of #ein&.8 The numerous modifications of meanin& #e"on&in& to this %ord he"p to account for the three trans"ations of the re"ated %ord su(ha/a, %hich c"ose the treatise. I ma/ o#serve here, that it is common %ith the modern Chinese Buddhists, to defend the doctrine of the non2rea"it/ of materia" thin&s, #/ appea"in& to their "ia#i"it/ to destruction. ( priest %i"" contend that a %ooden ta#"e, on the app"ication of fire, passin& into smo$e and ashes, there is necessari"/ nothin& rea" in it. The truth is, that rea"it/ and chan&ea#"eness are #oth ri&ht"/ affirmed of a ta#"e, or an/ other materia" thin&. The Buddhist asserts %ith perfect correctness, that the o#3ects of sense are non2permanent, #ut he is %ron& %hen he ar&ues that therefore the/ are unrea". Christianit/, modern science, and a"" sound phi"osoph/ a&ree in ascri#in& rea"it/ and chan&ea#"eness to the o#3ects of sense. )un&2shu erred in not seein& that these t%o thin&s can #e reconci"ed.

Footnotes CGHSB Read #efore the han&hai )iterar/ and cientific ociet/, BKth Novem#er BEDK. CGASB The 8human operations are five,8 %u2/inname"/, shG, 8visionQ8 sheu, 8receptionQ8 siang, 8thin$in&Q8 hing, 8doin&Q8 sh, Uperception.m CGESB This %ord is a compound of su, 8&ood,8 and (hF/a, one of the t%e"ve causes 8#ein&.8 B/ Co"e#roo$e and ,rofessor >i"son it is various"/ trans"ated, 8dispositions,8 8sentiments,8 8conditions of #ein&.8 *(hF/a is 8privation8 or 8ne&ation.8 !rFga(hF/a is 8present ne&ation of %hat %i"" #e.8 *nu(hF/a is 8notion.8 CBHSB Trans"ated #/ O. >. >i&ht, vo". B. CBCSB Kiai-pi-lo: in the o"d pronunciation, Ka-pi-la. eu-leu-kia ?'-lu-ka@.

CBCSH ( friend has, ho%ever, su&&ested to me, that he ma/ re&ard this as o#vious, #ein& %hat consciousness is ever teachin& us. CBKSB puoted in !ard/5s 9astern&#onachism.

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EFFECT OF BUDDHISM ON THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE SUNG DYNASTY. The un& phi"osophers differ from Confucius*ive periods of Chinese inte""ectua" deve"opmentThe un& %riters chan&ed the o"d cosmo&on/The !an %riters had a"read/ done soDia&ram of the 1reat +xtremeOther pictoria" i""ustrations(voidance of the doctrine of a persona" 1od.ateria"istic phi"osoph/ of nature Ne% vie% of divination. T!+ un& phi"osophers %ere separated a#out fifteen hundred /ears from Confucius. Durin& this "on& period differences mi&ht %e"" sprin& up, %hich accordin&"/ %e find. In reverence for anti:uit/ and the incu"cation of the five constant virtues, in teachin& the princip"es of perpetua" and universa" mora"it/, and in dra%in& the attention of their countr/men to the ancient mode"s of %isdom and virtue, the/ a&reed %ith Confucius. In their cosmo&on/, their phi"osoph/ of nature, their attitude in re&ard to the ancient practice of divination, and in their exp"anation of the soverei&n po%er in the %or"d as an a#straction, the/ differed %ide"/ from Confucius. *our &reat sta&es of "iterar/ and nationa" deve"opment ma/ #e pointed to as intervenin& #et%een the &reat sa&e and the a&e ca""ed that of the Sung&"u. +ach of them em#raced the course of three or four centuries. The first is that of .encius, iIn Kin&, .eh Ti, and KIh -uen. Orthodox phi"osophers, heretic phi"osophers, and a hi&h"/ popu"ar poet indicated the med"e/ of unfixed thou&ht in %hich, at p. CBT that time, the pu#"ic mind %as invo"ved. It %as a time of stru&&"e for Confucian and orthodox doctrine, a&ainst various specu"ators in mora"s and po"itics %ho %ished to advance some one princip"e to the detriment of others. But Tauist doctrine %as &ro%in& /ear"/ in stren&th. The second is the !an period. ( c"oud of critica" expounders of orthodox/, fine historians, editors of the c"assics, astronomers, astro"o&ers, a"chemists, and Tauist phi"osophers mar$ed this a&e. Thou&h the authorit/ of Confucius %as uphe"d, and the c"assics maintained in profound veneration, the tone of specu"ation %as predominant"/ Tauist. The air %as rife %ith "e&endar/ "ore. Tauist ma&ic, the hermit "ife, the medicine of immorta"it/ %ere fervent"/ #e"ieved in, and ma&icians %ere honoured %ith popu"ar veneration. The fau"t of the a&e %as its superstition. Its redeemin& feature %as its ardent and successfu" efforts for promotin& the restoration of the ancient #oo$s and their use in the education of /outh. The third a&e %as Buddhist. It %as that of the six d/nasties. The riches of the countr/ %ere "avished on Buddhist structures. In a"" parts of the empire the peop"e adopted this Indian re"i&ion. !indoo astronom/ and m/tho"o&/, the $no%"ed&e of the a"pha#et and of tones, and the introduction of Buddhist metaph/sics date from this time. The Buddhists #ecame a po%er in "iterature, and founded a native schoo" of Indian phi"osoph/. The fourth a&e %as that of the TJan& d/nast/. It %as a time of "uxur/ and poetr/. !an >en2$un& and the poets divided the admiration of the "iterati of the time #et%een them. The #oo$s made in the department of criticism %ere tonic dictionaries #ased on the ne% Indian spe""in&Q no sa&es appeared, no phi"osophers of name exceptin& !an >en2$un&. uch an a&e of menta" inaction and enervatin& prosperit/ must #e succeeded #/ a period of menta" ener&/. uch a period ensued. It %as that of the Sung&"u, the phi"osophers %ho no% undertoo$ the restoration of the p. CHG %ea$ened Confucianism, %hich, %hi"e retainin& its position, had "ost its inf"uence over men5s minds. >hen the/ appeared on the scene, it had #ecome impossi#"e to retain the s/stem of the ancient sa&es in its pure and simp"e form. The re"i&ion, the po"itics, the customs, and superstitions of the peop"e had a"" chan&ed. But much mi&ht, thou&ht the/, #e done, and the revie% of their efforts and achievements is a most curious section in the histor/ of humanit/, and frau&ht %ith sa"utar/ %arnin&. The/ proceeded under the com#ined inf"uence of Buddhism and Tauism, to extend and reconstruct the ancient s/stem of cosmo&on/. (s %e read the i-king, the ver/ essence of ancient thou&ht, and the com#ined %or$ of the most venerated sa&es, %e fai" to reco&nise a distinct cosmo&on/. Confucius

spea$s of the 1reat +xtreme as the commencement 8of chan&es. It produced the t%o fi&ures. These produced the four ima&es, and these a&ain the ei&ht divinin& s/m#o"s.8 This statement "oo$s am#i&uous and uncertain in its meanin&. The ei&ht s/m#o"s are ei&ht arran&ements of stro$es. >e thin$, then, of primar/ arithmetic. Is there much in it #esides t%ice one is t%o, t%ice t%o is four, t%ice four is ei&htL Confucius, #efore and after this passa&e, is ta"$in& of divination. !e continues to sa/S 8The ei&ht s/m#o"s determine &ood and i"" fortune, and these "ead to &reat deeds. There are no imita#"e ima&es &reater than heaven and earth. There are no chan&es &reater than the four seasons. There are no suspended ima&es #ri&hter than the sun and moon. In preparin& thin&s for use, there is none &reater than the sa&e. In determinin& &ood and i"" "uc$, there is nothin& &reater than the divinin& stra%s and the tortoise.8 +vident"/ the chief thou&ht of Confucius is upon divination, %hich %as the imitation of natura" phenomena succeedin& each other in a certain order. If %e understand the ei&ht divinin& s/m#o"s to #e ei&ht departments of nature, as heaven, earth, fire, %ater, Oc., then %e ma/ p. CHB construct a cosmo&on/ out of the formu"a a#ove cited. But the aim of the %riter %as rather to descri#e the %or"d as the o#3ect of the %ise man5s in:uiries, and to point out that he must imitate the "a%s of phenomena" chan&e %hich he o#serves in heaven and earth, and that he ma/ o#tain the most va"ua#"e resu"ts #/ divination. >hi"e the sa&e "oo$s at his stra%s, one #ecomes t%o, t%o #ecome four, and four #ecome ei&ht, as the effect of certain transformations. One of the kwa, or 8s/m#o"ic sets of "ines,8 is made up of three or six. Ta$e the former. >e find there, sa/ the Chinese, heaven, earth, and man in miniature. o, sa/ I, %e ma/ find there an/thin& %e "i$e. >hen the cosmo&onica" idea enters then, it is indirect"/, and it %as not the primar/ sense. In the Shu-king there is a passa&e %hich spea$s of the Hwang-ki, the 8+mperor5s extreme8 of perfection. The sense in %hich ki %as here used %as of course mora". In Chwang-ts %e meet %ith the %ords, 8To #e ear"ier than the 1reat +xtreme, and /et not to #e hi&h.8 The commentator sa/s that the phrase 81reat +xtreme8 here means 8heaven, earth, and man, inc"uded #ut not /et separated.8 Hwainan-ts, a Tauist of the !an, sa/s, 8To "ead out his c"ass to a position hi&her than the 1reat +xtreme.8 !ere is the #uddin& of that cosmo&on/ %hich fructified in the un& phi"osophers. The Tauists did %hat the ear"/ Confucianists fai"ed to do. The/ commenced a cosmo&on/. >e find it sti"" more deve"oped in the Tsan-tung-ki, a %or$ %ritten #/ the noted >ei ,e2/an& of the !an. !ere appears the first map of the Chinese cosmo&on/, and it %ants the 81reat +xtreme.8 Bent into three concentric circ"es are seen the li-kwa, representin& 8fire,8 and the kan-kwa, representin& 8%ater.8 In the "i2$%a, the midd"e is #"ac$ and the sides are %hite. In the kan-kwa the midd"e is %hite and the sides are #"ac$. The/ rude"/ picture a fire &ivin& out f"ames, and a shinin& river f"o%in& #et%een t%o #an$s. Be"o% this are five sma"" circ"es, representin& the five e"ements, %ood and fire #ein& on the "eft, meta" and %ater on the ri&ht. p. CHH This dia&ram %as put to a ferti"e use #/ the un& phi"osophers. The/ added to it a ho""o% circ"e, to represent the 81reat +xtreme8 a#ove, and t%o ho""o% circ"es to represent heaven and earth #e"o%. (fter%ards Chu fu2tsM made a chan&e. !e thou&ht he %ou"d improve the dia&ram #/ thro%in& out the e"ements and introducin& in their p"ace the &reat and "itt"e yin, and the &reat and "itt"e yang. !e chan&ed heaven and earth, 8the t%o fi&ures,8 into yin and yang. The un& phi"osophers, %hi"e the/ extended the cosmo&on/ #/ addin& the map of the 81reat +xtreme,8 added a"so a"" the maps printed in the ordinar/ editions of the i-king. These maps are not found in an/ text, nor as prefator/ matter are the/ ear"ier than the un&. The Buddhists #rou&ht the notion of pictoria" i""ustrations %ith them from India. Before their time the Chinese made ver/ "imited use of i""ustrated dia&rams. ,ro#a#"/ the Buddhists too$ the notion from the 1ree$s, su#se:uent"/ to the a&e of ("exander, %hen 1ree$s %ere in 3uxtaposition %ith !indoos and other Buddhist peop"es in Bo$haria, Ca#u", (f&hanistan, and the ,un3a#. There %ere, ho%ever, s$etches of star &roups to the Sing-king, 8 tar c"assic8 ?#/ Kan and hM@ of the !an d/nast/, and the stro$es of the ei&ht and sixt/2four $%a in the i-king, Tsan-tung-ki, and other %or$s. The arithmetica" com#inations ca""ed Ho-tu and Lo-shu %ere a"so pro#a#"/ represented #/ dots or stars. 1eometrica" dia&rams %ere not $no%n. Thou&h Chen Kun& %as a%are of the propert/ of the ri&ht2an&"ed trian&"e arithmetica""/, i,e,, that the s:uares of three and four are to&ether e:ua" to the s:uare of five, he never thou&ht of expressin& it #/ a dia&ram. It needed the 1ree$ &enius to initiate the conceptions of &eometr/. The "ater Chinese %riters %ere unconscious"/ inf"uenced much more #/ Buddhism, a product of the Indo2+uropean mind, than the/ ever ac$no%"ed&edQ and the/ %ou"d, under the impressions made on them, imitate the &reater p. CHC effort of the ima&ination %hich the/ there encountered. Thus the/ tried to comp"ete the thou&ht of the o"d sa&es of China, to fi"" up their out"ine, and to form into distinctness the shado%/ shapes of more ancient ideas. The round "ine to represent the Tai-ki, the circ"e ha"f %hite and ha"f #"ac$ %ith the curved diameter %hich mar$s "i&ht and dar$ness, or yin and yang, are ne%Q and the o"d notion of the four seasons, %hich %as popu"ar in the !an d/nast/ as exp"ainin& the four siang or 8ima&es,8 %as &iven up for the &reat yin and the "itt"e yin and the &reat yang and the "itt"e yang, phrases ne% to the Confucian doctrine. >e cannot %onder that the/ &ave up the four seasons, for ho% cou"d the ei&ht kwa come out of the seasonsL Others said that the four siang, or 8ima&es,8 %ere the anima"s that pass throu&h metamorphoses, such as the tortoise, the dra&on, and the dra&on2horse that #ore on his #ac$ the arithmetica" scheme or ma&ic s:uare offered to -I the 1reat. But %h/ fo""o% out these ideasL The/ %ere un$no%n to Confucius. The/ extended the cosmo&on/ %ithout introducin& the idea of a persona" Creator. This %as due to the inf"uence of Buddhism, and the fact that the ancient #oo$s had not the doctrine. The pecu"iar form of their cosmo&on/ %as due to Buddhist inf"uence, %hich incu"cates faith in a creatin& and destro/in& *ate, #"ind"/ impartia", entire"/ impersona", and incessant"/ efficient. If Buddhism had #een tru"/ a re"i&ion adapted to dra% man #ac$ to 1od, his overei&n and 4ud&e, the true doctrine of creation %ou"d have #een tau&ht in the Indian hastras, and the Chinese %riters of the un& d/nast/ %ou"d pro#a#"/ have adopted the idea. But the perversit/ of !indoo phi"osoph/ %as #etter p"eased %ith irresisti#"e *ate as a su#stitute for the Divine Ru"er. In ta$in& examp"e from the Buddhists in this particu"ar, the un& phi"osophers %ere the more %i""in&, inasmuch as the teachers of Tauism had preferred the doctrine of spontaneous &ro%th, to represent the ori&in of the %or"d. The tendenc/ of their specu"ations %as to shut p. CHF out 1od from the %or"d, so far as !is #ein& in an/ sense an active Creator. This remar$ #rin&s me, #/ a natura" transition, to spea$ of the difference #et%een Confucius and the un& phi"osophers in re&ard to their phi"osoph/ of nature. In ancient China, the notion of five e"ements %as a"read/ in existence, #ut it %as not ti"" the Tauists of the !an deve"oped the doctrine that it assumed its modern form. It is remar$a#"e that, after so &reat an interva", no &"eam of a true science of nature shou"d have entered into the inte""ects of the un& phi"osophers. The/ %ere too much devoted to anti:uit/, and too "ac$in& in independence, to sha$e off the /o$e of a materia"istic nomenc"ature. The minds of Confucius and .encius %ere %armed #/ mora" considerations. ,o"itica" and socia" :uestions %ere to them deep"/ interestin&. The/ accepted the divination of the 8Boo$ of Chan&es8 #ecause >en >an& and Cheu Kun& %ere the saviours of the state and the advocates of #enevo"ence and inte&rit/. If divination #/ stra%s had #een introduced, su#se:uent"/ to the epoch of those sa&es, #/ men not ta$in& the ran$ of sa&es, the mora" instinct #oth of Confucius and .encius %ou"d have a#so"ute"/ refused a"" countenance to it.

)i$e credit cannot #e c"aimed for the un& phi"osophers. >ei ,e2/an&, the Tauist of the !an d/nast/, and others from %hom the/ dre% ideas, %ere not the representatives of a s/stem %hich made mora"it/ its centre, #ut of a"chem/ and a doctrine of se"f2cu"tivation %hich incu"cated ph/sica" aids instead of the simp"e teachin& of &enuine mora"it/. The extension of a ph/sica" phi"osoph/ %ea$ens mora" and re"i&ious sentiment. The a"chem/ and astro"o&/ of the !an made the Chinese nation "ess disposed to re"i&ious reverence. The occupation of the mind %ith materia"istic ideas and aims o#scures the spiritua" vision and appetite. It %as in this %a/, to no sma"" extent, that the Chinese nation %as prepared to receive Buddhism, part"/ from re"i&ious indifference, and in part a"so from a desire for p. CHD fervenc/ in ritua" and the ac:uisition of ne% spiritua" o#3ects on %hich to fix the sou"5s &aRe. ( thousand /ears more and Buddhism had had its tria", and #een found %antin&. >hat, then, shou"d have #een the course to #e steadfast"/ pursued #/ the Confucianists of the un& periodL Undou#ted"/, if the/ desired to fo""o% the examp"e of the sa&e, the/ shou"d have opposed tooth and nai" the Tauists and Buddhists. Both these re"i&ions are defective in the mora" e"ement, and that is the ver/ sou" of the Confucian s/stem. The/ %ou"d have then done for the superstitious and heresies of their time %hat Confucius and .encius did fifteen centuries #efore. >hen )uther, in +urope, made a stand for pure doctrine and a&ainst asceticism, he did %hat mi&ht to some sma"" extent have #een done #/ the un& phi"osophers. Instead of this, the/ #o%ed their heads to superstition, a""o%ed ido"atr/ to increase in the "and of Confucius, and raised no voice a&ainst it. The most me"ancho"/ examp"e of deca/ in mora" and re"i&ious instinct is in the denia" of a soverei&n mora" ru"er in the universe, and the identification of 1od %ith reason and %ith primeva" vapour. This is practica""/ done #/ Chu fu2tsi, and he is on this account sharp"/ condemned #/ %riters of the present d/nast/. The ancient Chinese understood #/ Tien either the persona" Ru"er of the %or"d, or the ph/sica" firmament. Chu fu2tsM said Tien is nothin& #ut li, 8reasonQ8 and e"se%here he identifies li %ith ki, 8vapour.8 uch %as the unhapp/ resu"t of the spread of the Tauist ph/sica" s/stem and the Buddhist atheism in China. The "ast thin& I sha"" mention is the different attitude of Confucius and the un& phi"osophers in re&ard to divination. >hen Confucius "ived, the ancient ma&ic %as sti"" in existence, and, if %e ta$e for &ranted the statements of the Kia-y, he practised it himse"f. !o%ever this ma/ #e, he praised it to the s$ies in the i-king. Nothin& p. CHA %as to #e compared %ith the stra%s and the tortoise for so"vin& difficu"ties in po"itics, and for unrave""in& the eni&mas of nature. !e #e"ieved in divination #ecause of its anti:uit/ and the &reat names connected %ith it. The %ho"e of it %as s%ept a%a/ a#out the time of TsJin hMh2%an&, B.C. HHG, not #/ that emperor himse"f, for he hi&h"/ venerated it, #ut from %ant of faith on the part of the peop"e. It is said that the reason %as that the #oo$s %ere "ost %hich tau&ht the ru"es. If so, it %as not #/ order of TsJin hMh2%an&. >ant of faith is the more "i$e"/ reason. The un& phi"osophers certain"/ did not #e"ieve in the #enefits attendin& the use of the stra%s and tortoise in divinin&, or the/ %ou"d have recommended to the rei&nin& emperor that the o"d divination shou"d #e restored. The un& %riters do not in so man/ %ords den/ the efficac/ of divination. Their o#3ect is p"ain. The/ %ish to vei" the %ea$nesses of the ancient sa&es. It is necessar/ to do this in order to maintain the reverence accorded to the sa&es. The/ %ou"d not "i$e to ac$no%"ed&e the superstition of these much2admired men. But if driven c"ose"/ in ar&ument, the modern Confucianist admits the use"essness of divination, and that he himse"f is %ithout faith in it. If %e are to #e"ieve the modern "iterati, the fau"ts of the un& 3u are num#er"ess. I have chosen a fe% of their nove"ties and heresies for the consideration of the student of Buddhism and the other re"i&ions of China.

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CHAPTER

I.

FENG-SHUI$ OR" THE !IND AND !ATER SUPERSTITION OF THE CHINESE. (n o#stac"e to civi"isation.eanin& of Feng, 8>ind8Of Shui, 8>ater8Use of c/c"ic characters.eanin& of Lung, 8Dra&on8Names of the &eomancers !indoo nomenc"atureSha-chi 8Destructive vapour8Dar$ arro%Chen-wu, or 8,rotectin& shie"d8Feng-shui professed"/ #ased on the 8Boo$ of Chan&es8 .odern Feng-shui is #ased on the Han-lung-kingBuddhist e"ement in Feng-shuiThe four e"ements of the 1ree$sThe !indoo 8(ir and %ater8 is Feng-shui +arth, %ater, fire, and air are creative forces, existin& in successive kalpas, and formin& successive %or"dsResem#"ance to the theories of the Ionian phi"osophers 1eomanc/ in the TJan& d/nast/Rahu and KetuThe Feng-shui s/stem &re% out of BuddhismNative e"ement in Feng-shuiNine fancied starsCauses of the contour of hi""s and p"ains tars of the six housesFeng-shui inconsistent %ith &enuine Confucianism. +0+R-T!IN1 can #e made p"ainer #/ investi&ation. +ver/thin& can #e understood #etter #/ the #rin&in& to&ether of facts. The Feng-shui of the Chinese deserves to #e examined, for it is one of the &reat o#stac"es to the pro&ress of civi"isation. It interferes %ith commercia" enterprise. It chec$s the efforts of missionar/ Rea". It interrupts the free thou&ht of the peop"e, and $eeps them %rapped in the mumm/

fo"ds of ancient pre3udices. >ithin the "ast thirt/ /ears this pecu"iar s/stem of native 1eomanc/ B has #een made the &round for refusin& p. CHE the esta#"ishment of the e"ectric te"e&raph at han&hai, of rai"%a/s, of a road from Tientsin to the Chai2tan& coa"mines, and of I do not $no% ho% man/ more manifest and desira#"e improvements, a"" %hich %ou"d #e of the &reatest advanta&e to the peop"e of the district. I #e&in %ith the exp"anation of terms. Feng, 8>ind,8 is the first %hich occurs. It ma/ #e i""ustrated in this %a/. ( &rave shou"d not have a ho""o% near it. The %ind %i"" #"o% into the &rave from that ho""o% and &radua""/ distur# the #ones and the coffin. In ten /ears the/ %i"" #e ha"f turned over. In t%ent/ /ears or so the/ ma/ #e entire"/ turned over. In that case the posterit/ of the dead %i"" suffer #/ a $ind of materia" necessit/. uch a %ind is ca""ed a wa-+eng, from wa, 8ho""o%.8 (n outer %ind must not #e a""o%ed to invade the cham#er of the dead, for fear the fami"/ fortunes shou"d #e distur#ed. Thus the fi"ia" piet/ %hich ta$es care of the tom#s of parents has a materia" re%ard, and ma/ #e nothin& #e/ond a coarse se"fishnessQ on the other hand, the %ant of it is visited #/ a natura" retri#ution, invo"vin& sic$ness, povert/, "oss of descendants, and de&radation in the socia" sca"e. The aim of the &eomancer is to find a spot %here the +eng, 8co"d air %hich issues from the earth,8 is hidden. This the/ ca"" tsang-+eng. >here there are no ho""o%s it is safe to di& the &rave, for here there is no out"et #/ %hich this pernicious %ind ma/ distur# the dead. The second term to #e exp"ained is Shui, 8>ater.8 The &rave must #e carefu""/ chosen. The confi&uration of the earth is caused #/ the dra&on, %hose shape is seen in the mountain #oundar/ cast upon the evenin& s$/. The dra&on ma/ #e traced to its source. It is o#serva#"e in the f"o% of the mountain stream, or in the contour of the earth. The ho""o% river #ed and the variet/ of hi"" and va""e/ are caused #/ the dra&on. Trace the %ater of a va""e/ to its sourceQ that is the point from %hich commences the inf"uence that contro"s human destin/. >ater is the e"ement in %hich the dra&on de"i&hts. Its %indin& p. CHT shape as it meanders throu&h a p"ain &ives evidence of this, for the dra&on prefers croo$ed paths. ince then the dra&on &ives prosperit/, e"evates the $in& and the sa&e, and is the s/m#o" of a"" exa"tation, socia", po"itica", or mora", it is a"" important to consider the position of %ater %hen se"ectin& the site of the &rave. In the va""e/ of the .in& tom#s the %ater f"o%s from the north2%est, passes under a #rid&e in front of the &rave of the emperor -un&2"o, and then pursues its %a/ do%n to%ards the p"ain of ,e$in& on the south2east. !i""s in horse2shoe form em#race the va""e/. The +eng-shui is &ood. If the %ater f"o%s past a certain point of the &eomancer5s compass, it causes prosperit/Q at another, it #rin&s misfortune. If, for instance, to #e more particu"ar in detai", the #ranchin& point of %ater #e at the north2east, north2%est, south2east, or south2%est points of the compass, it is possi#"e that there ma/ #e prosperit/. If it #e at the east2north2east, %est2south2%est, south2south2east, or north2north2%est, the e"der sons and #rothers of the deceased %i"" #ecome scattered and poor. >ater at the east #/ north, %est #/ south, south #/ east, or north #/ %est points, %i"" ensure happiness to his chi"dren, the/ not #ein& the e"dest or /oun&est. The same chi"dren %i"" suffer misfortune if %ater f"o% past the north #/ east and %est points. The chief use of the &eomancer5s compass is to determine, in re&ard to the %ater, the direction of f"o%, the primar/ source, the points of 3unction, and the points from %hich it starts afresh at a ne% an&"e. The &rave must #e chosen so that the presa&ed fate, as fixed #/ the manua" of &eomanc/, ma/ #e of the most favoura#"e $ind. The cuttin& of a ne% road %ou"d a"ter the course of %ater, and in various %a/s affect the ca"cu"ation of the &eomancerQ and, as the &raves of the past &eneration are found ever/%here, there is no spot %here the minds of the peop"e %i"" not #e distur#ed #/ pro3ects invo"vin& the construction of roads. If the mista$e in the se"ection of a &rave site "eads to povert/, sudden death, and other p. CCG ca"amities, ma/ not a rai"%a/ cuttin&, or an/ distur#ance in the course of streams, #e e:ua""/ de"eteriousL The faith in +eng-shui must #e first eradicated #efore the Chinese can #e induced to "oo$ %ith favour on rai"%a/s or an/ description of ne% roads. If the &overnment shou"d consent to such improvements, their action ou&ht to #e accompanied #/ edicts and pu#"ications authoritative"/ condemnin& the superstition, and sho%in& %hat so"id reasons there are for dis#e"ievin& the %ho"e s/stem of the &eomancers. This %ou"d aid &reat"/ in soothin& the minds of the hosti"e and ca"min& the fears of the i&norant. But to proceedS the %ater #efore a tom# must #e runnin& %ater. Riches and ran$ f"o% "i$e %ater capricious"/ from one point to another. !ence riches and ran$ are supposed to depend on the undistur#ed f"o% of the stream %hich passes under the #rid&e in front of the tom#. .an inha#its the tom#, and his destin/ is affected #/ the surroundin& circumstances. Riches and ran$ are attached to f"o%in& %ater, and, if due care is ta$en #/ the &eomancer and #/ the posterit/ of the dead, a perpetua" stream of %or"d"/ honour and %ea"th ma/ #e expected to f"o% into the possession of the fami"/. It ma/ #e instructive to d%e"" for a moment on this superstition, provin&, as it does, that :uite as dense a c"oud of i&norance rests on China as upon +urope #efore it %as i""umined #/ the sun of Christianit/ and of modern $no%"ed&e. On the &eomancer5s compass the t%e"ve c/c"ic characters, tsu&cheu, yin, Oc., are inscri#ed at e:ua" distances interspersed %ith other c/c"es. The first, tsu, #e&ins at the north point, and is at the #ac$ of the tom#, %hich faces the south. The order of the %ords is from east to %est, accordin& to the diurna" motion of the sun and stars. )et the o#server ima&ine himse"f standin& at the #ac$ of one of those common tom#s, %hich are protected on the north side B #/ a "on& curved #an$ over&ro%n %ith &rass. p. CCB ;para&raph continues< Behind him on the horiRon is tsu, next on the "eft is cheu, and so on to the south point, wu. If there is a #end in the course of the %ater, or a 3unction of t%o streams on the north at tsu, the posterit/ of the occupant of the &rave %i"" #e thieves if poor, and ro##ed if rich. If on the northeast the/ %i"" die /oun&, and #e "eft as %ido%s, and men %ithout chi"dren. (t the third division, the/ %i"" #e &reat"/ su#3ect to diseases. If the &eomancer notices that the #end is in the east point of the horiRon, he %i"" #e #ound to forete"" that the posterit/ of the dead %i"" #e va&a#onds. (t the next t%o stations the specia" evi"s indicated are diso#edience and re#e""ion at the one, and at the other the conse:uence %i"" #e that a sna$e %i"" &ro% of itse"f in the tom#. This is a ver/ #ad si&n, and presa&es rest"essness for the #ones of the dead and the fortunes of the "ivin&. It #rin&s the evi" %ind of unhapp/ destin/ %ith specia" force upon the occupier of the tom#. The south indicates that the descendants of the dead %i"" "ead "icentious "ives. !ere I stopQ #ut the &eomancer does not rest ti"" he has #oxed the compass %ith a variet/ of evi"s supposed to #efa"" the possessor of an i""2chosen site for his &rave. uch a s/stem is %e"" adapted to increase the authorit/ of the +eng-shui&sien-sheng, or 8&eomancer.8 !e must #e %e"" s$i""ed in a"" the indications %hich the traditions and #oo$s of his profession sin&"e out as of importance. These deceivers of their fe""o%2men %ho ma$e their "ivin& #/ practisin& on the superstitious tendencies of t their patrons, are sometimes %antin& in care for their

reputation. The/ often carr/ the thin& too far. The/ are he"d up to ridicu"e not uncommon"/ #/ the peop"e, and especia""/ #ecause the %ord +eng, 8%ind,8 is a"so identica" in sound %ith +eng, 8"unatic.8 The countr/ peop"e ridicu"e them as the/ stand on the &rave site to ma$e o#servations, or creep on the &round, or sit on their thi&hs, or superintend the erection of a mound of &rass c"ods, or come out at evenin& %ith a "anthorn to set on the p. CCH mount, as an assistance to them in considerin& at a distance the desira#"e or unfavoura#"e features of the site in :uestion. 0er/ "i$e is a"" this to the astro"o&/ of the Cha"deans, that s/stem of ma&ic and fortune2te""in& a&ainst %hich Christianit/ had to fi&ht in the da/s of !ippo"/tus and Ori&en. The one app"ied the c/c"es of astronom/ to divination %ith the o#3ect of ma$in& &ain #/ te""in& fortunes. The other ma$es use of the same c/c"es in &eomanc/ to o#tain mone/ #/ forefendin& evi" and coaxin& a &ood destin/ upon him %ho pa/s the con3uror. !e %i"" #ecome the most popu"ar and #est esteemed &eomancer %ho ma$es the most cunnin& o#servations on the contour of the countr/ and the arran&ement of the streams of %ater at the spot %here the &rave is, or %here it is intended to #e made. It is often the case that the care #esto%ed #/ the Chinese on the &raves of their ancestors ma/ #e "ess from respect for the deceased than from fear of i"" conse:uences to themse"ves and their descendants. )ar&e sums are spent #/ the rich in the hope of o#tainin& the #est possi#"e +eng-shui for their ancestra" tom#s. Thus the stream of prosperit/ %i"" a"%a/s f"o% continuous"/ on%ards in the histor/ of their fami"ies, securin& them freedom from povert/, miser/, sic$ness, and o#scurit/. The fi"ia" piet/ of China is "ess sincere than is #/ man/ supposed. It is more se"fish than &enerous, more ca"cu"atin& than spontaneous. The mora" sense is deadened in this countr/ #/ the prevai"in& desire for riches and ran$Q and the mora" retri#ution %hich attends the acts of individua"s and nations, is too much hidden from vie% #/ a superstitious #e"ief in an uninte""i&ent ph/sica" retri#ution, B such as is tau&ht #/ the Buddhists. >hen 1od as &overnor is #anished from the %or"d, atheistic phi"osophers su#stitute an impersona" *ate, %hose decrees sometimes are in harmon/ %ith the mora" sense in man, #ut are perhaps much oftener inf"uenced #/ "o% motives, such p. CCC as are #e"ieved #/ the superstitious to contro" the acts of the fetish. In this sense it ma/ #e said that the Chinese have retro&raded in proportion as the +eng-shui and simi"ar superstitions have extended amon& them. In the da/s of Confucius the mora" sense %as pro#a#"/ #ri&hter than it is no%, and there %as "ess of superstition. !e "ived nearer to the ear"/ times of the O"d Testament monotheism. +ven in his a&e, if %e compare the $no%"ed&e of 1od then possessed #/ the Chinese %ith that found in the o"der c"assics, %e are compe""ed to admit that there %as deterioration. !e fe"t "ess than the emperors TJan& and >en >an&, the inf"uence of the persona" idea of 1od as the actua" mora" &overnor of the %or"d. (s the faith in a persona" 1od &re% dim, the mora" sense a"so "ost its $eenness, and the ph/sica" heaven came to #e re&arded as an o#3ect of %orship. The third %ord I sha"" exp"ain is Lung, 8Dra&on.8 The %ord means that %hich rises and is "oft/ in "ocation. It is used of mountains and of nationa" or individua" prosperit/. The fa#u"ous dra&on of China is a monster %ith sca"es "i$e a crocodi"e, and havin& five2c"a%ed feet. !e has no %in&s, and %hen he rises in the air, it is #/ a po%er he is supposed to possess of transformin& himse"f at p"easure. !e can ma$e himse"f "ar&e or "itt"e, and rise or fa"", 3ust as he chooses. The Chinese dra&on, %hich is a f"/in& saurian, is not "i$e the 1ree$ dra&on, %hich #e"on&ed to the serpent fami"/, #ut seems to #e an ori&ina" Chinese creation, or is connected in some ancient and un$no%n %a/ %ith the >est. *or our present purpose it is sufficient to re&ard it as pure"/ native, and the most pro#a#"e cause I can name of the attri#utes of the dra&on is simi"arit/ of sound %ith %ords meanin& 8hi&h8 and 8ascend.8 (mon& the %ords %ith %hich it ma/ #e identified #/ et/mo"o&/, throu&h the mutations of "etters, are shang, 8to ascendQ8 cheng, 8the up%ard motion of steamQ8 teng, 8to &o upQ8 sheng, a"so 8to &o upQ8 lung,8 hi&hQ8 and lung, 8hi"".8 The &eomancer ca""s a"" hi&h "and lung, and p. CCF a"" "o% "and shui. The dra&on ru"es the hi&h "and, and %ater the "o% "and. The chains of hi""s %hich a"most encirc"e ,e$in& are the protectin& dra&on, %hich is #e"ieved to ensure its prosperit/. The hi""s %hich surround in a simi"ar %a/ the .in& tom#s are the dra&on, %hich for three centuries protected that d/nast/. The mountain chains %hich #ound the province of Chi2"i are connected %ith the .anchurian mountains %hich crad"ed the imperia" fami"/ in the da/s of its comparative o#scurit/. (s the seat of empire is in ,e$in&, and it is there the rei&nin& fami"/ resides, it is of the hi&hest importance not to distur# its protectin& dra&on. On p"ains the Chinese ma$e a "on& mound #ehind a tom#. This is a"so the protectin& dra&on of that tom# and of the fami"/ it represents. It is ca""ed the hi"", and its office is to $eep off the north %ind. >hen hi&h "and is %antin&, trees ma$e an exce""ent shie"d a&ainst #ad inf"uence. B The &eomancer5s #oo$s sa/ that the dra&on fo""o%s the course of the %ater. !e ori&inates his inf"uence %here the %ater ta$es its #e&innin&, and remains permanent"/ %here t%o streams meet. The/ mean here the inf"uence %hich produces happiness and miser/ #/ a capricious retri#ution mixed %ith a coarse natura" phi"osoph/. Divine ,rovidence is here $ept out of vie%, and is #/ imp"ication denied. The e"ementsfire, air, earth, and %aterdominate. It is #/ their com#inations and activities that human fate is determined. The &eomancer5s dra&on causes men5s e"evation, "on&evit/, and richesQ and his inf"uence varies accordin& as he has more of %ater, or of earth, or of an/ other e"ement. The course of the dra&on must #e in each instance examined, and it is decided #/ the direction of the %ater. But the contour of the &round, %hether risin& or fa""in&, hi&h or "o%, must a"so #e considered. uch investi&ations %ere made, for examp"e, in re&ard to the site of the &rave of the emperor -un&2"o, and hence the se"ection of that #eautifu" va""e/ p. CCD %here the .in& emperors are #uried. The .anchu emperors after%ards despoi"ed the tom#s of that d/nast/. .uch of the tea$ tim#er and mar#"e %as #rou&ht a%a/ to use in the ne% edifices of -uen2min&2/uen and the other p"easure &rounds of the imperia" fami"/. Then the/ #e&an to fear the conse:uences on themse"ves and their descendants. The inf"uence from the .in& tom#s on the north mi&ht have a disastrous effect upon them %hi"e en3o/in& their summer retirement. The/ therefore erected those &eomantic %a""s %hich are seen on the hi"" sides facin& north2north2east on the %a/ to !ei2"un&2tJan from ,e$in&. These %a""s, it %as supposed, %ou"d chec$ the pernicious inf"uences %hich mi&ht other%ise stri$e them from the invisi#"e retri#utive po%er, %hich %as sti"" supposed to %atch over the "ast restin&2p"ace of the once mi&ht/ d/nast/ of the .in&. It is p"ain that the &eomancer5s capricious retri#ution, if #e"ieved in #/ a nation, must have most in3urious conse:uences in its manifest interference %ith the doctrine of mora" retri#ution. It is of a piece %ith the "uc$ of the Chinese ca"endar, the #e"ief in the efficac/ of red co"our and favourite mora" sentences in $eepin& off demons, the choice of da/s for marria&es and funera"s, and the remainder of the end"ess "ist of native superstitions sti"" #e"ieved in in this countr/. In descri#in& the effect of the dra&on, the &eomancers sa/ he can remove the 8spirit of death,8 the sha-chi, and preserve "ife. The sha is a ma"icious princip"e, the shed of the !e#re% and (ra#ic "an&ua&es, and the chitgur of the .on&o"s. >hen this princip"e invades the #od/, man dies. The/ #e"ieve, ho%ever, that this enem/ %ho $i""s and in3ures men is not invinci#"e. The dra&on has the po%er of chec$in& it. It is curious to notice that here %e have to do %ith impersona" /et "ivin& princip"es. The sha does not receive a proper name. In a >estern countr/ these superstitions %ou"d have #een c"othed in the "an&ua&e of a &racefu" m/tho"o&/. The Chinese, #e"on&in& p. CCA

a"to&ether to a more primitive and prosaic t/pe than the 1ree$ race, are content %ith simp"/ ca""in& them &ood and evi" princip"es. I sha"" no% sa/ a fe% %ords on the professiona" names assumed #/ the &eomancers. The/ ca"" themse"ves professors of ti-li, 8the doctrine or description of the earth,8 8&eo&raph/.8 This name is in contrast %ith tien-wen, 8astronom/,8 %hich means the description of heaven astronomica""/ and astro"o&ica""/, as ti-li &eo&raphica""/ and &eomantica""/ is of earth. >hat astro"o&/ is %hen compared %ith astronom/, such is &eomanc/ %hen compared %ith &eo&raph/. The astro"o&ica" section in the &eomancer5s #oo$s is #u"$/. The/ te"" us that the stars shinin& do%n ?or comin& do%n, for the/ suppose them mova#"e@ &ive the mountains their form. ome adopt the !indoo nomenc"ature, and ma$e the umeru mountain the centre of the mountain and river s/stem of the %or"d. Others, %ho o#3ect to offer su &reat a concession to the forei&n doctrine of Buddhist #oo$s, prefer to assi&n this honour to K%un2"un, the o"d Chinese name of the mountains dividin& Thi#et from Tartar/. On the north side of these mountains, the Chinese pro#a#"/ resided for a time #efore proceedin& to ta$e possession of their present home, and the same chain has a"%a/s ta$en a prominent p"ace in their notions of &eo&raph/. It is the #ac$#one from %hich the other mountain chains proceed, and the/ form to&ether a $ind of terrestria" s$e"eton. The rivers form the veins and arteries, and the mountains the #ones, of a "ivin& earth. The %ho"e is ima&ined to #e so "i$e the heavens, that certain stars correspond to certain terrestria" spaces, and exercise ru"e over them. K%un2"un ru"es the hi""s, as the ,o"e star ru"es the stars. >hen the &eomancer ta$es his position to inspect a site for a &rave, house, or cit/, he fixes upon a spot %hich is ca""ed hiue, a name that ma/ #e trans"ated into +n&"ish #/, %hat are indeed possi#"/, its et/mo"o&ica" e:uiva"ents, 8ho"e8 or 8ho""o%.8 The p. CCK %indin&s of the surface in its nei&h#ourhood, %hether stone, sand, or "oam, extendin& a"" round unti" the vie% is #ounded #/ hi""s or the horiRon, constitute the conste""ations %hich encirc"e it as the stars do the po"e. (s in heaven, the t%ent/2ei&ht Rodiaca" &roups represent the B"ue dra&on in the east, the Red #ird in the south, the >hite ti&er in the %est, and the B"ac$ %arrior in the north, so it is supposed to #e in the "imited horiRon of %hich the centre is the re:uired site. It is in accordance %ith this s/stem, ha"f astro"o&ica" and ha"f &eomantic, that the professor of ti-li proceeds in searchin& for %hat he ca""s the 8true dra&on8 in each case. The expression k1an-y is a"so used. This is a favourite name on the si&n#oards of ,e$in& &eomancers. The #est exp"anation of this phrase seems to #e that %hich represents kan as 8heaven,8 y as 8earth.8 Kan is the coverin& "et do%n over an ido", as in the phrase Fo-kan, 8( shrine for Buddha,8 and it here represents the s$/ as a canop/ stretched over the %or"d. is the 8chariot8 in %hich man is #orne. It is not so %e"" $no%n as it shou"d #e, that in China in the !an d/nast/ a &"eam of true "i&ht shone on the minds of some of the "iterati in re&ard to the s/stem of the %or"d. The/ accepted the no#"e idea, pro#a#"/ propa&ated from the >est throu&h Centra" (sia, that the earth moves, %hi"e the heavens are at rest. ,/tha&oras, if this #e true, had discip"es even so far a%a/ as China. It is possi#"e that the phrase kan-y ma/ hint at this idea. !ence the app"ication of the y, 8chariot,8 to &eo&raph/ and the earth. (nother term re:uirin& exp"anation is sha-chi. It is this %hich is feared %hen a ying-pei, or 8shie"d %a"",8 is erected #efore a house door. The dan&erous vapour $no%n as sha-chi, causin& various ca"amities, mi&ht enter #/ an unprotected door. +ver/ house entrance in ,e$in& has its devices for preventin& strai&ht access. The path must %ind, and man/ methods are emp"o/ed to save the house from the un%e"come intrusion. But there ma/ #e some p. CCE confusion hereQ for the idea of a %indin& entrance to a house arises from the desire to $eep men at a distance, as %e"" as demons, and to ma$e a "imit #et%een %hat is pu#"ic and %hat is private. The 8secret arro%,8 an-tsien, is a name &iven to evi" inf"uences comin& #/ a sma"" "ane in front of a door, or the "ane itse"f is so ca""ed. To oppose the #ad inf"uences trave""in& a"on& a "ane to%ards an open door, a stone "ion on a pi""ar, carved %ith characters indicatin& the capa#i"it/ of resistance, is p"aced opposite the entrance, and it is thou&ht to #e so usefu" that near"/ ever/ "ane in ,e$in& is thus defended. This and simi"ar 8protectin& shie"ds8 are termed chen-wu. ome Buddhist structures are #ui"t to act as chen-wu. uch are pa&odas and temp"es. In the same %a/ operate inscriptions and ti&ers cut in paper. It is usua" to carve stone pi""ars emp"o/ed as chenwu %ith the %ords Tai-shah-sh-kan-tang, #ecause TJai2shan is the most honoura#"e of mountains, and mountains are a protectin& shie"d to #ui"din&s and &raves. The carvin& of the a#ove sentence ?meanin&, 8This stone from TJai2shan dares to resist8@ is supposed to constitute a sufficient #arrier. (mon& other thin&s that shou"d not #e opposite to a house door are a %e"", a &rindstone, the corner of a %a"", a temp"e, t%o streets crossin&, and the entrance to a "ane. (mon& thin&s that protect a house and its inmates is a "itt"e ima&e of K%an2ti, &od of %ar, erected on the roof. ( stone arro% is a"so emp"o/ed for a simi"ar purpose. It is #e"ieved to #e a defence a&ainst the 8dar$ arro%8 of the ma"i&nant demon. (mon& inscriptions over a door of &reat efficac/ is one in honour of Kian& TJai2$un&, a hero of the Chen d/nast/8Kian& TJai2$un& is hereQ there is then no fear,8 Kiang-tai-kung-tsai-ts-pe-wu-king-k. To have a temp"e #ehind a house is a most favoura#"e si&n. To #e on the east side is a"so "uc$/. But to #e on the %est is #ad, and on the north %orse. ang-chai, yinchai, the 8"i&ht house and dar$ house,8 each has its +eng-shui. p. CCT In re&ard to the ori&in and histor/ of +eng-shui, a fe% notes here appended ma/ #e found usefu" in the a#sence of minute information on an o#scure su#3ect. It professes to #e #ased on the i-king, %here a rude s/stem of nature is traced #/ means of a c/c"e of ei&ht e"ements, inc"udin& heaven, earth, mountains, "a$es, thunder, Oc. On this are founded methods for see$in& &ood fortune and avoidin& i"". On account of its c"assica" authorit/ and repute, ever/ fortune2te""er natura""/ c"aims that his ru"es find their ori&in here. The rea" +eng-shui of the present &eneration is, ho%ever, to #e found rather in the Han-lung-king and such %or$s %hich are of modern date. The name of this treatise means the 8Boo$ for sha$in& the Dra&on.8 It is of the "ast centur/. It is a s/stem %hich has #een in course of formation since the !an d/nast/, and has in it Buddhist, Tauist, and Confucian e"ements, or, as it shou"d rather #e stated, Buddhist and native. )et us #e&in %ith the Buddhist. The ver/ name +eng-shui has in it a tin&e of !indoo notions. The Buddhist !indoos in China tau&ht the Indian natura" phi"osoph/. Their e"ements %ere four, name"/Sti, 8earthQ8 shui, 8%aterQ8 hwo, 8fireQ8 +eng, 8air.8 (s these a&ree %ith the 1ree$ doctrine of ph/sics, %e ma/ perhaps ascri#e its ori&in to 1reece or rather to Ba#/"on, that &reat centre of ancient civi"isation %hich deserved sti"" more than +&/pt to #e ca""ed 8.other of the sciences.8

