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np
Date: 2070/4/20
Digital control system: The rapid increase in the use of digital controller in the controlled
system is due to its achievement in the optimum performance. Digital control system provides
optimal performance in the form of maximum productivity, maximum profit, minimum cost
or minimum energy use etc. The application of computer control has made possible the
intelligent motion in industrial robots, the optimization of the fuel economy in automobiles
and refinement in the operations of house hold appliances and machines such as microwave
ovens, washing machine, Air-conditioning. Decision making capability and flexibility in the
control programs are major advantages of digital control system.
The current trend towards rather then analog control system is mainly due do the
availability of low cost digital computers and the advantages found in working with digital
signals rather then continuous time signals.
Basic Blocks of Digital control system:
S/H
-
Digital
and
Control
ADC
Hold
System
DAC
Circuit
Actuator
Plant or
Process
Digital
Clock
Control
Transducer
Figure 1 shows the basic block diagram or principle of DCS . The controller operation is
performed or controlled by the clock. In such a DCS points of the systems pass signals of
varying amplitude either in continuous time or discrete time or in numerical code.
1. Sample and Hold ( S/H) : It is the circuit that receives an analog input signal and holds
this signals at a constant value for a specified period of time. Usually the signal is
electrical but it may be optical or mechanical.
2. ADC: ADC also called an encoder is a device that converts an analog signal into a digital
signal, usually a numerically coded signal in binary form. Such a converter is need as an
interface between an analog component and the digital component. Basically ADC
involves sampling , quantizing and encoding.
3. Digital Computer: The digital computer processes the sequences of numbers by mean of
an algorithm an produces an new sequences of numbers.
4. DAC: DAC also called an decoder is a device that converts a digital signal ( Numerically
coded data) into an analog signal. It acts as an the interfacing device between the digital
component and an analog component. The real time clock in the computer synchronizes
the events. The output of the hold circuit which is continuous time signal is fed the plant
either directly or through the actuator which controls the dynamics of the system ( i.e it
smoothens the slope of the signal)
5. Plant or process: A plant is a physical object to be controlled. The examples are a
furnace, chemical reactors and a set of machine parts functioning together to perform a
particular operations such as servo system etc.
6. Transducer/sensor: A transducer is a device that converts an input signal into an output
signal of a another form such as device that converts a temperature into a voltage output (
thermistor or thermocouple ), an optical signal into voltage ( phototransistor )
Fig.1 shows the diagram of data acquisition system. The basic parameters are explained
below:
1. Physical variable: The input to the system is a physical variable such as position,
velocity, acceleration, temperature, pressure etc.
2. Transducer amplifier and low pass filter: The physical variables (which are generally
in non-electrical form) is first converted into an electrical signal (a voltage or a current
signal) by a suitable transducer. Amplifier then amplifies the voltage output of the
transducer (i.e the signal have rises to the necessary level). The LPF follows the amplifier
which attenuates the high frequency signal components such as noise signals which are
random in nature. The o/p of LPF is an analog signal. The signal is then fed to an analog
multiplexer.
1. Register: The o/p of digital controller is then stored for a certain period of time in a
memory device called register.
2. Multiplexer: The demultiplexer , which is synchronized with the i/p sampling signal,
separates the composite o/p signal which is in the from of digital data from the digital
controller into the original channels. Each channel is connected to DAC to produce the
o/p analog signal for that channel.
3. DAC: At the o/p of the digital controller, the digital must be converted to an analog
n
signal by the process called D/A conversion. For the full range of digital i/p, there are 2
different analog values , including zero.
4. Hold: The sampling operation produces an amplitude modulated pulse signal. The
function of hold operation is to reconstruct the analog signal that has been transmitted as a
train of pulse samples. The purpose of hold operation is to fill the spaces between the
sampling periods and thus roughly reconstruct the original analog input signal which is
then fed to the actuator which smoothens the slope of signal.
Ts
- /2
/2 Fig.1
Rectangular pulse train
Where ,
Ts = Sapling period.
= duration of sampling pulse= pulse
width Sampler can be implemented as:
xs(t)= x(t)g(t)
x(t)
g(t)
2cn cos(n
t)
n1
Where, co = / Ts = fs
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x(f)
-fx
fx
It is clear from fig.4 that the spectrum of the sampled signal contains the spectrum of the
sampled signal contains the spectrum of the original message signal.
Date:2065/4/26
It is evident that for distortion less recovery of original message signal, from the spectrum of
the sampled signal, the following condition should be met.
fs fx
In this case the original message signal spectra can be recovered by passing the sampled
signal through low pass filter with bandwidth equaling to fx
Distortion will occur while recovering the message spectrum if. fs fx
The distortion in the above case is caused by the overlapping of side bands and message
spectra.
Xs(f)
aliasign ditortion
(fs<2fx)
The minimum sampling rate: fs min = 2fs is called Nyquistss sampling rate for distortion less
recovery of one message spectrum.
The minimum interval of the sampling for a real signal is
Ts min = 1/2fx(min)
Where
fx(min) = maximum frequency in the message spectrum.
Quantizing and Quantization error:
2
1
(a)
xs(n) 1
5 6
1.8
0.9
1.8
1.7
0.9
(b)
1.7
0.5
q
1 2 3
5 6
5 6 7
x (n)
2
1
(c)
1 2
Quantization error:
Since the number of bits in the digital word is finite , ie the digital output can assume only a
finite number of levels and therefore analog number must be round off to the nearest digital
level. Hence any ADC involves quantization error. It is evident that the maximum Q error
could be only /2. In uniform quantization the steps size is constant for the entire dynamic
range of the input discrete signal level. Q error depends on the fineness of the quantization
level and can be made as small as desire by making the quantization level smaller or by
increasing the number of bits n. In practice there is a maximum for n and so there is always
some error due to quantization.
The uncertainty present in the quantization process results quantization noise.
Signal to quantization noise ratio (SQNR): It is evident that the Q-error ( i.e qe) lies
between
by,
/2 to
q 2 dq
e
e
= Pq
2
..(i)
P =1
12 q
It is seen form equation (1) that Q-noise is dependent on step-size only. Reducing the
step-size or increasing the no of representation level, we can reduce pq and hence Q-error.
From equ (1)
Pq =
2
/12 But,
= xmax /2
n-1
n-1
.(i)
k =0
Or , X(z) = z[x(t)] =
x ( k ) z 1
k=