>riters on India te"" us that the natives of that countr/, %hen the/ spea$ of c"imate, a"%a/s ca"" it 8air and %ater.8 B ince then the Chinese %ord +eng, 8%ind,8 %as used #/ them for air, one of the four e"ements, it is hi&h"/ pro#a#"e that the !indoo ph/sics have somethin& to do %ith the ori&in of the name #/ %hich the Chinese &eomantic doctrine is $no%n. To i""ustrate the %a/ in %hich the o"d !indoo phi"osophers p. CFG discoursed on the e"ements, I sha"" here mention B that the/ spea$ of %hite c"ouds as havin& in them more of the e"ement of earth, of #"ac$ c"ouds as havin& more of %ater, of red as havin& more of fire, and of /e""o% as havin& more of air. Thunder the/ #e"ieve to #e caused #/ the meetin& in the c"ouds of the %ind area %ith the %ater area, of the %ind area %ith the earth area, and of the %ind area %ith the fire area. Ca"amities caused #/ %ind, fire, and %ater have "oca" "imits in the Buddhist universe. Thus fire %or$s destruction no hi&her than to the paradise ca""ed Kwang-yin& tien, 8The heaven of #ri&htness and sound.8 H o a"so %ith the other e"ements, each has its sphere and its period of efficienc/. The kalpas are terminated #/ one or other of these po%erfu" e"ementa" forces. B/ their interaction the %or"d is formed, chan&ed, destro/ed, and rene%ed. It %as under the inf"uence of such a phi"osoph/ that .i"ton said ?for in his time the 1ree$ doctrine of the e"ements %as sti"" undistur#ed in +urope@ 8(ir, and /e e"ements the e"dest #irth Of nature5s %om#, that in :uaternion run, ,erpetua" circ"e mu"tiform, and mix (nd nourish a"" thin&s, "et /our cease"ess chan&e 0ar/ to /our &reat .a$er sti"" ne% praise.8 The heaven of Brahma is said to have #een formed #/ %ind #"o%in& on %ater, in %hich &re% up of itse"f a vast mass of moist matter. On this a&ain the %ind #"e%, and out of it formed the pa"ace of Brahma, %hich exhi#ited in a#undance the most #eautifu" com#inations of the precious meta"s and stones of ever/ $ind $no%n to man. The sea is said to have #een formed #/ the mi&ht/ %inds of heaven #"o%in& upon the earth ti"" the/ du& in it a vast ho""o%. In this %as p"aced an immense co""ection p. CFB of %ater, %hich sett"ed itse"f in its #ed and #ecame the ocean. !ere the %ind is seen as a &reat creatin& a&enc/. *n&impersonal&actor is the aspect in %hich each of the four e"ements is re&arded #/ the !indoo phi"osoph/ of nature. This accords %e"" %ith the superficia" vie% of natura" phenomena ta$en #/ the +astern (siatic mind. The emite and the #e"iever in the Bi#"e vie% the events of creation and of universa" nature as caused #/ 1od. cience comes into the fie"d of nature, and finds out %hat are the second causes operatin& to produce o#served phenomena. The Christian #e"iever, %hen convinced of their truth, accepts the resu"ts of science as safe and &enuine additions to our $no%"ed&e, and as harmonisin& %ith the teachin&s of re"i&ion. >ith the +astern (siatics it is different. The e"ementa" phi"osoph/ of the ancient !indoos cou"d not #e scientific, nor cou"d it #ase its s/stem of nature on a series of patient o#servations. It %as not in the capacit/ of the !indoo to underta$e such in:uiries. !e %as content, then, to ima&ine %here he cou"d not discover. !e therefore %i""in&"/ adopted that vie% of naturepro#a#"/ in its ori&in 1ree$, and u"timate"/ Ba#/"onian%hich made of the four e"ements as man/ active po%ers contro""ed in their %or$in&, not #/ a conscious %i"", #ut #/ a #"ind /et retri#utive necessit/. It is interestin& to note the resem#"ances #et%een the !indoo ph/sica" s/stem of the %or"d and that of the Ionian phi"osophers. Tha"es of .i"etus, %ho "ived B.C. AGG, he"d that %ater is the ori&in of thin&s. Out of %ater ever/thin& is derived, and to it ever/thin& u"timate"/ returns. !erac"itus of +phesus #e"ieved the one princip"e %hich under"ies a"" phenomena to #e fire. The %or"d is formed, he tau&ht, #/ evo"ution from fireQ not made #/ 1od or #/ man. This fire is a rationa" inte""i&ence contro""in& the universe. It a"so is the human sou". (naximenes said that the ph/sica" princip"e %hich ori&inates nature is air, and a"" the e"ements ma/ #e reso"ved into p. CFH this. (ir made dense &ave #irth to the earth, and from the earth %ere formed the heaven"/ #odies. The air acts #/ motion impressed on it from eternit/, causin& in it a"ternate rarefaction and compression. This air he thou&ht to #e eterna". (naximander of .i"etus %as a friend of Tha"es. !e he"d the e"ements of the %or"d to #e simp"e and unchan&ea#"e, and tau&ht that the/ formed a"" thin&s #/ concurrence %ith homo&eneous partic"es a"read/ existin&. B )et it #e o#served that a"" these phi"osophers re&arded matter as the cause of a"" thin&s. The/ "ived t%o centuries #efore (naxa&oras, ocrates, ,"ato, and (ristot"e, %ho extended their in:uiries into the %or"d of mind, and tau&ht a s/stem in %hich either mind in the a#stract, or 1od, %as re&arded as the source of the %or"d. No more do the/ resem#"e ,/tha&oras, %ho, "ivin& ear"/ enou&h to #e the contemporar/ of some of them, formed a s/stem of his o%n #ased on num#ers. The secret sou" of the %or"d %hich causes its various phenomena is a princip"e of harmon/. Peno, founder of the toics, comin& after ocrates and ,"ato, %ent hac$ to that princip"e of the Ionian phi"osoph/ %hich finds the ori&in of the universe in ph/sica" e"ements. The universe, he said, comes into #ein& %hen the primar/ su#stance passes from the state of fire into that of air, then ta$es the form of %ater, and fina""/ thro%s off #oth its thic$ portions to #ecome earth, and its rarer parts to #ecome air, after%ards fire. !e a"so he"d %ith !erac"itus and %ith the !indoos, that the %or"d passes throu&h successive periods of deca/ and reformation, that is to sa/, the Indian kalpas. There does not seem much dan&er, then, in ascri#in& the !indoo phi"osoph/ of the e"ements to the Ionian schoo" for its &erm. The effect of ("exander5s con:uest %as fe"t in India in ne% vie%s communicated on mathematics, astronom/, architecture, and ph/sics. !ence %e "earn %h/ p. CFC the doctrine of the four e"ements %as so extensive"/ tau&ht #/ the Buddhists in Chinese "iterature of that re"i&ion. (ccordin& to this vie%, the +eng-shui of the Chinese ma/ #e traced to the ear"/ 1ree$ phi"osoph/ as one of its causes. Durin& the three centuries #efore the #irth of Christ the re&ion of the ,un3a# %as ru"ed for a "on& period #/ 1ree$ $in&s, and it %as here that man/ of the Buddhist #oo$s %ere %ritten. ome of the most pro"ific

%riters of this re"i&ion resided in the ,un3a# and its nei&h#ourhood durin& the 1ree$ domination over ,ersia, ,arthia, Bactria, and a part of North2%estern India. >hat %onder if the/ proceeded to supp"ement their s/stem #/ the materia"istic phi"osoph/ of the IoniansL The/ %ere p"eased %ith a cosmo&on/ %hich had no recourse to the doctrine of a Creator. The fo""o%in& account of %hat too$ p"ace in the ei&hth centur/ %i"" i""ustrate the inf"uence of Buddhism on the &eomanc/ of that time. I Kien, an officia" of hi&h ran$, %hen a#out to #ur/ his %ife, in:uired of a friend ho% he shou"d construct the &rave %ith re&ard to its mound and "imits. !is friend to"d him of a Buddhist priest of the cit/ of !%an&2cheu, %ho $ne% ho% to connect the affairs of men %ith those of demons and spirits. The &rave shou"d #e deep and narro%Q deep for dar$ness, and narro% for securit/. Be"o% the surface t%e"ve feet is the "imit of earth, and e"even feet "o%er is the commencement of %ater. The earth and %ater re&ions have each a dra&on to ta$e care of them. The dra&on revea"s himse"f in the one case in six /ears, in the other case in t%e"ve. If a trench #e of ordinar/ "imits, the spirit5s path is not tran:ui". The &rave shou"d therefore #e t%ent/2four feet deep. Instead of "ime2p"aster, use starch. Do not p"ace earthen%are pitchers in the tom#, #ecause the/ are a""ied to the e"ement of fire. Do not p"ace &o"d in the tom#, "est it shou"d #ecome an e"f. Do not p"ace orpiment or arsenic in the tom#, #ecause the/ are hot #/ nature. )et the &rass and trees on the tom# #e %ithered and not fresh. p. CFF ;para&raph continues< .e"t iron into the shape of co%s and pi&sQ the/ %i"" $eep the t%o dra&ons in su#3ection. mooth and c"ean 3ade2stone has the po%er to harmonise the hundred spirits of nature. ,"ace it in the tom# to i""uminate the path of the spirits. (s a further proof of !indoo inf"uence on the Chinese mind in the formation of the circ"e of ideas $no%n as the +eng-shui, tien-wen, and ti-li, ma/ #e mentioned the names Rahu B and Ketu, to denote the &enius of the ascendin& and descendin& nodes of the moon5s or#it. ("so the use of the trian&"e, connectin& three points of the horiRon a hundred and t%ent/ de&rees apart, in castin& the horoscope is common to China and India. Then a"so from the mention in #oo$s of &eomanc/ of the umeru mountain as the centre of the %or"d, it is evident that the/ have #orro%ed from India. It %as for such portions of Buddhist teachin& that the Chinese mind had a specia" affinit/. The Chinese are fond of materia"ism. (s ha$/amuni tau&ht Buddhism, it %as an ascetic mora"it/. !is fo""o%ers soon &ave it a decided"/ metaph/sica" cast. Then fo""o%ed the materia"istic phase, %hen ma&ic, astro"o&/, and &eomanc/ %ere deve"oped. The !indoo Buddhists %ho tau&ht in China #rou&ht %ith them the %ho"e educationa" s/stem of their time. In it %as inc"uded much #e"on&in& to the three #ranches of superstition 3ust mentioned. In accordance %ith this vie% +eng-shui as no% #e"ieved is a ver/ modern thin&, and su#se:uent to the spread in the countr/ of !indoo thou&ht. The mixin& of Indian %ith Chinese ideas produced #oth the un& phi"osoph/ H p. CFD and the modern +eng-shui, %hich has #een chief"/ deve"oped in the present d/nast/. I no% proceed to the native e"ement in the +eng-shui. This ma/ #e made, so far as it is ph/sica", to inc"ude astro"o&/ and the doctrine of starr/ inf"uences and the e"ements as tau&ht in the native Chinese "iterature. The nine fancied stars %hich move a#out in the air, and are either "uc$/ or ma"i&nant accordin& to circumstances, must here #e referred to. The/ form an extensive portion of the &eomancer5s s/stem of fo""ies. ("" this ma/ #e descri#ed as the Tauist part of the +eng-shui. (fter this a fe% %ords must #e added respectin& the mora" or Confucian e"ement in the +eng-shui, and the effect of the examp"e of distin&uished Confucianists in encoura&in& popu"ar superstition on this su#3ect. (fter a #rief a""usion to the north star and the chief northern conste""ations, the %riter of the %or$ ca""ed Han-lung-king &oes on to descri#e minute"/ the inf"uence of the nine stars, or inf"uences, %hich move throu&h the atmosphere and cause prosperit/ and adversit/ to men. The first is Tan-lang, 8Covetous %o"f.8 It has t%e"ve characteristics. Of these five are "uc$/ and seven un"uc$/. The "uc$/ are pointed, round, f"at, strai&ht, and sma"". The un"uc$/ are not in the midd"e, croo$ed, one2sided, precipitous, turned over, #ro$en, and empt/. The pointed is shaped "i$e a #am#oo sprout. The round is comp"ete on a"" sides. The f"at is perfect"/ "eve" "i$e a "/in& si"$%orm. The strai&ht indicates a#sence of one2sidedness. The other characteristics are the appearance of #ein& read/ to fa"" over, the presentation of a precipitous c"iff, of the #rea$in& off of a %atercourse, ho""o%in& into caves, and so on. Dia&rams in accordance %ith these indications are &iven of nei&h#ourin& hi""s %hich are supposed to exert a correspondin& inf"uence on a &rave accordin& to their shape. The %riter adds in the rou&h poetr/ of #oo$s such as this, 8.en sa/ the covetous %o"f is &ood, not $no%in& that pure and chaste desires are sti"" more important. >ith p. CFA a"" the advanta&es deriva#"e from the covetous %o"f, %ithout pureness and honour, no person, even if he ac:uired ran$, %ou"d attain to the three hi&hest, ancient"/ $no%n as the an2$un&.8 The prevai"in& e"ement is %ood. )oo$in& at the dia&ram on"/, the reader sees a conica" hi"" or e"evation, a mushroom shaped out"ine, and a series of four or five conica" hi""s presented in ha"f profi"e. These appearances a"" prove the presence of the 8covetous %o"f.8 The second movin& star is Ch-men,8 1reat door.8 The form "oved #/ this spirit is f"at at the top and s:uare on the sides. >hen a hi"" presents the appearance of a s:uare or trapeRium %ith the upper "ine horiRonta", the phenomenon is caused #/ the presence of this inf"uence. >ood is the prevai"in& e"ement. The third star is Lu-tsun, 8Ran$ preserved.8 Nine shapes in hi""s mar$ its presence. Its favourite shape has a f"at top, a c/"indrica" #od/ "i$e a drum, and at the #ottom it spreads into five #ranches "i$e the toes of the human feet. ,roper"/ it shou"d #e a ma"i&nant star, #ecause its shape parta$es of a spotted and mixed nature. But it is a#"e to adapt itse"f to conditions %hich secure &ood "uc$. It causes men to attain the "o%er ran$s of promotion, such as the chief ma&istrac/ of cities of the second and third ran$s, and, in certain circumstances, &ives the contro" of troops or of "iterar/ examinations. The five2toed appearance is represented in the map as sometimes three or four toed. There are a"so other modifications. +arth is the ru"in& e"ement. The fourth star, >en2chI, 8)iterar/ %indin&s,8 #e"on&s to the e"ement of %ater. It "oves the shape of the sna$e %hen seen movin& %ith three or four #ends of the #od/. The 8.en of the Dra&on,8 Lung-kia, as the &eomancers ca"" themse"ves, can detect the presence of this inf"uence in the contour of hi""s. It has, "i$e the other stars, a norma" and severa" occasiona" shapes. >hen thin, it is the sna$e properQ if thic$er, it is a caterpi""arQ if sti"" %ider, it #ecomes a cast net. The &eomancers profess to attend

p. CFK to the points of #endin& in the sna$e, #ecause these indicate the "ine of %ater2f"o% and of the dra&on5s inf"uence. The fifth star is Lien-cheng, 8,urit/ and upri&htness.8 Its e"ement is fire. The ancients hi&h"/ va"ued it, sa/s the manua", and ca""ed it Red f"a& and 8Bri""iant vapour,8 au-ki. It "i$es a "oft/ position, ru&&ed hei&hts, um#re""a fo"ds, and the shape of a f"attened #a"". One form it assumes is that of the 8Dra&on to%er,8 Lung-leu, %hich is a conica" e"evation, overtoppin& a"" #eside it. (nother is that of the 8,a"ace of precious thin&s,8 !au-tien, in formin& %hich severa" cones of e:ua" hei&ht are seen in para""e" ro%s. The ima&inations of the &eomancers "ead them a"so to fanc/ the appearance in roc$/ out"ine of the tortoise and the serpent &uardin& some "itt"e mountain &or&e. This is considered to #e an indication of the #est $ind of dra&on inf"uence, for here passes some %ater channe". The sixth star is 5u-ch, 8.i"itar/ %indin&s.8 Its e"ement is meta". It is round at the top and #road at the #ottom, "i$e a #e"" or an inverted coo$in&2pan. In 3ud&in& of the hi"" shapes that #e"on& to this star, it is eas/ to mista$e the demon for the dra&on. This is specia""/ the case %hen the shape o#served is that of an inverted spoon, the spoon #ein& "i$e the tai" of the 1reat Bear, or rather the 8 even stars,8 usua""/ ca""ed !e-teu, in their entireness. The demon and the dra&on are #oth in the ha#it of assumin& the shape of an inverted 8dust2pan8 ?ki@, an inverted 8spoon8 ?sho@, and an inverted 8pa"m,8 chang ?pa"m of the hand@. The s$i"" of the &eomancer is disp"a/ed in distin&uishin& the appearances. The demon ma/ affect an/ one of the nine starsQ and, as there is the fourfo"d form, s:uare, round, croo$ed, and strai&ht, there ma/ #e thirt/2six shapes to #e considered. 1enera""/ spea$in& the "oca"it/ of the demon is #ehind the 8&rave site8 ?hiue@, and the correspondin& &enius in front of it is ca""ed kwan, 8officer.8 If the demon and the &enius of office "oo$ at the tom# site, it is a "uc$/ si&n. If the/ turn their #ac$s to it, the dra&on of prosperit/ %i"" not ta$e up his p"ace there. p. CFE The seventh star, !o-kiun, 8Brea$er of the pha"anx,8 is referred to meta". It has one norma" and four pecu"iar shapes. The norma" shape is that of three round2headed cones, seen one risin& a#ove another "i$e the fo"ds of a f"a& %hen carried #/ a person %a"$in&. Be"o% it has u&"/2"oo$in& points "i$e spear points. ,ersons seein& these conc"ude too hasti"/ that this star is ma"i&nant and un"uc$/. It is so, #ut in certain circumstances it ma/ #ecome hi&h"/ servicea#"e for ac:uirin& riches and ran$. Consider %hat stars it corresponds to in the s$/. Its po%er is formed #/ the descendin& inf"uence of the 8Three terraces,8 San-tai, three pairs of stars in our 1reat Bear. Upon hi&h hi""s the ce"estia" essence of these stars co""ects, and #ecomes formed into six terrestria" or atmospheric stars, ca""ed Lu-+u, the 8 ix pa"aces.8 The/ are a"" min&"ed %ith the inf"uences of the five e"ements. T(R O* T!+ IN !OU + . hape. B. H. C. F. D. A. Round O#"on&, round Round head, "on& #od/ ("ive, croo$ed, movin& :uare Conica" +"ement. .eta" .eta" >ood >ater +arth *ire Name. Tai-yang, 81reat "i&ht8 Tai-yin, 8)esser "i&ht.8 Ts-ki, 8,urp"e vapour.8 ue-pu, 8.oon distur#er.8 Ki, 8,"an.8 Lo, 8Net.8

The ei&hth star, Tso-+u, 8)eft assistant,8 is under the inf"uence of the e"ement of meta". Its norma" shape is that of a head %ith a nap$in %rapped round it, in front hi&h, #ehind "o%. This star is a servant to the &reat dra&on, %ho &ives shape to the conste""ations of astronom/. Fu ?the ei&hth@ and !i are t%o stars seen near d in !ercu"es, ca""ed #/ the Chinese Ti-tso, 8+mperor5s throne,8 and #/ +uropean astronomers, Ras&*lgethi. On account of their proximit/ to the throne, it is assumed that these stars confer honour on men #/ their inf"uence if happi"/ directed. The ninth star, eu-pi, 8Ri&ht assistant,8 has no fixed shape. Its e"ement is %ater. *"atness is its favourite p. CFT characteristic. >here hi""s #rea$ off and &ive p"ace to the p"ain, it "oves to #e. It ru"es even surfaces. It is therefore ca""ed in-yau, 8!idden &"or/.8 It is a"so fond of narro% threads and dim vesti&es of thin&s. The sna$e creepin& throu&h &rass, the fish "eapin& on sand, the spider5s thread, the traces of horses5 hoofs, and the strin&s of the "/re are presided over #/ this star. It "i$es that %hich is ha"f rea" and ha"f unrea", and %hich is scarce"/ visi#"e to the e/e. The aid of this star is said to #e particu"ar"/ va"ua#"e in cases of dou#tfu" +eng-shui. The uns$i""ed &eomancer %i"" sa/, 8This is a "eve" p"ain, I can ma$e nothin& of itQ I need some e"evation to &uide me in the dia&nosis of the nei&h#ourhood.8 !e for&ets that %ater f"o%s not on"/ do%n a hi"" #ut even on a p"ain, and that there is a difference of "eve" there. One inch is enou&h for the true 8discerner of the dra&on.8 Or the t/ro in the m/steries of the +eng-shui fo""/ ma/ sa/, 8This &round is %et. The fau"t is fata". -ou must not #ur/ /our dead here.8 *oo" that he is, he perceives not that to decide so hasti"/ is most un%ise. Does not the %etness come from an unusua" f"o% of %aterL >hen the %ater disappears, this p"ace %i"" #e soon as dr/ as those %hich are hi&her. The Ri&ht assistant "oves this state of dou#t, and hence the differences in opinion #et%een &eomancers respectin& the characteristics of the same spot or re&ion. It ma/ #e said &enera""/ in re&ard to the nine ste""ar inf"uences that, %hen see$in& for a "uc$/ ho""o%, /ou find, for examp"e, here the appearance of a #reast, there of a s%a""o%5s nest, here a p"ou&hshare, there a com#, here the turned2up hand, there the spear or "ance, and there a han&in& "anthornQ these effects of starr/ inf"uence point out the true nature of the desired 8ho""o%8 ?hiue@. The dra&on ma$es the ho""o%, and in see$in& it the correct indications of the dra&on5s action must #e fo""o%ed. It %ou"d #e of "itt"e use to fo""o% the Chinese &eomancers further into the "uc$/ and un"uc$/ effects of these stars, their division of hi""s into 8ma"e8 ? hiung@ and p. CDG

;para&raph continues< 8fema"e8 ?ts@, into 8patriarch8 ?tsu@ and 8sma"" hi""s8 ?siau-+eng@, and into 8#ranches8 ?ch@ and 8stems8 ?kan@. +nou&h has #een said. This %ho"e doctrine of starr/ inf"uences ma/ #e readi"/ traced #ac$ to the s/stem of the Tauists in the !an period. !%ai (n2tsM, >ei ,e2/an&, ,au ,o2tsM, and others, tau&ht 3ust such a phi"osoph/ of nature as mi&ht &ive ori&in to the more modern vie%s of the &eomancers. (stro"o&/ and a"chem/ %ere then in their &"or/. The former of these inf"uenced &eomanc/ and encoura&ed popu"ar #e"ief in movin& starr/ inf"uences. *rom %hence came that astro"o&/L The ans%er shou"d #e from >estern (sia and India, #ut fu"" data on this point are %antin&. Not on"/ the ima&inar/ stars of the &eomancers must #e traced to the !an period, #ut a"" those star &enii and demons of the imperia" ca"endar %hich are popu"ar"/ #e"ieved to #e in perpetua" movement in peop"e5s houses, in streets, and in the air, ma/ #e assi&ned to the same ori&in. It %as then that the ha#it #e&an in China of re&ardin& the stars as mova#"e #ein&s re&u"atin& the affairs of $in&doms, cities, and individua"s. Thou&h the names of the nine stars are ne%, the/ are identified #/ the &eomancers %ith the seven stars of the 1reat Bear and t%o nei&h#ourin& stars. The/ move up and do%n in the ether of space, and are either visi#"e as individua" stars, or, if invisi#"e, traverse the %or"d each %ith an e"ementa" force of its o%n, to &ive form, character, and vi&our to those parts of nature to %hich the/ attach themse"ves. The remainin& e"ement in +eng-shui %hich no% comes to #e considered is mora". The choice of a &rave is to #e made in accordance %ith the ru"es of &eomanc/, #ecause fi"ia" piet/ re:uires it, and it is sanctioned, it is said, #/ the examp"e of the sa&es. To prove, ho%ever, that Confucius himse"f #e"ieved at a"" in an/ of the nonsense connected %ith &eomanc/ is ver/ difficu"t. It is said in the #io&raph/ of the sa&e #/ M2ma Chien that, not $no%in& %here his father5s &rave p. CDB %as, he in:uired of the mother of a friend. )earnin& from her the "oca"it/, he #uried his mother there. In the Li-ki it is said of Confucius that he %as at first un%i""in& to ma$e a mound over the &rave, #ecause the ancients did not. (t "ast he consented to carr/ out the su&&estion, #ut the person "eft in char&e of this dut/ soon came to the sa&e to announce in an a&itated manner that rain had fa""en and reduced the mound to a "eve". Confucius re&retted that he had a""o%ed himse"f to depart from primitive simp"icit/. These "itt"e incidents seem to sho% that he had no notion of &eomanc/, and that he "oved simp"icit/. In ear"/ times it %as enou&h for emperors to #e #uried on hi&h mountains under a "ar&e mound, %hi"e feudator/ princes %ere content %ith hi""oc$s, and the common peop"e found their "ast restin&2p"ace in the p"ain. There %as no thou&ht then of the course of %ater f"o%in& past the tom#. (n ancient said, 8I have #een of no #enefit to man$ind %hi"e "ivin&. )et me not in3ure them %hen I am dead. Choose m/ #ur/in& p"ace %here the earth /ie"ds no food for man.8 Others have said, 8If a man dies on the hi""s, "et him #e #uried on the hi""s. If he dies in the "o%"ands, "et him #e #uried in the "o%"ands.8 This %as said %ith a vie% to econom/. It %ou"d #e a use"ess expense to conve/ the #od/ to a distance. *or the same reason another noted person of the !an period ordered his son to #ur/ him %ithout a coffin in a &rave du& in the &round. In the TJan& d/nast/ a hi&h officer &ave directions that he shou"d #e #uried in a p"ain manner, %ithout monument or stone of an/ $ind, and over his &rave the vi""a&ers %ere to #e a""o%ed to p"ou&h and so% as of o"d. uch d/in& instructions as these have #een carefu""/ preserved #/ the Chinese "iterati, %ho fe"t that the/ %ere more in accordance %ith true %isdom than the fo""ies %hich after%ards &re% into vo&ue. The/ sho% the proper standpoint of the &enuine Confucianist. >ith him ever/thin& must &ive %a/ to mora" considerations. In ar&uin& a&ainst +eng-shui and the other superstitions p. CDH of the Chinese, %e ou&ht to find on this &round a fast friend in the true fo""o%er of Confucius. The freedom of Confucius from superstition is one of the #est proofs of the &reatness of his mind, and a main cause of his ascendanc/ over the "iterar/ c"ass. !is utterances on the dan&er of excessive reverence to the kwei-shen have #een a #arrier a&ainst Buddhism, and prevented the extension of its soporific inf"uence over the %ho"e nation. The "iterati have thus #een $ept in an independent and se"f2 sustained position, and have not #ecome :uite over%he"med #/ this intrusive forei&n e"ement. !ence, the scions of scho"ar"/ fami"ies and students %ho have read extensive"/ are trained in a schoo" of ideas anta&onistic to superstition. These men, therefore, ma/ #e appea"ed to in aid of our opposition to the +eng-shui. The/ are ashamed of it. The/ diso%n it if #rou&ht in ar&ument to c"ose :uarters. The/ on"/ comp"/ %ith it from an un%i""in&ness to act contrar/ to custom. The &reat minds amon& them avoid even the appearance of comp"iance, #ut these are not man/. Considerin& that the en"i&htened Chinese are thus disposed, there cou"d #e no harm done #/ a studied attac$ on the %ho"e s/stem of &eomanc/ in a #oo$ prepared for the purpose. It %ou"d not #e offensive to the true Confucianist, and it %ou"d afford opportunit/ to teach much &ood phi"osoph/ and truer vie%s of nature than those to %hich the/ have #een accustomed. But perhaps the %ho"e structure is so f"ims/ that it %i"" fa"" of itse"f, %ithout "a/in& sie&e to it or directin& the ordnance of ar&ument a&ainst it. The shinin& of true science ma/ pa"e its ineffectua" fire, and cause it to disappear as a thin& of dar$ness, %ithout specia" effort to #rin& a#out its extinction.

Footnotes CHKSB 1eomanc/ is proper"/ divination #/ means of "ines or points dra%n on the earth. The Chinese +eng-shui ma/ #e ca""ed 8&eomanc/,8 #ecause it divines #/ means of "ines noticed in the shape of streams and hi""s. CCGSB In outhern China this #an$ is carried around the north, east, and %est sides. CCHSB This is the karma, %hich is essentia" to the Buddhist metemps/chosis. CCFSB ee +ssa/ #/ Rev. Dr. -ates. CCTSB ee ir 4ames .artin5s =n+luence&o+&Tropical&Climates&on&9uropeans. CFGSB Fa-yuen-chu-lin, chap. iv. This %or$ is a Buddhist c/c"op=dia of the TJan& d/nast/. CFGSH Fa-yuen-chu-lin, chap. i.

CFHSB mith5s $ictionary&o+&-reek&and&Roman&(iography&and&#ythology. CFFSB In Chinese, Lo-heu for La-hu. The t%ent/2ei&ht conste""ations of the Chinese Rodiac %ere identified %ith the !indoo 6akshatras in the !an d/nast/. CFFSH It %ou"d #e interestin& to trace the effect of 1ree$ and Indian materia"istic phi"osoph/ on the formation of the modern Chinese cosmo&on/. It is not uncommon for doctrines to #e attri#uted to the Chinese as a nation %hich on"/ #e"on& to a particu"ar modern sect of the "iterati. >hi"e some %riters attac$ the Chinese for #e"iefs %hich the/ do not ho"d, such an examination of the modern native phi"osoph/ mi&ht prove usefu".

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CHAPTER

II.

BUDDHIST PHRASEOLOGY IN RELATION TO CHRISTIAN TEACHING. % Use of Buddhist terms in the Nestorian inscription, (.D. KEB#o, 8demonQ8 in anscrit, maraTi-y, 8he"",8 is narakaTen 3ud&es of he""(mon& them ,au Chen&, the famous 3ud&e of the un& d/nast/The un& phi"osophers encoura&ed the popu"ar #e"ief in future retri#utionThis prepares for Christianit/ Tientang, 8heaven8Defects of this term#ing-kung, Oc., as names for 8heaven8Buddhist paradises possi#"/ #orro%ed from >estern (sia or some other countr/ farther %estRedemptionTi2tsan& and K%an2/in,it/Instruction+ffect of sinDecreed for&iveness to penitents ecret merit!appiness and merit confounded in and miser/ confoundedI""ustration from the narrative of a Christian convert. >+ teach the Chinese the Christian re"i&ion #/ means of their o%n "an&ua&e, and in their voca#u"ar/ of re"i&ious terms man/ %ords and phrases of Buddhist ori&in have come into common use. The /rian inscription, (.D. KEB, sho%s that no scrup"e %as fe"t #/ the first Christian missionaries in China in adoptin& man/ Buddhist terms. >e find there mo, 8devi".8 This is the common %ord used in mo-kwei. Both name and #ein& are of !indoo ori&inQ the 8de"usions of the devi"8 are ca""ed mo-wang. !e"" is ca""ed 8pa"ace of dar$ness,8 an-+u. The 8ship of merc/8 conve/s the faithfu" discip"es across the sea to heaven. The ship is ts-hang: 8heaven8 is ming-kung: p. CDF ;para&raph continues< Christian 8mon$s8 %ere ca""ed seng, from the a "imit sanga, 8assem#"/Q8 a 8monaster/8 is ca""ed s, as #/ the Chinese BuddhistsQ a 8mon$5s ro#e8 is ca""ed kia-sha, %hich is the anscrit %ord for 8&o%n,8 kashaya. Buddhism throve in the TJan& d/nast/. It %as the era %hen !iuen2tsan& %ent to India. !is 3ourne/ %as an instance of the depth of re"i&ious faith %hich characterised the Chinese fo""o%ers of 1autama in his a&e, and it a"so secured an immense increase of popu"arit/ to the ideas of his sect. Buddhism %as ver/ po%erfu" in the court, and profound"/ inf"uenced the "iterature. Trans"ations from anscrit %ere made %ith extreme care, and received from the "iterati a hi&h "iterar/ finish. The inf"uence of Buddhism is distinct"/ seen in the dictionaries of the time, in the s/""a#ic spe""in&, in the discover/ of the four tones, and the sett"ement of the "a%s of poetr/ conse:uent on that discover/. The poets and critics of the TJan& d/nast/ %ere conscious of &reat o#"i&ations to Buddhism, and made scarce"/ an/ decisive and persistent effort to chec$ the spread of popu"ar faith in that re"i&ion, and the &enera" adoption of !indoo phrases and terms in the "an&ua&e. !an -I, in his Fo-ku-piau, %as an exception. The /rian Christians extended their missions in China at a time %hen Buddhism %as in the ascendant, and adopted terms from the professors of that re"i&ion %hich indicate a more extensive princip"e of imitation than either the Roman Catho"ics or the ,rotestants have in "ater times thou&ht of adoptin&. The reason is found in the popu"arit/ of Buddhism in the capita" of China in the time of the Nestorian missionaries. That re"i&ion %as much favoured at court, and %as the chief a&ent in teachin& the future state and the superiorit/ of the monastic "ife as a means of su#duin& the passions. Both Buddhism and Christianit/ came from the >estQ and it %ou"d #e for the Nestorians difficu"t to maintain the mutua" independence of the t%o re"i&ions, a&reein& as the/ did in a #e"ief in a %or"d of happiness and of miser/ for man$ind after the present p. CDD "ife. The fact that the Nestorian mon$s ca""ed themse"ves seng, as the Buddhists do, has some "i&ht thro%n on it #/ an incident in the "ife of .atthe% Ricci. !e adopted a Buddhist priest5s dress and shaved his head. But after ma$in& tria" for a time of this costume he chan&ed it for that of the Confucianists, as it %as %orn in the .in& d/nast/. ,erhaps the Nestorian priests adopted and retained the Buddhist costume in ordinar/ "ife, and reserved their o%n ceremonia" ro#es for specia" occasions, as the Roman Catho"ics do no% %ith the Confucianist. The %ord seng, for 8priest,8 the/ pro#a#"/ too$ to #e an exact e:uiva"ent of their cohen. o in co""o:uia" +n&"ish, %e ca"" the Buddhist mon$s Buddhist priests. >e have &iven up the %ord (on7es, the 4apanese term introduced #/ ,ortu&uese and other Romish missionaries, into +uropean accounts of the re"i&ion of this part of the

%or"d. To ca"" them priests at a"" is, ho%ever, some%hat ne&"i&ent +n&"ish. The Roman Catho"ics have done #etter to ca"" their 8mon$s8 sieu-sh, and their 8nuns8 sieun, rather than to st/"e them seng or ho-shang, and ni-ku or ni-seng. Sieu is 8cu"tivate mora" virtuesQ8 sh, 8scho"ar,8 8personQ8 n is 8%oman.8 Times have chan&ed. The Buddhists are not no% %afted to a proud position #/ the &a"es of popu"ar app"auseQ and sti"" "ess in the present d/nast/, than in the .in& d/nast/, %ou"d the 4esuit &ain an/ advanta&e #/ fo""o%in& the examp"e of Ricci %hi"e he %as in outh China, in adoptin& the Buddhist &ar#. In discussin& Buddhist phrases capa#"e of #ein& app"ied in Christian teachin&, I %i"" #e&in %ith mo, the 8devi".8 This is in anscrit mara. The maras are, in Buddhist phraseo"o&/, a c"ass of demons. The/ are not $no%n to the Brahmans. The %ord is formed from the root mar, 8death,8 and is an (r/an personification of death. B/ the Buddhists the maras are re&arded as a $in& %ith a host of fo""o%ers. The/ %a&e %ar a&ainst Buddhism, and %hen ha$/amuni %as "ivin& he had successfu" contests p. CDA %ith them. In Buddhist #oo$s a"" temptations are demons. ( demon is hidden in ever/thin& that can cause evi" to man. The demon of an&er prompts to sin in ever/ case of sinfu" an&er. o of "ust, of drun$enness, of theft, and each form of sin. The use of mo has #ecome so extended that in our trans"ations of the Bi#"e it is free"/ used for the 1ree$ fqdrisik, dia(olus in the "iterar/ and co""o:uia" versions. To Christian converts it &radua""/ assumes a Christian sense in proportion as the/ are instructed in the Bi#"ica" representations of the po%er, a&enc/, and character of atan. But if not instructed, the vie%s of the convert are Buddhistic. These vie%s are #rou&ht into connection %ith 8possession,8 as seen in an intoxicated man, an importunate #e&&ar %ho cannot #e &ot rid of, an opium smo$er %ho is under the dominion of his ha#it, or a scho"ar %ho cannot cease from stud/. uch persons are possessed #/ a demon %ho is ca""ed kwei, #ut in the poetr/ of the Tan& and the un& d/nasties he mi&ht #e ca""ed mo. ( %riter is free from the mo-chang, 8demoniaca" fi"m or hindrance,8 %hen his thou&hts and "an&ua&e f"o% free"/ and #eautifu""/. The main idea is often that of causin& trou#"e #/ possession. 4u-mo, 8a demon enterin&,8 is a phrase %hich is :uite common"/ used to express the idea. To 8#ecome de"uded,8 8to #e deadened to,8 are a"so thus descri#ed. 6an-mo or nan-kwei are common examp"es of the %a/ in %hich 8demons causin& trou#"e8 is expressed. +vident"/ it is necessar/ in usin& mo for the Christian sense, to distin&uish accurate"/ the pecu"iar meanin& of the %ord in the heathen re"i&ions. The Christian mo-kwei& is more intense"/ %ic$ed than the Buddhist mo-kwei. But #oth in +urope and in (sia, in ancient or modern times. %e no%here find the demon %or"d dissociated from the phenomenon of possession in popu"ar "an&ua&e. It is one of the primitive identities, permanent"/ retained in the phraseo"o&/ of a"" re"i&ions. p. CDK (nother common Buddhist expression is, ti-y, 8earth5s prison.8 The anscrit naraka, 8the a#odes of demons,8 p"aces of punishment underneath the %or"d of men, are so desi&nated. The advanta&e of the emp"o/ment of this term is that it is read/ for use, that it a&rees %ith our %ord 8he""8 in #ein& a p"ace of punishmentQ and, further, that the visi#"e universe #ein& to the Chinese consciousness in t%o parts, viR., heaven and earth, it must a"%a/s #e convenient to the Christian teacher to spea$ of 8he""8 as #e"on&in& to earth. The o#3ections to its use are &reat. It misp"aces the "oca"it/. No modern Christian #oo$s p"ace he"" under&round. It is p"ura" as much as sin&u"ar, %hi"e our %ord for the p"ace of punishment is a"%a/s sin&u"ar. *urther, it &ives the Confucianist occasion to sa/ that %e have #orro%ed from the Buddhists, and that %e must share in the same condemnation %hich the adherents of that re"i&ion have had to endure. The authors %ho have reasoned a&ainst Christianit/ on the &round of the identit/ of the doctrine of he"" #ein& much the same in the t%o re"i&ions, and that %e have #orro%ed from the Buddhists, are I Ki2/I in ing-hwan-ch-lio, >ei -uen in Hai-kwo-tu-ch, and the $in& of Corea in his edict a&ainst Christianit/, ta$en a%a/ from the hi"" fort at the mouth of the Corean river, #/ the United tates nava" force %hich captured the fort e"even /ears a&o. The %ords used for 8he""8 in our trans"ations of the Bi#"e are yin-+u ?the hidden pa"ace@, yin-kien ?the dar$ %or"d@. The natives a"so use yin-s, the ?p"ace of hidden 3ud&ment@. Ti-y is never used in our trans"ations, at "east the recent onesQ #ut a"" missionaries use it co""o:uia""/, and it finds its p"ace in our catechisms. These phrases, yin-+u, yin-kien, yin-s, are ver/ modern. The/ are su#se:uent to the teachin& of the metemps/chosis in China. The term used for he"" in the /rian inscription (.D. KEB is an-+u, 8pa"ace of dar$ness,8 a phrase #orro%ed p. CDE from the Buddhism of the time, and meanin& the same as yin-+u. ince the un& d/nast/, the popu"ar notion of he"" in China has #een formed chief"/ #/ the preva"ent representations of the ten tri#una"s seen in temp"es and in the li ?pro#a#"/ (.D. BGAE@ and other %or$s. ,unishments are here depicted in the most fri&htfu" forms. The incendiar/ is #ound #/ a chain to a hot c/"inder, %hich he c"asps %ith his arms and "e&sQ f"ames are #ein& poured forth from the top and sides of the c/"inder. Those %ho &uard %ritten characters from desecration en3o/ honours and %ea"th. Those %ho %aste &rains of rice and mi""et are seen chan&ed into horses, sheep, and oxen. The retri#ution corresponds %ith the sin and the merit in a"" cases. In the consent of the &overnin& c"ass to those popu"ar representations of he"" %hich %e see painted %ith charcoa" on the %hite %a""s of temp"es, or formed %ith mou"ded and painted fi&ures of c"a/, or ta$in& the form of prints in popu"ar Tauist "iterature, %e see an important concession. >hi"e the "iterar/ c"ass do not #e"ieve in heaven or in he"", the/ see the advanta&e that ma/ #e derived from them in the incu"cation of virtue. In the hands of the mora" teacher, future retri#ution is a po%erfu" en&ine for &ood. This is reco&nised #/ the &overnin& c"ass so far, that the/ encoura&e the peop"e to have in temp"es the horri#"/ &rotes:ue and a"armin& mode"s in c"a/ of future punishment %hich %e see there. The ce"e#rated 3ud&e ,au Chen&, of the un& d/nast/, %ho died (.D. BGAH, is the fifth of the ten 3ud&es. The rest are a"" Chinese, as %e $no% #/ their surnames, and pro#a#"/ actua" 3ud&es of a#out the same period. The "ate Dr. .edhurst, %hen visitin& TJien2mu shan, in the vicinit/ of !an&2cheu, %as hospita#"/ entertained #/ the ma&istrate of the hien cit/ of !iau2fen&. In the course of conversation he as$ed his host %hat he expected %ou"d #e his "ot in the future state. !e rep"ied that he supposed he %ou"d #ecome a Cheng-hwang-ye. This "itt"e p. CDT circumstance sho%s ho% the un& d/nast/ practice of canonisin& &ood ma&istrates has ta$en ho"d upon the countr/, and made the peop"e thin$ a ma&istrac/ in the invisi#"e %or"d :uite as attaina#"e as a "i$e post of honour in the present state of existence. Often, ho%ever, the/ %i"", in usin& phrases of this $ind, spea$ 3o$in&"/. un& d/nast/ emperors %ere the first to practise, so far as I $no%, the appointment of "oca" ma&istrates for the invisi#"e %or"d, %ith 3urisdiction over particu"ar cities.

None of the un& phi"osophers "ifted up a voice a&ainst it. The/ a""o%ed the up2&ro%th of the re"i&ious usa&es and arran&ements connected %ith the Tun&2/o miau, the ChJen&2h%an& miau, and the TJu2ti miau. ("" of these temp"es are erected to divinities %ho are supposed to dea" %ith man$ind in the future state in the %a/ of 3ust retri#ution for their crimes. These and other 3udicia" divinities %ere e"evated to their posts %ith the assistance of the "iterar/ c"ass, %ho are, ho%ever, ashamed to reco&nise them in their %ritin&s. The/ $nee" #efore them as officers on dut/, encoura&e the peop"e to #e"ieve in the rea"it/ of their 3urisdiction, and avoid protestin& a&ainst them in their %ritin&s. >hat the "iterati #e"ieve in their hearts to #e a monstrous fiction, is to #e a""o%ed on account of its mora" and po"itica" #enefits. >hat sha"" the Christian missionar/ in these circumstances do %ith the native doctrine of retri#utionL !e %i"" assure the peop"e that there is revea"ed in the Christian criptures a retri#ution 3ust, comprehensive, and inevita#"e. !e ma/ a""ude to the modern ori&in of the Ten 3ud&es, and condemn the un& phi"osophers for their insincerit/ in a""o%in&, if not inventin&, this m/tho"o&ica" creation. !e ma/ proceed to condemn the Buddhist a"so for teachin& that -ama is 3ud&e in the invisi#"e %or"d, %hen, accordin& to their o%n metaph/sics, -ama is nothin&Q and for ur&in& the Chinese to accept a doctrine of he"" punishments %hich the/ teach, not as %hat the/ p. CAG rea""/ #e"ieve, #ut as a means to an end. In this the/ set an examp"e of fa"se teachin& %hich the Confucianists %ere on"/ too read/ to accept and imitate. The Christian retri#ution %i"" come #efore the Chinese mind on :uite a different footin&, as restin& on the instruction of a divine aviour. But "et us #e candid in ac$no%"ed&in& the aid %e receive from Buddhists in previous"/ spreadin& far and %ide amon& the peop"e the idea of a mora" retri#utionQ for this he"ps us to #rin& over more :uic$"/ to the understandin& of the Christian faith on this point, an/ of the popu"ation %ho are fami"iar %ith the Buddhist teachin&. This is the case even %ith sects "i$e the Sin-siu in 4apan. That sect professes to #e"ieve in a#sorption into the a#so"ute. .an/ Buddhists profess to ta$e the >estern heaven as the &oa" of their hopes. But these #e"iefs or aspirations are capa#"e of #ein& reconci"ed %ith #e"iefs in the heavens and he""s of the metemps/chosis, and the/ are actua""/ tau&ht a"on& %ith them. +ven the most metaph/sica" Buddhists, and those %ho have the most a#struse notion possi#"e of the Nirv9na, sti"" teach as exoteric doctrine the metemps/chosis as $no%n in India. That I am not %ron& in imputin& to the "iterati %ho #e"on&ed to the "ater un& d/nast/, and especia""/ Chu !i, a principa" part in the encoura&ement of the popu"ar #e"ief in future retri#ution, ma/ #e sho%n #/ the chrono"o&/. The author of the -li, a Tauist named Tan Chi, %ho %as the first to &ive currenc/ to the "e&end of the Ten ro/a" 3ud&es, "ived more than a centur/ #efore Chu ChM. The t%o #rothers, ChJen& .in&2tau and Chen& -i2ch%en, "ived a "itt"e #efore Tan ChM, in the ear"/ part of the e"eventh centur/. The e"der died the /ear #efore the -I2"i %as madeQ the /oun&er "ived for near"/ t%ent/ /ears after. Then came the time of !%ei2tsun&, %ho is said to have deified Chan& -i %ith the tit"e -I2h%an& to2ti, and %ho %as carried %ith his son into Tartar/ a prisoner under the NI2chih d/nast/. This %as the period p. CAB of the foundin& of this ne% Tauist schoo" of a future state, %ith ten 3udicia" courts, and %ith -I2h%an& to2ti enthroned as a 3ud&e of human actions. Then %as the time a"so that TsM2h%an& shan&2ti and *en&2tu to2ti %ere made divine 3ud&es, each %ith his specia" court for the determination of the happiness or miser/ in the future state of each individua" man. Chu fu2tsM %itnessed a"" this and did not protest a&ainst it. !e sa% a"so risin& round him the nove"t/ of the ChJen&2h%an& miau, %ith its 3udicia" apparatus, its ma&istrate for tr/in& cases in !ades, and its arra/ of c"a/ servitors, %ith arran&ements for periodica" processions throu&h the re&ion over %hich he had 3urisdiction, for the sa$e of $no%in& the &ood and #ad conduct of individua"s. !e sa% these thin&s and made no stru&&"e a&ainst the extension of superstition. The %orst he said of Buddhism %as, that the doctrine of -an& and .ih %as #etter. The reaction a&ainst Buddhism, so far from #e&innin& %ith him, #e&an rather, as I thin$, %ith the expu"sion of the ima&es of Confucius, %hich had in the un& d/nast/ found their %a/ into the temp"es of Confucius in cities. This expu"sion too$ p"ace in the .in& d/nast/, and in the present d/nast/ the reaction a&ainst Buddhism has #een stron&er amon& the "iterati. But the pictures of the ten he""s have come to #e more and more used. It is important to note that Chu fu2tsM "ived in an a&e %hen the Tauist ima&es, and the m/tho"o&/ connected %ith them received a &reat deve"opment, a&ainst %hich he made no protest. Chu !i ou&ht not to #e put for%ard as the authoritative representative of Chinese thou&htQ and some forei&n scho"ars appear to me to have erred in re&ardin& his vie%s as fina", and as the accepted expression of Chinese thou&ht, ancient and modern. In fact, there is scarce"/ an/ one %ho has #een #/ "ater %riters more heavi"/ condemned. !is inf"uence has #een &reat, and it continued "on&, and some of his %or$s are sti"" authorised schoo"2#oo$sQ #ut his authorit/ as a thin$er p. CAH and a scho"ar, is in the present d/nast/ cha""en&ed and criticised severe"/ #/ a"" independent %riters, %ithout an exception. It is possi#"e that Chu !i ma/ have fe"t that the doctrine of future retri#ution is "i$e"/ to #e true. !e %as certain"/ rather fond of readin& Buddhist #oo$s. !e ma/ not have cared to contradict %hat %as to some&e8tent perhaps true. )et it #e #orne in mind that in the 8Boo$ of Odes8 he approves of the renderin& in a certain %e""2$no%n passa&e, 8The sou" of >en >an& moves up and do%n in the presence of the +terna".8 cho"ars not in favour of the continued existence of the sou" after death usua""/ exp"ain this a%a/. The term tien-tang, for 8heaven,8 seems to #e founded on the use of tang as a 8ha""8 for ho"din& a court. !eaven is present to the native mind as a vast ha"" %here the Deit/ sits in ce"estia" state %ith su#ordinate divinities as his assessors. The phrase is not !indoo, #ut the idea is !indoo. In other %ords, the Chinese have made a phrase of their o%n, to fit the Buddhist notion of a paradise or pa"ace of the &ods. The reason is not far to see$. The Buddhist trans"ators, %hen renderin& the %ord 8&od8 used tien invaria#"/. The anscrit de/a, the )atin deus, and the Ben&a"i de(ta, have no other e:uiva"ent in Chinese than tien, 8heaven.8 (t the same time de/aloka, the 8heaven of a deva,8 is a"so trans"ated #/ tien, thus causin& some confusion. This mixture of t%o senses has "ed to the addition of tang, in ordinar/ co""o:uia" use, for heaven as a paradise. This phrase tien-tang, 8heaven"/ ha"",8 is of course modern and su#se:uent to the spread of Buddhism. The narro% "imitation of the %ord to the sense 8ha""8 is an o#3ection, #ut Christians a"" fee" that the chief and prevai"in& sense is in the %ord tien. The Christian usa&e omits tang as often as it admits it, even in co""o:uia" intercourse and in preachin&. In the various trans"ations of the Bi#"e, tien-tang is never used. p. CAC Tien-kung, 8pa"ace of heaven,8 is not inappropriate for the throne2scene in the fourth chapter of the Boo$ of the Reve"ationQ #ut it is not used in the Chinese versions of the criptures. )i$e ti-y for 8he"",8 it is "imited to co""o:uia" use in Christian "iterature. In Buddhist #oo$s, tien2tan& is not used for 8heaven,8 #ut tien-kung, 8pa"ace

of the &ods,8 %hich is so used, is a &ood dea" "i$e it, and resem#"es ming-kung, 8#ri&ht pa"ace,8 %hich is found in the /rian inscription for 8heaven,8 and in "ate Christian "iterature occasiona""/. #ing-kung and tien-tang are #oth of them phrases formed on the !indoo notion of heaven. 8!eaven8 and 8he""8 are #oth em#raced in yin-kien. The invisi#"e %or"d inc"udes states of happiness as %e"" as miser/. This reminds us of !omer, %here, in the e"eventh Boo$ of the ;dyssey, he descri#es the intervie%s of U"/sses %ith man/ of the shades of the dead, inc"udin& his o%n mother. The pa"ace of ,"uto and the a#odes of the dead %ere re&arded #/ !omer and his contemporaries as under&round. >as not the notion of ti-y, 8earth5s prison,8 ta$en to India from countries farther %estL +&/pt ma/ have #een the parent of the idea of a su#terraneous prison of the dead. >e find the notion in +&/pt, in 1reece, in Ba#/"on, and in IndiaQ #ut it is not in the 0edas. It %as either ori&inated in India after the 0edic a&e, or it %as then introduced from e"se%here. I prefer some%hat the h/pothesis of >estern ori&in, on account of the simi"arit/ of the vie% he"d of the future state as &iven in Buddhist #oo$s, %ith those found in the re"i&ious #oo$s of >estern races. >e are #e&innin& to find out ho% fruitfu" %as the 1ree$ mind, not on"/ in inventin&, #ut in communicatin& the $no%"ed&e of inventions. The traces of 1ree$ inf"uence are found in !indoo architecture, in !indoo astronom/, in !indoo arithmetic, and in !indoo phi"osoph/. The anscrit %ritin& is no% admitted to #e of emitic ori&in. The !indoo he""s %hich are first found in the 8)a%s of .anu,8 p. CAF of uncertain date, some%here #et%een B.C. EGG and B.C. DGG, and then in the Buddhist #oo$s, and %hich are intimate"/ connected %ith the metemps/chosis, ma/ have come from >estern countries, and su#se:uent"/ have #een e"a#orated into the !indoo shape, %hen the universe #ased on the metemps/chosis %as in course of construction #/ the !indoo mindQ at an/ rate %hen Chinese critics char&e Christianit/ %ith #orro%in& 8heaven and he""8 from the Buddhists, %e are ri&ht in pointin& out that the O"/mpus of the 1ree$ &ods, and the !ades of ,"uto ?,oseidon@, in !omer, are more ancient conceptions than the Buddhist he""s and paradisesQ and that, %hether it %as from +&/pt, from Ba#/"on, or from some other source, the #orro%in& is on the %ho"e more "i$e"/ to have #een the other %a/. Other%ise, %h/ do the o"dest !indoo #oo$s sa/ nothin& of the 8earth prisons8 and the 8pa"aces of the &ods8L Redemption.+ach Buddha and Bodhisatt%a is a redeemer. I notice here Ti-tsang-wang&pu-sa. !e is ca""ed eu-ming-kiau-chu, 8Teacher of the unseen %or"d.8 *u"" of #enevo"ence and &race to%ards man$ind, he opens a path for se"f2reformation and pardon of sins. The phrases here used are such as %e emp"o/ in descri#in& the Christian redemption. The Buddhist redemption is mora"Q for it inc"udes repentance, and rescue from the net of the de"usions of .a/a, part"/ mora" and part"/ menta" ?#aya-saus, 8a 3u&&"er,8 8idea"ism,8 8de"usion8@. It #rin&s the idea of &race #efore the peop"e. That &race is pit/ in the heart of Buddha, or some Bodhisatt%a such as K%an2/in, promptin& them to teach true doctrine to those %ho have &one astra/. In the Buddhist #oo$s the Bodhisatt%a expresses a %ish and proceeds to accomp"ish it. In the Tauist #oo$s, ho%ever, the utterance of the %ish is attri#uted to Ti-tsang or Kwan-yin, #ut the issue of the decree of sa"vation is ascri#ed to -hwang&ta-ti or Ts-hwang&shang-ti. The "ove of Buddha is se"f2prompted, and is the resu"t of a determination entered on mi""ions of /ears p. CAD #efore in an ear"ier "ife. It ma/ #e dou#ted %hether this se"f2ori&inatin& "ove can "o&ica""/ #e c"aimed #/ the BuddhistsQ for the/ a"so #e"ieve in an impersona" fate %hich compe"s the succession of events 3ust as the/ happen. But it is #etter %herever %e find a mora" "ove "i$e that of Buddhism, #ein& at once the enem/ of vice and the friend of virtue, to reco&nise its existence and assi&n due credit to it. This #ein& so, it seems proper to sa/, further, that the resem#"ances %ith Christianit/ are most stri$in&. ?B.@ There is the se"f2prompted pit/ of ,Ju2sa for man$ind. ?H.@ ,Ju2sa saves men #/ instruction, from the punishments in %hich the/ %i"" certain"/ #e invo"ved in the hundred and thirt/2ei&ht he""s. ?C.@ The cause of future punishment is sin committed in the 8present "ife,8 yang-kien. ?F.@ The &od of the Tauists is represented as promu"&atin& a &racious decree, to remit the punishment of he"" for those %ho repent. uch is the %a/ in %hich redemption is represented in modern Tauist %or$s, %here a Buddhist e"ement is free"/ intermin&"ed. ( mixed m/tho"o&/ and scheme for a fictitious sa"vation had &ro%n up in the un& d/nast/, and continued to prevai" ti"" the present time in %or$s "i$e the -li. In it %e see a sort of preparation for Christianit/, in the %a/ of fami"iarisin& the minds of the peop"e %ith phraseo"o&/ %hich ma/ #e used in descri#in& the Christian redemption in severa" particu"ars. The pure"/ Buddhist notion of the >estern heaven, and the discip"es of the Tauist sect "eadin& the sou" to that a#ode of happiness, are a"so introduced %ithout scrup"e in these Tauist representations. I have often thou&ht that the re"i&ious pi"&rims, pictured %ith #anners in their hands inscri#ed %ith the sentence tsie-yin-si-+ang, 8%e %i"" "ead /ou to the >estern heaven,8 a Tauist priest in front, penci" in hand, read/ to %rite on the head of ne% discip"es met upon the %a/ the si&n of initiation to the re"i&ious "ife, mi&ht #e ver/ effective"/ used as an i""ustration to descri#e the Rea" %hich Christians ou&ht to sho% in p. CAA ho"din& a"oft their #anner in the path of their pi"&rima&e, and in the readiness %hich the/ shou"d exhi#it to "oo$ out on the %a/ for the victims of sin and error, and induce them to 3oin in the march to the heaven"/ cit/. Secret&merit.(n/ virtuous actions are meritorious, and form a stoc$ %hich ma/ #e heaped up "i$e &rain in a #arn, and constitute a man5s treasure of #enefits to come. No &ood action, sa/s the Buddhist, is "ost. The spirits unseen %i"" #e sure to ta$e note of it. If /ou do &ood, there is an a#so"ute certaint/ that /ou %i"" receive #enefits #/ %a/ of recompense. !ence the phrase tsi-yin-kung, 8accumu"ation of secret merit.8 ( curious confusion ta$es p"ace here, throu&h that menta" tendenc/ %hich sometimes mixes the cause of an act %ith the event. .erit produces happiness. Therefore the name happiness is &iven to merit. In .on&o"ian Buddhism (oyin is #oth 8happiness8 and 8merit.8 +t/mo"o&ica""/, it is the Chinese +u, 8happinessQ8 doctrina""/, it is an/ &ood action. In the ordinar/ "an&ua&e of socia" "ife, it is either happiness or re"i&ious merit. In Chinese Buddhism, tsui-+u means either 8miser/8 and 8happiness,8 or 8sin8 and 8virtue.8 -ou ma/ trans"ate them either %a/Q tsui is 8miser/,8 #ut it is a"so 8sinQ8 +u is 8happiness,8 #ut it is a"so 8merit.8 In the ordinar/ use of sheu-tsui in Chinese, 8#ear sufferin&8 is the idea. The conception of 8sin8 is "ost. This is the effect of Buddhist teachin&. The fo""o%in& passa&es occurSTiau-to-tsui&+u-ch-kwan, 8"eap out of and escape the &ate of miser/ and happinessQ8 sien-tsung-tsui-+u-yin-kwo-i-"an-sing-wu, 8first %a$e up %ith a shoc$ from ?the de"usive dream of@ causes and effects, of miser/ and happiness.8 The effect of Buddhist doctrine on heaven and he"" ma/ #e 3ud&ed of partia""/ #/ a statement in No. FEG B of the 5an-kwo-kung&pau. (n account is there &iven #/ a convert of the Base" mission, in the district of in2an, near p. CAK

;para&raph continues< Canton, of his persona" experience, first as a heathen and after%ards as a Christian. (fter "eadin& a disso"ute "ife for some /ears, he #e&an at the a&e of t%ent/2seven to read such #oo$s as !au-ying-lu, in-ch-wen, and Kan-ying-pien. These teach future retri#ution in the most appa""in& "an&ua&e %hen descri#in& the torments of the %ic$ed, and the/ ma$e use of the most invitin& pictures of the happiness of the virtuous. !e then read a"so -li-chau-chwen. !e sa/s re&ardin& it, that it spea$s of 8heaven,8 tien-tang, as a p"ace of incompara#"e &"or/, and of 8he""8 or 8earth5s prison,8 ti-y, as the a#ode of miser/ indescri#a#"e. !e continuesS U(t this time I %as so affected #/ %hat these #oo$s said, that I fe"t m/ ver/ hair and #ones &ro% stiff %ith fear at the thou&ht of the character of m/ past "ife. Comin& to m/se"f I "oo$ed up to heaven and said, 5!o% sha"" I escape the punishment of earth5s prisonL5 ./ conscience condemned me. >a$in& and s"eepin& I cou"d &et no rest. I continued to read #oo$s exhortin& to virtue, and meditated deep"/ on them. I $ept on sa/in& to m/se"f, 5Do nothin& %ron&, #ut practice ever/ &ood deedQ5 or e"se I thou&ht in m/ innermost mind a#out the %ords, 5)ust is the most dead"/ of a"" sins, and fi"ia" piet/ the chief of a"" virtues.5 Of these %ords I made a %arnin& and a ru"e. ometimes I presented a %ritten petition to >en2ch6an& ti2$iIn, dec"arin& m/ determination to "ive virtuous"/. (t other times I made it a dai"/ ha#it to &o mornin& and evenin& to the ima&e of K%an2/in and #urn incense #efore it, at the same time readin& the 5Boo$ ?King@ of K%an2/Mn,5 and pra/in& to that divinit/ to rescue me from m/ miseries. I a"so pra/ed to !i&h !eaven, ma$in& use of four sentencesS5I stri$e m/ head and %orship the #"ue heavenQ5 5./ ruined "ife has #een mar$ed #/ thousands and tens of thousands of sinsQ5 5I pra/ thee to have pit/ on meQ5 5I #e& for&iveness for a"" past sins.5 I %as so fu"" of a"arm, that I %as anxious to perform some meritorious act to free me from a"" m/ sins. p. CAE UOccasiona""/ a"so on returnin& home, I presented incense, and read a pra/er to the $itchen &od, and %as accustomed to ta$e the manua" for the %orship of the &od, and recite passa&es to various mem#ers of the fami"/, exhortin& them to comp"iance %ith the direction to #e ver/ reverentia" to the $itchen &od. I a"so ur&ed m/ parents to avoid eatin& #eef and do&5s f"esh, for the preservation of their &ood fortune. 8./ desire to #e virtuous &re% &reater as I o#served the cheats and craft of the %or"d, and the se"fishness and &reed of man/ persons. I %as at that time #ent on #ecomin& a &ood man, and superior to others, and so ac:uirin& a variet/ of hi&h re%ards.8 !e then proceeds to sho% that a"" this time he %as himse"f de"uded in a mu"titude of %a/s, and firm"/ #ound in the snares of i&norance, ti"", #/ the he"p of his &randmother, an o"d "ad/ of ei&ht/2seven /ears, %ho had #een for /ears an exce""ent Christian, he %as #rou&ht to the exercise of faith in Christ and !is 1ospe". Undou#ted"/ this is an examp"e extreme"/ interestin& and instructive, as sho%in& ho% the Buddhist doctrine of heaven and he"" prepares for the Christian. I proceed to detai" the steps of this man5s conversion. The o"d "ad/ had five sons, a"" of %hom, except our convert5s father and the e"dest, fo""o%ed their mother in adoptin& Christianit/. The opposition of these t%o sons to Christianit/ continued for /ears, and the %riter of the account %as #rou&ht up an un#e"iever. The &randmother, comin& one da/ to chape", s"ipped her foot, and sustained a severe in3ur/. ( Christian he"ped our convert in ta$in& care of her, and in app"/in& his medica" s$i"" to cure her. >hi"e he %as doin& this, he p"ied our convert %ith exhortations to accept the ne% doctrine. (s he spo$e of the comin& 3ud&ment, and of heaven and he"", our convert fe"t himse"f deep"/ moved. It 3ust suited his mode of fear and of "on&in&. It he"ped him to ma$e up his mind and &ive his %i"" a fixed direction, so that he /ie"ded himse"f to the p. CAT inf"uence of the ne% re"i&ion and #ecame a secret #e"iever. >hen his &randmother reiterated her earnest appea"s to him to adopt the true faith, he consented. !e sti"" fe"t, ho%ever, afraid of ca"umn/ and reproach, and confined his pra/in& to the schoo"room %here he tau&ht. (t "ast, he sa/s, he fe"t stron&er faith, %ent to 3oin in %orship at the chape", met the missionar/, and %as after%ards sound"/ chastised #/ his parents. !e %as su#se:uent"/ #aptiRed, and entered the trainin& institution of the Base" .ission. )et attention #e &iven here to the circumstance, that this man, a &enuine convert to Christianit/, had made an unsuccessfu" attempt at a mora" se"f2reformation in connection %ith the Buddhist doctrine of heaven and he"", and the mora" teachin& incu"cated in the universa""/2$no%n Tauist pu#"ications, the names of %hich he mentions in his account. The retri#ution proc"aimed #/ Buddhism "ed him to an out%ard reformation, consistin& in the a#andonment of a vicious "ife. (t this time he had a &"immerin& of certain truths, found im#edded in heathen #e"iefs. !e had the mora" intention "eadin& him to forsa$e some sins, #ut he did not achieve a satisfactor/ escape from dou#t and temptation. This cou"d on"/ #e the &ift of Christianit/Q /et, in Buddhism, he had the &uidance of a certain "i&ht %hich "ed him to #ecome a see$er for truth. Christianit/ found him not a"to&ether co"d and du"", #ut in an in:uirin& and unsatisfied attitude. !e %as "oo$in& for more "i&ht than that of Buddhismfor stron&er "ove than that of Buddhismfor a #ri&hter hope than that of Buddhism. These he found in the 1ospe". Not on"/ had the mora" teachin& of Tauist #oo$s and the Buddhist doctrine of heaven and he"" a distinct"/ percepti#"e effect in inc"inin& him stron&"/ to se"f2 reformation, #ut the ha#it of Buddhist devotion, in the form of recitin& passa&es from "itur&ica" #oo$s, and pra/ers for aid to escape from miser/, he"ped him in commencin& a :uasi2re"i&ious "ife. The petition to >en2chJan& ti2$iun, a star p. CKG &od, is a %ritten pra/er #urnt in the incense f"ame. The pra/er to K%an2/in is an appea" to the po%erfu" divinit/, %ho promises to exercise her de"iverin& po%er as a ,Ju2sa to ever/ supp"icant. The ha#it of pra/er %as a"read/ formed, %hen he %as induced #/ faithfu" Christian friends and re"atives to pra/ to the 1od revea"ed in the Bi#"e. >hen he did so, he #e&&ed the recover/ of his &randmother, in order, he adds, that she mi&ht "ead him and his fami"/ %ith her to the ha"" of %orship. !is &randmother recovered, and he fe"t that his pra/er %as ans%ered. This "ed him to &reat earnestness in pra/er and stren&th of faithQ for she %as confident that the cure too$ p"ace #/ the immediate exercise of 1od5s po%er, and in ans%er to pra/er. !is ha#it of heathen devotion %as transmuted into Christian devotion. Christianit/ ta$es man as it finds him, and ma$es him, #/ teachin& and trainin&, a servant of 1od. I do not in an/ %a/ dou#t that Buddhist doctrines have #een, for the Christian teacher, most important preparation for Christianit/Q and that, throu&h the spread of these doctrines, the Chinese peop"e "oo$ upon Christianit/ %ith much "ess stran&eness, and accept its doctrines %ith much "ess difficu"t/, than other%ise the/ %ou"d have #een a#"e to do. On the other hand, it ma/ #e said that Buddhist priests do not easi"/ #ecome convertsQ that ,o"/nesians, Ne&roes, un2.ohammedanised .a"a/s, and the mountain tri#es in Birmah and India, #ecome converts more readi"/ than the Chinese. This, perhaps, has #een so hitherto, #ut I dou#t if it %i"" #e so in the future. There have #een causes %hich have operated to chec$ the pro&ress of Christianit/ in China. The/ have #een chief"/ ori&inated #/ the Confucianists. >hen opposition from the "iterati is removed, it is surprisin& %ith %hat ease Christianit/ can #e propa&ated. One reason of this is, that the minds of the peop"e are impre&nated %ith Buddhist ideas and the "an&ua&e %ith Buddhist expressions.

Footnotes CDCSB This paper %as read in the sprin& of BEKE, #efore an association of missionaries resident in ,e$in&. CAASB ,u#"ished at han&hai, .arch BAth, BEKE.

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CHAPTER

III.

NOTICE OF THE !U-!EI-KIAU" A REFORMED BUDDHIST SECT. Ori&inated t%o hundred and sevent/ /ears a&o #/ a native of han2tan&No sho%/ ceremonia"No ima&es acred #oo$s six in num#erIntervie% of the founder %ith the emperor of the period Chena teDiscussion %ith opponents0ictor/One of their "eaders %as crucified. INT+R ,+R +D throu&h the vi""a&e popu"ation of the eastern provinces of China are to #e found the adherents of a re"i&ion ca""ed the 5u-wei-kiau. The/ are "itt"e $no%n, usua""/ #e"on& to the "o%er ran$s of "ife, and have fe% #oo$s. Their princip"es, ho%ever, render them remar$a#"e. The/ are a $ind of reformed Buddhists. Their s/stem is more "i$e Buddhism than an/ other re"i&ion, #ut the/ are opposed to ido"atr/. The/ appear to #e stron&"/ and sincere"/ convinced of the &oodness of their opinions, and the/ ho"d %ith tenacit/ the use"essness of ima&e %orship. This circumstance has often attracted the attention of missionaries at han&hai and Nin&po, and I have thou&ht that a notice of the sect %ou"d not #e %ithout interest. This sect has existed in China for a#out t%o hundred and sevent/ /ears. Its ori&inator %as )o !%ei2nen&, a native of han2tun&. In imitation of the Buddhist tit"e tsu, he is ca""ed Lo-tsu, 8the patriarch )o.8 !is opinions have spread %ith considera#"e rapidit/ throu&h the ad3oin2provincesKian&2nan, Che2$ian&, and (n2h%ei, and ma/ advance farther. p. CKH The name of the sect is 5u-wei-kiau, %hich, trans"ated "itera""/, means the 8Do2nothin& sect.8 The idea intended #/ it is, that re"i&ion consists, not in ceremonies and out%ard sho%, #ut in sti""ness, in a :uiet, meditative "ife, and in an in%ard reverence for the a""2pervadin& Buddha. Buddha is #e"ieved in, #ut he is not %orshipped. There are temp"es, if the/ ma/ #e so ca""ed, #ut the/ are p"ain structures, destitute of ima&es, and havin& in them on"/ the common Chinese ta#"et to heaven, earth, $in&, parents, and teacher, as an o#3ect of reverence. The phrase %u2%ei, to 8do nothin&,8 occurs in the %ritin&s of the ear"/ Tauists, "on& #efore Buddhism appeared in China. In the 8Boo$ of Reason and 0irtue8 ? Tau-teking@, it is said #/ )au2$iInS 8The hi&hest virtue is not ?intentiona""/@ virtuous, and on this account it is ?deservin& of the name@ virtue. The "o%er sort of virtue is ?anxious@ not ?to #e@ %antin& in virtue, and therefore it is not ?true@ virtue. The hi&hest virtue does&nothing, and conse:uent"/ does not trust to ?or rest on@ an/ action. 0irtue of an inferior $ind ?anxious"/@ acts and trusts to action.8 This is the controvers/ that has #een so often raised #et%een the contemp"ative and the active man. In China Confucius and his schoo" are the advocates of activit/, and )au2tsi and his fo""o%ers of contemp"ation. These phi"osophers #oth discussed the art of &overnment, the one %ith the aid of idea"ism, the other under the &uidance of ?somethin& "i$e@ materia"ism. The phrase wu-wei is one of the %atch%ords of idea"istic and m/stica" schoo"s in ChinaQ %hi"e yeu-wei, 8action,8 a phrase of opposite si&nification, is the cr/ of s/stems %hich favour materia"ism. I &ive another :uotation. It is from the second of the &reat Tauist authors, Chwang-ts. 8The %a/ of heaven,8 he sa/s, 8is 5not to act5 ?wu-wei@, and therein and there#/ to #e the most honoured of a"" thin&s. The %a/ of men is to act5 ?yeu-wei@, and to #e invo"ved in trou#"e.8 p. CKC >hen Buddhism entered China, a s/stem much more pure"/ idea"istic than Tauism, this phrase wu-wei %as soon reco&nised as the e:uiva"ent to the phrase h-wu-tsimie, 8vacanc/, sti""ness, and destruction8 of that forei&n re"i&ion. The resem#"ance in princip"e #et%een Buddhism and Tauism %as in this respect too evident not to #e remar$ed. The simi"arit/ #ecame sti"" c"oser %hen the esoteric #ranch of Buddhism, esta#"ished #/ Bodhidharma, and deve"oped #/ the Chinese Buddhists %ho succeeded him, extended itse"f so much as :uite to overshado% the o"der exoteric #ranch. +xterna" Buddhism see$s after the Nirv9na, encoura&es the %orship of ima&es, appoints pra/ers for the dead, and ma$es use of much out%ard sho% to %in the mu"titude. This is yeu-wei, or 8re"iance on action.8 The m/stic Buddhists resist such a method of attainin& the ends of re"i&ion. The/ recommend 8inaction,8 or wu-wei. It is from them that the >u2%ei sect has sprun&. The name is a favourite Tauist expression, #ut the source of the re"i&ion is Buddhism. )o2tsu, the founder of this re"i&ion, %as a native of )ai2cheu fu, in han2tun&. !e %as introduced, sa/ the #oo$s of the sect, to the emperor of the .in& d/nast/ of the period Chen&2te. The fo""o%in& account is &iven of the intervie%, in the %or$ Lo-tsu-chu-sh-tui-+an-ping-pau-kiuen. ( hundred thousand forei&n so"diers had

invaded China, and an arm/ of ten times that num#er had #een sent out to repe" them. The arm/ fai"ed in its enterprise, and )o2tsu offered to the commander to drive #ac$ the invaders. !e shot an arro% into the air, %hen a "otus2f"o%er descended %ith a "oud noise, and the enem/ seein& it #ecame terrified and immediate"/ f"ed. The emperor %as informed of this, and )o2tsu %as ca""ed to his presence. The emperor than$ed him for his success, and as$ed him ho% he came to possess this miracu"ous po%er. )o2tsu denied havin& an/ supernatura" po%er, and attri#uted the de"iverance of the state to the protection of the dra&ons and the &ods. p. CKF ;para&raph continues< The emperor then directed him to shoot arro%s into the air, %hen a sho%er of "otus2f"o%ers appeared. The emperor %as enra&ed, and ordered him to #e imprisoned and starved to death as a sorcerer. >hi"e he "a/ in captivit/, mournin& over his fate and recitin& pra/ers to Buddha, a reve"ation seemed to dart into his mind. !e said to his 3ai"er, 8I have five #oo$s to ma$e $no%n to men.8 The 3ai"er ca""ed in Chan& Kun&2$un& to confer %ith him, %ho encoura&ed him to commit his #oo$s to %ritin&. !e therefore sent for t%o of his discip"es, *uh2hi and *uh2pau, to come from the >u2tJai mountain, %here the/ resided, to act as his amanuenses. T%o other persons, noted in the histor/ of his re"i&ion, name"/, >ei K%o2$un& and TJan& han&2shu, %ere %itnesses of the correctness of the transcript. The five %or$s %hose ori&in is thus descri#ed constitute the sacred #oo$s of the re"i&ion. The/ comprehend the fo""o%in& six su#3ectsS B. Hing-kio-kiuen ?%hich descri#es painfu" efforts after emancipation, resu"tin& in perception of the exce""ence of this re"i&ion@, 8Chapter of the movement of the feet.8 H. Tan-sh-kiuen, 8)ament over the %or"d.8 C. !o-sie-kiuen, 8Overthro% of fa"se doctrine.8 F. Cheng-sin-kiuen, 8Inc"ination of the mind to the ri&ht doctrine.8 D. Tai-shan-kiuen, 8Becomin& "i$e the mountain TJai2shan8 ?confirmation chapter@. A. Tsing-tsing-kiuen, 8The mind and nature purified and :uieted.8 These %or$s %ere presented, continues the stor/, to the emperor, %ho reca""ed the author to his presence and received him more favoura#"/ than #efore. The three friends a#ovementioned, #ein& officers hi&h in ran$, interceded for him, and #ecame sureties for his &ood conduct. (t this 3uncture seven forei&n Buddhists arrived at court, #rin&in& a #rass Buddha as a present. )o2tsu %as appointed to ho"d a discussion %ith them. !e %as introduced p. CKD as the 5u-wei-tau-"en, 8Re"i&ious man %ho maintains the princip"e of non2action.8 The forei&n priests as$ed him %h/ he assumed this name. 8B/ means of it,8 he rep"ied, 8I sha"" #e a#"e to overturn /our #rass Buddha of three thousand pounds %ei&ht to2da/. .en do not $no% this princip"e, and therefore the/ see$ for fa"se doctrine. ./ method is c"ear and perfectQ it is suited for the %ho"e %or"d.8 To this it %as rep"ied #/ the forei&n priest, 8Do not use #oastfu" %ordsQ I can ma$e a &ourd sin$ to the #ottom of the sea and iron ton&s s%im on the surface. Can /ou do soL8 The forei&n priest expects that our hero %i"" not #e a#"e to exp"ain his ridd"e, #ut he is mista$en. ( read/ rep"/ is &iven, 8.an5s nature is "i$e the fu"" moon, %hich, %hen it emer&es from the horiRon, shines to the #ottom of the sea, across the surface, and ever/%here. To sin$ and to s%im, then, #ecome the same. >hen m/ 5nature5 ?sing@, "i$e the moon, shines #ri&ht and c"ear, m/ "ife returns to the #ottom of the sea. In the vie% of m/ spiritua" nature, #orn direct"/ from heaven, iron ma/ s%im and the &ourd ma/ sin$.8 The forei&n priest then as$ed him %h/ he did not chant #oo$s of pra/ers. !e ans%ered 8That the &reat doctrine is spontaneous, man5s nature is the same %ith heaven. The true un%ritten #oo$ is a"%a/s rotatin&. B ("" heaven and earth are repeatin& %ords of truth. The true #oo$ is not outside of man5s se"f. But the deceived are i&norant of this, and the/ therefore chant #oo$s of pra/ers. The "a% that is invisi#"e manifests itse"f spontaneous"/, and needs no #oo$. The f"o%in& of %ater, the rushin& of the %inds, constitute a &reat chant. >h/, then, recite pra/ers from #oo$sL8 The founder of the >u2%ei re"i&ion %as a&ain as$ed %h/ he did not %orship ima&es of Buddha. !e ans%ered, p. CKA ;para&raph continues< 8( #raRen Buddha me"ts, and a %ooden Buddha #urns, %hen exposed to the fire. (n earthen Buddha cannot save itse"f from %ater. It cannot save itse"fQ then ho% can it save meL In ever/ partic"e of dust there is a $in&dom ru"ed #/ Buddha. In ever/ temp"e the $in& of the "a% resides. The mountains, the rivers, and the &reat earth form Buddha5s ima&e. >h/, then, carve or mou"d an ima&eL8 I remar$ here, in passin&, that at this point %e must consider Buddha as 1od in the vie% of these re"i&ionists. !e is to them that Bein& %hose &"or/ and %hose acts are seen in ever/ o#3ect of nature. But, then, this Buddha is not a persona" #ein&, the ru"er and father of the %or"d. !e cannot #e pra/ed to. !e cannot "ove me, or #e the o#3ect of m/ "ove. >hen re"i&ionists of this c"ass sa/ the/ see Buddha ever/%here, it is on"/ the ref"ection of the thou&hts and emotions of their o%n minds that the/ refer to. (&ain he is as$ed %h/ he does not #urn incenseL !e rep"ies, 8That i&norant men do not $no% that ever/ one has incense in himse"f. >hat is true incenseL It is se"f2 &overnment, %isdom, patience, merc/, freedom from dou#ts, and $no%"ed&e. The pure doctrine of the >u2%ei is true incense, pervadin& a"" heaven and earth. Incense is ever/%here ascendin&. That incense %hich is made #/ man, the smo$e of fra&rant %oods, does not reach heaven. The %inds, c"ouds, and de% are true incense, a"%a/s sheddin& itse"f forth throu&h the successive seasons of the /ear.8 !e %as as$ed once more, 8>h/ do /ou not "i&ht cand"esL8 !e ans%ered 8That the %or"d is a cand"estic$. >ater is the oi". The s$/ is an encirc"in& shade. The sun and moon are the f"ame "i&htin& up the universe. If there is "i&ht %ithin me, it i""umines a"" heaven and earth. If m/ o%n nature #e a"%a/s #ri&ht, heaven %i"" never #ecome dar$. It %i"" then #e perceived that the $in& of the "a% is "imit"ess.8 It shou"d #e noticed that the $in& of the "a% is a personification p. CKK

of the doctrine #e"ieved. The mind ref"ects on the doctrine ti"" ima&ination pictures it to the inte""ectua" e/e as a &"orious ima&e. This is the $in& of the "a%. >hen the discussion %as over, the seven priests a"" confessed themse"ves %orsted, and #e&&ed )o2tsu to #ecome their instructor. The #oo$ adds that the emperor %as hi&h"/ p"eased, and ordered the #oo$s of )o2tsu to #e en&raved. The/ %ere pu#"ished, continues the record, in the thirteenth /ear of Chen&2te from the imperia" press, (.D. BDBE. I met recent"/ %ith a former adherent of this re"i&ion %ho is no% a Christian. !e %as #aptiRed recent"/ #/ the "ate Bishop Russe"" of Nin&po, of the Church .issionar/ ociet/. !e &ave me much information respectin& the sect to %hich he had previous"/ #e"on&ed. !e sti"" thin$s its princip"es are &ood. It en3oins virtue, and its tendencies are, he considers, of an exce""ent $ind, #ut it does not sho% how &oodness is to #e attained. !e therefore "eft it and #ecame a Christian. On as$in& him the meanin& of the discussion #efore the emperor, and if it %as not fictitious, he said that the arm/ of forei&n invaders means the sensoria" or&ans, the six thieves, as the/ are ca""ed #/ the Buddhists. The arro% shot in the air is the heart. The forei&n priests %ho oppose the true doctrine are mo-kwei, 8demons.8 This use of fiction to recommend re"i&ious do&mas is in $eepin& %ith the usua" character of the Buddhist #oo$s. Un"imited "icense is ta$en #/ the authors in inventin& a suita#"e ta#"eau of characters and scener/, in %hich the doctrines to #e tau&ht ma/ #e prominent"/ represented. T%o other persons ing-tsu and au-tsuhave, at different periods, ta$en the "ead in this sect. -in&2tsu is said to have discoursed on +a ?dharma@ 8the "a%,8 as )o2 tsu did on king the 8#oo$s.8 There is another persona&e #eside Buddha spo$en of #/ these re"i&ionists, the Kin-mu, 81o"den mother.8 he d%e""s in a heaven ca""ed au ?to sha$e@ chu ?to d%e""@ p. CKE ;para&raph continues< $un& ?pa"ace@. ./ informant considered that she represents 1od, in the idea of this re"i&ion, more near"/ than Buddha does, #ecause she is an o#3ect of %orship. On m/ in:uirin& %h/ this divinit/ shou"d #e fema"e, he said that Kin-mu %as the mother of the sou", as the fema"e parent %as of the #od/. an&chu& kung ma/ #e 4asper pear" pa"ace. he is said to protect from various ca"amities, and is pra/ed to for de"iverance from sic$ness, and to save the deceased from miseries in the unseen %or"d. The ori&in of her name is found in the Chinese theor/ of the e"ements, amon& %hich kin, 8&o"d,8 8meta" &enera""/,8 stands first in order. This and man/ other Tauist notions are #"ended %ith Buddhist princip"es in the s/stem maintained #/ the fo""o%ers of the 5u-wei-kiau. The/ have four principa" festiva"s, of %hich t%o are to ce"e#rate the da/ of the #irth and death of )o2tsu. The others are the ne% /ear and the midd"e of the ei&hth month. On these occasions, three cups of tea and nine sma"" "oaves of #read are p"aced on the ta#"e #/ appointment of )o2tsu. The num#er nine refers to the stro$es of the pa-kwa, or 8ei&ht dia&rams,8 in %hich nine is the most fortunate num#er. The #read is ca""ed kien-kwan, 8heaven and earth,8 a"so in imitation of the names of the ei&ht dia&rams of the 8Boo$ of Chan&es.8 The sect is sometimes ca""ed Cha-kiau, 8Tea sect,8 and #an-teu-kiau, 8Bread sect,8 in conse:uence of the usa&e here mentioned. These appe""ations are, ho%ever, nothin& #ut popu"ar nic$names. The/ have in their chape"s, ta#"ets to the emperor and to the five names of honourheaven, earth, prince, parents, and teacher. The/ are strict ve&etarians, and ar&ue tenacious"/ for the metemps/chosis. The/ have no ascetic institute "i$e the Buddhists, #ut a""o% the fami"/ institution to #e undistur#ed. The/ %ere persecuted in the .in& d/nast/. One of their "eaders %as crucified #/ nai"in& on the &ate of a cit/ in hantun&. On one occasion, some persons of this sect p. CKT addressed me in a missionar/ chape" in han&hai, %ith the remar$ that their re"i&ion resem#"ed the Christian in this respect, that one of their "eaders %as crucified. The/ have not since #een su#3ected to persecution, #ut their re"i&ion is sti"" prohi#ited, and its name is found amon& those char&ed %ith teachin& depraved doctrines, in some editions of the 8 acred +dict.8 ./ informant to"d me, further, that the doctrine of the non2existence of matter is not he"d #/ this sectthou&h it mi&ht have #een expected from their c"ose adherence to Buddhism that the/ %ou"d have maintained it#ut that the/ simp"/ re&ard a"" materia" thin&s as perisha#"e. >hen the %or"d comes to its end, the 1o"den mother %i"" ta$e a"" her chi"dreni,e,, a"" #e"ievers in this re"i&ionhome to the yau-chu heaven. The 5u-wei-kiau is usua""/ spo$en of #/ the Confucianists as a corrupt sect, %ith secret po"itica" desi&nsQ #ut its adherents appear at present to #e entire"/ innocent of an/ i""e&a" aims. The/ are, so far as can #e seen, intent on re"i&ious o#3ects, and sincere"/ attached to their s/stem. >e ma/ /et see man/ of them exchan&in& a#stract phi"osophica" do&mas for Christian truth. Their opposition to ido"atr/ is a preparation for Christianit/, and the/ deserve &reat attention from those %ho are en&a&ed in teachin& the Chinese the re"i&ion of the Bi#"e. The/ are ver/ determined ve&etarians. >hen the/ #ecome Christians, the/ prefer to free themse"ves from the #onda&e of the prohi#ition #/ eatin& some sma"" :uantit/ of anima" food, as a proof to others of their chan&e of re"i&ion. This is entire"/ vo"untar/ on their part. In the vicinit/ of han&hai, a fe% /ears since, this happened in the case of a f"orist and his %ife. The %ife %as a %oman of inf"uence and decision. he si&na"ised her chan&e of re"i&ion #/ invitin& friends to a feast and parta$in& in their presence of a certain portion of anima" food.

Footnotes CKDSB There is an a""usion here to the chantin& a "itur&/, as the revo"vin& common Buddhist description of preachin& Buddhist do&ma, and of the %hee" of the "a%.

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IV.

BUDDHISM AND TAUISM IN THEIR POPULAR ASPECTS. The popu"arit/ of Buddhism rests on its doctrine of retri#ution, and not on its ethics.a&ica" c"aims of the TauistsK%an2/in, since the t%e"fth centur/, usua""/ a fema"e,o%ers and c"aims of K%an2/in,opu"ar Buddhism "oves to have pra/ers said for the dead!opes for paradise hereafter,opu"ar Tauism #e"ieves in haunted houses, in charms, and in the efficac/ of the %iRard in contro""in& demonsThe present head of the Tauists and chief ma&ician>ent from >estern China to Kian&2si, %here he has ever since resided as hereditar/ ,opeThe Tauist divinit/ -u2h%an& shan&2ti has incarnations assi&ned to himChan& ien the #o%man, a ph/sicianTai"2cuttin& de"usionTauist pra/ers for the deadThe Buddhist en-lo&wang, 81od of death8The ei&ht &eniiThe ei&hteen )o2hansThe Tauist de"usions dan&erous po"itica""/TJien2tsin massacreNeed of the "i&ht of educationThe effect of the assau"t of Christianit/ on these re"i&ions. B- the popu"ar aspects of these t%o re"i&ions, I mean their aspects at the present time, in as far as the/ exercise an inf"uence on the popu"ar mind. The/ %ere popu"ar former"/ in a sense different from that in %hich the/ are popu"ar at present. Thus, preachin& %as common amon& Buddhists in the ear"/ a&es of their re"i&ion. The principa" dut/ of a shaven mon$ %as to exp"ain the doctrine of ha$/amuni as a de"iverance from the miser/ of "ife. (t present the popu"arit/ of Buddhism certain"/ does not rest on an/ activit/ in expoundin& the doctrines of their faith that %e have the opportunit/ of %itnessin&. It rests rather on the supposed ma&ica" po%ers of the priests, on p. CEB the merit #e"ieved to attach to &ifts presented for the support of mon$s, monasteries, and "itur&ica" services, and on the %ide2spread #e"ief that such merit %i"" #e fo""o%ed #/ a"" $inds of happiness. The ear"/ #oo$s of Buddhism a#ound in #eautifu" mora" precepts, proceedin& from the "ips of a man %ho, throu&h a "on& "ife, %as animated #/ a pure and "oft/ asceticism. The/ are tin&ed %ith a proud scorn of %or"d"/ &"or/, and %ith a firm consciousness that there is nothin& so &ood for a man as to "isten to the teachin& of his o%n #etter nature, %hi"e he shuts his ears c"ose"/ to the siren voices of a"" sins and a"" temptations. (ssured"/ this is not %hat ma$es Buddhism popu"ar no%. *or these ear"/ #oo$s are never, or a"most never, read in the "itur&ica" servicesQ and as to strivin& to #e &ood, the Buddhists do not act so as to indicate that this aim is vita" and vi&orous amon& them. The sharp e/es of the Confucianists are upon them, and the 3ud&ment the/ pass on them is unfavoura#"e. The Confucianists represent them as drones in the communit/. The/ descri#e them as not "i$e the usefu" si"$%orm, %hich &ives to man the materia" of the texti"e fa#ric, #ut as #ein& "i$e the moth, %hich destro/s that fa#ric. Then, %h/ is Buddhism sti"" #e"ieved #/ the peop"eL The ans%er is, that the/ #e"ieve in the ma&ica" efficac/ of Buddhist pra/ers, and in mora" causationQ or, in other %ords, the "a% of mora" retri#ution %hich Buddhism teaches. It is on these accounts that mone/ f"o%s into the Buddhist treasur/ for the erection and repair of temp"es and pa&odas, and for the support of innumera#"e priests. If I &ive mone/ to &i"d sacred ima&es, the "a% of causation %i"" &ive me #ac$ happiness in-kwo&pu-mei. The histor/ of Tauism has #een simi"ar. >hat has come no% of the phi"osoph/ of )au2$iIn and Ch%an& CheuL It is much too a#struse for the modern Tauist mind. The Tauists of the present da/ do not occup/ their attention %ith m/sterious specu"ations on the pure and the true. Nor /et do the/ &ive attention to the a"chem/ p. CEH of the !an d/nast/. The/ have ceased to experiment on the e"ixir of "ife, or the transmutation of a"" meta"s into &o"d. Instead of this, the/ occup/ themse"ves %ith %ritin& charms for drivin& demons out of houses, and %ith readin& pra/ers for the remova" of ca"amities. >hen /ou meet a Tauist of this &eneration, /ou do not meet %ith either an a"chemist or a phi"osopher. The man /ou see c"aims, ho%ever, to #e a#"e to do ver/ &reat thin&s. !e %i"" underta$e to drive out a demon from the #od/ of a madman, and from a haunted house, to cure the sic$ #/ ma&ic, and to #rin& rain in time of drou&ht #/ his pra/ers. !e %i"" protect #/ his charms the :uiet citiRen and the adventurous trave""er from a"" sorts of dan&ersQ and, %hen there is mournin& in the house, he %i"""i$e the Buddhist mon$hire out his services to read passa&es from the "itur&ies of his re"i&ion, %hich sha"", #/ their ma&ic po%er, :uic$"/ transfer the sou" of the dead to the "and of happiness on hi&h. ( Chinese %riter sa/s in a characteristic %a/S 8The three re"i&ions differ in their doctrines. -et as to the aim, to save man$ind, the/ are at one. In Buddhism no persona&e ho"ds so "ar&e a p"ace in savin& man$ind as K%an2shM2/in. In Tauism there is no one e:ua" to )I Chun2/an&. In the 4u-kiau there is no one to #e compared %ith Confucius and .encius.8 In this extract, B K%an2/in is represented as more prominent in savin& men than Buddha himse"f. uch is the modern deve"opment of Buddhism, and it is the popu"ar Buddhism of the da/. K%an2/in %as introduced into Indian Buddhism not "on& #efore the Christian era. In China, K%an2/in %as %orshipped pro#a#"/ in the !an d/nast/, #ut %as not so popu"ar as after%ards. ( modern chan&e has ta$en p"ace in the ima&e of K%an2/in. Do%n to the ear"/ part of the t%e"fth centur/, K%an2/in %as represented as a man. In a #oo$ of dra%in&s of the time of iuen2ho, H and in the %or$s remainin& of famous painters p. CEC of the TJan& and un& d/nasties, K%an2/in is a"%a/s a man. In "ater times it has #ecome the custom to represent K%an2/in fre:uent"/ as a %oman. This has #een the custom for a#out six hundred /ears. K%an2/in is in mascu"ine costume in temp"es %here &reat attention is paid to precedent, #ut the popu"ar taste is in favour of a &oddess rather than a &od. !ence the appe""ation in +n&"ish, 81oddess of .erc/,8 founded on the phrases common"/ app"ied to her, Ta-ts&ta-pei&kieu-ku&kieu-nan, 81reat merc/, &reat pit/Q sa"vation from miser/, sa"vation from %oe.8 That one of the man/ metamorphoses of K%an2/in shou"d have #ecome a ver/ commonin fact the most commonima&e of this divinit/, ma/ #e ta$en as an indication that, in deif/in& ideas, the Buddhist mind in China de"i&hts to assi&n feminine attri#utes to

that of merc/. It is eas/ to understand ho% the Sung-ts&Kwan-yin, or 8K%an2/in, the &iver of sons,8 shou"d #ecome extreme"/ popu"ar. The sa"vation of man$ind #/ teachin& is a conception ver/ characteristic of Chinese Buddhism. This #e"on&s to a"" those fancied persona&es ca""ed *o and ,Ju2sa. *or examp"e, the mission of K%an2/in is the sa"vation of men. It is s/m#o"ised #/ her thirt/2t%o metamorphoses. In these shapes she enters various $in&doms as a saviour. (mon& these representations are seen the ei&ht/2four thousand arms and hands %ith %hich she &uides the i&norant and the "ost. The doctrines tau&ht #/ K%an2/in are the non2existence of matter, and the infiniteness of the $no%"ed&e and merc/ of Buddha. ("" evi"s are summed up in i&norance. To ac:uire $no%"ed&e of the emptiness of existin& thin&s is to #ecome saved. It is this that is meant #/ the sa"vation of men throu&h the a&enc/ of the &oddess of merc/. In accordance %ith a vo% she assumes some one of her thirt/2t%o shapes, and proceeds to the various $in&doms of the %or"d to convert men, and to the re&ions %here &ods, &iants, demons, and fairies reside, to protect, instruct, and save a"". Kin&s, &overnors, and p. CEF peop"e are renovated #/ the po%er of merc/. The/ are said to "ose their fear, to #e extricated from the thra"" of de"usion, to #ecome perfect, and to have the po%er of aidin& themse"ves or others. K%an2/in is represented as #ein& a#"e, #/ utterin& charms, to assume num#er"ess shapes for the sa$e of savin&. he saves #/ merc/, #/ %isdom, #/ enterin& into a state. he o#tains the &reat se"f2re"iant po%er #/ %hich she can ensure that those %ho pra/ for sons and those %ho pra/ for the state of samadhi sha"" attain it, and those %ho pra/ for de"iverance from dan&ers, or for o"d a&e, sha"" a"so secure them. he is a#"e to &ive Nirv9na to her petitioners #/ the same po%er. This is said to #e her &reat merc/ and pit/. ("" the Buddhas and Bodhisatt%as have po%ers ana"o&ous to these. But none are so prominent, perhaps, in this respect, as K%an2/in. .an3usiri ?5en-shu@, %hose seat of %orship is >u2tJai shan in han2si, is, even in North China, %here his %orship most prevai"s, much "ess thou&ht of than K%an2/in. ,ro#a#"/ ,Ju2hien, the seat of %hose %orship is >o2mei shan, in the province of M2chJ%en, is even "ess esteemed than .an3usiri, and a& +ortiori than K%an2/in. It %ou"d seem, then, to #e a fact important in modern Buddhist histor/, that the most popu"ar of the divinities of this re"i&ion shou"d #e presented first %ith ma"e and after%ards %ith fema"e attri#utes, and that the chan&e of sex in the ima&es shou"d have #een accomp"ished %ithin the "ast fe% centuries. -et it shou"d not #e for&otten that K%an2/in is, proper"/ spea$in&, to #e re&arded as mascu"ine even at the present time. The feminine form is a specia""/ popu"ar metamorphosis. If %e %ish to &o further #ac$ and to #e sti"" more carefu" in our ana"/sis, K%an2/in is #ut a form of Buddha, comin& into the %or"d of sufferin& man$ind in a "o%er position than Buddha, in order more effectua""/ to instruct and save the i&norant. Thus ,Ju2hien and >en2shu are in the same %a/ said to #e ancient Buddhas appearin& amon& men as the t%o he"pers of ha$/amuni, p. CED %ho st/"es one of them chan&2tsM, 8e"dest son,8 and the other siau2nan, 8"itt"e #o/.8 >en2shu is the &od of %isdom, and ,Ju2hien of action. >en2shu rides a "ion, and ,Ju2hien an e"ephant. The "ion s/m#o"ises #o"dness, #raver/, and a fresh, ea&er, and advancin& spirit. The e"ephant indicates care, caution, &ent"eness, and a %ei&ht/ di&nit/. This is Buddhist s/m#o"ism. It is interestin& in itse"f, #ecause it exp"ains the ima&es. The o#3ect of the ima&es is part"/ instruction, and part"/ the a%a$enin& of devout fee"in&s in the minds of %orshippers. The ima&e of a *o or a ,Ju2sa is intended to com#ine in its appearance %isdom, #enevo"ence, and victor/the %isdom of a phi"osopher, the #enevo"ence of a redeemer, and the triumph of a hero. ("" perfections are co""ected in the ho"/ ima&eperfect po%er, perfect virtue, infinite compassion, infinite #o"dness, and infinite $no%"ed&e. These are intended to #e represented in the ima&es. This s/m#o"ism is, ho%ever, not exact"/ %hat excites faith and devotion in the rich supporters of the Buddhist re"i&ion. It is rather a #e"ief in the ma&ica" po%er of the Buddhist divinities and priests, and confidence in the doctrine of retri#ution for the #esto%ment of "i#era" &ifts. ,riests are invited to perform a "itur&ica" service for the dead. It is ca""ed kung-te, 8merit.8 Its o#3ect is to &ive the deceased a #etter position in the next "ife than he %ou"d other%ise en3o/. This is founded on the metemps/chosis. ou"s ma/ #e re2#orn in a #etter or %orse state of existence. The ma&ica" po%er of Buddha ma/ exa"t a man from a #irth into he"" to a #irth into the %or"d once more. Buddha5s po%er ma/ cause a poor man to #e #orn in the next "ife as a rich man. The choir of priests %ie"d this po%er. The/ profess to have the po%er to chau-tu-ling-hwun, 8save the sou".8 This means to transfer the sou" from an undesira#"e a#ode in the next "ife to a ver/ happ/ one. The peop"e #e"ieve that the priests #/ #eatin& c/m#a"s and drums, $noc$in& the %ooden fish and chantin& pra/ers, can redeem the deceased person from the p. CEA punishment due to his sins. This is expressed #/ the phrase, shu-tsui, 8redeem from &ui"t.8 *or a service of one da/ in the house of the dead person, the name tso-kung-te is used. *or a service of three da/s, pai-chan is often used. The favourite name ?much ma/ #e "earned from favourite names@ ;-mi-to&Fo te""s of an expected paradise. It spea$s of the "on&in& for a happ/ hereafter. !ere Buddhism has a#andoned the "e&itimate Nirv9na of ha$/amuni, and preferred to a""o% the peop"e5s cravin& for immorta"it/ to dominate the phi"osopher5s do&ma of a return to the a#so"ute. ( favourite tit"e of Omi2to *o is Tsie-yin&Fo, 8The &uidin& Buddha.8 !e &uides from earth to the >estern paradise. The "e&end of O2mi2to is connected %ith that of K%an2/in. The schoo" %hich teaches it is ca""ed that of 8The peacefu" "and.8 In China and 4apan this schoo" has a"%a/s #een a popu"ar one. It is so especia""/ in 4apan. I %as much struc$ %hi"e in that countr/ %ith inscriptions on tom#s. ( "ar&e num#er of the inscriptions in ordinar/ cemeteries indicate that the person there #uried died in hope of #ein& ta$en to 8The peacefu" "and.8 It is different in China, %here Confucianism has prevented Buddhism from ta$in& a firm ho"d on the hearts of the peop"e. No such inscriptions occur in Chinese cemeteries. 4apan has #een more thorou&h"/ penetrated %ith Buddhism than China. -et in China the funera" procession for the dead #ears man/ mar$s of Buddhist inf"uence, thou&h the ordinar/ cemeteries do not. Thus the hwun&+an, or 8sou"5s #anner,8 carried #efore a coffin in such a procession has on the top a "otus2f"o%er, and #e"o% three strips of c"oth, the midd"e one of %hich contains the characters pan-yi, %hich imp"/ faith in the departure of the sou" to the >estern heaven. The 8portrait of the dead,8 shen-siang, is p"aced #eside it in %hat is ca""ed the tso-ting. Be"o% the portrait is a ta#"et to #e %orshipped. On the ri&ht hand is another #anner ca""ed ming-tsing, on %hich are recorded the tit"es of the deceased. No% it %i"" #e noticed here that p. CEK the %ooden frame "i$e a #a"dachino ho"din& the picture is Buddhist. It contains the stoo" on %hich a Buddhist mon$ sits cross"e&&ed %hen "ivin&, and on %hich he is p"aced sittin& in the same attitude %hen dead. *ive Buddhist priests and five Tauists read pra/ers at the &rave of persons %ho are rich and hi&h in office. The "itur&ies read are such as the Sin-king, 8!eart c"assic,8 and the Kwan-yin-king. In reference to use in funera" processions, these "itur&ies are ca""ed Chwen-tsai-king, 8)itur&/ for 5turnin&5 ?or &uidin&@ the coffin8 on its path to the &rave. The Nirv9na is too a#struse for the popu"ar faith. It has #een rep"aced #/ the ,aradise of the >estern heaven. The #e"ief in the existence of hermit heroes, and of various ma"evo"ent spirits and demons, is a mar$ed characteristic of popu"ar Tauism. !aunted houses are avoided in a"" parts of China. The po%er of expe""in& demons from haunted houses and "oca"ities, is #e"ieved to #e"on& chief"/ to the hereditar/ chief of the Tauists, Chan& Tien2shM, and su#ordinate"/ to an/ Tauist priest. To expe" demons he %ie"ds the s%ord that is said to have come do%n, a price"ess heir"oom, from his ancestors of the !an d/nast/. ("" demons fear this s%ord. !e %ho %ie"ds it, the &reat Tauist ma&ician, can catch demons and shut them up in 3ars. These 3ars are sea"ed %ith a 8charm8 ?+u@. I have heard that at the home of this chief of %iRards on the Dra&on and Ti&er mountain in the province of Kian&2si, there are man/ ro%s of such 3ars, a"" of them supposed to ho"d demons in captivit/. The %iRard himse"f is #e"ieved to #e a po%er. The charm is a po%er. The s%ord he %ie"ds is a po%er. The efficac/ of a charm is increased #/ the supposed ma&ica" &ifts of the Tauist %iRard from %hom it is o#tained. To secure the services of the &reat Kian&2si %iRard is ver/ expensive. On"/ the %ea"th/ %ho can expend a thousand tae"s of si"ver %ithout #ein& pinched can afford the "uxur/ of fee"in& :uite sure that, #/ the a&enc/ of this %iRard, the demons %ho

trou#"e them are comp"ete"/ su#3u&ated. The residence of this %iRard is ca""ed Ch`n23`n p. CEE fu. In &ivin& him the tit"e Ch0n-"0n, the meanin& is that he is re&arded as havin& attained perfect po%er and virtue. !e is the idea" man. .en under the domination of the passions are not ca""ed Ch0n-"0n. The Tauist discip"ine &ives a man the ru"e over himse"f and over nature. !e %ho possesses this is ca""ed a 8True man.8 The %ord ch0n, 8true,8 cannot #e fu""/ trans"ated into +n&"ish in such cases as this %ithout em#racin& the ideas 8rea",8 8perfect,8 8idea",8 and 8most e"evated.8 It is hi&her than sien, 8immorta",8 #ut not so hi&h as sheng, 8ho"/.8 The present chief %iRard is "i$e his predecessors. !is %ife #e"on&s to a Kian&2si fami"/. Tauism in the persons of its %iRards retains marria&e. Buddhism introduced the disuse of marria&e. Tauism, #ein& anterior to that much more ascetic and se"f2den/in& s/stem, $ne% nothin& of ce"i#ac/. It ma/ #e as$ed, from %hence came the %iRards and their charms, and their supposed po%er to su#due the #ad inf"uences of demons in distur#in& nei&h#ourhoods #/ apparitions and uncann/ noises, and in causin& sic$ness and deathL It ma/ #e ans%ered, that #efore the introduction of Buddhism, #ut especia""/ in the !an d/nast/, this fo""/ %as rife in the popu"ar #e"ief, and has continued so ti"" no%. There %ere %iRards in the han& d/nast/, #ut no detai"s remain of %hat the/ did. In the !an d/nast/, the %iRards stand out in their comp"eteness. The/ %ere &reat"/ honoured #/ prince and peop"e, and have continued to #e so in the person of the Chan& TJien2 shM ti"" the present da/. This persona&e assumes a state %hich mimics the imperia" re&ime. !e confers #uttons "i$e the emperor. !e has a#out thirt/ persons constitutin& his courtiers and hi&h officers. Tauists come to him from various cities and temp"es to receive promotion. !e invests them %ith certain tit"es, and &ives sea"s of office to those Tauists %ho are invested. The/ have simi"ar po%ers to his, and can, for examp"e "i$e him, su#due demons #/ pastin& p. CET charms on doors, %hich prevent them from enterin&. The Chan& Tien2shM, in his capacit/ as a sort of spiritua" emperor, addresses memoria"s to -I2ti in heaven. !is position %i"" #e understood from this circumstance. !e is chief officia" on earth of -I2h%an&2ti in heaven, and as such is in the ha#it of addressin& to him 8memoria"s8 ca""ed piau. !is dut/ is defined as the drivin& a%a/ and expu"sion of demons #/ charms, and their destruction #/ the ma&ic s%ord. In a"" parts of China, the charms seen pasted on the doors of houses testif/ to the dominant idea of popu"ar Tauism, and to the universa" fear of demons, %hich Tauism encoura&es. Certain"/ it is not Confucianism that maintains in ri&our this a#surd dread of evi" spirits %anderin& throu&h the air, distur#in& the pu#"ic tran:ui""it/, occasionin& a"arms %hich sometimes spread "i$e an epidemic from cit/ to cit/, and "eadin& the uninstructed popu"ace to trace fevers, madness, a&ue, dro%nin&, accidenta" death of trave""ers, suicide, and an/ sort of unaccounta#"e discomfort, to the ima&inar/ a&enc/ of invisi#"e and ma"evo"ent #ein&s. To su#due them is the office of the Tauist ma&ician. The person honoured %ith the credit of havin& invented the charm is Chan& Tau2"in&. It %as ca""ed +u, #ecause %ritten on #am#oo ta""ies such as %ere ancient"/ used #/ officers of &overnment, and %hich are made to fit in shape one %ith another as a securit/ a&ainst imposture, in accordance %ith the meanin& of the ver# +u. The/ are to #e seen pasted on door "inte"s, the occupants of the house #e"ievin& that the si&ht of the ma&ica" characters %ritten on the charm %i"" prevent evi" spirits from enterin&. The ma&icians %ere in the !an d/nast/ ca""ednot %ithout a touch of sarcasmthe 8*eathered scho"ars8 ? -sh@, as #ein& a#"e to f"/. The "e&end of Chan& Tau2"in&, ancestor of the Chan& TJien2shM, head of the Tauist hierarch/ at the present time, is sometimes stated as fo""o%sSIn the "atter part of the second centur/, this ,ope of p. CTG the Tauists, if he ma/ #e so ca""ed, %as en&a&ed in the province no% ca""ed M2chJ%en in the Ho-ming&shan ?.ountain %here the crane sien-ho ca""s@, in manipu"atin& the 8e"ixir of the dra&on and ti&er,8 lung-hu-tan. !e met a spirit %ho said, 8In the ,e2sun& mountain is a stone house %here ma/ #e found %ritin&s of the three emperors and a "itur&ica" #oo$. B/ &ettin& these /ou ma/ ascend to heaven, if /ou pass throu&h the course of discip"ine %hich the/ en3oin.8 !e du& and found them. B/ means of them he %as a#"e to f"/, to hear distant sounds, and to "eave his #od/. )au2$iIn then came do%n to him on the ni&ht of the feast of "anterns, and ordered him to su#due the demons of the 8 hu countr/8 ?S-chwen@, in order to confer #"essin&s on humanit/. )au2$iIn &ave him a po%erfu" and secret 8charm8 ?lu@, a 8"itur&/8 ?king@, a 8composition in verse or measured prose8 ?kiue@, a 8s%ord8 ?kien@, and a 8sea"8 ?yin@. (fter &oin& throu&h a thousand da/s of discip"ine, and receivin& instructions from a certain &oddess ca""ed -I2nI, %ho tau&ht him to %a"$ a#out amon& the stars, he proceeded to fi&ht %ith the $in& of the demons, to divide mountains and seas, and to command the %ind and thunder to come and &o. ("" the demons f"ed #efore him, "eavin& not a trace #ehind of their retreatin& footsteps. On account of the prodi&ious s"au&hter of demons #/ this hero, the %ind and thunder %ere reduced to su#3ection, and various divinities came %ith ea&er haste to ac$no%"ed&e their fau"ts. In nine /ears he &ained the po%er to ascend to heaven and prostrate himse"f #efore the first in ran$ of the Three ,ure Ones. ( temp"e in ChJen&2tu is said to have #een the p"ace %here )au2$iIn discoursed to Chan& Tau2"in&. !e after%ards %ent east%ard, and sett"ed his residence on the mountain Lunghu&shan, %here his descendants have ever since resided in possession of &reat honour and emo"ument, as his hereditar/ representatives. The present occupant of the patriarchate had to f"/ at the time of the TJai2pJin& re#e""ion, and the temp"e %here he resides %as partia""/ p. CTB destro/ed. The repairs of the #ui"din&s are no% near"/ comp"eted. The popu"ar divinit/, -I2h%an& shan&2ti, is an ancient ma&ician, exa"ted to this di&nit/ pro#a#"/ #/ the Tauist %riters of the TJan& d/nast/. B In the !en-hing-king of the Tauist co""ection it is said, that a ma&ician of the Chan& fami"/ %as the son of a $in& in a former kalpa, %ho, instead of succeedin& his father, #ecame a hermit, and after ei&ht hundred kalpas, and much patient endurance of in3uries, attained to the ran$ of the 81o"den immorta"s8 ?Kin-sien@, and at the same time a Buddha %ith a specia" tit"e, Tsing-tsing-ts-"an-chio-"u-lai, 8The pure, ca"m, and spontaneous"/ perceivin& 4u2"ai.8 (fter a mi""ion more kalpas he #ecame -I2ti, or -hwang&ta-ti, 8+mperor of a"" the immorta"s.8 In the same %a/, Ts-wei&ta-ti, 81od of the stars round the north po"e,8 is the emperor %ho ru"es over the presidin& &ods of a"" the stars, accordin& to the one account. The ma&ician Chan& and the ma&ician )iu mounted dra&ons and rode up throu&h the s$/ to%ards heaven, and Chan& &ained in the race. In the Tsin d/nast/, (.D. CGG, Cheu !in& is reported to have died and risen a&ain. !e is said to have re"ated %hat he sa% %hen dead. !e sa% Tien-ti, the 8!eaven"/ emperor,8 enter the chief ha"" of his pa"ace. C"ouds, purp"e in co"our, dense and dar$, o#structed the vie% a#ove him. !is face %as a s:uare foot in siRe. Cheu !in& %as to"d #/ those on his ri&ht and "eft, 8This is the heaven"/ emperor Chan&.8 !is pa"ace is the -I2tsJin& $un&, %hich is represented in temp"es #/ a #ui"din& #eneath the a#ode of the Three ,ure Ones. It is the heaven to %hich the sou" f"ies %hen Tauist pra/ers are supposed to he"p the dead to reach the Tauist heaven. The expressions p. CTH areHwun&+ei&chung-siau, 8The sou" f"ies to the hi&h firmamentQ8 Ling-teng&tien-kung, 8The sou" ascends to the heaven"/ pa"ace.8 These passa&es are the ear"iest I have /et found &ivin& the fami"/ name Chan& to -I2ti. This ma&ician or &od Chan& is to #e distin&uished from Chan& Tau2"in& as a"read/ descri#ed, ancestor of the

present Chan& TJien2shM, and from the medica" divinit/ Chan& ien, %ho %as, in fact, a distin&uished ph/sician of the un& d/nast/. The persona&e ca""ed Chan& ien, in common Chinese paintin&s, %ith #o% and arro% shootin& at the moon, is this ph/sician %ho "ived a#out seven hundred /ears a&o. In the tai"2cuttin& de"usion, %hich died out in BEKT, after spreadin& over the countr/ "i$e an epidemic, %e see an examp"e of Tauist ideas. The fair/ that cuts off hair is chec$ed and prevented #/ a charm. ( %ritten charm cur"ed up in the p"aited :ueue at the #ac$ of the head is a protective shie"d a&ainst a"" the assau"ts of %itchcraft. Tauism attempts to soothe the fears of the peop"e #/ this artifice. In ,e$in& "ate"/ I m/se"f heard that a %riter of charms hired men to &o a"on& the streets shoutin& to peop"e that for safet/ the/ shou"d p"ace charms in their hair, and detai"in& cases of the "oss of :ueues in the ni&ht, or %hi"e men %ere s"eepin& in the da/2time. These hired men #rou&ht to the %riters of charms a &reat increase of custom. +ver/ one %ished to #u/ one. There must #e somethin& in it, for ever/ one ta"$ed of it. >e must, the/ said to themse"ves, #u/ a charm. The charm used in ,e$in& a&ainst the dan&er of %a$in& %ithout a :ueue, consists of four m/sterious characters, %hich are a"" found in Kan&2hi5s dictionar/. The/ %ere, %e are there to"d, used a&ainst a simi"ar de"usion in the .in& d/nast/. The Tauism of to2da/ meets us %ith this specia" characteristic. -et it is #ut one part of the popu"ar Tauism, %hich in &reat part consists of a monastic institute for readin& "itur&ica" #oo$s after the Buddhist fashion. Dr. -ates sa/s, in his "ecture on (ncestra" >orship and p. CTC ;para&raph continues< *un&2shui, that Buddhism #orro%ed from Tauism. But, in fact, it is rather the other %a/ in the main. Buddhism indeed #orro%ed from Tauism the %orship of K%an2ti, as it has #orro%ed from Confucianism the use of ancestra" ta#"ets for the %orship of the priests of a monaster/. But there is no room for dou#t, that the &enera" pro&ramme of the arran&ements of a Tauist monaster/, %ith the occupations of the inmates, is Buddhistic. The %ho"e scheme of pra/ers for the dead is so. (s to pra/ers for rain, the/ are essentia" in China in ever/ re"i&ion. *or popu"ar and for state reasons it is necessar/ to have them, the reason #ein& the same in a"" Buddhist countries. >hen therefore the !indoos and other Buddhists came to China, and found pra/ers for rain a"read/ existin& in the Confucian, the imperia", and the popu"ar %orship, the/ %ou"d in offerin& pra/ers for the same o#3ect, #e on"/ doin& %hat the/ %ere accustomed to do in their o%n countr/. The/ can scarce"/ #e said to #e #orro%ed #/ an/ re"i&ion. The popu"ar character of the pra/ers of the Tauists for the dead is different in some respects from the Buddhist, #ut in the chief features it is evident"/ imitated. The o"d c"assica" %ord tsiau, for examp"e, is not used in descri#in& the services of the Tauists for the dead. The phrase pai-chan is used. One is ca""ed Chau-tien-chan, or 8,ra/er of "oo$in& to%ard heavenQ8 another is -hwang-chan, 8,ra/er of -I2h%an&.8 This %ord chan is Buddhist. The o#3ect of recitin& these #oo$s is to save the sou"s of the dead #/ affordin& them a speed/ ascent to the pa"ace of -I2h%an&. The he"" of the Buddhists is repeated #/ the Tauists in their descriptions of the future state. The variet/ of torments and punishments to #e inf"icted on crimina"s in the next %or"d ma/ #e seen %ith a"" the harro%in& detai"s in the temp"es of Tung-yo&to-ti, 8The &od of Tai-shan,8 a mountain &od %ho is supposed to ru"e the under %or"d. !e corresponds in attri#utes some%hat to Titsang-wang&pu-sa, the Buddhist de"iverer from he"". )i$e this Buddhist &od, he ru"es on"/ as a saviour and p. CTF shares his authorit/ %ith a "ar&e &roup of inferior divinities, %hose offices as ministers of punishment to those %ho deserve chastisement, are i""ustrated on the %a""s #/ rou&h paintin&s, or #/ c"a/ ima&es, mou"ded and painted in the Chinese method, in the temp"es of Tung-yo&to-ti. (mon& statements %hich I made /ears a&o and have no% to correct as imperfect or erroneous is this, that the Tauists have no he"", #ut on"/ a heaven. In fact the/ have #oth, for the rou&h %a"" dra%in&s and c"a/ mou"din&s found in the east and %est #ui"din&s of the temp"es of Tung-yo prove it. These are not, ho%ever, man/ centuries o"d, and the/ form a part of the mass of "e&end and m/th %hich the/ have unscrupu"ous"/ #orro%ed from the Buddhists. ama, 81od of Death8 in India, the en-lo-wang of China, %ith the ten courts of 3ud&ment %hich ru"e over the &ui"t/, sentences them to punishment and has it administered after death. This forms the #asis of the Tauist he"". .odern Chinese art is ver/ much pervaded %ith Tauist ideas. The ei&ht &enii meet us ever/%here. The manufacturers of porce"ain, #ronRe, and carved #am#oo ornaments are never %ear/ of representin& these ei&ht persona&es. The/ #e"on& to the c"ass of hermits. The "ove of externa" nature %as ver/ much deve"oped in the TJan& d/nast/. ,oetr/ %as the favourite occupation of the "iterati. The/ &ave attention to no severe studies. +ver/ #eautifu" spot amon& "a$es, %aterfa""s, and mountains %as se"ected for a hermita&e or a monaster/. Buddhism and Tauism received a %onderfu" expansion. It %as 3ust the era for the "e&ends of the ei&ht &enii to sprin& into existence. It %as an a&e of sentimenta" fee"in&. The &reat nationa" poets f"ourished in the same d/nast/ as the ei&ht Tauist hermits. )i TJai2pe and Tu *u &ained their fame at the same time that the sixteen, and after%ards ei&hteen, )o2hans #ecame popu"ar. These )o2hans are the Buddhist e:uiva"ents of the fairies and hermits of Tauism. The sixteen %ere !indoos, %hi"e the t%o added names %ere p. CTD those of Chinese Buddhists. ("" the ei&ht &enii %ere Tauists of the TJan& d/nast/. >e see the effect of Buddhist and Tauist teachin& in the present race of Chinese. The Tauist re"i&ion especia""/ is responsi#"e for those superstitions %hich have a dan&erous character. The epidemic of the fair/ po%der %as fata" to the peace of communities. The a#surd char&es #rou&ht a&ainst the mart/red isters of .erc/ in Tientsin %ere #ased on ideas %hich, a"thou&h usua""/ represented as popu"ar, and as the native &ro%th of the Chinese mind, are in fact correct"/ p"aced to the account of Tauism. It is dan&erous to the state that re"i&ious teachin&s shou"d #e encoura&ed %hich tend to foster and ori&inate popu"ar de"usions entai"in& such fri&htfu" resu"ts. +ver/ man, %hether a Christian or not, ou&ht on mora" &rounds, and on the &reatest happiness princip"e itse"f, if he thin$s that is a safer #asis, to desire the extinction of a re"i&ious s/stem %hich encoura&es dan&erous and "/in& de"usions. Then there is the tai"2cuttin&. The Tauists accept and endorse the %ho"e s/stem of popu"ar de"usion %hich ori&inated the tai"2cuttin&. The/ #e"ieve in the existence of 3ust such fairies as are said to cut off men5s :ueues. The/ ma$e mone/ #/ se""in& the charms %hich are represented to #e a protection a&ainst such demons. ,opu"ar Tauism then is %orth/ of decided condemnation, from ever/ Christian and ever/ en"i&htened "over of man$ind, %hatever #e his #e"ief. There are #e"iefs in the Tauist re"i&ion %hich not on"/ need to #e attac$ed #/ #oo$s %ritten from the Christian standpoint of thou&ht, #ut %hich ma/ ver/ proper"/ #e condemned in the proc"amations of ma&istrates, on account of their tendenc/ to produce dan&erous tumu"ts and "amenta#"e #reaches of the peace. >hat a fie"d is here presented for the teachin& of science, and the spread of a practica" s/stem of improved education in ChinaW Dense inte""ectua" dar$ness c"ouds the peop"e5s minds. There is pressin& need for the extension of a s/stem of education %hich shou"d stri$e at the root p. CTA of superstition and ena#"e the risin& /outh of the countr/ to avoid fa""in& into the thra"" of those de"usive ima&inations %hich have &ro%n up under the fosterin& care of the Tauists durin& the "ast t%o hundred /ears. It is a &reat misfortune for a nation to have an extensive sacerdota" caste, %hose interest it is to continue, &eneration after &eneration, the #e"ief in deceptive fancies %hich chec$ the free &ro%th of true ideas and a"" hea"th/ ha#its of thou&ht. Their "ive"ihood depends on the peop"e continuin& to #e"ieve in demons, fairies, and charms. The missionar/ and the schoo"master, the ma&aRine and the ne%spaper, are a"" needed to chec$ these #ad inf"uences, and rep"ace dan&erous and in3urious popu"ar notions, #/ hea"th/ and usefu" $no%"ed&e, to he &athered from 1od5s t%o #oo$s, that of Nature and that of Reve"ation. Then as to the effects of Buddhism, it ma/ #e said to have #een &ood in some respects. It #ears a consistent testimon/ to the vanit/ of the %or"d, and the essentia" and immense superiorit/ of sou" purit/ to earth"/ &randeur. But in foundin& on this a monastic institute, it has fo""o%ed a %ron& p"an, and fai"ed to attain the purit/ desired. It teaches the need of a persona"

redeemer to rescue from the mora" evi"s attendant on our present existence. But this redeemer is a Buddha or a Bodhisatt%a, a man or #ein& possessin& none of the po%ers attri#uted to him. (mon& the prominent and most pernicious evi"s for %hich the popu"ar Buddhism of the present da/ is responsi#"e is ido"atr/. It is an enormous evi" that Buddhism has p"aced the Buddhas and Bodhisatt%as in the position in the reverence of the peop"e, that ou&ht to #e he"d on"/ #/ the Creator and *ather of the %or"d. Ido"atr/ puts fiction in the stead of truth, and, as %e ever/ da/ see in China, renders the mind indifferent to truth. This, too, is a vast evi". Confucianism ma$es ever/thin& of mora"it/Q and the %orship of Buddhist ima&es, %hen it is comp"ied %ith, #ecomes a mora" dut/ on the part of the emperor or the ma&istrate, on"/ #ecause it is li ?ceremonia" dut/@, not p. CTK #ecause the Buddhist re"i&ion itse"f can have an/ 3ust c"aim to it. But Buddhism, #/ puttin& for%ard the ima&e, de#ases and mis"eads the nationa" mind, #/ dra%in& it a%a/ from the proper o#3ect of human %orship. Our &reat contest as Christian missionaries is %ith Confucianism. There is found the inte""ect, the thou&ht, the "iterature, the heart of the nation. But %e have a"so a pre"iminar/ stru&&"e %ith Buddhism and Tauism. These constitute three mi&ht/ fortresses, erected #/ human s$i"" and effort, to impede the pro&ress of Christianit/. Confucianism is the citade" of the enem/ raisin& its #att"ements hi&h into the c"ouds, and manned #/ mu"titudes %ho are animated #/ a #e"ief in their superiorit/ and their invinci#"e stren&th. The ta$in& of this fortress is the conc"usion of the %ar. But Buddhism and Tauism each represents a fortress %hich must a"so #e captured and destro/ed. o far as ar&ument and inte""ect are concerned, these fortresses are %ea$"/ manned. But thin$ of the num#ers, the mi""ions on mi""ions, %ho are deceived #/ these superstitions, and he"d fast #/ chains of spiritua" dar$ness. )et the Christian host of so"diers press on, and detai" its #atta"ions, first to overthro% these stron&ho"ds of re#e""ion a&ainst 1odQ and %hen the/ are destro/ed, "et another earnest effort #e made to destro/ the "ast and stron&est of the to%ers of the enem/. Then, %hen a"" these three fortresses are overthro%n, and China #ecomes a su#3ect $in&dom under the .essiah5s peacefu" rei&n, it %i"" #e the &reatest triumph ever achieved for Christianit/ since the time %hen the emperor Constantine #ecame a Christian, and the Roman re"i&ion and po%er, and the 1ree$ phi"osoph/ %ere dra&&ed as captives #ehind the car of the victorious Redeemer.

Footnotes CEHSB *rom !ing-shu-pi-tan. CEHSH *rom (.D. BBBT to BBHA. CTBSB The tit"e -I2ti occurs in Tauist #oo$s ear"ier than the TJan& d/nast/, #ut not the fu"" tit"e %ith four characters. This #e"on&s evident"/ to the TJan& d/nast/, the a&e of Buddhist inf"uence, and to the #e"ief in metamorphoses, and a former "ife, #orro%ed from India. I as$ed the Tauist patriarch %hen in han&hai, ho% "on& it %as since Chan& TJien2ti first received his tit"e. !e on"/ rep"ied, 8*rom the #e&innin& of the universe.8

NextS Chapter NN0. On the Use of anscrit #/ the Chinese Buddhists acred Texts Buddhism Index ,revious Next

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CHAPTER

V.

ON THE USE OF SANSCRIT BY THE CHINESE BUDDHISTS. Chan&es in Chinese sounds since the time of the Buddhist trans"iteration of Indian %ords+xamp"es of anscrit %ords in o"d and ne% ChineseThe importance of trans"ations made in (.D. AG to (.D. KA for readin& the *our Boo$sThe !indoo trans"ators did not spea$ pure anscrit anscrit %as the "an&ua&e of the #oo$s No ,a"i #oo$s in ChinaThe trans"ators spo$e ,racritThe term po-li, 8&"ass8Use of anscrit %ords in ma&ic$haraniInscription in six "an&ua&es at KI2/un& $%an. T!+ Chinese characters have #een %ritten in the same form and %ith the same sort of penci"s since the time of >an& !i2chi, (.D. CDG. Durin& these fifteen centuries, %hi"e the %ritin& tau&ht in a"" schoo"s has #een unchan&ed, the sounds attached to the characters have #een in a state of s"o% and constant f"ux. Thus, the trans"ator Kumara3iva %rote his name %ith four Chinese characters then ca""ed Ku-ma-la-7hip. The/ are no% Kieu2 ?or Chieu@ mo-lo-sh. ("" sonant initia"s, such as g, d, (, 7, 7h, ", have chan&ed in the interva" to surds, viR., k, t, p, s, sh, ch. In %ords pronounced %ith the tone ca""ed hia-ping, the aspirates k1, t1, p1, ch1 come in p"ace of k, t, p, ch, %hich occur in %ords pronounced %ith the tones hia-ping, hia-ch, and hia-"u. *ina" m has chan&ed to fina" n. *ina"s k, t, p have #een droppedQ a"so the vo%e"s have a"" chan&ed their va"ues, a to o, ya to e, u to yeu, Oc.

The compi"ers of Kan&2hi5s dictionar/ have provided ta#"es of the o"d sounds, %ith characters chosen to represent p. CTT the pronunciation as it former"/ %as. The/ are to #e read %ith the po%ers of the "etters of the anscrit a"pha#et. Natives not $no%in& the anscrit "etters cannot escape from the confusion in %hich the/ are invo"ved #/ the difference #et%een the o"d and ne% pronunciations. The forei&n student %i"" find that the princip"e here "aid do%n is a $e/ to un"oc$ the difficu"ties of the su#3ect. The fo""o%in& examp"es %i"" he"p to fami"iarise the "earner %ith the methodS anscrit. Buddha (mo&ha 0a3ra Up9sa$a 0iharapa"a Bodhiruchi ,aramiti .ah`sh%ara hanaishchara ,rasena3it .ahapadma Ud/9na an&adeva (ch9r/a ha$radeva Indra Dh9rani O"d Chinese. )ut *-mo-ga&(ad-"a-ra '-pa-sa-ka )i-ha-la-pa-la )o-di-lu-chi !at-la-mit-ti B #a-hi-shu-la Sha-nai-shat-chat-la !at-la-si-na-"i-ta #a-ha-pa-de-ma H '-dyung-na Seng-ga-de-(a *-cha-li-ya Shak-ka-la-de-(a&=n-da-la& $a-la-ni Ne% Chinese. *o O2mo2$Jia po2che2"o -eu2po2so2$ia ,i2ho2"o2po2"o ,Ju2tJi2"ieu2chM ,o2"e2mi2ti .o2hi2sheu2"o he2na2/i2shM2che2"o ,o2"o2sM2na2shM2to .o2ho2po2tJe2mo U2chan&2na en&2$Jia2tJi2pJo O2che2"i2/e hM2$ia2"o2tJi2pJo -in2t6o2"o To2"o2ni

The admission of the princip"e that the Chinese pronunciation has chan&ed, and that the reco&nised .andarin ortho&raph/ is nothin& more than that of a modern dia"ect, %i"" #e found to thro% a "i&ht much needed on the use of anscrit #/ the Chinese Buddhists. It is a"so necessar/ to reco&nise the princip"e, that the !indoo Buddhists in China %ere men %ho spo$e the dia"ects of Centra" India, Northern India, Oc. p. FGG .. tanis"as 4u"ien5s #2thode&pour&$2chi+rer&et&Transcrire&les&noms&Sanscrits ma$es no a""usion to these su#3ects. The conse:uence is that a"" his immense industr/ has fai"ed to ma$e a %indo% that %ou"d have i""uminated this dar$ room. -et that does not hinder his %or$ from #ein& indispensa#"e to the student on this su#3ect. It &ives the anscrit %ords. It &ives the modern Chinese pronunciation. These t%o factors are ta#u"ated a"pha#etica""/. The student can %ith this he"p proceed rapid"/. But if he %ish to understand %h/ such and such Chinese characters %ere chosen, and not prosecute his researches mechanica""/, he must a""o% for the inf"uence of dia"ects and the incessant chan&e of "an&ua&e on #oth sides of the !ima"a/as. It is necessar/ to ta$e the fina"s of the outhern Chinese dia"ects, and the initia"s of the dia"ects spo$en in Centra" China at the present time, as our si&n2posts, pointin& out to us %hat %as the pronunciation of the TJan& d/nast/ and of the previous a&eQ and this must #e done %ith the addition of aid from the 4apanese and Corean trans"iteration of Chinese sounds, throu&h the spread of Buddhism man/ centuries a&o. It %as a#out three hundred and fort/ /ears after the death of .encius, and five hundred and fift/ after the death of Confucius, that the trans"ations from anscrit %ere made. B/ "earnin& the po%ers of the Chinese s/""a#ar/ %ith the he"p of the trans"iterations then made, %e can come :uite near to the c"assica" a&e of Chinese "iterature, and approximate to the actua" pronunciation of the &reat Chinese sa&es. *or the method and proofs, I ma/ here refer the reader to m/ =ntroduction&to&the&Study&o+&the& Chinese&Characters. ,articu"ar"/ is the 8 utra of *ort/2t%o ections8 %orth/ of attention, on account of its #ein& the trans"ation of Kashiapmadan&a and his friend Chu2fa2"an. It is hi&h"/ important for fixin& the pronunciation of the Chinese, at the time %hen the/ tau&ht Buddhism at )o2/an&, in the rei&n of .in&2ti, (.D. DE to (.D. KA. *rom their use

of p. FGB characters it is c"ear, that at that time the modern Fo %as )ut: ;-lo-han %as *-la-han: chan, 8contemp"ation,8 %as dian or dan: 6ie-pan, 8Nirv9na,8 %as 6it-(an or 6ir-(an: Kia-she, the name of 8Kashiapa8 Buddha, %as Ka-shap or Ka-shiap: !u-ti, the %ord )odhi, 8$no%"ed&e,8 %as )o-di. Sha-men, the 8 hramana,8 %as Shamen, havin& a#out the same sound as no%. !i-kieu or !i-chieu, the 8Bi$shu,8 %as )i-ku. Chiau-chen-"u, for 81odinia,8 %as -o-din-nia. ;-na-han, a certain &rade in discip"eship, %as *-na-gam, a&reein& %ith the anscrit 8(na&ama.8 !i-ch, for the anscrit 8,rat/e$a,8 %as !ak-tie, the ,a"i #ein& !atiekan. o it %as pro#a#"/ not ,a"i that Kashiapmadan&a spo$e, thou&h he %as a native of Centra" India. S-to-hwan, for 8 rotapanna,8 another &rade of discip"eship, %as So-da-(an or Su-da-wan. The "ast of these is the more "i$e"/, for the character is the same as that used in %ritin& 8Nirv9na.8 The ,a"i is Sotapan: so that the trans"ator did not spea$ ,a"i. The &reatest initiator of chan&e in the choice of characters %as !iuen2tsan&, a#out (.D. AFD. !e a"tered the characters accordin& to his opinion of %hat the se"ected s/m#o"s ou&ht to #e. !is se"ection of characters is a &au&e of the pronunciation of his time. !is trans"ations, ho%ever, have not #ecome popu"ar. The o"der usa&e of %ords has $ept its p"ace. The "an&ua&e in %hich the Buddhist sacred %ritin&s %ere first compi"ed ma/ have #een ,a"iQ #ut that from %hich the/ %ere trans"ated into Chinese %as anscrit. The ,a"i #oo$s %ere a separate set of ori&ina"s. The anscrit ori&ina"s a"one are $no%n to the Chinese. The manuscripts, the inscriptions, the charms cut on copper mirrors, the "uc$/ sentences under eaves and over doors in monasteries, are in anscritQ and in po"/&"ot #oo$s printed at ,e$in&, anscrit is the "an&ua&e emp"o/ed. Koeppen, pa&e BEA, in sa/in& that the Chinese a"so have a num#er of ,a"i texts, has #een mis"ed #/ 1utR"aff. p. FGH ;para&raph continues< This missionar/ had "ived in iam, %here ,a"i is the sacred "an&ua&e, and %as there accustomed to the idea that ,a"i %as the ori&ina" "an&ua&e of Buddhism. This vie% he #rou&ht %ith him to China, and %hen he sa% anscrit inscriptions in the is"and of ,Ju2to, he too$ them to #e ,a"i. *rom him the opinion spread, #ut it is an error. The Buddhists of Birmah, iam, and Ce/"on have never spread their re"i&ion in China or 4apan, or introduced their sacred #oo$s into those countries. The Nepau" Buddhists preserve the sacred #oo$s in anscrit, and not in ,a"i. But Burnouf a"so found certain portions of the Nepau"ese #oo$s %ritten in ,racrit. The &round%or$ %as anscrit. The "an&ua&e occasiona""/ used %as ,racrit. The "an&ua&e $no%n #/ the Chinese as the Fan "an&ua&e %as sho%n to #e undou#ted"/ anscrit, #/ 4u"ien5s version of the %or$s of !iuen2tsan&, the trave""er %ho visited India, and %ho has descri#ed the anscrit "an&ua&e in his auto#io&raph/. It is the "an&ua&e of 8Brahma8 ?Fan: o"d sound, )am@. Brahmanica" ideas form a stron& e"ement in Buddhism. anscrit %ords and anscrit %ritin& are pecu"iar"/ sacred in the vie% of the Brahmans. This idea has #een #orro%ed #/ the Buddhists. The/ preferred to use the %ords and %ritin& %hich %ere most sacred. >ith this ha$/amuni %ou"d natura""/ have nothin& to do. !is instructions %ere ora". !e %as a &reat mora" teacher and metaph/sica" "o&ician. It %as his discip"es in the centuries that fo""o%ed him that introduced anscrit %ritin&, as the chief medium of recordin& his instructions. It is the/ that are responsi#"e a"so for the charms, and for the faith in ma&ic %hich stimu"ated their use. o man/ Brahmans announced themse"ves #e"ievers in ha$/amuni5s doctrines, that anscrit #ecame at once a favourite medium for the em#odiment of his teachin& #/ %ritin&, even thou&h ha$/amuni himse"f spo$e ,a"i or ,racrit, as he pro#a#"/ did. In the same %a/ it ma/ #e said that ,a"i %as then so p. FGC extensive"/ spo$en, that it %as inevita#"e that it shou"d, in the re&ion %atered #/ the )o%er 1an&es, #ecome a"so a medium for the preservation of the sacred #oo$s. This dou#"e form of the sacred #oo$s had much to do %ith the separation that spran& up #et%een the Northern and outhern schoo"s of Buddhism. The pecu"iarities of the Chinese transcription deserve to #e considered. The ,racrit of the ear"/ Chinese trans"ators %as, for examp"e, nearer to anscrit than to ,a"i in the sound of pra"na, 8%isdom.8 The characters adopted are directed to #e pronounced pat-nia, The ,a"i is paJJya. There %as a"so in the ,racrit of the ear"/ Chinese trans"ators a ver/ c"ear pronunciation of ( for the anscrit and ,a"i /. This is sho%n #/ the constant se"ection of Chinese characters sounded %ith ( or p, accordin& to the o"d pronunciation. *or examp"e, the cit/ 80aisha"i,8 near the modern ,atna, is spe"t )ai-sha-li. The ,a"i sound is <esali. Dr. +. 4. +ite", in his Hand-(ook&o+&Chinese&)uddhism, pa&e HK, has said, that 8Chinese texts consider ,a"i as the ancient and ans$rit as the modern form even as re&ards the s/stem of sounds.8 If he %i"" direct his attention to these facts, he %i"" perhaps admit that not the ,a"i, #ut a certain ,racrit form or forms of the !indoo "an&ua&e, preva"ent at the time in Centra" and Northern India, %as or %ere at the #asis of the Chinese o"d texts, The !indoo trans"ators in China %ou"d have anscrit texts chief"/ #efore them, and ,racrit texts occasiona""/. Their pronunciation %as not pure anscrit, #ut %as modified #/ ,racrit pecu"iarities. In the f"ourishin& period of Buddhism, in the re&ion %atered #/ the 1an&es, at the time of the 1ree$ invasion, and after%ards, the art of %ritin& "ate"/ introduced %as put to extensive use in the Buddhist monasteries. Those institutions fostered education, %hich %as then ver/ much in Buddhist hands. >hi"e the peop"e spo$e ,a"i and ,racrit, anscrit %as the "an&ua&e of education, and hence the fondness sho%n for it #/ the Buddhists. p. FGF Burnouf he"d that there %as a dou#"e text, a ,racrit text for the "ait/ and a anscrit for the "iterati. Kin& Kanish$a in Cashmere ca""ed a counci", the fourthQ and in the %ritin&s edited #/ this assem#"/, anscrit %as the "an&ua&e. The "an&ua&e of .a&adha in the time of the emperor (shX$a %as a ,racrit. This %as pro#a#"/ much used #/ the !indoo Buddhists %ho came to China. (n ar&ument a&ainst ,a"i is to #e found in the carefu" se"ection of Chinese %ords commencin& %ith sh, to represent the anscrit sh: #ut sh is not a "etter $no%n to the

,a"i, 3ust as it %as %antin& in the ancient 1ree$ and )atin. The ori&ina" text of the ear"/ Chinese trans"ations #efore the da/s of !iuen2tsan& must have had sh fu""/ deve"oped. It pro#a#"/ dropped ra in sharira, 8a re"ic,8 and sti in Shra/asti, name of the capita" of an ancient $in&dom ca""ed Kosa"a, and "/in& near Kapi"avastu. I p"ace here some remar$s on po-li, 8&"ass,8 a favourite %ord. In Buddhist &"ossaries, the Chinese po-li is derived from the anscrit %ord spatika, 8cr/sta".8 .an/ of the !indoo Buddhists %ho came to Chinaperhaps a""spo$e dia"ects of anscrit, #ut not the anscrit itse"f. The s %as dropped, and the fina" ka. The t in ti #ecame l, as in the Tur$ish (elur. The roc$ cr/sta" of China comes from Tur$estan, and %ou"d #rin& its o%n name %ith it from that countr/. Buddhist ma$ers of &"ossaries %ou"d prefer to derive the %ord from anscrit, as the mother of a"" $no%"ed&e. The/ have passed over %ithout remar$ the possi#i"it/ that the Chinese %ord ma/ come from the Tur$ish. The %ord po-li for 8&"ass,8 former"/ pronounced pa-li, has #een in common use in China since the TJan& d/nast/. It came in %ith Buddhism and the internationa" trade %ith Tur$estan. I #e"ieve that the initia" s in spatika mi&ht #e an accretion and not ori&ina", 3ust as most pro#a#"/ smelt is "ater than melt, and snee7e than nose, and stannum than tin. p. FGD Curious"/ %e find in the .on&o" voca#u"ar/ (olor, 8cr/sta",8 8&"assQ8 (olor&da(oso, 8roc$ sa"tQ8 (olo&chilagon, 8a po"ishin& stone,8 a ro""in& stone used in smoothin& the c"ods of a p"ou&hed fie"d. Compare Tur$ish (ileghi, 8%hetstone.8 )et it #e noticed that &"ass2dust is used #/ po"ishers and &rinders. >hether the (Kli or (ali is of Turanian ori&in and has ori&inated the anscrit spatika, it %ou"d #e interestin& to $no%. )allur is (ra#ic for 8cr/sta"Q8 spashta is anscrit for 8c"earQ8 (errak is Tur$ish for 8c"ear,8 8"impid.8 ,ro#a#"/ here is the rootQ #ut %ho sha"" decideL In Buddhist ma&ic there has #een extensive use of the anscrit characters. The doctrine of ma&ic has #een deve"oped #/ the Buddhists ver/ s/stematica""/, and to an a"most unexamp"ed extent. It arose from the same tendenc/ in the !indoo mind, %hich produced those vast fictions in the description of the universe, and in the narrative of the past, that distin&uish the native "iterature of that countr/. The "ove of the %onderfu" "ed the !indoo authors to forsa$e, at the same time, the fair #ounds of histor/ and the so#er rea"it/ of nature. !ere it is eas/ to perceive a simi"arit/ to the (ra#ians. There is, in their fictions, the same fondness for sp"endid scenes and stri$in& supernatura" effects. This %ou"d #e poetr/ %ere it not ver/ much overdone. The same circumstances of &aud/ ma&nificence are a&ain and a&ain repeated, and the reader is %earied %ith the unendin& recita" of marve""ous events, invented after one mode", and %hose one o#3ect is to excite an undistin&uishin& admiration of the po%er disp"a/ed. B/ ma&ic is here meant the supernatura" po%er attri#uted to the Buddhas and Bodhisatt%as, or c"aimed #/ the ordinar/ priests, and %hich is exercised #/ charms, m/stic formu"=, incantations, fin&er2postures, and such2"i$e means. It is not the po%er of 1od actin& throu&h nature that is here intended, #ut the po%er of the priest, throu&h his charms, virtues, and superior $no%"ed&e. The ma&ica" resu"t is effected #/ the never2errin& retri#utive fate %hich p. FGA is the cause of ever/thin& that occurs, and %hich is responsive in the most comp"ete manner to Buddhist %isdom and &oodness. The use of the Devana&ari %ritin& for the purposes of ma&ic is an instructive instance of the po%er of superstition to de"ude the human mind. The %ords used #/ the ma&ician for the most part have no meanin&. The/ are sense"ess c"atter. The sounds are anscrit, #ut the %ords usua""/ not so. These a#surd compositions of unmeanin& sounds are of various "en&ths. The/ occur fre:uent"/ in the #oo$s of the 1reat Deve"opment. The/ are en&raved on stone monuments on the %a/ side, on imperia" roads, and at p"aces of resort for Buddhist pi"&rims. The/ a"so form a chief part of the "itur&ies in use in the monasteries and at funera"s. ;m-mani-padme-hum is one of the most common. !adme is 8"otusQ8 mani is a 8precious stoneQ8 om is a sacred 8!indoo s/m#o".8 It is %ritten in anscrit characters under the eaves of a"" the "ama temp"es in ,e$in&. In these temp"es it meets the e/e ever/%here. The Thi#etan character is #ased on the anscrit. It is a"so found cut on monuments, #oth for charms and for inte""i&i#"e inscriptions. It is the chief "an&ua&e for "itur&ica" use amon& the Thi#etans and .on&o" "amas in ,e$in&, except in t%o instances. In the .aha$a"a miau, the .on&o" sacred #oo$s are read. In a temp"e, *a2hai sM, near the huntin& par$, the .anchu is read. The Chinese "amas in ,e$in& read Thi#etan pra/ers, %hi"e the Chinese priests of the o"d Chinese Buddhism read, of course, in Chinese. In a"" these forms, the s/""a#"es of the charms are the same. The/ are %ritten in anscrit, or in the other "an&ua&es mentioned. (t the pass ca""ed KI2/un& $%an, near ,e$in&, there is a stone monument containin& a charm in six "an&ua&es, viR., anscrit, Chinese, Thi#etan, NI2chih, Oui&hour, and .on&o". It %as cut in the time of the .on&o" emperors. p. FGK ;para&raph continues< It contains the same charm %ritten %ith the characters emp"o/ed for a"" these "an&ua&es. It %as intended as a protection to the emperor in &oin& to and comin& from the summer pa"ace, at that time #e/ond Tu2shM $Jeu, and a"so to a"" trave""ers on this much fre:uented road #et%een China and .on&o"ia. There are a"so some monuments inscri#ed %ith anscrit charms in ,e$in& at the present time, %hich date from a#out seven hundred /ears a&o. The/ are stone octa&ona" pi""ars. One is at the monaster/ ca""ed !%a2/en sM, near the par$ of the ("tar of !eaven and the cit/ &ate $no%n as Kian&2cha men. These octa&ona" pi""ars are ca""ed sh-chwang, and the/ are p"aced in the courts of temp"es. There is one $ept on the premises of the )ondon .issionar/ ociet/ in ,e$in&. anscrit inscriptions are supposed, "i$e pa&odas and monasteries, to have a "uc$/ effect on the nei&h#ourhood %here the/ are found, and on those %ho erect them #/ their #enefactions and &ood%i"". ( muttered charm is ca""ed 8dharani,8 or, in Chinese, cheu.

Footnotes CTTSB . 4u"ien is %ron& in ma$in& the first of these four characters end in n. It is pat in o"d ChineseQ #ut pat %as often par. ee p. HGB of m/ =ntroduction&to&the&Study& o+&the&Chinese&Characters. Thus the famous %ord karma, 8cause,8 8fate,8 %as trans"iterated kat-ma, the t #ein& heard as r. CTTSH The character de shou"d #e trans"iterated dek. That the k %as then "ost is sho%n #/ its use in this case. The "oss of k fina" %as #e&innin&.

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CHAPTER

VI.

BOOKS AND PAPERS THAT MAY BE CONSULTED FOR THE STUDY OF CHINESE BUDDHISM. Fo% kou%&ki, #/ Remusat>or$s of 4u"ienInterestin& passa&e from *a2hienTrans"ations #/ Bea" chott, L(er&den&)uddhaismus&in&Hoch&*sien&und&in&China >ritin&s of ,a""adius+ite"5s Hand-(ook&+or&the&Student&o+&Chinese&)uddhism>atters6 account of Chinese Buddhism+ite"5s Three&Lectures, and artic"e on Nirv9na. (.ON1 these %or$s ma/ #e mentioned the trans"ation of Fo% kou%&ki, or 8Re"ation of the Buddhist Kin&doms,8 #/ (#e" Remusat B. This %or$ is ver/ fu""/ annotated #/ Remusat, K"aproth, and )andresse. The same interestin& #oo$ of Chinese trave"s has #een rendered into +n&"ish #/ the Rev. . Bea", H and a"so #/ .r. !. (. 1i"es. C These t%o trans"ations have not the advanta&e of a#undant annotations. The %or$s of ,rofessor tanis"as 4u"ien on Chinese Buddhism are?B@ Histoire&de&la&<ie&de&Hiouen-thsang&et&de&ses&<oyages&dans&l1=ndeB&depuis&l1an AHT "us3u1en AFDQ ?H@ #2moires&sur&les&Contr2es&;ccidentalesB&Traduits&du&Sanscrit&en&ChinoisB&en&l1an AFE, par&Hiouen-thsangB&et&du&Chinois&en&FranMais&par&S,&4ulienB H vo"s., ro/a" EvoQ ?C@ Les&*/adanasB&ContesB&et&*pologues&=ndiens, Oc. These %or$s are characterised #/ the thorou&h and exact p. FGT scho"arship of the author. The/ form a most va"ua#"e addition to our $no%"ed&e of India and other (siatic countries in the seventh centur/, and in the un& period #efore that time, durin& %hich Buddhism had sti"" the vi&our of its /outh. Both *a2hien and !iuen2tsan& %i"" #e admitted #/ ever/ candid reader to deserve the reputation for patience in o#servation, perseverance in trave", and earnestness in re"i&ious faith %hich the/ have &ained #/ the 3ourna"s and trans"ations the/ "eft #ehind them. *a2hien sa/s, near the end of his narrative, that he sai"ed from 4ava in a ship on #oard of %hich %ere a#out t%o hundred men. The/ had provisions for fift/ da/s, and %ere #ound for Canton. (fter a month, a tempest and vio"ent rain a"most over%he"med them. The passen&ers %ere a"" in a"arm. *a2hien pra/ed to K%an2/in, and a"" the #e"ievers in China, to imp"ore of the &ods to &ive them aid and :ue"" the storm. >hen it #ecame ca"m, the Brahmans on #oard said that this amanean, meanin& *a2 hien, ou&ht to #e put ashore on an is"and, #ecause it %as he that had #rou&ht on them this hurricane. 8>h/ shou"d %e a"" #e exposed to dan&er for the sa$e of one manL8 ( friend of *a2hien said, 8If /ou put this amanean on shore, put me ashore a"so, or e"se $i"" me. If /ou put this amanean ashore, on arrivin& at the "and of !an I %i"" denounce /ou to the $in&. The $in& of the "and of !an is ver/ much attached to the doctrine of Buddha and honours the mon$s.8 The merchants %ere in dou#t %hat to do, and did not venture on severe measures. The s$/ continued thic$"/ overcast, and the em#arrassment of the mariners increased. The/ %ere sevent/ da/s on the vo/a&e. ,rovisions and %ater #e&an to fai". The coo$s too$ sea %ater to use in coo$in& food, the &ood %ater the/ $ept for drin$in&. T%o pints %ere assi&ned to each. (s the %ater came near its

p. FBG end, the merchants consu"ted to&ether, and said that the vo/a&e to Canton ou&ht not to have #een more than fift/ da/s. The/ %ere "on& past this time, and ou&ht no% to chan&e their course to the north2%est, and ma$e for the coast. In t%e"ve da/s and ni&hts the/ reached )au2shan, B on the south shore of the han2tun& promontor/, and found there &ood %ater and #eans. (fter so dan&erous a vo/a&e, %ith such fati&ues and so man/ fears, the/ arrived at "ast at this un$no%n shore. On seein& a p"ant ca""ed Li-ho-tsai, the/ %ere convinced that the/ %ere indeed in China. This p"ant %as a proof of it, a"thou&h the/ met no men nor an/ traces of men. ome thou&ht the/ %ere a"" near Canton. Others thou&ht Canton %as "on& passed. No one $ne% %hat part of the coast the/ had reached. 1oin& ashore in a #oat the/ met t%o hunters, and *a2hien %as emp"o/ed to interpret. *rom them the/ found that the/ %ere in Ts6in&2cheu in the province no% $no%n as han2tun&, and on the north side of the promontor/ in the 1u"f of ,e2chi2"i. *rom this point the merchants found their %a/ to -an&2cheu, and *a2hien to the capita", ChJan&2an. This %as in the /ear (.D. FBF. The student has a"so at his command*&Catena&o+&)uddhist&Scriptures&+ront&the&Chinese, #/ amue" Bea"Q and The&Romantic&Legend&o+&S.kya&)uddha, #/ the same. The %or$ of chott, L(er&den&)uddhaismus&in&Hoch&*sien&und&in&China, contains much va"ua#"e information on the contents of Chinese Buddhist #oo$s. >ritten in BEFA, it %as anterior to the c"ear dra%in& of the #oundar/ #et%een Northern and outhern Buddhism #/ Burnouf, and a"so preceded #/ severa" /ears the pu#"ication of pence !ard/5s %or$s on in&ha"ese Buddhism, viR., 9astern&#onachism ?BEFG@, and #anual&o+&)uddhism ?BEFC@. !e sa/s of Nirv9na that it is the emptiness %hich ever/ inte""ectua" o#3ect %i"" inc"ude in itse"f %hen "i#erated. p. FBB In so far the Nirv9na is "i$e the ori&ina" #ein&, #efore each creative actQ #ut it differs from the ori&ina" essence in this, that a"" forms of "ife and matter come out of the ori&ina" essence, #ut cannot come from the Nirv9naQ #ecause nothin& can come from it, and it is incapa#"e of havin& in it an/ individua"it/, menta" or materia". To the &enuine discip"e of the Buddhist teachin&, to put himse"f under the m/stic and heaven2sent &uide to the Nirv9na, is the alpha and omega of his efforts. 4ust so to the &enuine fo""o%er of Confucius, to ho"d office, to serve the emperor, and #ecome a ca#inet minister or censor, constitute his &reat earth"/ aim. Our author points out, %ith &reat correctness, the re"ation of Tauism to Buddhism. Buddhism has #orro%ed nothin& from Tauism, %hi"e Tauism has #orro%ed much from Buddhism. (fter his description of Chinese Buddhism, chott has added a trans"ation of a %or$ of the schoo" of the Tsing-tu or 8,eacefu" "and.8 This %or$ is a"so i""ustrated fu""/ %ith notes #/ the trans"ator. It is a %e""2se"ected examp"e of current Buddhist teachin& in China. The reader of the Tsing-tu-wen ?that is the name of the #oo$ trans"ated@ is informed #/ the native author, that he is not to expect advanta&e on"/ in the future "ife from his stud/ of the #oo$s of the schoo" of the ,eacefu" "and. The/ are adapted to #enefit him in the present "ife #/ transformin& him into %hat the #oo$ represents as a &ood Buddhist. The "ate "earned archimandrite ,a""adius, resident for man/ /ears in ,e$in& as a mem#er of the Russian +cc"esiastica" .ission, %as a profound student of Chinese Buddhism. The resu"t of his ver/ extensive readin& %as em#odied in t%o papers printed in the 8Researches of the .em#ers of the Russian .ission in ,e$in&.8 One is a 8)ife of BuddhaQ8 the other descri#es the su#se:uent phi"osophica" deve"opment of Buddhism. These 8Researches8 have #een trans"ated into 1erman. p. FBH The Hand-(ook&+or&the&Student&o+&Chinese&)uddhism, #/ Dr. +. 4. +ite", B is a dictionar/ of proper names, do&mas, and Buddhist terms &enera""/, arran&ed a"pha#etica""/. The student of Buddhism o#tains in this %or$ an important he"p to his studies. The author has devoted &reat attention to this su#3ect, and has, in addition to his o%n investi&ations, here p"aced %ithin reach of his readers, man/ contri#utions from the immense "earnin& in this department, of 4u"ien, Burnouf, and Koeppen. Buddhism is not so po%erfu" in China as to cause a"arm to the Christian missionar/, in vie% of the comin& stru&&"e %hich he anticipates. But the histor/ of its introduction, and the nature and extent of the inf"uence it has produced on the Chinese mind and "iterature, are extreme"/ interestin& su#3ects. The !indoo missionaries tried hard to #rin& the Chinese to accept the m/tho"o&/ and re"i&ious doctrines of their countr/ at the time %hen it %as Buddhist. Their trans"ations a#ound in anscrit %ords, %hich it %as hoped the Chinese %ou"d "earn, #ut this the/ fai"ed to do. Names of thin&s as %e"" as names of persons, %ords expressive of doctrines, a#stract names, c"asses of m/tho"o&ica" #ein&s, ad3ectives, arithmetica" and astronomica" expressions, and man/ "on& compound terms are imported in fu"" into the Chinese text. To exp"ain them &"ossaries %ere prepared. But the/ expected more Rea" and perseverance in their Chinese neoph/tes than the/ have sho%n, and the conse:uence is that the &"ossaries are not "oo$ed at, and the anscrit names are passed over #/ the reader of the Chinese texts as an a#racada#ra %hich he is &"ad to miss. Buddha5s heart is, for examp"e, spo$en of as *nuttara&samyak&sam(Kdhi, pronounced in the era of the !indoo trans"ations, *-no-ta-la&sam-mo&sam-(o-di. *n is the ne&ative, uttara is 8superiorQ8 sam means 8perfect,8 8&ood,8 8sameQ8 samyak is &iven in the anscrit dictionar/, 8a"",8 8%ho""/,8 8fit"/.8 )Kdhi is 8inte""i&ence,8 p. FBC ;para&raph continues< 8the inte""ect,8 8the ho"/ fi&2tree,8 8$no%"ed&e of 1od,8 and as an ad3ective, 8%iseQ8 et/mo"o&ica""/ it is 8that %hich distin&uishesQ8 that is, 8the inte""ect,8 and hence 8that %hich is distin&uished,8 8doctrine,8 8the o#3ect of the hi&hest stud/.8 *rom this has come the tit"e Buddha the 8perceiver,8 8the sa&e.8 >hoever %i"" stud/ Buddhism, must $no% %hat these and other such %ords meanQ and Dr. +ite"5s o#3ect has #een to provide a hand#oo$ in %hich a mass of information has #een co""ected, adapted to aid the in:uirer. In this instance he must "oo$ under the %ords *nuttara and )Kdhi. If he is readin& a Chinese Buddhist production, he must first consu"t the Chinese index at the end of the vo"ume. This mode of usin& the Sanscrit-Chinese&$ictionary is a "itt"e cum#rous, #ut perhaps it is prefera#"e to the perpetuation in a %or$ of this $ind of the .andarin pronunciation, as &iven in .orrison, >ade, and other authors. anscrit #oo$s havin& #een trans"ated fourteen centuries a&o, the po%ers of the Chinese characters %hich represented !indoo %ords have chan&ed in the meantime. (s Dr. +ite" 3ust"/ remar$sS 8To the "an&ua&e then spo$en in China no modern Chinese dia"ect comes nearer in sound than the ver/ ans$rit or ,a"i forms themse"ves.8

The difficu"t/ mi&ht #e met, if %e had a dictionar/ of Chinese %ords %ith the ancient and modern pronunciations arran&ed in succession, as in KJan&2hi, #ut in a more comp"ete form than in that %or$. *or examp"e, if in .orrison5s Sylla(ic&$ictionary, under the s/""a#"e Fuh, #et%een the character and the meanin&s %ere inserted 8o"d sound, )ut: (mo/, !ut: Nan$in&, Fuh: ,e$in&, Fo:8 ever/ one %ou"d thus #e in a position to $no% %hat the o"d sounds of the characters are. It %ou"d then #e feasi#"e to compi"e a Chinese2 anscrit, instead of a anscrit2Chinese, dictionar/. But as the student of Chinese must a"so "earn to consu"t %or$s arran&ed accordin& to the radica"s, "i$e Kan&2hi p. FBF itse"f, Dr. +ite"5s arran&ement of the dictionar/ forms no #ar to its usefu"ness. (mon& the "on&er and more va"ua#"e artic"es in this %or$ are those on Kwan-yin or 8(va"a$it`sJvara,8 )uddha or 8 J9$/amuni,8 8 am9dhi,8 8 ans$rita,8 8N9&a,8 8.a]d3usJr\,8 8(mit9#ha,8 8Dh/9na,8 8N9&9rd3una,8 8Nara$a,8 8Triratna,8 8Nirv9na,8 and 8Tri$9/a.8 The spe""in& here &iven is that of an author %ho, some%hat odd"/, has fo""o%ed the *rench ortho&raph/ in %ritin& the anscrit sounds ch, sh, and ". The #est $e/ to the understandin& of Buddhism is to #e found in the stud/ of the "ife of its founder. In ha$/amuni himse"f humanit/ is first seen, then divinit/. ( /oun& prince, handsome, stron&, heroic, surrounded #/ p"easures, and tempted #/ the most #ri""iant %or"d"/ prospects, is deep"/ affected #/ o#servin& the miseries of human "ife. !e #ecomes a chan&ed man, forsa$es his father5s pa"ace for a hermit5s ce"", practises and then teaches a ri&id asceticism, and dies at ei&ht/, after a "on& career occupied part"/ %ith the instruction of a numerous #and of discip"es, and part"/ %ith extatic contemp"ation. !e is deified at the moment of deathQ that is, his discip"es e"evate him to the summit of humanit/, honour him as the #est of teachers, and announce that he is for ever rescued from the revo"utions of "ife and death. !e has entered the Nirv9na, and %hen his #od/ has #een #urned, the sharira, or sma"" reddish residuum, is honoured as a sacred re"ic possessin& marve""ous po%ers, and over it a pa&oda must #e erected. uch a phenomenona &reat and disinterested mind, foundin& the monastic institute, and teachin& mu"titudes of #oth sexes and ever/ caste the escape from sorro% to the eterna" rest of the Nirv9na%as sufficient in the condition of !indoo societ/, as it %as t%o centuries #efore the expedition of ("exander, to account for the ear"/ histor/ of Buddhism. In his account of Kwan-yin ?(va"X$it`shJvara@ our author has &one too far, %hen he p. FBD supposes there %as a Chinese divinit/ of this name #efore the introduction of the .aha/ana into China. Nothin& is easier than to attach to the ima&inar/ former "ives of the &reat Bodhisatt%as, an/ incidents of o"d #io&raph/ in an/ a&e or countr/, of a marve""ous $ind, and adapted to #e, in the Buddhist sense, edif/in&. uch incidents %ere ascri#ed #/ the Chinese Buddhists to the presence of K%an2/in, near"/ as in the +ar" of Beaconsfie"d5s Lothair the opportune arriva" of a Roman shop$eeper5s %ife, %ho sho%s a #enevo"ent interest in the %e"fare of that hero, is #e"ieved #/ the pope and his cardina" to #e an appearance of the 0ir&in .ar/. !ence the author of that romance sarcastica""/ descri#es )othair as #ein& for a time, in the opinion of ever/ one in Rome, hi&h and "o%, 8the most favoured man in this centur/Q8 /et the net fai"ed to entrap him throu&h his %ant of faith. K%an2/in 8"oo$s on8 ?kwan@ 8the re&ion8 ?shi@ of sufferers %hose 8voices8 ?yin@ of man/ tones, a"" ac$no%"ed&in& miser/ and as$in& sa"vation, touch the heart or the pitifu" Bodhisatt%a. he "oo$s %ith a thousand e/es that she ma/ see them a"", and stretches out a thousand arms that she ma/ save them a"". Kumara3iva himse"f adopted the name Kwan-sh-yin. The trans"ators of the TJan& period, t%o centuries "ater, #rou&ht to vie% the true et/mo"o&/ as &iven #/ our author, #ut the/ did not succeed in chan&in& the course of the "e&end or the name of the divinit/. Kumara3iva preferred the more popu"ar and edif/in& desi&nation. The t%o meanin&s, K%an2tsM2tsai and K%an2shi2/in, dou#t"ess existed to&ether in Kumara3iva5s countr/, Cashmere, 3ust as after%ards in China. The .aha/ana doctrine had prevai"ed there a"read/ for near"/ t%o hundred /ears, from the time of Na&ar3una, &iven in the Hand-(ook, (.D. BTF The remar$a#"e extension of the .aha/ana "iterature ?Hwa-yen-king, Fa-hwa-king, Oc.@ in Cashmere, Kash&ar, Ba"$h, and %hat is no% Ca#u", aided #/ the conversion p. FBA to Buddhism of the Indian 1et=, the ue-ti of Chinese histor/, renders the dia"ects there spo$en ear"/ in the Christian era important for the determination of the "an&ua&e emp"o/ed #/ the first !indoo missionaries in China. Our author sa/s the ,a"i %as first used, and after%ards the anscrit. It %ou"d #e more correct to sa/ that the .a&adha dia"ect %as first used, then the dia"ect of Northern India, such as %as spo$en in Cashmere, and after%ards the anscrit. In the !an d/nast/, under .in&2ti, Kashiapmadan&a, %ho came from .a&adha, the modern Bahar, used the dia"ect of that countr/, %hich differed from the ,a"i amon& other thin&s in retainin& from anscrit the "etter sh. B If Kashiapmadan&a, the most ancient of the trans"ators, had chosen Chinese %ords %hose initia" %as s to %rite the anscrit Shramana and Kashiapa, it mi&ht #e said that he used the ,a"i. H In the 8 utra of *ort/2t%o ections8 he used Sha-men, and thus ori&inated that name, to #e used ever after as the desi&nation of the mem#ers of the Buddhist communit/ in China. *or Kashiapa he %rote Ka-shiap. The second era of trans"ators, (.D. FGG, %as that of Kumara3iva of Cashmere. There can #e no dou#t that he made use of sh and s as separate "etters, for he never confounds them in his choice of Chinese characters. The Chinese %ords a"read/ introduced #/ his predecessors he did not a"ter, and in introducin& ne% terms re:uired in the trans"ation of the #ahayana "iterature ?Ta-cheng@, or 81reater Deve"opment,8 he uses sh for sh, and usua""/ ( for /. Thus the cit/ 8 hravasti8 %as in ,a"i Sa/atthi, and in Chinese Sha-(a-ti. ,ro#a#"/ Kumara3iva himse"f, spea$in& in the Cashmere dia"ect of anscrit, ca""ed it Sha(ati. T%o centuries "ater, the fashion of c"ose adherence to anscrit came into use under the "eadership of !iuen2tsan&. p. FBK ;para&raph continues< *or examp"e, instead of )i-ku, %hich is "i$e the ,a"i Bhi$$hu ?pro#a#"/ a"so found in the .a&adha "an&ua&e@, )it-chu, %as %ritten, evident"/ %ith the intention of restorin& the anscrit sh. Our author &ives a different reason. The &reat va"ue of such a &uide as this Hand-(ook in the stud/ of Chinese Buddhism %i"" #e understood #/ the student, %hen he finds that a"most a"" the important %ords in doctrine and #io&raph/ are here traced to their anscrit ori&ina"s, and exp"ained %ith the aid of recent +uropean criticism. Thus Ho-shang, the most popu"ar term for 8,riest,8 is 'padhy.ya, the president of an 8assem#"/,8 or sangha. The 8Three ,recious Ones8 are )uddha, the persona" teacherQ $harma, the )a% or #od/ of doctrineQ and Sangha, the ,riesthood. The term sam-mei is exp"ained as the 8sam9dhi8 of the ori&ina" anscrit. 8 am9dhi si&nifies the hi&hest pitch of a#stract ecstatic

meditation, a state of a#so"ute indifference to a"" inf"uences from %ithin or %ithout, a state of torpor of #oth the materia" and spiritua" forces of vita"it/, a sort of terrestria" Nirv9na consistent"/ cu"minatin& in tota" destruction of "ife. 5!e consumed his #od/ #/ (&ni ?the fire of@ am9dhi5 is a common phrase.8 The expression Tau-pi-an, 8(rriva" at that shore,8 is exp"ained as the Chinese e:uiva"ent of !aramita, em#racin& the six means of passin& to the Nirv9na. These are B. 8Charit/8 ?or &ivin&@, $.na: H. 8.ora"it/,8 ShEla ?&ood conduct@Q C. 8,atience,8 Ksh.nti: F. 8+ner&/,8 <irya: D. 8Contemp"ation,8 $hy.na: A. 8>isdom,8 !ra"na. In the account of Nirv9na, Dr. +ite" touches on a su#3ect of &reat interest, name"/, the expectation of immorta"it/ assertin& itse"f in Buddhism, in spite of the over%he"min& inf"uence of a metaph/sica" s/stem adverse a"i$e to the #e"ief in 1od and to that in immorta"it/. ha$/amuni said in his "ast moments, 8The spiritua" #od/ is immorta".8 But he said 3ust #efore, 8("" /ou Bi$shus, do p. FBE not #e sad. If I "ived in the %or"d for a kalpa, on arrivin& at the time I must sti"" #e annihi"ated. Not to "eave /ou %hen the hour has arrived is impossi#"e. In &ainin& #enefit one5s2se"f, others are #enefited. The s/stem of doctrine is a"read/ perfect. hou"d I "ive "on&er, it %ou"d #e of no #enefit to /ou. ("" that %ere to #e saved, %hether in the paradises of the Devas, or in the %or"d of man$ind, have a"read/ #een saved. (s to those %ho have not #een saved, the causes %hich %i"" u"timate"/ "ead to their sa"vation have a"read/ #een put in operation. *rom this time for%ard I exhort /ou, m/ discip"es, to expand, exp"ain, and propa&ate m/ doctrine, and thus8 ?here fo""o%s our author5s :uotation@ 8the 5spiritua" #od/5 ?+a-shen@ of 4u2"ai %i"" #e constant"/ present, and %i"" not #e annihi"ated at a"".8 .uch cannot #e #ui"t on this passa&e from the 8 utra of the d/in& instructions of Buddha,8 #ut Dr. +ite" is :uite ri&ht in ar&uin& the continued existence of the Buddhas from their occasiona" reappearance after death for the sa"vation of "ivin& #ein&s, and a"so from the do&ma of the 8>estern ,aradise.8 >h/, in his artic"e on Dh/9na, the author has omitted an/ reference to the Chan-men does not appear. !e has, ho%ever, &iven an account of the t%ent/2ei&ht patriarchs, the "ast of %hom, Bodhidharma, introduced into China the Buddhist sect ca""ed the Chan-men, %hich has p"a/ed in some respects the same part in China that the 4ainas did in India. It has a"most supp"anted the ori&ina" Buddhism, and has a"%a/s made much of the esoteric deposit of doctrine and its transmission a"on& %ith the ro#e and rice #o%" from patriarch to patriarch. The meanin& of the names, ho%ever, differs. 4aina means 8the con:ueror,8 %hi"e dhy.na, the Indian protot/pe of the Chinese dan, "ater chan, si&nifies 8meditation.8 In the notice of the nagas there are some interestin& references to 8serpent8 %orship, that ver/ %idespread p. FBT and ancient superstition, %hich seems to have ori&inated in the first a&es, and to have spread from the Ba#/"onian re&ion to the most %ide"/ separated countries. The stones of (ve#ur/ in >i"tshire, not far from tonehen&e, retain the serpentine shape in %hich the Druids, or the predecessors of the Druids, arran&ed them. The !e#re% nahash, 1ae"ic narar, and +n&"ish 8sna$e,8 are %ord2forms %hich preserve the o"d ideaQ and the account of the temptation in 1enesis furnishes us %ith a pro#a#"e ori&in for the traditions of serpent %orship amon& various nations. In +astern (sia the nagas %ere "oo$ed on as %e"" disposed. !ence the Birmese confound them %ith the de/ans, %hi"e the Chinese re&ard them as &ood and po%erfu" and ca"" them lung, the 1ree$ drakNn, and the 1erman schlange. On the six paths of transmi&ration the reader %i"" find information under the heads -.ti, !r0tas, *sura, *mKgha, Oc. But it is time to stop. Buddhism is a su#3ect %hich easi"/ ramifies into so man/ directions, that it is necessar/ to "imit these remar$s. .r. >atters5 papers on Chinese&)uddhism have #een a"read/ referred to, in the s$etch of the histor/ of Chinese Buddhism in an ear"/ part of this vo"ume. The/ contain a historica" summar/ of Chinese Buddhism, an account of the Buddhas, and a s$etch of the Confucianist opposition. Dr. +ite"5s va"ua#"e Three&Lectures&on&)uddhism, and an artic"e #/ him on the 8Nirv9na of Chinese Buddhism,8 in the Chinese&Recorder, 4une BEKG, shou"d #e consu"ted #/ the student. In 8Buddhism in China,8 #/ Rev. . Bea", the reader %i"" find much to interest. .r. Bea" #e"ieved in the ,ersian inf"uence %hich produced the "e&end of (mita#ha, and in the a#ean ori&in of u$havati ? ocotra@, the is"and of the #"essed. In this he is ri&ht. The %or$s of ir .onier >i""iams and Dr. Rh/s Davids on Buddhism &enera""/ are the productions of %riters of p. FHG &reat erudition and "on& experience. The/ natura""/ thro% va"ua#"e "i&ht on Chinese Buddhism from the Indian side. ir +d%in (rno"d5s 8)i&ht of (sia8 is a charmin& poem, %hich has made Buddhist thou&ht fami"iar to man/ readers %ho $ne% nothin& of it #efore. ome %or$s from ,a"i have #een trans"ated in the 8 acred Boo$s of the +ast.8 uch is the num#er of ne% pu#"ications on the su#3ect of Buddhism, that it is evident the reader has it in his po%er to o#tain a thorou&h $no%"ed&e of this re"i&ion. !e can test for himse"f ho% far it softens manners and teaches $indness, encoura&es faith in the supernatura", and testifies to the vanit/ of the %or"dQ at the same time he %i"" "earn that for the reve"ation of mora" evi" and its remed/, of 1od and of immorta"it/, Buddhism ma$es no effort that can for a moment compare %ith the %or$ %hich Christianit/ has done for man$ind.

Footnotes FGESB Fo% kou%&kiB&ou&Relation&des&Royaumes&)ouddhi3ues:&par&Chy&Fa-hian. FGESH Tra/els&o+&Fa-hian&and&Sung-yunB&)uddhist&!ilgrimsB&+rom&China&to&=ndia.

FGESC Records&o+&)uddhistic&Kingdoms. FBGSB )au2shan is near Kiau2cheu, "atitude CAt, east "on&itude Dt HDu. The port of Kiau2cheu exports fe"t hats, um#re""as, fruit, and ca##a&es to han&hai. FBHSB This account of Dr. +ite"5s #oo$ is reprinted from the Chinese Recorder, %here it appeared in BEKB as a revie%. FBASB ee Burnouf and )assen5s 9ssai&sur&le&!ali. FBASH The ,a"i forms are Samana, Kassapa.

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ALPHABETICAL INDE OF PROPER NAMES AND SUB&ECTS. (2C!(2)I2-(, CTT. ee *ch.rya, *-"e-li, and ;-che-li-ye. (ch9r/a ?(2che2"i@, CD, CTT. ee *-"e-li, *-cha-li-ya, and ;-che-hi-ye. (chJo#h/a, HCF, HCA, HKT, HEB. (dam, BF. (dam5s ,ea$, CE. onesidemus, CBH. (f&hanistan, HB, AG, AB, TB, BBK, BCD, CHH. ee -etO. (&ama period, DB. (&e of >ise men, HHH. ee Hien&kalpa, and #aha(hadra-kalpa. (3atashatru, BD, CB, DH, AF, HBD. (3e"i, BCC. (23e2"i, HTB, HTH. ee *ch.rya, *-cha-li-ya, and ;-che-li-ye. ($anit6a, HHF. ("a#aster, .r. !. HFT. (2"a2han, CBB, FGB, see *rhan, *rhans, Lo-han, and Lo-hans. ("eni, 4u"ius, BHB. ee 6gai&4u-lio. ("exander the 1reat, AK, HFT, CHH, CFH, FBF. ("exius Comnenus, BBK. ("i/in, BFD. ("open, BBK.

("tai mountains, HBF. (mida Buddha, BKB2BKF, HGE. ee *mita(ha&)uddha. (mita#ha Buddha, BTE, HGE, HGT, HCC, HCF, HCA, HFA, HAB, HAH, HKC, HKT, HEB, FBF. ee *mida&)uddha. (mita#ha ,aradise, HCC, HCD. (2mi2to *e, BKB. ee *mida&)uddha. (2mo2&a #ad23a2ra, CTT. ee *mogha and ;-mo-kia&po-che-lo. (mo&ha, BHD, BCH, CTT, FBTQ a"so ca""ed (mo&ha 0a3ra. ee ;-mo-kia&po-che-lo and *-mo-ga&(ad-"a-ra. (mo/ ?dia"ect@, FBC. (mravati, HEK. (na&am, BEH, CBB, FGB. ee *nagamin. (na&amin, AT, CBB. ee *nagam. (na&amins, HHD. (nanda, BC, CA, CK, FH2FD, FT, DH2DF, DK, AF2AA, AE, KG, KB, BGA, BAE, HCH, HFB, HFC, HFE, HKA, HTB2CGG. ee ;-nan. (n_thapindada, HTA. ee *nFthapindika. (n_thapindi$a, HTD, HTA. ee *nFthapindada. (naxa&oras, CFH. (naximander, CFH. (naximenes, CFB. (n2fu ?,a"ace of dar$ness@, CDC, CDK. ee 6araka. (n2h%ei, BCT. (n2"o2/en2sheu2tan&, HDF. (n2shM2$au, HEG. (n2si, BGE, BDG, HEG. ee (rs=. (nton/, HDK. (n2tsien ? ecret arro%@, CCE. (nuruddha, DC, DA, DK. (psaras, HBA. (ra#ic "an&ua&e, CCD, FGD. (ra#ians(ra#s, BBK, FGD. ee Ta-shah. (ran/a, HG. ee *ranyaka. (ran/a$a, HCB. ee *ranya. (rara, HF. p. FHH (ratan, TH.

(rhan, HE, HT, CH, DC, DE, AA, AT, KT2EB, BEH, BEF, HAF, HKA, HTG, CBB. ee *-la-han and Lo-han. (rhans, HE, CB, DE, AF, AD, AE, KA, BCE, BEF, BED, HBF, HFB2HFD, HFE, HAC, HAF, HTB, HTK, CGF, CBB. ee *-la-han and Lo-hans. (ristot"e, CFH. (rs=, BGE. ee *n-si. (r/an personification, CDD. (sen&ha, BCH, BAT, HKE, HKT. ee 5u-cho. (shX$a, BC, HH, CB, DE, DT, AT, EC, BGF2BGK, HBD, HKC, HKK, HKE, HEH, HEC, FGF. ee *-yo. (sh%a&osha, KF, HKE. ee #a-ming. (sia, C, HE, CDA. (siatic countries, TG, FGTQ fetishism, FBQ mon$ish esta#"ishments, BBGQ specu"ator, BAAQ %or"d, AG. (sita, KB. (cura, BBD, FBT. ee Sieu-lo ?Su-la@. (suras, KK, BDA, BTD, HGA, HBF, HBD, HHK, HHG, CBG. (u&ustus, HDKQ of the +ast, BBE. (va"o$ite, HAH. ee */alKkit0shwara. (va"X$it`sh%ara, BCT, HGE, HAH, HAA, FBF. ee */alokite and Kwan-yin. (vatars, BDA. (ve#ur/, FBT. (vichi nara$a, FD, BTA, HHD. ee ;-pi&ti-y. (2/o, BGF, BGD, BGK. ee *shKka.

B(B-)ON, CCT, CAC, CAF. Ba#/"onia, HBB. Ba#/"onian re&ion, FBEQ vie% of nature, CFB. Bactria, CFC. Ba&a, BTH. Ba2&a2vam, BHG. ee )haga/at. Bahar, BT, CB, BCK, HBD, HET, FBA. ee #agadha. Bai2sha2"i, FGC. ee <aishali. Baishevu, BF. Ba2"a2men, BGH. ee )rahman. Ba"$h, FBD. Ban#an, BGF. Baschpa, BFK. ee !a-ho-si-pa.

Base" .ission, CAA, CAT. Basiasita, ED, BDA. Baur, BAA. Bea", Rev. ., C, CC, BGK, HEC, HEK, FGE, FBG. Benares, F, HH, HF2HE, CG, FH, DB, KD, TF. ee !aranai. Ben&a", Ba/ of, BFD. Ben&a"i, CAH. Berar, FH. ee Kosala. Bhadra, BGT. Bhadra2$a"pa, KB. ee Kalpa&o+&the&Sages. Bha&avat, BHG. ee )a-ga-/am. Bh9isha3/a&uru Buddha, HGE, HCD. ee o-sh&Fo. Bh9isha3/ar93a, HBG. ee o-wang&pu-sa. Bharhut, HEK. Bhi$$hu, FBK. ee )ikshu. Bi#a Buddha, BF. Bi2ch5u, BHG. ee )ikshu and )i-ku. Bi&andet, Bishop, HGH. Bi2ha2"a2pa2"a, CTT. ee <iharapala and !i-ho-lo-po-lo. Bi$shu, F, BK, BE, CD, HKA, CBD, FGB. ee )i-chu and )i-ku. Bi$shuni, CD. Bi$shus, HG, HB, HE, CG, CA, FD, DB, DF, EB, HBF, HKA, HKK, HTG, HTH, HTK, CGK, CBF, FBK. Bi2$Ju, BHG, FGB, FBK. ee )i-chu and )ikshu. Bim#asa"a, CB. ee <im(as.ra. Bim#isara, BD. ee <im(as.ra. Bindupa"a, BGA. BJin&2an, HAC. Birmah, BKB, HGG2HGH, HBB, HHE, CKG, FGH. Birmese, HGH, HBK, FBTQ chrono"o&/, BDQ peninsu"a, BGF, BFD. Bit2chJu, FBK. ee )ikshu. B"ac$ river, HDD. B"ac$ %arrior, CCK. B"ue dra&on, CCK. Bod, HGH.

Bodhi, HB, CK, DH, DC, AF, FGB, FBH, FBCQ tree, BF, HG, HH, HC, BGF. p. FHC Bodhidharma, ED, EA, TT, BGG, BGH, BGC, BGD, BBA, BHT, BCG, BFG, BFH, BDH, BDD2BAG, BKG, BKT, BTE, HGT, HFK, HAC, CKC, FBE. ee Ta-mo. Bodhiruchi, BCB, HEG, CTT. ee )o-di-lu-chi and !u-t1i-lieu-chi. Bodhisatt%a, K, BH, HH, HC, CT, DB, TK, BHE, BCH, BEH, BCC, BTD, BTA, HGE2HBG, HHA, HHK, HHT, HCC, HCD, HCA, HFB2HFC, HFA, HFK, HAC, HAF, HKT, HEK, CBG, CAF, CTA, FBD. ee )osat and !u-sa. Bodhisatt%as, BT2HH, HD, CA, CT, FC, DB, BHE, BCH, BCD, BCE, BCT, BAH, BAT, BKH, BEA, BTC, BTK, HGA2HGE, HBB, HBF, HHC, HHT2HCH, HCF, HCA, HCK, HFB, HFF, HFE, HDF, HDE, HAB, HAF, HAD, HEH, HTG, HTB, CEF, CTA, FGD, FBD. Bo2di, FGB. ee )odhi. Bo2di2"u2chi, CTT. ee )odhiruchi and !u-ti-lieu-ch. Bo$haria, CHH. Bonpa deities, AC. Bosat, D2K. ee )odhisatt/a and !u-sa. Bo%rin&, ir 4ohn, BGK. Brahma, HF, CA, DD, BED, HBD2HBK, HHF, HFC, HFE, HED, HTH, HTC, FGH. ee Fan-t1ien and Fan-t1ien-yang. Brahma heaven, KB, KT, HHB, HAF, CFG. ee )rahma-loka. Brahmach9ri, CH, DC. Brahma2"o$a, HBK. ee )rahma&hea/en. Brahman, HK, AH, KE, KT, ED, HED, HEA, CGCQ caste, BFD, HHD, HHAQ fami"/, ABQ maiden, BK, HHD2HHK. Brahmanica" arithmetic, BHCQ #oo$s, HETQ ideas, FGHQ "iterature, BBEQ m/tho"o&/, HBQ persecution, TTQ ru"es of purit/, CHQ use of a %ord, HBAQ %isdom, HCH. Brahmanism, EF, BCH, BFD, CBD. Brahmans, H, BK, CB, KC, KK, EA, EE, BTG, HBC, HED, CDD, FGH, FGTQ of pure "ife, EC. ee Fan-hing. Brahmas, HBD, HBK, HHG, HHF. Brass Buddha, CKF2CKA. Bread sect, CKE. ee #an-teu-kiau. Bri""iant vapour, CFK. ee au-ki. Bro%n, Dr., CBC. Budanandi, BBB. Buddha of %isdom unmoved, HCB. Buddhamitra, KB2KF. Buddhanandi, KB2KC. Buddha5s #one, DE, BHK, BCDQ chair, BBEQ father, FFQ footstep, BCD, HDAQ hair, BGF, BCDQ heart, FBHQ ima&e, HDAQ "a%, CT, FC, FE, BGCQ moustaches, DTQ nature, FEQ Northern #io&raphers, CEQ po%er, CEDQ statue, BBEQ teachin&, FK, AD, KTQ tooth, DE, BCD, HDG, HDAQ true %ords, FB. Buddhas of the ten re&ions, CK. Buddha/asha, BBG. Buddhistic character of em#assies, BFKQ c"assics, BBFQ doctrine, TKQ inscriptions, HADQ s/stem, HQ thou&ht, HGFQ vie%s, CDA.

Buddo3an&a, ET, BGE, BAE. ee Fo-tu-cheng. Bunam, BGF. ec Siam. Bur&er, Dr., BAK. Burnouf, +u&lne, H, C, BH, TT, BGG, BGA, BGK, HBF, HHT, HKK, HKE, HEC, CBD, FGH, FGF, FBG, FBH, FBA. But, BHG, CTT, FGB, FBC. ee Fo. B/Rantine emperor, BBA, BBK.

C(BU), FH, HKK, CHH, FBD. ee Cophen and Kipin. Cadmus, BBF. Cam#odia, BFD. Candahar, AK, EC2ED, BGG. ee -etO and Kipin. Canton, BGG, BBF, BDG, HET, CAK, FGT, FBGQ province, BHA. Cashmere, KH, KC, EC, BFF, HDA, HKK, HTG, FGF, FBD, FBA. ee Ka-shi-mi-lo. Caspian ea, TB. Caucasus, HG. Centra" (sia, TB, BTG, CCKQ China, FGGQ India, F, FF, AC, KG, EH, EF, ED, EE, TB, BTD, HEG, HET, CTT, FGB, FGCQ $in&dom, FFQ phi"osoph/, BEF. ee #adhyamika. Ce/"on, BD, CA, CE, CT, EE, TB, TF, BBB, BCH, BKB, BET, HBB, HHE, HFF, HFE, HFT, HKK, HEK, FGH, ee Lenga&=sland. Chai2tan&, CHE. Chai2%an&, HAT. ee !rince&o+&Fuel. p. FHF ChJa2$iau, CKE. ee 5u-wei-kiau. Cha$ravarti, HH. ee 5heel&king. Cha"deans, CCH. ChJan, BHT, BDA, FGB, FBE. Chanda$a, DF. Chandra, HBF. Chandra&upta, BGA, HDA, HEH. ee ue-hu. Chan& KJien, EE. Chan& Kun&2$un&, CKF. Chan& ien, CTH. Chan& Tau2"in&, CEK2CTHQ a"so ca""ed Chang&Tien-sh. Chan& TJien2ti, CTB, CTH. ee Chang& i, -hwang, -hwang&shang-ti, -hwang&ta-ti, -hwang-ti, and -ti. Chan& -i, CAG. ee Chang&Tien-ti. ChJan&2an, ET2TB, BGE, BGT, BBK, BBT, BCB, FBG. ee Si-an&+u.

Chan&2$in& sM, BHD. Chan&2pi2mo2%an&, BDT. ChJan&2tsJien monaster/, BGD. ChJan2hio, BGH. ee Chan-men. ChJan2men, BGH, BKT, FBE. ee Chan-hio. ChJan2shM, BHT. ChJau $in&dom, ET, TG. ee !e-chi-li and Shan-si. Chau2cheu, BHA. Chan2chitin, HDD. Che2$ian&, BCK, BKE, HDD, HKD, CKH. Chen2cheu, BAD. ee Chen-ting&+u. Chen d/nast/, BDA, BKT. Chendaras, HTB2HTC. ChJen& .in&2tau, BFH, CAG. ChJen& -i2ch%en, BFH, CAG. Chen&2fa2/en2tsan&, AC, BFH. Chen&2te period, CKC, CKK. ChJen&2tu, CTG. ChJen&2h%an& miau, CDT, CAB. ChJen&2h%an&2/e, CDE. Ch`n23`n fu, CEE. Chen2sin& ?p"anet aturn@, HBB. ChJen2sin& ?p"anet .ercur/@, HBB. Chen2tan ?China@, HB, TH, TC. Chen2tin& fu, BAD. ee Chen&cheu. Chen2tsun&, BCA. Cheu, FGK. ee $harani. Cheu d/nast/, BAQ emperors, TC, BHTQ fami"/, HCCQ $in&dom, BGK. Cheu !in&, CTB. Cheu Kun&, CHH, CHF. Chi *a2"in&, BBG. ChJiau2chJen23u, FGB. ee -odinia. ChM2che, BKH, HGT. ee Ch-kai. ChJM2cheu fu, BCT.

ChJih2chJen& ?a hi""@, BKD. ChM2hiI, BTG. ChM2$Jai, FB, BFG, BDA, BAG, BKG, BKA2BEH, BEF, BEA, BEK. ee Ch-che. ChM2$ian, HEG. ChM2$io, BKB. ChM2$un&2min&, BGE. ChM2$%an s/stem, BFG, BKH, BKT, BEH. ee Tien-tai-kiau. ChJM2$%o, HCT. ee $hritarashtra and Ti-to-lo-to. Chi2"i, BAD. ee !e-chi-li. Chi2"u2$a2tsJan, HEG. Chi2men&, BGT. Chin d/nast/, BGK. China Branch of the Ro/a" (siatic ociet/, BGK, BHG. ChJin&2chJia, BHB, ee -anges, -ang-pa, and Heng. Ch-pan, DE, KH, KC, ED, BDK, BAG. Chitsin, BGE. ChM2tun, BAE. Chi2/au, BEG. Chosroes I., BBA, BBK. ee Ku-sa-ha and 6ushir/an.II., BBK. ee 4en-ki. Chu *o, HAB. ee Kwan-yin. Chu fu2tsM, CE, CHD, CAB. ee Chu&Hi. Chu !i, BDH, HEE, CAG2CAH. ee Chu&+u-ts. Chu M2hin&, BGT. Chu2dharma2"an, HEG. Chu2dharmara$sha, HEG. Chufahu, BGT. Chu2fa2"an, BGK, BAE, HEG, FGG. Chu2hun&, BKB. Chu2"iI2/en, HEG. ChI2men ?a movin& star@, CFA. Chunda, DG. Chun&2tsun& ?emperor@, HKD. Chun2ti, HGE. Church .issionar/ ociet/, CKK.

Chusan, HCTQ archipe"a&o, HAK. Ch%an& Cheu, CEB. Co"e#roo$e, !. T., H, CGE2CBG, CBC. p. FHD Comte, BFB. Confucian, TK, TEQ c"assics, BBHQ doctrine, BTF, CBT, CHCQ e"ement of fen&2shui, CCT, CFDQ historian, TT, BGD, BBB, BHTQ mandarins, BHD, BCG, BCBQ memoria"ists, BDBQ pre3udices, BCAQ reasonin&, TEQ re"i&ion, BDHQ s/stem, HGG, CHDQ %orship, CTC. Confucianism, HGB, HGC, CHG, CEA, CET, CTC, CTA, CTK. Confucianist, HGG, HGH, CHA, CDB, CDH, CDD, CDKQ commentar/, BHDQ criticism, HGBQ historian, BFEQ mountain, BDTQ opposition, FBTQ vie%, HGG. Confucianists, TD, BBA, BHH, BHK, BTF, HGH, HGC, HEE, CHB, CHD, CFD, CDD, CAG, CKG, CKT, CEB. Confucius, CK, DD, TA, TE, BBF, BCB, BFC, BDC, HGG, HGH, HDE, HAT, HKG, CBE2CHG, CHC2CHD, CCC, CDG2CDH, CAB, FGG, FBB. Con:ueror of the Dra&on, BKB. ee Lung-sheng and 6agar"una. Constans II., BBK. ee !a-ta-lik. Constantine, CTK. Constantinop"e, BBA. Cophen, FH, BBG, BDG, HEG. ee Ca(ul and Kipin. Corea, BBF, BCH, BFA, BKE, CDK. Corean "etters, BBDQ river, CDKQ trans"iteration, FGG. Coreans, BBF. Counci" of Cashmere, HHT, HKFQ fourth do., FGFQ ,ata"iputra, HKC, HEH. Cousin, .., CBH, CBD. Csoma Karasi, HCG. C/rus, CH.

D(B(D(R(, HEG. Dah= ?Dai2he@, EE, ET. ee Ta-hia. Da"ai )ama, HAA. Da"uchi, BHC. Da2"a2ni, BCH. ee $harani and To-lo-ni. Dan, BHT, BDD, FGB, FBE. ee $hyana. D9na ?Charit/@, FBK. Dardu, HDA. Dasaratha, HEK. Dau&hter of the Dra&on $in&, HFH. ee Lung-n.

Deer &arden, DB. ee Lu-ye-yuen and #rigada/a. De 1ui&nes, 4., BBK. Demon, KD, KA, BBD, HBK, HHA, CFK, CDA. Demons, CT, DH, DC, TC, HGA, HBK, HBT, HHK, HHE, HDD, HKG, CBG, CCD, CCE, CFC, CDG, CDD2CDK, CKK, CEH, CEC, CEK2CTG, CTD, CTA. Deva, BK, HC, DC, KK, BBD, BTG, BTH, HGA, HGK, HBF, HHD, HFG, HKT, CAH. ee Tienparadises, BE, HB. Deva2"o$a ?Deva %or"d@, CAH. Devana&ari, BCK, FGA. Devans, FBT. Devas, HF, HD, HE, CT, FG, DA, DE, KG, KK, BBD, BDE, BKH, BTG, BTF, BTK, HGA2HGE, HBF2HBK, HHG, HHC, HHD, HFC, HFF, HFE, HED, CBG. Devatas, HHA. Dharani, DC, BGG, BCH, BFH, CTT, FGK. ee Cheu, $a-la-ni, and To-lo-ni. Dharma, HE, DF, DA, DE, AF, AD, AT2KC, KK, EB, ED, EA, BET, HAG, HAK, CKK, FBK. ee Fa and Law. Dharma&uptas, BBE. ee Fa-mi-pu. Dharma$a$a"a, BGE. Dharmanandi, BBG. Dharmapara, HKT. ee Hu-+a. Dharmara$sha, BGT, BBG, HEG. DharmashX$a, HEH, HEC. Dharmati, HEG. Dharma/a&ama, BBG. Dhritar9shtra, HBA, HCT, HED. ee Ch-kwo and Ti-to-lo-to. Dh/ana, BHT, BDA, FBF, FBK, FBE. ee Chan, $an, $ian, and $"an. Dh/ana Buddhas, BCH. Dian, FGB. ee $hyana. Dipan$ara, BH, HBG. ee 4an-teng. Discip"ine, BGE, BGT, BBE, BFK, BTG, HGT, HEB, HEK. ee L and <inaya. Disrae"i, B., FBD. D3an, BHT. ee $hyana. Do2nothin& sect, CKH. ee 5u-wei-kiau. Dra&on, KA, BCC, HBA, HAC, CHC, CHE, CHT, CCC2CCD, CFC, CFK2CFT, CTG, ee Lung and 6aga. p. FHA Dra&on $in&s, DE, HBDQ pa"ace, HCG, HKTQ to%er, CFK. ee Lung-leu. Dra&on2horse, CHC. Dra&on2$in&, HGK. ee Lung-wang and 6aga-ra"a.

Dra&on2tree, BKG, HBG. ee Lung-shu and 6agar"una. Dra&ons, CT, FG, HBA, HBE, HAB, CKC, CTB. ee 6agas. Dravida countr/, HKT. Dri$ata, KG, KB. Druids, FBT. Dud&eon, Dr., HDH, HKH. Du$Ja, HK. Dura, HDA. Dur&a, HHG. DRin d/nast/, TC. ee Tsin&dynasty. DRin2#a2da, BDT. DRin"on, BGE.

+( T+RN ( I(, FBTQ (siatics, CFBQ Buddhas, HEBQ continent, HBAQ India, EH, ED, BFFQ ,aradise, HKTQ ,ersia, TG, BGEQ provinces, CKBQ Thi#et, BGTQ TsJin, ET2TBQ Tur$estan, CD. +&/pt, CCT, CAC, CAF. +i&ht2faced K%an2/in, HAH. +ite", Dr. +. 4., A, HG, CB, CD, CT, KB2KC, BHD, BFC, BAG, BAT, BKG, HAA, HKE, FGC, FBH2FBF, FBK2FBT. +"#urR mountain, HG. ee Sumeru. +n&"ish critic, CBCQ "an&ua&e, CCA, CDD, CEC, CEE, FGE, FBT. +phesus, CFB. +soteric #ranch, BDE, CKCQ Buddhism, BFH, BDTQ Buddhists, HCBQ deposit, FBEQ doctrine, FC, ACQ e"ement, BDEQ schoo", BFB, BDD, BAG, BAAQ s/stem, BAHQ tradition, BAH. ee Tsung-men. +urope, C, BHC, HBB, CHD, CCG, CFG, CDA. +uropean accounts, CDDQ astronomers, CFEQ criticism, FBKQ fashion, HDCQ &overnments, HGBQ $in&s, BCBQ mora"ists, BTCQ schoo"men, BEFQ specu"ation, BAA. +uropeans, C, BBK. +xoteric #ranch, CKCQ Buddhism, BFH, BAEQ Buddhists, BAEQ doctrine, FCQ schoo", BFB, BKGQ sects, BAKQ teachin&, HD. ee Kiau-men.

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*(, CKK. ee $harma and Law.

*a2chM, BEK. *a2hai sM, FGA. *a2hien, BA, TG, TB, BGK, BGT, BHB, BDG, HEG, HEK, FGT, FBG. *a2$I, HEG. *a2"in, BA. *a2"in&, BGT. *a2mi2pu, BBE. ee $harmaguptas. *an "an&ua&e, FGH. ee Sanscrit. *an&2$%an& monaster/, BKK. *an2hin&, EC. ee )rahmans&o+&pure&li+e. *an2tJien, HFC. ee )rahma. *an2tJien, HBK. ee )rahma-loka. *an2tJien2%an&, HBD, HBK. ee King&o+&the&)rahma&hea/en and #aha(rahma. *a2shun, BKG. *a2sian&2tsun&, BKG. *a2sin&2tsun&, BKG. *a2tJien2pen, BCK. *a2tsan&, HCC. ee Treasure&o+&the&Law. *a2/en schoo", BAB. *en&2shui, BCD, HDG, HDB, CHK, CHT, CCG, CCH, CCC, CCE, CCT, CFC2CFD, CFT2CDH, CTC. *en&2shui sien2shen&, CCB. ee -eomancer. *en&2tu ta2ti, CAB. *er&hana, EC. *erin&i, BBK. *ichte, 4. T., BAA. *o, HF, CEC, CED, CTT, FGB, FBC. ee )ut. *o2$u2piau, BHA, CDF. ee #emorial&on&the&(one&o+&)uddha. *o2tin& shan, HAF. *o2tJu2chen&, BAE. ee )uddo"anga. *oocho%, BCA. *our &reat $in&s of Devas, HD, FF, DK, HGK, HBA, HHC, HCT, HFB2HFD. ee $hritar.shtra, <aishramana, <irudhaka, and <irupaksha. *u -i, BBD. *u2$ien province, BBF, BDT. *u2"un& fen&, BKK.

*u2"un& monaster/, BEG. *uh, FBC. ee Fo. *uh2hi, CKF. p. FHK *uh2pan, CKF. *u"im, BBA, BBK. ee Feringi. *un&2sian& fu, BHA, BCC. *rench ortho&raph/, FBFQ phi"osopher, CBCQ revo"ution, HCAQ sino"o&ues, AQ trans"ator, HBDQ %riters, F.

1(+)IC "an&ua&e, FBT. 1a2"am, HFD. ee Kia-lan. 1a""e, FH, HFE. 1andhara, HKE. 1andharvas, HBF2HBK. 1an&es, F, BC, BD, EH, BBK, BBE, BHB, BKC, HCF, HCD, HTB, HTC, FGC. ee Ching-chia, -ang-ga, and Heng. 1an&2&a, BHB. ee Ching-chia, and -anges. 1aruda, HFE. 1arudas, HBD, HBK. 1ata$ana, FH. 19ti, FBT. 1audama ,ra3na"uti, CGC. 1audamara, BHH. 1audamsen&hadlva, HEG. 1audamsiddha, BHC, HBB. 1autama, HH, BHG, BDK, HGK, HBB, HHE, CDF. ee Shakyamuni. 1a/a, FC. 1eomancer, CHE2CCK, CFD, CFK, CFT. ee Feng-shui&sien-sheng. 1eomancers, CFA, CDG. ee Lung-kia. 1eomanc/, CHK, CHT, CCH, CFC, CFF, CDG, CDH. ee Feng-shui. 1erman "an&ua&e, BGG, FBB, FBT. 1erman/, HCA. 1et=, AB, KD, EA, EE, BGE, BGT, BDG. ee ue-ti and *+ghanistan. 1i##on, +., BBA2BBE. 1i23a2$u2ta, HKA. ee -ridhrakuta.

1i"es, !. (, FGE. 1odam, BHG, HFE. ee -autama. 1oddess of .erc/, HGT, CEC. ee Kwan-yin. 1odinia, HK, HE, FH, DH, DC, FGB. ee Chiau-chen-"u and -o-din-nia. 1o2din2nia, FGB. ee Chiau-chen-"u and -odinia. 1o&er"/, Rev. .r., HEK, CBK. 1o"den .other, CKK, CKT. ee Kin-mu. 1rand cana", BAD. 1reat #ear, CFK, CDG. ee !e-teu. 1reat Bosat, A. ee #a-ha-sat. 1reat Deve"opment, HCG, HKK, HEB, HECQ #oo$s, HKE, FGAQ c"ass, HBF, HCG, HEBQ c"assics, BGGQ course, BGTQ schoo", DB, BBG, BBE, BTG, HEBQ sutras, TT, HCA, HKTQ s/stem, HGT. ee #ahayana and Ta-ch1eng. 1reat +xtreme, CHG2CHH. ee Tai-ki. 1reat 0ehic"e, HKT. ee -reat&$e/elopment, #ahayana, and Ta-cheng. 1reater Deve"opment, BT, HD, CE, HKK, HET, FBA. ee -reat&$e/elopment. 1reece, C, FG, HGH, HAT, CCT, CAC. 1ree$ dates, BCQ doctrine, CCT, CFGQ domination, CFCQ dra&on, CCCQ &enius, CHHQ &ods, CAFQ historian, HDKQ inf"uence, CACQ invasion, FGCQ $in&dom, BEFQ $in&s, CFCQ "an&ua&e, FBTQ mind, CACQ phi"osoph/, CFC, CFF, CTKQ race, CCAQ scu"pture, HFTQ vie% of nature, CFBQ %ord, CDA. 1ree$s, HAK, CHH. 1ridhra$uta, DK, HBF, HKA. ee -i-"a-ku-ta. 1u"f of ,e2chi2"i, FBG. 1una#adara, HEG. 1una#idi, HEA. 1utR"aff, Dr. K., FGB.

!(K)+N(, EC, EF, EA. !ami"ton, Dr., BDA. !an d/nast/, BA, EE, BBC, BHA, BKB, CBT, CHB2CHF, CCK, CCT, CFF, CDG, CDB, CEH, CEK2CET, FBA. !an >en2$un&, BHA, BHK, BDB, CBT. ee Han& . !an -I, BHA, CDF. ee Han&5en-kung. !an&2chen, BFC, BDB, BKB, BKD, HFT, HDA, HKD, CDE. !ard/, Rev. pence, BGA, BAT, BET, HBK, HCG, HFF, HKK, CBK, FBG. !eaven"/ emperor, CTB. ee Tien-ti. !e#re% "an&ua&e, CCD, FBTQ name, HBA. !ei2"un&2tJan, CCD.

!en&, BHB. ee -anges. p. FHE !en&, HFG. ee Heng-ho-er-tsiang. !en&2cheu, BDT. !en&2ho2er2tsian&, HFG. ee Heng and Ho. !en&2shan, BDT. !erac"itus, CFB, CFH. !ia d/nast/, BA, BDT. !iau2fan&, CDE. !iau >u ?emperor@, ET. !ien $a"pa, HHH. ee #aha(hadra-kalpa. !ien2sheu, BKG, BKB, HGT. !ien2tsun& ?emperor@, BHA, BHK. !ieou2thou, EE. !i&h (sia, BKB. !i2$Jiau, BAG. !im9"a ?forest@, HBK. !ima"a/as, C, BE, HG, TH, TT, BTC, HAF, FGG. !ina/ana, CE, AC, HKK. ee Siau-cheng and Smaller&$e/elopment. !indoo, K, BBG, BAT2BKB, CFBQ architecture, CACQ arithmetic, CACQ arts, HGHQ astronom/, CBT, CACQ author, CGCQ authors, FGDQ #oo$s, CAFQ Buddhists, BBG, BBH, BFA, HGT, HBH, HEH, CFF, FGFQ cosmo&on/, HBE, HEHQ deities, BTKQ divinities, HBDQ &ods, BTK, HBA, HHG, HFH, HAFQ he""s, CAC idea, CAHQ inf"uence, CFFQ 4ains, BDKQ $in& of death, BTAQ "an&ua&e, FGCQ )o2hans, HFTQ mind, T, HGH, CAF, FGDQ minds, HEQ missionaries, HEC, FBH, FBAQ monastic societies, BTQ m/tho"o&/, BEA, BTE, HGA, HGK, HBH, HBF, HBE2HHG, HHCQ name, TC, HBE, HAH, HACQ na$shatras, CFFQ nation, HHEQ nomenc"ature, CCAQ notion, CACQ notions, BTK, CCTQ ori&in, CDCQ ori&ina", HBBQ pantheon, BEAQ patriarch, BKTQ phi"osopher, CBCQ phi"osoph/, CHC, CCT, CFB, CFH, CACQ phrases, CDF, CAHQ ph/sics, CCTQ popu"ar account, BTFQ practice, BCEQ ,retas, HAEQ race, C, HG, HGHQ re"i&ion, HGHQ sa&es, BFQ sects, HHKQ shape, CAFQ societ/, FBFQ s/m#o", FGAQ thou&ht, CFFQ trans"ations, FBHQ trans"ators, BBB, HKF, FGCQ universe, HHTQ vie%, HHGQ %ords, FBCQ %or"d, CQ %orship, HHG. !indoo Kush, BBK. !indoos, A, BC, TC, TT, BBD, HHH, BHF, BFA, BDA, BKH, BTB, HBC, HBA, HBK, HHH, HHT, HAG, HAE, HKT, CGT, CHH, CCT, CFB, CFH, CTC, CTF. !indostan, C, HB, HBC. !in&2sM, BAG. !in&2sM2fan&2fei2chM2n&o ?schoo"@, BAT. !ippo"/tus, CCH. !iuen2tsan&, FG, BGK, BBA2BHB, BCA, BFK, BKG, BKB, HDA, HAH, HKF, HKD, HEG, HET, HTH, HTA, CDF, FGB, FGH, FGF, FGT, FBA. !iuen2tsun& ?emperor@, BCH. !iun&2er ?mountain@, BGC. !iun&2nu, EC, HDD. !o, HFG. ee Heng-ho-er-tsiang.

!od&son, Brian, !., H. !omer, CAC, CAF. !o2min& shan, CTG. !o2nan province, CGC. !o2nan fu, TT, BGC, BGT, CGC, ee Lo-yang. !on&$on&. BHG. !ordern, .r. ,., HGG, HGH. !ormouR, BBK. ee Shi-li. !o2shan&, CD, BFC, HAT, HKH, CBD, CDD, FBK. ee 'padhy.ya. !u TJo, BA. !uc, (##n, BCT, HFH. !u2fa, HKT. ee $harmapara. !u2fa2%ei2to, HFG. ee <eda and 5ei-to. !ume, David, CBH. !u2nan province, BDT, BEG. !un&2fa2tJan& ?temp"e@, HAC. !un&r/ &hosts, EB, BHD, BHA, BCH, BTD, BTA, HBG, HBE, HCC, HAE, CBG. ee -lan-pen. !u2to ?river@, BAD. !%ai (n2tsM, CDG. !%ai23an&, BAG. !%ai2nan2tsM, CHB. !%ai2nen&, BAG2BAH. !%a2$%an&, HGK, HFK. !%a2"o, HHC, ee 6imala&paradise. !%a2shM, KF, BGT. ee !ataliputra. !%a2shie, BFC, ee Ho-shang. !%a2tin& ?mountain@, BKE. !%a2tsan& universe., HAD. !%a2/en ?Bodhisatt%a@, HBG. p. FHT !%a2/en doctrine, BT, HG, HA, DB, HEB. !%a2/en sM ?monaster/@, FGK. !%an&2cheu, CFC. !%ei2h%ei %ord, HBB. ee !ersian&language.

!%ei2nian& ?schoo"@, BAB. !%ei2shen&, BGG. !%ei2sM, BKG, BKH. !%ei2tsun& ?emperor@, BFH, CAG. !%ei2%en, BAG, BKB, BEF. !%ei2/uen, BKB, HGT.

I2DPI2PI, BBK. ee e7degerd. Independent Tartar/, EE. India, C, T, BD, HG, HK, HT, CG, CH, CD, FG, AG, KK, EH, EC, EA2TF, BGG, BGB, BGC, BGE, BGT, BBF, BBA2BBE, BHB, BHT, BCB, BCK, BFF, BFD, BDG, BDA, BDK, BAA, BTG, HGK, HBB, HBH, HBD, HHG, HHH, HCG, HCB, HCT, HFT, HDG, HKD, HKK, HKT, HEG, HEK, HET, HTH, CBC, CHH, CCT, CFH, CFF, CDG, CDF, CAG, CAC, CKG, CTB, CTF, FGH, FGT, FBE. Indian, ET, TG, BGT, BFDQ Buddhism, BFF, CEHQ Buddhist, ETQ Buddhists, BAKQ dia"ect, BHGQ &eo&raphers, BCTQ &eo&raph/, BCTQ 1et=, EC, FBAQ ideas, CFFQ $a"pas, CFHQ $in&, BGDQ $in&doms, CDQ $in&s, FG, DEQ "iterature, BGAQ mode"s, BCFQ monarch, TCQ m/tho"o&/, BBQ name, THQ numera"s, BHCQ Ocean, HAAQ phi"osophers, CBHQ phi"osoph/, CBT, CCT, CFFQ ,"uto, HBQ priests, H, BGE, BHAQ protot/pe, FBEQ race, FQ re"i&ion, B, CBTQ sa&e, ET, BGHQ shastras, CHCQ spe""in&, CBTQ statement, EAQ states, FHQ stran&ers, BBCQ tit"es, BFHQ /ear, HBH. Indians, H, EE, TH, TT, BFD. Indo2Chinese peninsu"a, F, HGH. Indo2+uropean mind, CHH. Indra ha$ra, HG2HH, HF, FD, FE, FT, DA, DE, BTG, BTD, HBG, HBF, HBD, HFC. ee Ti-sh. Indus, TB, BBK, HAA, HAK. Ionian phi"osophers, CFBQ phi"osoph/, CFH. Ionians, CFC. Ish%ara, HC, HBF2HBA, HBT, HCF. I2tJa2chi, BBK. I2tsun& ?emperor@, BCG.

4(IN(, BHT, BDA, FBE. 4ainas, FBE. 4ainism, BDE. 4ains, CB, BDA, BDK. ee Swaracs. 4am#u continent, DD, TC, BHH, HHD, HHA. ee 4am(ud/ipa. 4am#udvipa, FT, DA, DT, HBA, HHH. 4am2ma2"a23a, HBE. ee ama and en-lo-wang. 4am2ma2ra3a, HBE. ee ama and en-lo-wang. 4an2ten&, BH, HBG, HFB, HFC. ee $ipankara. 4apan, BCH, BFA, BFK, BAC, BAK, HBF, CAG, CEA, FGH.

4apanese, F, BCCQ intercourse, BFAQ narrative, BDKQ term, CDDQ trans"iteration, FGG. 4ava, HBF, HCT, FGT. 4axartes, BBA. 4a/ata, EH. 4e#a#ada, TC. 4eho", HAA. 4en2$i, BBK. ee Chosroes II. 4en2tsun& ?emperor@, BCK, BCE. 4en2%an&, FB. 4esuit, CDD. 4eta, D, HB, CB, FD, HTG, HTH, HTD2HTK. 4etavana, CB, FT. 4e%ish "i&ht, CKQ scriptures, BF. 4i2$%an&2pien2chau, HCD. 4onah, HEF. 4udaism, CK. 4ud=a, BBK, HGH. 4u2$iau, CEH. 4u"ai, F, A2E, BH, BE, CF, DG, DB, DF, KD, BCT, HGK, HFD, HTC, CTB, FBE. ee Tath.gata. 4u"ien, tanis"as, C, TC, BBK, HET, HTH, CTT, FGG, FGH, FGE, FHH. 4upiter ?p"anet@, HBB. ee Sui-sing. 4/otishpra#ha ?a Brahma@, HBD.

KJ(I2*+N1 *U, HFA. ee !ien-cheng and !ien-liang. Ka"ashX$a, HEC. Ka"avin&$a, HTG, HTH. Ka"pa, BB, BH, BF, DB, KB, BAK, BTA, HGE, HBG, HHB, HHH, HCC, HAB, CTB, FBK. p. FCG Ka"pa of the a&es, KB. Ka"pas, BB, BH, KB, BKC, BTD, BTA, HHB, HHH, HHK, HCC, HCF, CFG, CFH, CTB. Ka"utanasi, BFT. Kan_de, CBG. Kanadeva, KK2KT. Kan2do ?countr/@, ET.

KJan&2hi, F, BDH, HHH, HAB, FBC. KJan&2$u, HEG. ee Thi(et. KJan&2men&2ts5ian&, HEG. KJan&2sen&2h%ei, HEG. KJan&2sen&2$6ai, HEG. Kanish$a, KH, HDK, HKK, HEC, FGF. Kan2"u, BCH. Kan2mu2"u, BFT. Kan2su province, TG, TC. KJan2/I, CCK. Kapi"a ?countr/@, KE. Kapi"a ?a phi"osopher@, CGA, CBH2CBF. Kapi"avastu, BD, FH, TF, FGF. ee Kapili. Kapi"i, TF. ee Kapila/astu. Kapimara, KA. Karma ?fate@, BTK, HGC, HGF, HKH, CCH. Kasha ?priest5s ro#e@, HE, CB, BGC, HFT. ee Kashaya. Ka2shap, FGB. ee Kashiapa. Kasha/a, CDF. ee Kasha. Kash&ar, TC, BFC, FBD. Ka2shiap, FGB, FBA. ee Kashiapa. Kashiapa, BF, HB, CG, CB, FC, DD, DK, DE, AC2AD, EB, BDA, HFB, HFC, HFE, HKA, HKK, HTB, HTC, FGB, FBA. ee Kia-she. Kashiapmadan&a, BA, EE, BGK, BAE, HEG, FGG, FGB, FBA. Ka2shi2mi2"o, BFF. ee Cashmere. K9sh/ap\/as, BBE. ee Kia-she-pi-ye-pu. Kassapa, FBA. ee Kashiapa. Kau !%ei2%en, BDA, BAG. Kau2chJan& ?countr/@, BGT, BFA. Kau2min& monaster/, BCK, BKA, BKK. Kausham#i ?countr/@, FT. Kau2tsun& ?emperor@, BFC. Ketu, HBH, CFF. ee Ki-tu. Khodin, BGT. ee Khoten and 'din. Khoten, CD, BGT, BFC. ee 'din and u-tian.

Ki ?name of a star@, CFE. Kia2hin&, HKD. Kia2$Jin&, HAC. KJia2"an, HFD. ee -a-lam. Kia2pi2"o, CBC. ee Kapila. Kia2sha, CDF. ee Kashaya. Kia2she, HKK, FGB. ee Kashiapa. Kia2she2pi2/e2pu, BBE. ee K.shyapEyas. Kia2tsin&, BDB. Kiai2hien, BAT, BKG. Kiai2"I, BGE. ee $iscipline and <inaya. Kisi2tJan ?a"tar@, CD, HDC. Kian& TJai2$un&, CCE. Kian&2nan province, BGT, CKB. Kian&2si province, BDT, BAG, HAF, CEK, CEE. Kiau2cheu, FBG. Kiau2men, KH, KC, BFB, BDE, BAK, BAE. ee 98oteric&(ranch. Kie ?emperor@, BA. Kie2tan, BBF. Kieu2h%a, BCT, HFK, HAD. Kieu2$ian&, HAF. Kieu2"un&2tien ?ha""@, HAB. Kieu2mo2"o2shM, BAE, CTE. ee Kumara"i/a. Ki2$Jin&, HAC Ki2"o2shM2$iai, HCD. ee !aradise&o+&*mita(ha. Kin d/nast/, BCK. ee 6-chih&dynasty. Kin2$an&2chi, BAT. ee <a"ramati. Kin2$an&2sat2%a, BAT. ee <a"rasattwa. Kin2mu, CKK, CKE. ee -olden&#other. Kinnaras, HGK, HBD, HBA. Kin&, FB, BGF, BGE, BCC, BAE, BEH, HKD, HKA, HKT, HEB, CKK. ee Sutra. Kin& of the Brahma heaven, HBF. ee Fan-tien-wang. Kipin, AK, EF, BBG, BDG. ee Candahar and Cophen. Kitchen &od, HGK, CAE.

Ki2tu, HBH. ee Ketu. KJiun&, EE. K"aproth, 4u"es, BH, BTG, BTB, HGG, FGE. Koeppen, *ried., BD, AF, HDA, HDK, FGB, FBH. Kosa"a, CB, FH, FGF. ee )erar and ;ude. p. FCB Krishna, BTK, HHG. Kshatr/a, ED, HCB, HTB, HTC. Kshatr/as, HCB, HTH. Ku#9ndas, HBA. Ku#"ai $han, BFK2BFT. Kucha ?countr/@, FH. KIh -uen, CBE. Kui2tsi ?countr/@, TG, BDG. Ku"u ?countr/@, FH. Ku"usan ?a Buddha@, BF. Ku2ma2"a2Rhip, CTE. ee Kumara"i/a. Kumarada, EB, EH. Kumara3iva, FG, FB, ET2TB, BGE2BBG, BBT, BHG, BAE, BKB, HBD, HAH, HEG, HEC, HEK, CTE, FBD, FBA. Kunashemuni ?a Buddha@, BF. KJu2sa2ha, BBK. ee Chosroes I. and 6ushir/an. Ku2shan, BA. Kushina&ara, DG, DH, AH. ee Kushinara. Kushinara, FH. ee Kushinagara. Kustana, BFC. ee Khoten. KI2/un& $%an, FGA. K%an2fu2tsM, HFG. ee Kwan-ti. K%an&2fu2sM ?monaster/@, HFB. K%an&2min&, BKB. K%an& mu, HCT. ee !i-lieu-pa-cha and <irupaksha. K%an&2n&o2tu2rM, BDT. K%an&2/in2tJien, CFG. ee The&hea/en&o+&(rightness&and&sound. K%an2shM2/in, BHE, BCT, BDG, HGE, HBF, HCF, HAH, CEH, FBD. ee Kwan-yin. K%an2ti, HGK, HFD, HFK, CCE, CTC. ee Kwan-+u-ts.

K%an2tsM2tsai, HAH, FBD. ee */alKkit0shwara and Kwan-yin. K%an2/in, BHE, BAC, BKB, HGE, HGT, HCA, HFB, HFH, HFD, HFA, HFT, HDG, HDD, HDE, HDT, HAB2HAK, HKC, CKG, CEH2CEF, CEA, FGT, FBF, FBC. ee */alKkit0shwara. K%an2/in2tien ?ha""@, HFD. K%ei2$i, BKG. K%o2hai K%an2/in, HAH. K%o2tsJin& monaster/, BCK, BKA, BKK, BEG. K%un2"un ?mountains@, CCA.

)(!(N, D. ee *rhan and Lo-han. )a2hu, CFF. ee Lo-heu and Rahu. )ai2cheu fu, CKC. )ama, HCK, HDTQ monasteries, HAAQ temp"es, FGA. )amas, BDH, HAG, HAH, HAC, HKG. )amaseries, HBH. )amaser/, HDA. )an2chin, BCH. )and of !an, FGT. )andresse, C., FGE. )ar&er Deve"opment, HEG. ee -reat&$e/elopment. )assen, Ch., FBA. )ater un& d/nast/, CAG. )ater TJan& d/nast/, BCC. )ater Tsin d/nast/, BCC. )atin "an&ua&e, CAH. )atins, FG. )au2$iIn, CKH, CEB, CTG. ee Lau-ts. )au2shan, FBG. )au2tsM, DD, BAE, CKH. ee Lau-kin. )a%, CG, CD, EB, TC, BKC, BTG, HHA, HCC, HFG, HAG, CKK, FBK. ee $harma and Fa. )a/ Buddhists, HKH. ee 'p.saka. )e&&e, Dr. 4., HBA. )en&a Is"and, CE, CT. ee Ceylon. )en&a ?a priest@, BCB. )en&2/en monaster/, HKDQ tJan, HDC.

)esser Conve/ance, KK. ee Lesser&$e/elopment. )esser Deve"opment, DB, HKK, HEG, HEB. ee Hinayana and Siau-cheng. )hassa, HAA. )i !%ei2sM, BDA, BAG. ee Hwei-s. )i )au2tan, DD. ee Lau-kin and Lau-ts. )i TJai2pe, CTF. )ian& d/nast/, TE, TT, BGB, BGH, BGF, BGK, BBH2BBD, BHA, BHK. )ian&2cheu, BGE, BBA. )ian&2shan, HKG. )ien2chen& ?a star@, CFK )ien2sM2ta2shM, BTE. )ien2tsun&, BKG. ee Tsing-tu. )ieu !in&2sM, BAG. )ieu ,ei, HKG. )ieu Te2%ei, BA. )in )in&2su, BFH. p. FCH )in2tsi schoo", BAB, BAC2BAA, HAG. )ion $in&dom, TF. ee Sh-ts-kwo. )iu ?a ma&ician@, CTB. )o !%ei2nen&, CKB. ee Lo-tsu. )o2han, D, CH, BCE, HDA. ee *rhan and ;-lo-han. )o2hans, DG, BKK, BKE, BEF, HHD, HFB, HFH, HFT, HDF, HAC, CTF. )o2heu, HBH, CFF. ee Rahu. )o$ad3/esht6a, A. ee Sh-tsun. )o$esh%arara3a, A. ee Sh-tsun and 5orldCs&Honoured&;ne. )ondon .issionar/ ociet/, FGK. )oo2choo, BFA. )o2tsu, CKB, CKC, CKF, CKK, CKE. ee Lo&Hwei-neng. )o%er 1an&es, FGC. )u2/an&, EE, TT, BGH, BGE, BGT, BBE, BCF, BFH, BAE, CGC, FGG. )I, BAE, BEH, HKD, HEB. ee $iscipline and <inaya. )I ChJun2/an&, CEH. )un, BGE, BCC, BEH, HKD, HEB. ee Shastra.

)un&, HBA, CCC, FBT. ee $ragon and 6aga. )un&2hu shan, CTG. )un&2hu2tan, CTG. )un&2h%a, HFB. )un&2$ia, CFA. ee -eomancers. )un&2"eu, CFK. ee $ragon&tower. )un&2nI, HFH. ee $aughter&o+&the&$ragon&king. )un&2shen&, BKB. ee Con3ueror&o+&the&$ragon. )un&2shu, KK, BKG, BKH, BEF, HBG, HCG, HKE, HKT, CGH, CGC, CBB2CBK. ee $ragon-tree. )un&2%an&, HGK, HFK. ee $ragon-king and 6aga-ra"a. )uther, .artin, CHD. )u2tsun ?a star@, CFA. )u2/e2/uen, HE. ee $eer&garden and #rigada/a.

.( T>(N2)IN, BH, BBG. .adh/ami$a, BAG, BEF, HCG. .adh/anti$a, KC, HDA. .adura, AE. .a&adha, BD, HG, CG, CB, FH, DH, AC, BCK, HBD, HCB, HET, FGF, FBA, FBK. .a&ian %orship, CB. .aha#hadra2$a"pa, HHH. ee *ge&o+&5ise&men and Hien&kalpa. .aha#rahma, HBK, HHB, HHF, HED. ee Fan-tien-wang. .aha Ish%ara, BEB, HHF. ee #ah0shwara and Ta-ts-tsai-tien. .aha$a"a miau, FGA. .aha Kashiapa, DB, AH. .aha Kuhi"a, HTG. .aha .aud&a"/a/ana, HTG. ee #audgalyayana. .a2ha2pa2de2ma, CTT. ee #ahapadma and #o-ho-po-te-mo. .ahapadma, CTT. ee #a-ha-pa-de-ma and #o-ho-po-te-mo. .a2ha2pa23a2pa2ti, HBF. ee #ah.pra".patE. .ah9pra39pat\, FT, HBF. ee #a-ha-pa-"a-pa-ti. .a2ha2sat, A. ee -reat&)osat. .ahashasa$a schoo", BAT. .aha/ana, CE, FK, AC, AF, BGG, FBDQ #oo$s, HKC, HKK, HKEQ doctrine, FBDQ "iterature, FBD, FBAQ phi"osoph/, BCHQ schoo", KK, BAGQ sutras, HCE, HFF, HKTQ s/stem, BAT, HCG.

ee -reat&$e/elopment. .ah`sh%ara, HBF, HHF, CTT. ee #aha&=shwara and Ta-ts-tsai-tien. .ah\sh9sha$as, BBE. ee #ahashasaka&school and #i-sha-se-pu. .a2hi2shu2"a, CTT. ee #ah0shwara and Ta-ts-tsai-tien. .ahora&as, HBK. .aitre/a, FC, EG, BHH, BKG, HGE, HFG, HFF, HDF, HDA, HAC, HKT. ee #i-li. .a"achJa, HEG. .a"a/s, CKG. .a"e/a ?$in&dom@, BHC. .a2min&, KF2KA, HKE. ee *shwagosha. .an, AC. ee S/astika and 5an. .anchu, HKBQ emperors, BDH, HAG, CCDQ "an&ua&e, FGA. .anchurian mountains, CCF. .anda mountain, AA. .andarin "an&ua&e, A, TG, BBF, BHB, CTT, FBC. .a]d3usJr\, FBF. ee #an"usiri. .andu2$a"pa, HHH. p. FCC .anes, BFA. .an3usiri, HG, HB, CA, FE, DH, DC, BHE, BCT, BDT, BAH, BEA, HGE, HBF, HHK, HCB, HCA2HCE, HAF, HAD, HEF, HTB, HTH, CGG, CEF. ee 5en-shu. .an2tJeu2$iau, CKE. .adura, EH2EF. .ara, BBD, BDT, HBE, HHD, CDD. .aras, HH, HC, CG, DC, HBE, HHG, CDD. ee #o-kwei. .arcus (ure"ius (ntoninus, BGE. .ar&a ?the path of reformation@, HK. .ars ?p"anet@, HBB. ee ung-hwo. .arshman, Dr. 4., HGG. .artin, ir 4ames, CCT. .assa&et=, HEG. ee Ta-yue-ch. .aten&a, CA, CK, HTB2HTC, HTD. .a2tsu, BHT, BAG. .aud&a"/a/ana, BF, CB, CF, CD, FH, FT, AE, HFB. .ax .I""er, ,rofessor, HGG, HEH.

.a/a, BD, HB, CG, DK, CAF. .edhurst, Dr. >. !., CDE. .e&asthenes, HDK. .eh Ti, CBE. .emoria" on the #one of Buddha, BHA. ee Fo-ku-piau. .encius, HGC, CBE, CHF, CHD, CEH, FGG. .en23u2si2"i, BHE. ee #an"usiri and 5en-shu. .ercur/ ?p"anet@, HBB. ee Chen-sing. .etemps/chosis, HC, BBD, BAC, BAA, BAK, BEC, BTB, BTA, BTK, HGG, HGH2HGF, HHE, HFC, HFF, HAE, HKT, HTA, CCH, CDK, CAG, CAF, CKE, CED. .iau2fen& shan, HKB. .icha$a, KB2KC. ee #ikkaka and #isuchaka. .i&asha$/a, HTG. .ih2"i2i2"in& $ai2sa, BBK. .i$$a$a, KH. ee #ichaka. .i"etus, CFB, CFH. .i2"i, HGE, HFG. ee #aitreya. .i"ton, 4ohn, CFG. .in ?$in&dom@, BCD. .in2$un&, HFK. .in2tsi, HFK. .in& d/nast/, BDB, BAB, HDC, HKF, HEH, HTC, CCD, CDD, CAB, CKC, CKE, CTHQ emperor, BDB, HAD, CCDQ tom#s, CHT, CCF, CCD. .in&2cheu, BGD. ee 6ingpo. .in&2ti ?emperor@, BA, EK, BGE, FGG, FBA. .i2sha2se2pu, BBE. ee #ahEsh.shakas. .isucha$a, KH. ee #ichaka. .itarani, HTG. .ithras, HBB. .o&a""ana, HFE. ee #audgalyayana. .o&in"in, BHA. .ohammedan sa&es, BF. .ohammedanism, BBG. .ohammedans, BDB. .o2hi2sheu2"o, CTT. ee #ah0shwara. .o2ho2po2tJe2mo, CTT. ee #ahapadma.

.o2$%ei, CG, BBD, HBE, HHD, CDC, CDA, CKK. ee #aras. .on&o" account, HCAQ emperor, BFKQ emperors, BFT, BDG, FGAQ "amas, FGAQ "an&ua&e, HCKQ sacred #oo$s, FGAQ voca#u"ar/, FGD. .on&o"ia, HG, CA, BDH, HBH, HDT, HAA, HKG. .on&o"ian Buddhism, BFT, CAAQ d/nast/, HAGQ emperors, BDG. .on&o"ians, BDG. .on&o"s, F, FB, BFK, BFE, BKB, CCD. .orrison, Dr. R., F, FBC. .ount Uda, AT. .o2%an& ?$in& of the .aras@, HBE. .ri&adava, HE. ee $eer&garden and Lu-ye-yuen. .uh2$ien2"ien, HFK.

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N(1(, HF, AK, F,F. ee $ragon and Lung. Na&a2ra3a, HGK, HBD. ee $ragon-king and Lung-wan&. N9&9rd3una, FBF. ee 6agar"una. Na&ar3una, FG, FC, KK, KE, BDA, BAG, BKG, BEF, HBG, HCG, HCK, HCE, HKE, HEC, FBD. ee $ragon-tree, and Lung-shu. Na&as, HF, CT, FG, DG, DE, DT, AA, HBA, HBK, FBE, FBT. ee $ragons. Nairan3ana ?river@, HH, CG. Na$shatras, CFF. Na"ana, HF. Na"anda, BBE, BKG, HET. Namo ?a mon$@, BFK. p. FCF Nanda ?a $in& of the Na&as@, DT. Nan2hai pJu2to, BCT. ee !u-to&o+&the&Southern&sea. Nan$in&, ET, BGB, BGD, BBG, BAT, BKT, HFK, HAG, HAD, HKF, HKD, FBC. Nan2n&o schoo", BDA, BDT, BAG, BKG. Nan2shan schoo", BAT.

Nara$a, BTD, HHD, CBG, CDK, FBF. Nara$as, HBK. Na2tJo ?a prince@, BDT. Nats, HBK. Neander, BAA. Ne#uchadneRRar5s ima&e, HDA. Ne&roes, CKG. Nepau", H, BD, EE, BGG, BCH, CGT, CBD, FGH. Nepau"ese #oo$s, FGHQ anscrit, BHG, HBF, HCE. Nestorian missionaries, CDFQ mon$s, CDDQ priests, CDD. Nestorians, BFA, BFE, CDF. Neumann, ,rofessor C. *., BGG. N&ai 4u2"io, BHB. N&an2h%ei, CKB. N&o2$%ei, BBD, BHA. ee Hungry&ghosts. Nicephorus Bataniares, BBK. Nie2pJan, FGB. ee 6ir/.na. Nif%an, K. ee 6ir/.na. Ni$an, KC. ee 6irgrantha. Ni2$u, CD, CDD. Ni"&herries, HAA. Nima"a paradise, HHC, ee Hwa-lo. Nin&po, ED, BGD, BGK, BCA, BCK, BTB, CKB, CKK. ee #ing-cheu. Nir#an, FGB. ee 6ir/.na. Nir#ana, K. ee 6ir/.na. Nir&rantha, KC, KF. ee 6ikan. Niroda, HK. Nirv9na, BD, BT, HH, HF, CG, FD2DK, AH2AF, AA, AE, KG, KB, KT, EB, EA, TC, TK, BCD, BAC, BAE, BKB, BKF, BED, BTK2BTT, HGE, HBF, HHF, HHD, HHE, HFE, HAC, HAF, HKA, HKT, HEB, HTC, CGD, CBB, CAG, CKC, CEF, CEA, CEK, FGB, FBG, FBB, FBF, FBK, FBT. ee 6ie-pan. Nir%ana, K. ee 6ir/.na. Ni2sen&, CDD. ee 6i-ku. Nit2#an, FGB. ee 6ir/.na. No, HAT. ee ang-ko. North China, ET, BAG, HCA, HDG, CEF.

Northern Buddhism, CA, DD, HGE, HCC, HCD, FBGQ Buddhists, BC, HB, CE, FH, FA, TT, BGK, BHEQ China, BHB, BKB, BKTQ co""ection, HKDQ India, KB, EH, BGT, BBG, BFD, HHT, HKK, CTT, FGC, FBAQ schoo", BC, AD, FGCQ sea, HFBQ i#eria, BTGQ TsJi, BKG. North2%estern India, BEF, CFC. NI2chih a"pha#et, BBFQ d/nast/, CAGQ "an&ua&e, FGA. Nushirvan, BBK. ee Chosroes I. and Ku-sa-ha.

O2C!+2)I2-+, CTT. ee *-cha-li-ya and *ch.rya. O2"o2han, FGB. ee *-la-han and *rhan. O"/mpus, CAF. O2mi2to *o, HGE, HCC, HFD, HFA, HDE, CEA. ee *mida&)uddha. O2mo2$Jia po2che2"o, CTT. ee *mogha&<a"ra. Om2mani2padme2hum, BCT, FGA. O2na2han, FGB. ee *nagam. O2nan, HKA. ee *nanda. O2pi ti2/I, BTA. ee */ichi&naraka. Ori&en, CCH. Oude, BT, FH, HTG. ee Kosala. Oui&hour characters, BFTQ countr/, BFAQ "an&ua&e, FGAQ %ritin&, BFT. Oui&hours, TB. Ou3ein, HEG. Oxus, BBA.

,(2!O2 I2,(, BFK. ee )aschpa. ,Ja$2tie, FGB. ee !ratyeka. ,a"atsJan&a, TB. ,a"e/, Dr., BTF. ,a"i, #oo$s, FGBQ Buddhistica" anna"s, BHQ histor/, BGAQ inscriptions, FGHQ "an&ua&e, DC, FGB2FGF, FBC, FBA, FBKQ ori&ina"s, BHGQ ton&ue, BGG. ,a2"i2ch%an& pa&oda, HDB. ,a"input, BGA, ee !ataliputra. ,a""adius, (rchimandrite, FBB. ,a2nan K%an2/in, HFA. ,an2cheu, BKB. ,Jan&2$I2shM, HFK. ,a]]/a, FGC. ee !ra"na.

,an2shM, BKE. p. FCD ,aradise of (mita#ha, HCDQ of Indra ha$ra, BTD, HHC, HHFQ of the >estern heaven, BAK, BKG, BKH, BKF, BTE, HGE, HCF, HFA, HAB, HAH, HKC, CAG, CAD, CDA, CEK, FBE. ,aramita, FBK. ,aramitas, FG. ,aramiti, HET, CTT. ee !at-la-mit-ti. ,aramoda, HEG. ,aranai, FH. ee )enares. ,aranimita, HHC. ee Ta-hwa-ts-tsai. ,aranirv9na, DA. ,arshva, KF. ,arthia, CFC. ,arthians, KD. ,a2ta2"i$, BBA, BBK. ee Constans II. ,ata"iputra, KF, KD, BGA, BGT, HDK, HKC, HEC, ee Hwa-sh and !alinput. ,atie$an, FGB. ee !ratyeka. ,at2"a2mit2ti, CTT. ee !aramiti. ,at2"a2si2na23i2ta, CTT. ee !rasena"it. ,atna, BC, HET, FGC. ,at2nia, FGC. ee !ra"na. ,atriarchs B. H. C. F. D. A. K. E. T. BG. BB. Indian. Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y ee #aha&Kashiapa, Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y *nanda, Shangna/asu, 'pagupta, $rikata, #ichaka, <asumitra, )uddhanandi, )uddhamitra, !arsh/a, !unayad"a,

BH. BC. BF. BD. BA. BK. BE. BT. HG. HB. HH. HC. HF. H.D HA. HK. HE. HT. CG. CB. CH. CC.

Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Indian. Y Y Chinese. Y Y Y Y

Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y

*shwagosha, Kapimara, 6agar"una, Kanade/a, Rahulata, Sanghanandi, Sangkayasheta, Kumarada, 4ayata, <asu(andu, #anura, Haklena, Singhalaputra, )asiasita,

ee !utnomita, Y Y !rad"natara, )odhidharma,

ee Hwei-ko, Y Y Y Y Seng-tsan, Tau-sin, Hung-"in, Hwai-neng,

,atta"a, HAK. ee Tatta. ,au Chen&, CDE. ,au ,o2tsM, CDG. ,au2chM, BAE. ,e2chan&, HGT. ,e2chi2"i province, TG, BHE. ,e&uans, BH. ,eh2/en, HEG. ,e$in&, BHE, BCK, BDG, BDH, BAD, HBB, HFT2HDH, HDF2HDA, HDT, HAG, HAH, HAA, HAE, HKG2HKH, HKF, HKD, CHT, CCF, CCD, CCK, CCE, CDC, CTH, FGB, FGA, FGK, FBB, FBC.

,e2ma sM ?temp"e@, BAE. ee 5hite&horse&temple. ,ersia, CB, TC, BBG, BBA, BBK, BDG, HBF, HFT, CFC. ,ersian, BFDQ "an&ua&e, HBBQ priests, BFA. ,eruvians, AC. ,esha%ar, HDA. ,e2sun& ?mountain@, CTG. ,e2teu, CFK. ee -reat&)ear. ,e2tsJi d/nast/, BKB. ,hi"in&, BBK. ee Fulim. ,i2chM, FGB. ee !ratyeka&)uddha. ,i2chJieu, FGB. ee )ikshu. ,ien2chJen&, HFA. ee Kai-+eng&+u. ,ien2"ian&, HKG. ee Kai-+eng&+u. ,i2hia /uen2chiIn ?a divinit/@, HKB. ,i2ho2"o2po2"o, CTT. ee <iharapala, ,i2$Jieu, HKA, FGB. ee )ikshu. ,i2"an2na2shi2"i, BFT. ,i2"eu2"e2cha, HCT. ee Tseng-chang and <irudhaka. ,i2"eu2pa2cha, HCT. ee Kwang-mu and <irupaksha. ,i2"u2si, BBK. ,isha#arma ?a $in&@, TH. ,ish9cha demons, HED. ,i2sha2men, HCT. ee To-wen and <aishramana. p. FCA ,ita$a, HCG. ee San-tsang. ,Jit2ti, HTG. ee !ratyeka&)uddha. ,Jit2ti2$a2"a, HTG. ee !ratyeka. ,i/adasi, HKE. ee *shKka. ,i2/In sM ?temp"e@, HDF. ,"ato, CE, CFH. ,"atonic dia"o&ues, CE. ,"uto, CAC, CAF. ,o23e, HEB. ee !ra"na. ,v2$iun ?a star@, CFE.

,o"e star, CCA. ,o2"e2mi2ti, CTT. ee !aramiti. ,o2"o2sM2na2shM2to, CTT. ee !rasena"it. ,o"/nesians, CKG. ,ortu&uese, HDC, CDD. ee Si-yang&"en. ,oseidon, CAF. ,o2shin, HBE. ee .o2%an&. ,ota"a, BCT, HAA. ee !otaraka. ,otara$a, BCT. ee !otala. ,racrit, CGT, FGH2FGF. ,rad3]atara, ED. ,ra3na, BT, FG, FB, DB, BEB, HEB, FGC, FBK. ee !o-"e. ,rasena3it, CB, FB, FD, FT, HTB, HTH, CTT. ee !o-lo-s-na-sh-to. ,rat/e$a Buddha, AA, EG, BCD, BEC, HDF, HTG, FGB. ee !i-ch and uen-kioh. ,rat/e$as, HTG. ,riesthood, CG, CD, EB, TC, BTG, HHA, HCC, HFG, FBK. ee Sanga. ,rince of fue", HAT. ee Chai-wang. ,rotestants, CDF. ,to"em/, TC. ,Ju2hien, HG, HB, BHE, BCT, BAC, BEK, HGE, HFB, HFC, HDD, HAD, CEF, CED. ee Samanta(hadra. ,u2$Jun&, BHD, BCH, BAT. ee *mogha. ,u2"u2sha, BFF. ee !urusha. ,una/ad3a, KF. ,un3a#, EC, HDA, HKE, CHH, CFC. ,urana Kashiapa, DH. ,uruna, HTG. ,urusha, HKE. ee !u-lu-sha. ,Ju2sa, D, HF, CT, HGA, HFK, HAA, CAD, CKG, CEC, CED. ee )odhisattwa. ,ut, FBC. ee Fo. ,uta"o$a, HAH. ee !otaraka. ,Ju2ta2"o2$ia, BCT. ee !otaraka. ,utanas, HBA. ,Ju2tJi, FGB. ee )odhi. ,Ju2tJi2"ieu2chM, CTT. ee )odhiruchi.

,utnomita, ED. ,Ju2to, BHE, BCK, BCT, HDT, HAH, HAD2HAK, FGH. ,Ju2to of the outhern sea, BCT. ee 6an-hai&pu-to. ,/tha&oras, CCK, CFH.

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R(!U, HBH, CFF. ee La-hu and Lo-heu. Rahu"a, BF, CH2CF, HFE. Rahu"ata, KE, KT. Ra3a&riha, D, CB, AF, AA, HBF, HKC. ee 5ang-she. Ra$sha, DE. Ra$shas, BDA, HGA. Ra$shasas, HBA, HBK. Rama, HHG, HEK. Ras ("&ethi ?a star@, CFE. ee Ti-tso. Ratnapra#ha, HBF. Red #ird, CCK. Remusat, 4. (., H, A, AH, EE, TB, BGT, BBF, HGK, FGE. Rhode, !., BDA. Ricci, .atteo, BDB, BDH, BKB, CDD. Rishi, KB, BKC. ee Sien-"en. Roman Catho"ic missionaries, BDB, CDD. Roman Catho"ics, CDF, CDD. Roman emperor, BGEQ empire, EA, BBK, HBB, HHHQ merchant, BGEQ re"i&ion, CTKQ scu"pture, HFTQ shop$eeper5s %ife, FBD. Romans, BBK. Rome, EA, HGH, HAT, FBD. Ru"i, FD. Russe"", Bishop, CKK. Russian +cc"esiastica" .ission, FBB.

(B( ?a %or"d@, HGT, HBF. ee Saha. a#i$aras ?a heretica" sect@, HTH, HTC. a&arda&am, CBB. ee Sidagam. a&e of the house of ha$/a, BB. ee Shakyamuni. aha, HGT, HBF, HHH. ee Sa(a. 59$/amuni, FBF. ee Shakyamuni. a"ari#hu, DH, DC. amadhi, HB, HF, DH, AH, AA2AE, KA, KK, BEA, BEK, HTA, CEF, FBF, FBK. amana, FBA. ee Shramana. amanean, FGT. ee Shramana. p. FCK amanta, BFF. amanta#hadra, HG, BCT, HGE. ee !u-hien. amanta&andha, HBF. amarcand, TC. amidhi, CGE. am2mei, FBK. ammit\/as, BBE. ee San-mi-ti-pu. amuda/a, HK. anchi topes, HEK. andracottus, BGA. cdefgdhijjik, HDK. ee Chandragupta. and/ desert, BDG. an2fo2tsJi, BFD. an&a, HE, HT, BET, CDF, FBK. ee !riesthood. an&adeva, BBG, CTT. ee Seng-k1ia-t1i-p1o. an&arama, HT, BAE, HFD. an&hanandi, KT, EG. an&$a/asheta, EG, EB. an&2mun, ET. ee Shamen. an$h/a phi"osoph/, CBFQ schoo", CBH. an2$un&, CFA. an2$%an, HFK. an2mi2ti2pu, BBE. ee SammitEyas.

anscrit a"pha#et, BBH, BBC, CTTQ #oo$s, BBA, BBE, BCA, BFF, FBCQ character, BCKQ characters, BCB, BCH, BCK, HFT, FGD, FGAQ charm, FGKQ Chinese dictionar/, FBCQ cop/, BGTQ dia"ect, FGFQ dictionar/, FBHQ e:uiva"ent, TCQ form, BBE, HHHQ forms, FBCQ &rammar, A, BBE, CGHQ inscriptions, BCK, FGH, FGKQ "an&ua&e, H, D, A, BC, HG, AC, AK, TG, BGG, BGK, BBE, BBT, BHC, BCH, BCD, BCK, BFG, BFT, BKC, BTH, HBC, HHH, HHD, HCB, HAG, HAH, HKF, HEH, HEC, HEK, HTG, CGT, CBB, CDF, CTT, FGG2FGA, FBA, FBKQ "etters, BBD, BAT, CTTQ "iterature, BCK, HHEQ manuscript, BKAQ manuscripts, H, BFF, BFAS metres, CGCQ mode, BBFQ name, TF, HBG, HFGQ names, HBF, HCT, FBHQ ori&ina"s, BBK, FGB, FBKQ professor, BGKQ pronunciation, BHBQ scho"ar, HCEQ scho"ars, BGKQ sentences, BCK, FGBQ sounds, FGA, FBFQ sutras, BGKQ s/""a#"e, BHGQ term, K, BHT, CGHQ termination, CDQ text, HBD, FGC, FGFQ trans"ations, BGKQ version, BCQ %ord, F, BH, BGG, BGK, BBD, BAE, CDF, CDK, CAH, FGB, FGF, FBAQ %ords F, A, HHH, FGG, FGH, FGD, FBHQ %or$s, BGKQ %ritin&, BFT, CAC, FGH. ans$rita, FBF. ee Sanscrit&language. an2t6ai ?three conste""ations@, CFE. an2tsan&, HCG, HEC. ee Tripitaka. an2tsan&2fa2shM, BHT. arv9stiv9das, BBE. ee Shang-tso-pu and Shwo-i-tsie-yeu-pu. arvavain_sicas, CGT. aturn ?p"anet@, HBB. ee Chen-sing. avatthi, FBA. ee Shra/asti. candinavian inscriptions, AC. ch"e&e", (. >., BGA. chmidt, I. 4., BAA. chott, >., BKB, FBG, FBB. cinde, EE. ee Shin-do. e"eucus Nicator, BGA, HDK. emite, CFB. emitic ori&in of anscrit, CAC. en&2chau, BGT. en&2&a2de2#a, CTT. ee Sangade/a. en&2$Jia2tJi2pJo, CTT. ee Sangade/a. erampore, HGG. ha2#a2ti, FBA. ee Shra/asti. ha$2de2%an2/in, HBF. ee Shakrade/a&=ndra. ha$2$a2"a2de2#a In2da2"a, CTT. ee Shakrade/a&=ndra. ha$radeva Indra, CTT. ee Shak-de-wan-yin. ha$/a, BH, HD, HE, CB, TA, BGG, BGH, BGF, BGA, BFD, HGE, HAB. ee Shakyamuni. ha$/a c"an, FC, FDQ fami"/, BK. ha$/amuni, F, T, BB, BC2BD, BT, HC, HA, HT2CH, CD, CE, FG2FH, FD, FK, DG2DH, AH, AF, KG, KB, TF, TT, BGA, BBT, BHA, BFB, BDF, BDK, BDT, BAK, BAE, BKB, BEG, BTH, HGK, HGE, HBG, HBC2HBD, HBK, HBE, HHH, HHK, HHE, HCH, HFB2HFF, HFA2HDG, HDC, HDD, HDA, HDE, HDT, HAB, HAF2HAA, HKA, HKK, HKT, HEH2HEF, HEK, CGH, CFF, CDD, CEG, CEF, CEA, FGH, FBF, FBK. ee Shakya. p. FCE ha2"a, BDG. hamen, AD, ET, BTH, CBD, FGB, FBA. ee Shramana.

hami, AD, AA. ee Shramanera. ha2nai2shat2chat2"a, CTT. ee Shanaishchara. hanaishchara, CTT. ee Sha-nai-shat-chat-la. han& d/nast/, CEE. han&hai, BGK, BBT, BHG, BCF, HFB, CHE, CAA, CKB, CKT, CTB, FBG. han&navasu, AH, AA2AT, KC. han&2tso2pu, BBE. ee Sar/.sti/.das. han2h%ei, BAE. han2si province, TG, BBA, BHE, BCT, BFA, BAD, BAA, BKB, HDT, HAD, CEF. han2tsJai, HB, BDT, HFH. han2tun& province, BAC, HFA, HKG, HKH, CKB, CKC, CKE, FBG. hariputra, BF, HB, CB, CD, FT, BDT, HFB, HFE, HTG. hastra, KA, BAG, BAT, BKG, HKT, HEE, CGF, CGA, CBH. ee Lun. hastras, AE, KK, BGE, BBG, BHG, BCC, BFK, BFT, HBG, HCH, HKK, HKT, CGH, CGC. ha2%ei, F, D. ee Shra/asti. hen -o, BBC. he2na2/i2shM2the2"o, CTT. ee Shanaishchara. hen&2tJien, HKT. hen&2%en, HFC, HFE, CGF, CGA, CBG. ee Shr./aka. hen2$un&, BBH. hen2si province, EE, TG, TC, BGC, BHA, BCC. hen2tsun& ?emperor@, BFH. hen2"en&2/en Ra3ah, HTA. hM2chM, BF, BAC, HFB, HFA, HFT. hM2ch%an&, FGK. hM2h%an&, CHA. hM2$ia *o, HDE. ee Shakya. hM2$ia2"o2tJi2pJa -in2tJo2"o, CTT. ee Shakrade/a&=ndra. hi$hin ?a Brahma@, HBD. h\"a ?mora"it/@, FBK. hi2"i, BBK. ee Hormou7. hin2do, EE. ee =ndia. hin2sieu, BAG, BAH. hipara discip"ine, DF.

hira, HHA. hM2tJeu, BAG. hM2tsM, EF. ee Singhalaputra. hM2tsM2$%o, TF. ee Ceylon. hM2tsun, A. ee 4ulai and 5orldCs&Honoured&;ne. hiva, AC, BDG, HBD, HBA, HHG. hivaism, BCH. hramana, AD, KT, BTH, FGB, FBA. ee Shamen. hramanas, HE, ET. hramanera, AD. ee Shami. hr9va$a, CGF. ee Sheng-wen. hr9va$as, BT, CBG. hravasti, F, BF, CB, CA, FB, FH, FT, KT, BBT, HTG, HTH, HTA, HTK, FGF, FBA. ee Sha-wei. hu countr/, CTG. ee S-chwen. hun2chM, TB, BDH. h%o2i2tsie2/eu2pu, BBE. ee Sar/.sti/.das. iam, CA, BGF, BKB, HBB, HFA, HFT, FGH. iamese, BHQ chrono"o&/, BDQ prince, HAD. i2an fu, ET, BFA. ee Chang-an. ian&2pe mountain, AK. ian ^, BBD, BBA. iau2ch6en&, HKK, HEG, HEB. ee Hinayana and Smaller&$e/elopment. M2chJ%en province, BHE, BCT, HAD, HKG, CEF, CTG. ee Shu&country. ida&am, BEH, CBB. iddharta, BD, BE. ee Shakyamuni. ien23en, BKC. ee Rishi. ieu2"o ? u2"a@, BBD. ee *sura. i2fan, BFT. ee Thi(et. i2hien, BBG. M2ma Chien, CDG. M2ma >en2$un&, BFC. in2an ?district@, CAA. in2chan& ?to%n@, HDA. in&ha"aputra, EF. ee Sh-ts.

in&ha"ese, F, BH, TF, HFT, HKKQ Buddhists, HEHQ dates, BCQ priest, BHDQ temp"es, FH. inha"a, TF. ee Sh-ts-kwo. inim, TC. in2"a, BCH. ee Corea. in2siu ?sect@, CAG. isters of .erc/, CTD. p. FCT M2ta2tJien2%an&, HCT. ee Four&-reat&Kings&o+&$e/as. i2tso, BKT. iuen2ho, CEH. iuen2tsun& ?emperor@, BHE. iuen2%an&, HGC. iIn Kin&, CBE. i2/an&23en, HDC. ee !ortuguese. i2/I sM, HKH. ma"" Deve"opment schoo", HG. ee Lesser&$e/elopment. ma""er Deve"opment course, BBGQ schoo", HEHQ sutras, CE. ee Hinayana. mith, Dr. >., CFH. ocrates, CE, CFH. o2da2#an, FGB. ee Srotapanna. otapan, FGB. ee Srotapanna. outh China, CDDQ India, KK, HKT. outhern Behar, BDQ Buddhism, CA, FBGQ Buddhist traditions, BBBQ Buddhists, BH, BC, BD, FH, HBB, HKC, HKKQ China, BGB, CCGQ Chinese dia"ects, FGGQ co""ection, HKDQ continent, HGAQ India, HB, KA, KK, ED, EA, BGG, BDA, HEGQ ocean, HHH, schoo"s, FGCQ sea, BCT, HFH, HFH. outhe/, R., BTK. rotapanna, AE, CBB, FGB. ee So-da-(an. t. !i"aire, B., H. toics, CFH. tonehen&e, FBT. I *a, HEC. I Kien, CFC. I Ki2/I, CDK. I K%an&2$Ji, BDH. u -eu, BA.

u#hadra, DC. u#hVti, D2K, BDT, HTG, HTB, HTC. udatta, HTH, HTA. u2da2%an, FE, BEH, CBB, FGB. ee Srotapanna. uddhodana, BD. ee Tsing-+an. ui d/nast/, BBB, BBK, BKA, HGA, HDG. ui2sin& ?p"anet@, HBB. ee 4upiter. umeru mountain, HG, HB, CH, FF, DT, TC, HHH, HHC, HCC, HCF, HCT, CCA, CFF. un KJiuen ?a prince@, BGE. un Tsiau, BHT. un& d/nast/, FK, DE, BCC, BCF, BCT, BFH, BDH, HKG, HEB, CHH, CHC, CHD, CDA, CDE, CDT, CAB, CAD, CEC, CTHQ ?+ar"ier@, TB, TC, TF, TE, FGTQ 4u, CBE, CBT, CHAQ phi"osophers, CBE, CBT, CHB2CHA, CDTQ phi"osoph/, CFF. un& $ian&, BBT. un&2tsM K%an2/in, HAH, CEC. un&2/In, BGG, BGC. usima, BGA. I2tJo2h%an, AE, FGB. ee Srotapanna. utra, HB, FB, FH, FF, DD, EE, BGT, BBT, BHG, BFT, BDG, BEH, HBD, HBE, HCG, HKD, HKT, HTC, CGK, CGE. utras, BK, CE, FB2FF, DB, DF, AE, KG, BGG, BGA2BGT, BBE, BHE, BCB, BCC, BFA, BFK, BFT, BAE, BEA, HBF, HBT, HCG, HCH, HCF, HCA, CGH, CGD, CGK, CGE, CBB, CBH, CBF2CBA. u2tsun& ?emperor@, BHF. vasti$a, AC. ee 5an. %aracs, BDA. /$es, Co"one", HBC. /ria, BGA. /riac, BFE. /rian Christians, BBK, CDFQ inscription, BBK, CDC, CDK, CAC.

T(2C!J+N1, TT, BGG, BBG, HGT, HCG, HKK, HKE, HEB, FBA. ee -reat&$e/elopment and #ahayana. Ta2hia, EE. ee $ahO. TJa2h%a2tsM2tsai, HHC. ee !aranimita. TJai2cheu, BKD. TJai2$i, CHC. ee -reat&98treme. TJai2pe ?p"anet@, HBB. ee <enus. TJai2pin& re#e""ion, BAT, HKD, CTG.

TJai2shan, HFA, CCE, CKF, CTC. TJai2tsM2tJa, HAD. TJai2tsu ?emperor@, BCF. TJai2tsun& ?TJan& emperor@, BA, BBK, BHF, BKBQ ? un& emperor@, BCF. Tai2%ei ?conste""ation@, BA. TJai2/uen fu, BHE. Ta2$io2$in2sien, BFH. ee Shakyamuni. Tami", EH. Ta2min& fu, BAD. Ta2mo, TT, BGH, BGC, HGT, HFK. ee )odhidharma. p. FFG Tan ChM, CAG. Tan2cho sM ?temp"e@, HDH. TJan& d/nast/, AA, BGC, BGK, BBD, BBA, BHH, BHF, BHK, BCB, BCF, BCD, BFA, BDE, BAC, HGK, HGT, HBB, HCE, HFT, HDG, HKD, CDB, CDF, CDA, CEC, CTB, CTF, CTD, FGG, FGF, FBD. TJan& ?emperor@, CCC. TJan& han&2shu, CKF. Tantra, HATQ schoo", BHD, BAT. Tartar chief, THQ fami"/, TB. Tartar/, TB, BFD, HDD, CCA, CAG. Ta2shM2chM, HGT, HCF, HDD, HAH. Ta2shih, BBK. ee *ra(s. Tath9&ata, A, CF, FK, DB, BDE, BKH, HGK, HTG, HTH2HTK. ee 4ulai. Ta2tsJin, EA, BBK. ee Roman&empire. Ta2tsM2tsai2tJien, HBF. ee #ah0shwara. Tatta, HAK. ee !attala. Tau, TE, BAF. Tau2an, BGE, BAE. Tauism, BGK, BCG, BFH, BFK, HFK, CHG, CHC, CKC, CDB, CEH, CEK2CET, CTH2CTD, CTK, FBB. Tauist, BHB, CHB, CHF, CEHQ authors, CKHQ #oo$s, CAF, CAT, CTBQ co""ection, CTBQ discip"ine, CEEQ divinit/, HBG, HFAQ doctrine, CBTQ e"ements, CCTQ expression, CKCQ &enii, BFHQ heaven, CTBQ hierarch/, CETQ he"", CTFQ hermits, CTFQ ideas, CTHQ ido"s, HFKQ ima&es, CABQ "iterature, CDEQ ma&ic, CBTQ ma&ician, CEK, CETQ mind, CEBQ monaster/, CTCQ notions, CKEQ part, CFDQ ,atriarch, CTBQ persona&e, HKBQ phi"osophers, CBTQ ph/sica" s/stem, CHDQ pra/ers, CTBQ priests, BGK, HHG, CEKQ pu#"ications, CATQ rec"uses, BKDQ re"i&ion, CTDQ schoo", CABQ sects, BBBQ superstition, HGKQ teachin&, CTDQ temp"e, BDCQ tone, CBTQ %iRard, CEKQ %riters, CTB. Tauists, HHG, CHB, CHF, CHD, CDG, CAD, CKH, CEB, CEK, CEE, CTC2CTA. Tau2$%an&, HAC. Tan2"i heaven, HG, FE, TC, HBE, HHC.

Tau2"io, HEK. Tau2siuen, HGT. Tau2%u, BDG. Tau2/uen, BFF. Ta2/ue2chM, HEG. ee #assagetO. Teda ?$in&@, EC. Te2shau, BKE. Te2tsJin&, HTC, HTA. Teu2sh%ai sM ?temp"e@, HDG. Tha"es, CFB, CFH. The &uidin& Buddha, HFA, CEA. ee Tsie-yin&Fo. The heaven of #ri&htness and sound, CFG. ee Kwang-yin-tien. The pure ca"m and spontaneous"/2perceivin& 4u2"ai, CTB. ee Tsing-tsing-ts-"an-chio&"u-lai. The secret teachin& of -o&a, BAT. ee o-ga-mi-kiau. Thi#et, AC, AA, TG, BFD, BFT, BDH, BKG, BEF, HCG, HFH, HDT, HAB, HAA, HEG, CCA. ee Si-+an. Thi#etan, BFKQ architecture, HAAQ Buddhism, BFTQ Buddhists, BDGQ character, FGAQ ima&e, HABQ incense, HDBQ inscriptions, BCT, HDD, HAG, HACQ "an&ua&e, BFT, FGAQ "etters, BBD, BATQ pra/er, HDBQ pra/ers, FGAQ priest, BDGQ priests, HAHQ route, BBBQ %ord, BBK. Thi#etans, F, BBF, BKB, HGH, HCG, FGA. Thin=, TC. Thor, AC. Thousand2handed K%an2/in, HAH. Three ,recious Ones, FBK. ee Fo, Fa, and Sanga. Three ,ure Ones, CTG, CTB. Three a&es, HGT, HFA, HAH. TJien, HE, FG, BBD, BKH, HHT, CBG, CAH. ee $e/a. TJien2fen& ?mountain@, BKE. TJien2mu shan ?mountain@, BKE, CDE. TJien2nin& sM ?temp"e@, HDG. TJien2tJai, FB, BCA2BFG, BFA, BDA, BKB, BKH, BKD, BKT, BEG, HDTQ $iau, BFG, BEF, BEKQ schoo", BEA, HGT, HCG, HCBQ s/stem, BEF. TJien2tJai shan ?mountain@, BKG. TJien2ti, CTB. ee Hea/enly&emperor. Tientsin, CHE, CTD. TJien2tsJin pJu2sa, BDT, BAT, HKE. ee <asu(andu. TJien2tJun&, BTB.

TJin2do, ET. ee =ndia. p. FFB Tin&2$%an& *o, AD. Tirthancaras, BDA. Ti2shM, HBG, HFC. ee =ndra&Shakra. TJi2to2"o2to, HCT. ee Dhritar9shtra. Ti2tsan&, BCT, BTD, HGT, HHK, HFH, HFD2HFK, HDF, HDD, HAC, HAD, CAF, CTC. Ti2tso ?conste""ation@, CFE. ee Ras&*lgethi. To2"o2ni, CTT. ee $harani. To2%en, HCT. ee <aishramana. Treasure of the )a%, HCC. ee Fa-tsang. Tripita$a, AF, BAT, BEG, HKK, HEC. ee San-tsang. TsJai2shen, HFK. Tsai2sheu, HHK. TsJau2$Ji, BDT. Tsau2$iIn, HGK. TsJau2tun& ?schoo"@, BAB, HAG. Tsen&2chan&, HCT. ee <irudhaka. Tsi ?state@, HGC. TsJi d/nast/, TD, BGK. TsM )ian&, TD. Tsie2/in *o, HFA, CEA. ee The&guiding&)uddha. TsM2han&, HAA, CDC. ee <essel&o+&#ercy. TsM2h%an& shan&2ti, CAB, CAF. TsM2pe ta2shM, HKD. Tsin d/nast/ ?>estern@, BKB, CTB. Ts6in d/nast/, TC, CHA. ee $7in&dynasty. TsJin& cheu, FBG. Tsin&2fan, BD. ee Suddhodana. Tsin&2tsin&2tsM23an2chio23u2"ai, CTB. ee The&pureB&calmB&and&spontaneously-percei/ing&4u-lai. Tsin&2tu, HAHQ schoo", BKG, BTE, HGT, HCF, FBBQ sect, BKH. TsJin&2/uen schoo", BDT, BAG. TsJiuen2cheu, BDT. TsM2%ei ta2ti, CTB.

Tao2fu ?a star@, CFE. Tso2tsM, HAT. TsJun&2"in& mountains, TG, BCB, BFF. Tsun&2men, BFB, BDE, BAG, HFK, HAG. ee 9soteric&(ranch. Tu *u, CTF. Tu !%ai23an&, BAG. TJu2ha2"a, BBK. Tu2$iue, BBK. ee 5estern&Turks. Tun&2n&o ti2$iIn, HFA. TJun&2tae monaster/, BGD. Tun&2/o temp"e, CDT, CTC, CTF. Tun2h%an&, BKG. Turanian "an&ua&e, FGD. Tur$estan, CD, AB, FGF. Tur$ish "an&ua&e, FGF, FGD. Tur$s, BBA. Turnour, 1., BH, BC, BD, BGA. Tu2shM $Jeu, FGK. Tushita heaven, BH, HB, CG, DK, BKG, HHC, HHD, HFF, HDA. Tushito, BH. ee Tushita. TJu2ti miau, CDT.

U2C!(N12N(, CTT. ee 'dyana. Uda/a, CH. Uda/ana ?$in&@, FT. Udin, BGT, BBG, BFC, HEG. ee Khoten. Ud/ana, BGG, HTG, CTT. ee '-chang-na. U2d/un&2na, CTT. ee 'dyana. U2"am, BHA, HBG. ee -lan-hwei and -lan-pen. U"u$a, CGA, CBC. ee eu-leu-kia. U"uvi"va Kashiapa, CG. U"/sses, CAC. United tates, CDK. Upadh/9/a, BFC, FBK. ee Ho-shang.

Upa&upta, AK2KG. Upa$utta, DE. Up_"i, BAE, HKK. ee eu-po-li, Upanishata, HTG. Up9sa$a, HT, CD, DG, BFC, CTT. ee eu-po-so-kia.

0(I w !IK( , CBG. 0aisha3as, HBA. 0aisha"i, FH, FD, HEF, FGC. ee <esali. 0aishramana, HBA, HCT. ee To-wen. 0a3ramati, BAT. ee Kin-kang-ch. 0a3rasatt%a, BAT. ee Kin-kang-sat-wa. 0aranasi, HE. ee )enares. 0asu#andu, BDT, HKE. ee Tien-tsin&pu-sa. 0asumitra, KH, KC, HKK, HEC. 0eda, HGK. ee 5ei-to. 0edas, HK, HBC, CAC. 0e2nu Dove, HBT. ee <ishnu. 0enus ?p"anet@, HBB. ee Tai-pe. p. FFH 0esa"i, FGC. ee <aishali. 0e2shi2nu, HBT. ee <ishnu. 0esse" of .erc/, HAA, CDC. ee Ts-hang. 0iharapa"a, CTT. ee )i-ha-la-pa-la. 0ima$ita, BAC, HEF. ee 5ei-mo-kie. 0im#as9ra, CB. ee )im(isara. 0ina/a, BGE, BBG, BAE, BEH, HDC, HKD2HKK, HEB, HEK, HTG. ee L. 0ir&a ?+ner&/@, FBK. 0ir&in .ar/, HFH, FBD. 0irudha$a, HBA, HCT. ee Tseng-chang. 0irupa$sha, HBA, HCT. ee Kwang-mu. 0ishnu, AC, HBD, HBA, HBT, HHG, HFE. ee <e-nu&$e/a. 0ishva$arma, CT.

>(D+, IR T. *., F, FBC. >a\d`h\, HBD. >an, AC. ee #an&and&S/astika. >an& ?ro/a" name@, BCD. >an& !i2chM, CTE. >an&2she, HBF. ee Ra"agriha. >an2nien monaster/, BKT. >ard, >., BF. >atters, T., BBB, BHK, BCF, BFC, FBT. >ei d/nast/, TB, TH, TE2BGG, BGH, BBG, BHT. >ei K%o2$un&, CKF. >ei ,e2/an&, CHB, CHF, CDG. >ei -uen, CDK. >ei2ma, BDT. ee 5ei-mo-kie. >ei2mo, BAC. ee 5ei-mo-kie. >ei2mo2$ie, HEF. ee <imakita. >ei2shi2sian&2$iau, BAT. >ei2to, HGK, HFG, HFF, HFD. ee <eda. >en >an& ?$in&@, CHF, CCC, CAH. >en2ch6an& ti2$iIn, CAK, CAT. >en2chI ?a star@, CFA. >en&er, Dr., HBA. >en2shu, HB, BHE, BCT, HGE, HCB, HCA, HFB, HFC, HDD, HEF, CEF, CED. ee #an"usiri. >en2ti ?emperor@, TH, TF. >estern (sia, BBK, CDGQ authors, HEHQ Buddhas, HEBQ China, BFDQ countries, BBT, BFF, CAFQ heaven, BDEQ hi""s, HFT, HDHQ India, EH, EC, BFF, HEGQ ori&in, CACQ races, CACQ tri#utaries, HAGQ Tur$s, BBK. >hee" $in&, HH, HKEQ $in&s, DF, EG, BEDQ of a thousand spo$es, DEQ of Buddhist preachin&, HEQ of cease"ess revo"ution, HTFQ of doctrine, HH, HK, HE, HFAQ of the Buddhist "a%, HEQ of the ho"/ doctrine, HKEQ of the honoured "a%, TCQ of the "a%, HCK, HAA, CKDQ of the metemps/chosis, HFCQ of the %onderfu" "a%, KD. >hite horse temp"e, BAE. ee !e-ma&s. >hite ti&er, CCK. >i&ht, O. >., CBH. >i""iams, .., CGH. >i""iams, . >., AH. >i"son, ,rofessor !. !., BGA, BGK, BCK, CGE, CBC. >i"tshire, FBT.

>o2mei shan ?mountain@, BCT, CEF. >oo2%ei mountain, HAD. >or"d5s !onoured One, A, DG, DK, AC, HTK, CGK, CGE. ee Sh-tsun. >u ?empress@, BHH. >u state, BGE. >u2cho, BAT, HKT. ee *sengha. >u2chI ?a star@, CFK. >u2$ien ti2/I, BTD, HHD. ee */ichi&naraka. >u2"eu, BCH. >u2"ian&2sheu, HCF. ee *mita(ha&)uddha. >u2tJai ?mountain@, BHE, BCC, BCT, BFA, HCA2HCE, HDT, CKF, CEF. >u2ti ?ChJin emperor@, BGKQ ?!an@, EEQ ?)ian&@, TE, BGB, BGF, BBC2BBD, BHA, BHKQ ?TsJi@, TD. >u2tsun& ?emperor@, BHE. >u2%ei, CBB, CKH, CKC, CKAQ $iau, CKB, CKH, CKE, CKTQ re"i&ion, CKDQ sect, CKCQ tau23en, CKD. >u2/en2tso2%an&, BDT. >u2/eu2%an&, BGK. >/"ie, .r. (., HBB.

N+NO,!ON, CE.

-(4(, EH, EC. -a$sha, CT. -a$shas, CT, HBA, HBK, HHC. -ama, HB, BTA, HBF, HBK2HBT, HFH, HFA, p. FFC CDT, CTFQ nara$a, HHDQ paradise, HHC. -an& ?Choo@, CAB. -an&2cheu ?$in&dom@, TCQ ?province@, BGT, FBG. -an&imara, BDT. -an&2$o, HAT. ee 6o. -an&2tsRe $ean&, BGH, HAF. -ar$and, EE. -ashaita, BBB. -ashodara, BK, CH, CC. -ates, Dr. .. T., CCF, CTH.

-au2chu heaven, CKK, CKT. -au2$Ji, CFK. ee )rilliant&/apour. -au2tsu, CKK. -e""o% river, CGC. -em2ma, HBE. ee ama. -en !%ei, DD. -en2cheu, BHE. ee !eking. -en2"o, BTA, HBE. ee ama. -en2"o2%an&, HBT, HFH, CTF. ee ama. -en2ma, HBE. ee ama. -en2mo2"o2she, HBE. ee ama. -en2tsun& ?emperor@, BHH. -eti"i, HHA. -eu2"eu2$ia, CBC. ee 'luka. -eu2pi ?a star@, CFE. -eu2po2"i, BAE. ee 'pFli. -eu2po2so2$ia, CTT. ee 'p.saka. -eRde&erd, BBK. ee =-d7i-7i. -ih2hin&, BHC. -in&2tsu, CKK. -i2tsin&, HBB. -o&a schoo", BCH, BAT, BKG. ee ogachara&school. -o&achara schoo", BHD, BCH, BAT. ee oga&school. -o2&a2mi2$iau, BAT. ee The&secret&teaching&o+& oga. -o&atchara, BAT. ee ogachara&school. -o2shM *o, HGE, HCD, HCA, HFD, HFA. ee )h.isha"yaguru. -o2tsan& pJu2sa, HFA. -o2%an& pJu2sa, HBG, HFA. ee )h.isha"yar."a. -o2%an& shan ?mountain@, BGD. -I ?emperor@, BDT, CHC. -I Chau2shM, BHD. -ue2hu, BGA. ee Chandragupta. -ue2$%an&2pien2chau, HCD. -uen d/nast/, BCT, BFA, BFT2BDB, HEB.

-uen >ei d/nast/, CGC. ee 5ei&dynasty. -uen2$ioh HTG, CGF, CGA, CBG. ee !ratyeka. -uen2mina /uen, CCD. -ue2ti, EA, FBA. ee -etO. -I2h%an&, HAF, CTC. ee -hwang&shang-ti. -I2h%an& shan&2ti, CTB. ee -hwang&ta-ti. -I2h%an& ta2ti, CAG, CAB, CAF, CTB. ee -hwang&shang-ti. -I2h%an&2ti, CET. ee -hwang&shang-ti. -I2"an2h%ei, HAE. ee '-lam. -I2"an2pJen, HBG. ee -lan-hwei. -un&2ho2$un&, HDA. -un&2h%o ?p"anet@, HBB. ee #ars. -un&2"o, HKF, HKD, CHT, CCF. -un&2pi, HET. -In2men ?schoo"@, BAB. -In2ts6i monaster/, BKBQ schoo", BTE. -I2nI, CTG. -I2ti, HBG, HFK, CET, CTQ CTH. ee -hwang&shang-ti. -u2tian, BFC. ee Khoten. -I2tsJin& $un&, CTB.

P+NO, CFH. Poroastrian fire %orship, HK.

NextS ("pha#etica" Index of Tit"es of Boo$s .entioned in this >or$ acred Texts Buddhism Index ,revious

Bu/ this Boo$ at (maRon.com

Chinese&)uddhism, #/ 4oseph +d$ins, ;BETC<, at sacred2texts.com

p. FFF p. FFD

ALPHABETICAL INDE

OF

TITLES OF BOOKS MENTIONED IN THIS !ORK. ( Catena of Buddhist criptures from the Chinese, C, HEC, FBG. (#hidharma Kosha, BHG. (#hidharma2"un, BBG. ee Shastra&o+&#etaphysics. (#hinish$ramana utra, HEK. ee Fo-pen-hing-tsi-king. (ccount of Buddhist Kin&doms, TB, BHB. ee Fo-kwo-ki. (dditiona" (&ama utra, BBG. (&ama utras, HG, DB. (mida utra, BKB. ee *mita(ha&Sutra and *-mi-ta-king. (mita#ha utra, BTE, HCC, HCF, HCA. ee *mida&Sutra, *-mi-ta-king, and 5u-liang-sheu-king. (2mi2ta2$in&, BEG. ee *mida&Sutra. (n (ccount of (stronom/ #/ the Brahman 1i&arishi, BHC. ee )a-la-men-gih-ga-sien&"en-tien-wen-shwo. (san&$h/ea 0ina/a, BGT. ee Seng-ki-l.

Ba2"a2men2&ih2&a2sien 3en2tJien2%en2sh%o, BHC. ee *n&*ccount&o+&*stronomy&(y&the&)rahman&-igarishi. Ba2"a2men2s%an2fa, BHC. Ba2"a2men2s%an2$in&, BHC. Ba2"a2men2/in2/an&2s%an2"i, BHF. Boo$ for sha$in& the Dra&on, CCT. ee Han-lung-king. Boo$ of a !undred ,ara#"es, HEA. ee !e-y-king. Boo$ of a Thousand Characters, HEB. ee Tsien2tsM2%en. Boo$ of Chan&es, CHF, CKE. ee i-king. Boo$ of *ort/2t%o ections, HG, BEE, HEC. Boo$ of !istor/, BDT. Boo$ of K%an2/in, CAK. ee Kwan-yin-king. Boo$ of .isce""aneous ,ara#"es, HEK. ee Tsa-y-king. Boo$ of Odes, CAH. Boo$ of Reason and 0irtue, CKH. ee Tau-te-king. p. FFA Boo$ of the Dharma in entences, HEA. ee Fa-k-king. Boo$ of the Nirv9na, BKE. ee 6ir/.na&Sutra.

Brahma3a"a, HEK. ee Fan-wang-king. Brahmanica" (stronom/, BHC. ee !o-lo-men-tien-wen. Bri&ht utra, BGT. ee #ing-king.

Centra" (&ama utra, HBD. Centra" hastra, BKB, HBT, HCG. ee Chung-lun. Ce/"on *riend, HEK. ChJan&2a2han2$in&, BBG. ee Longer&*gama&Sutra. Chan2tsM2$in&, HEK. ee S.ma&4.taka. ChJen&2shih utra, BGT. ee Complete&Sutra. Chen&2sin2$iuen, CKF. ChJen&2%ei2shM2"un, HKE, HKT. Cheu2"i, HKG. Cheu2shu2/i2$i, BA. Chih2fan& %ai2$i, BHB. Chinese Recorder, BHK, HBB, FBH, FBT. Chinese Repositor/, BAK. Chin&2tsR2tJun&, A. ChM2tu2"un, FB. ee Shastra&o+&the&#easure&o+&5isdom. ChM2/ue2"uh, BGC, BDT2BAB, HKK. Chun&2"un, BKG, BKB, BEF, HCG, HKE. ee Central&Shastra and #edial&Shastra. Chun&2shen&2tien2$i, BA. Chun&2/in2tu2na2"an2to2ta2tau2chJan&2$in&, HET. ee The&Sutra&o+&6alanda, the&great&seat&o+&worship&in&Central&=ndia, and Leng-yen-king. Ch%an&2tsM, CHB, CKH. Ch%en2tsJai2$in&, CEK. ee Liturgy&+or&turning&the&co++in. Comp"ete utra, BGT. ee Ch1eng-shih&Sutra. Curse of Kehama, BTK.

Dai"/ ,ra/ers, BBT. Description of >estern Countries, BHB. ee #0moires&sur&les&Contr2es&;ccidentales. Dharmapita$a utra, EA. Diamond C"assic, F, FB. ee $iamond&Sutra. Diamond utra, E, TK. ee Kin-kang-king. Dictionar/ of 1ree$ and Roman Bio&raph/ and ./tho"o&/, CFH.

Discip"ine of the *our Divisions, BBG, BAT. ee S&+un-l. Discip"ine of the Ten Chants, BBG. ee Shih-sung-l.

+astern .onachism, BGA, BAT, HFF, HKK, CBK, FBG. p. FFK +ssai sur "e ,a"i, FBA. +ssa/ on Buddhism, CBK.

*a2h%a utra, FK, BGE, BGT. ee Fa-hwa-king. *a2h%a2h%ei2i, BEA, HCB. Fa-hwa-king, CE, FC, BGG, BKH, BEG, BEF, HGE, HGT, HBF, HCB, HCD, HAT, HEC, FBD. ee Lotus&o+&the&-ood&Law and Saddharma&pundarika. *a2$I2$in&, HEA. ee )ook&o+&the&$harma&in&Sentences. *an&2$%an&2pat2nia2$in&, BGT. ee Light-emitting&!ra"na&Sutra. *an2%an&2$in&, DB, BTG, HEK. ee )rahma"ala. *an2%an& utra, HBA. ee Fan-wang-king. *an2/i2min&2i, CD. *a2/uen2chu2"in, EA, BGA, BCD, BDE, HBD, HBE, CFG. *ox $oux $i, EE, TB, HGK, FGE. *o2$i2sian&2$in&, BCK. ee Sutra&o+&-ood&Fortune. *o2$%o2$i, TB. ee Fo% ko%&ki, Tra/els&o+&Fa-hian and Sung-yn, and Records&o+&)uddhistic&Kingdoms. *o2pen2hin&2tsi2$in&, HEK. ee *(hinishkramana&Sutra and The&Romantic&Legend&o+&S.kya&)uddha. *o2tsu2tJun&2$i, BD, CH, FB, FH, DA, KH, KC, EH, ED, EA, BDA.

1atha of One h"o$a, CGA. ee The&Shastra&o+&;ne&Shloka. 1o"den )i&ht utra, BGT. ee Kin-kwang-king. 1reat c"oud utra, BHH. ee Ta-yn-king. 1reat )otus of the 1ood )a%, FC. ee Lotus&o+&the&-ood&Law. 1reat ,ra3na, BBA. ee #a-ha-pat-nia.

!ai2$%o2tJu2chM, CDK. !an2"un&2$in&, CCT, CFD. ee )ook&+or&shaking&the&$ragon. !an2%ei2tsJun&2shu, TB. !and#oo$ for the tudent of Chinese Buddhism, A, CB, CD, CT, FGC, FBH, FBD, FBK. !eart C"assic, CEK. ee Sin-king.

!in&2$io2$iuen, CKF. !istoire de "a 0ie de !iouen2thsan&, BBK, HTH, FGE. !istor/ of .odern ,hi"osoph/, CBH. !istor/ of the Northern >ei d/nast/, BGA, BGK. !istor/ of the ui d/nast/, BBH, BHC. !istor/ of the un& d/nast/, TF, TA. !istor/ of the TJan& d/nast/, BBA. !istor/ of the >ei d/nast/, BA, BBB. !istor/ of TJien2tJai2shan, BCK. !undred Discourses, HBG. p. FFE !%a2/en utra, HG, BBG, BCB, BKG. ee Hwa-yen-king. !%a2/en2$in&, BE, HB, HF, BGT, BCT, BEG, HCG, HCB, HCK, HCE, HAD, HKE, HKT, FBD. ee Hwa-yen&Sutra.

Inf"uence of Tropica" C"imates on +uropeans, CCT. In2min&2"un, BHG. In2min&2shu2$iai, BHG. Institutes of .anu, CGH. ee Laws&o+&#anu. Introduction a "6!istoire du Buddhisme Indien, BGA, HHT. Introduction to the tud/ of the Chinese Characters, BBH, CTT, FGG.

4apanese +nc/c"op=dia, AH. 4en2%an&2$in&, BHF. ee Sutra&o+&the&)ene/olent&king.

KJai2/uen2chan2$in&, BHC. KJai2/uen2shi2$iau2"u, HKE, HEG. KJan&2hi5s Dictionar/, CTH, CTE. Kan2/in&2pJien, CAK. Kiy2/I, CHD. Kiau2ch6en&2fa2shu, BET, BTG. Kieu2chM2"i, HBB. ee Kieu-ch-shu. Kieu2chM2shu, BHC. ee Kieu-ch-li. Kin2$ana2$in&, E, HB, BDC, BEG, HAT. ee $iamond&Sutra. Kin2$an&2pat2nia2pa2"a2mi2ta2$in&, BBT. ee <a"ra-chedika-pra"na-paramita&Sutra.

Kin-kwang-king, BGT. ee -olden&Light&Sutra. Kin2$%an&2s"in&2$in&, HGA, HFG. ee The&)right&Sutra&o+&-olden&Light. Kin2shM2tJu2shu2pu, BBK. KJi2sin2"un, HKE. ee Shastra&+or&awakening&Faith. Kun&2chJio2$in&, HBB. ee !eacock&Sutra. K%an&2tse2"i, BHH. ee The&Calendar&o+&the&)right&house. K%an2%u2"ian&2sheu2$in&, HCF. K%an2/in2$in&, CEK. ee )ook&o+&Kwan-yin.

)a%s of .anu, TC, CAC. ee =nstitutes&o+&#anu. )en&a utra, CT, DB, BGC, BCG. )en& /en2$in&, BT, HG, CA, CK, BFT, BDC, HDC, HAT, HEE, HET. )es (vadanas, C, FGE. )ian& !istor/, BGF, BGE, BBC. )ife of Buddha, BFC, BTH. )i&ht2emittin& ,ra3na utra, BGT. ee Fang-kwang-pat-nia-king. )i2$i, CDB. p. FFT )i2men2"un, BHG. )itur&/ for turnin& the coffin, CEK. ee Chwen-tsai-king. )on&er (&ama utra, BBG. ee Chang-a-han-king. )othair, FBD. )o2tsu2chJu2shM2tJui2fan2pin&2pau2$iuen, CKC. )otus of the 1ood )a%, H, BT, CE, FA, FK, ET, BGG. BGE, BEG, HBF, HAT, HEC. ee Fa-hwa-king.

.a2ha2pat2nia, BBA. ee -reat&!ra"na. .aha ,ra3na paramita, HKD, HEB. ee Ta-poh-"e-king. .ahavanso, BGA. .anua" of Buddhism, BET, HBK, HCG, FBG. .anua" of Buddhist Re&u"ations and *estiva"s, HGD, HBG. ee !e-chang-tsing-kwei. .edia" hastra, BEF. ee Central&Shastra and Chung-lun. .n"an&es (siati:ues, A. .nmoires sur "es Contrnes Occidenta"es, HTH, FGE. ee $escription&o+&5estern&Countries. .nthode pour Dnchifrer et Transcrire "es noms anscrits, TC, FGG.

.iau2fa2"ien2h%a2$in&, C, BGG, BEG. ee Fa-hwa-king. .in&2$in&, BGT. .irror of !istor/, BBB. ee Tung-kien-kang-mu. ./tho"o&/ of the !indoos, BF.

Narrative of Buddha pacif/in& and su#duin& amidhi, CGE. ee Tiau-+uh-san-mih-ti-king. Nen&2t%an2$in2$an&2pat2nia2pa2"a2mi2ta2$in&, BBT. ee <a"ra-chedika-pra"na&paramita&Sutra. Ne% Testament, HKD. Nirv9na utra, DC, BGE, BGT, BBF, BEG. ee )ook&o+&the&6ir/.na. Ni2%an2$in&, BGT. ee 6ir/.na&Sutra. Notions of the Chinese concernin& 1od and spirits, HBA.

O"an&&i sodar, HCK. ee Hwa-yen-king. O"d Testament, CCC. O2mi2to2$in&2su2tsJau, BTE.

,at2no2pa2"a2mit2ta, FG. ee !ra"na&paramita. ,au2tsih utra, BCB. ,au2/in&2"u, CAK. ,eacoc$ utra, HBB. ee Kung-chio-king. ,e2Chan&2tsJin&2$%ei, HGD, HGT, HBG. ee #anual&o+&)uddhist&Regulations&and&Festi/als. ,ei2h%a2$in&, HCA. p. FDG ,ei2tsan&2mu2"u, HKD. ,en2hin&2$in&, CTB. ,en2tin&2"I, BGT, BBG. ,e2/e2$ie2"a2nan, BHG. ,e2/I2$in&, HEA. ee )ook&o+&a&Hundred&!ara(les. ,in&2shu2pi2tJan, CEH. ,Ji2shih2shM2chu2%an&, BDH. ee The&9rrors&o+&the&)uddhists&98posed. ,Jo2"o2men2tJien2%en, BHC. ee )rahmanical&*stronomy. ,Jo2sie2$iuen, CKF. ,radimo$sha utra, DD. ee !ratimoksha. ,ra3na paramita, HG, FG, FH, FK, BBT, BEF, HAA, HKT.

,ra3na2ten&2"un, HKE. ,ratimo$sha, HEE. ee !radimoksha&Sutra.

Records of Buddhistic $in&doms, FGE. Rn"i&iose Bi"dun&, u. s. %. der !indus, BDA. Researches of the .em#ers of the Russian .ission in ,e$in&, FBB.

acred +dict, BDH, CKT. addharma pundari$a, FC, BGE, HBF. ee Fa-hwa-king. 9ma 49ta$a, HEK. ee Chan-ts-king. an$h/a Kari$a, CBC. an2$iau2/i2su, BC, KH, KC, BDK, BAG. ee Supplementary&*ccount&o+&the&Three&Religions. an2mei2$in&, BGF. en&2&a utra, BGF. Seng-ki-l, BGT, ee *sangkhyea&<inaya. han&hai ("manac, BHF. hastra for a%a$enin& faith, HKE. ee Ki-sin-lun. hastra of fixed position, BBG. ee Ti-ch-lun. hastra of .etaph/sics, BBG. ee *(hidharma-lun. hastra of the .easure of >isdom, FG. ee Ch-tu-lun. hastra of the .ethod of 1reat >isdom, KK. ee Ta-ch-tu-lun. hastra of the Non2e&o, KA. ee Sutra&o+&the&6ot-me. hastra of the ten positions, BBG. ee Shi-ti-lun. hen&2tJien2shMh2$iai2$in&, BET. ee The&(ook&o+&(irth&in&hea/en&through&keeping&the&ten&prohi(itions. heu2shan2$o2tsJun&2shu, BBT. hi2er2men2"un, HKE. hih2sun&2"I, BBG. ee $iscipline&o+&the&Ten&Chants. hih2tsien, DB. ee Tallies&o+&the&Shakya&communities. hin&2min&2"un, BHG. hi2ti2"un, BBG. ee Shastra&o+&the&Ten&!ositions. p. FDB hu\2hu, HKG. hu2$in&, CHB. h%o2fu, TB.

ian&2chen&2$i, BA. M2fun2"I, BBG. ee $iscipline&o+&the&Four&$i/isions. in&2$in&, CHH. ee Star&classic. in2$in&, CEK. ee Heart&classic. M2pu2"I, BAE. i2/eu2chen2tsJeuen, BHB. ee Si-yeu-ki. i2/eu2$i, BHB. ee Si-yeu-chen-tseuen. tar c"assic, CHH. ee Sing-king. un& !istor/, BFF2BFA. upp"ement to >en2hien2tJun&2$Jau, BCH, BFT. upp"ementar/ account of the three re"i&ions, BC. ee San-kiau-yi-su. utra of Bound"ess (&e, BCK. ee 5u-liang-sheu-king. utra of *ort/2t%o ections, BT, EE, BHG, FGG, FBA. utra of 1ood *ortune, BCK. ee Fo-ki-siang-king. utra of ,ure name, BKK. ee Tsing-ming-king. utra of the Benevo"ent Kin&, BHF. ee 4en-wang-king. utra of the Diamond, HB. ee $iamond&Sutra. utra of the d/in& instructions of Buddha, FBE. utra of the )otus of the 1ood )a%, FC. ee Fa-hwa-king. utra of the Not2me, EC. utra of the ten points of rest, BGE. utra of Tom#s in connection %ith s/mpathetica""/ operatin& causes, DD. ee Tsung-mu-yin-yuen-king. /""a#ic Dictionar/, FBC.

Ta-ch-tu-lun, KK, BAG, HKE. ee Shastra&o+&the&#ethod&o+&-reat&5isdom. TJai2shan2$iuen, CKF. Ta""ies of the ha$/a communities, DB. ee Shih-tsien. TJan&2/In, BFA. TJan2shM2$iuen, CKF. Ta2pei2chJan, HAT. Ta2pei2tsJan, BFG, BEK. Ta2poh23e2$in&, HKD. ee #aha&!ra"na-paramita. Ta2tJan&2si2/I2$i, BBT. ee #2moires&sur&les&Contr2es&;ccidentales. Ta2tsi2$in&, CT.

Tau2te2$in&, BAE, CKH. ee )ook&o+&Reason&and&<irtue. Ta2/In2$in&, BHH. ee -reat&Cloud&Sutra. The #oo$ of #irth in heaven throu&h $eepin& the ten prohi#itions, BET. ee Sheng-tien-shh-kiai-king. p. FDH The Bri&ht utra of 1o"den )i&ht, HGA. ee Kin-kwang-ming-king. The ca"endar of the #ri&ht house, BHH. ee Kwang-tse-li. The +rrors of the Buddhists exposed, BDH. ee !i-shih-shi-chu-wang. The ma&ica" formu"a of the Bodhisatt%a K%an2shM2/in, %ho has a thousand hands and e/es and a mercifu" heart, BCH. ee Tsien-sheu-tsien-yen-kwan-sh-yin-pu-sata&pei-sin-to-lo-ni. The Romantic )e&end of 9$/a Buddha, C, CC, FBG. The hastra of One h"o$a, CGH, CGC, CGE, CBA. ee ih-shu-lu-kia-lun. The utra of Na"anda the &reat seat of %orship in Centra" India, HET. ee Chung-yin-tu-na-lan-to-ta-tau-ch1ang-king. Thousand Character C"assic, HEB. ee Tsien-ts-wen. Three )ectures on Buddhism, FBT. Tiau2fuh2san2mih2tJi2$in&, CGE. ee 6arrati/e&o+&)uddha&paci+ying&and&su(duing&Samidhi. Ti-ch-lun, BBG. ee Shastra&o+&+i8ed&position. TJien2tJai2shan2chM, BKK. ee !istor/ of Tien-tai-shan. Ti2tsan& utra, HBE, HHD. ee Ti-tsang-king. Ti2tsan&2$in&, BTD, HAT. ee Ti-tsang&Sutra. Transactions of the econd Orienta" Con&ress, BGK, HEK. Trave"s of *a2hian and un&2/un, FGE. Treatise on the four tones, BBC. TsJan2tJun&2$i, CHB, CHH. Tsa2/I2$in&, HEK. ee )ook&o+&#iscellaneous&!ara(les. TsJien2sheu2tsJien2/en2$%an2shM2/in2pJu2sa2ta2pei2sin2to2"o2ni, BCH. ee The&magical&+ormula&o+&the&)odhisattwa&Kwan-sh-yinB&who&has&a&thousand&hands&and&eyes& and&a&merci+ul&heart. Tsien2tsM2%en, HEB. ee )ook&o+&a&Thousand&Characters. TsJin histor/, TG. Tsin&2min&2$in&, BKK. ee Sutra&o+&!ure&6ame. TsJin&2tsin&2$iuen, CKF. Tsin&2tu2shen&2hien2"uh, HKE. Tsin&2tu2shM, BKF. Tsin&2tu2%en, FBB. Tso2ch%en, BA. Tsun&2mu2/in2/uen2$in&, DD. ee Sutra&o+&tom(s&in&connection&with&sympathetically-operating&causes.

TJun&2$ien2$an&2mu, ET, BGG, BGD, BBB. ee #irror&o+&History. T%an2tsi2sin2/au, BAC.

^#er den Buddhaismus in !och (sien und in China, FBG. p. FDC 0a3ra chedi$a pra3na paramita utra, BBT. ee Kin-kang-pat-nia-pa-la-mi-ta-king. 0i#hasha2"un, HKE. ee <i(hasha&Shastra. 0i#hasha hastra, EC. ee <i(hasha-lun. 0ie de 1audama, HGH. 0ishnu ,urana, BGA.

>an2$%o2$un&2pau, CAA. >ei2ma utra, BGE, BGT, HEF. >ei2shM2"un, BAT. >u2"ian&2sheu $in&, BCK, BKB, HCC, HCF. ee *mita(ha&Sutra.

-ih2shu2"u2$ia2"un, CGH, CGC. ee The&Shastra&o+&;ne&Shloka. -i2$in&, CHG, CHH, CHD, CCT. ee )ook&o+&Changes. -in2chM2%en, CAK. -in&2h%an2chM2"io, CDK. -i2sho2"o2$a2"un, CGA. ee The&Shastra&o+&;ne&Shloka. -i2tsJie2$in&2/in2i, HHH, HCB. -o2shM2$in&, HCD. -o2sM2"ieu2"i2$%an& 3u2"ai2$un&2te2$in&, BHG. -uen !istor/, BFE. -I2$Jia2/en2$Jeu, BCH, BCK. -I2"an2pJen utra, HBG. -I2"i, CDE, CAG, CAD. -I2"i2chJau2ch%en, CAK. -I2pJien, BBH, BFA.

,rinted #/ B())(NT-N+, !(N ON O Co. +din#ur&h O)ondon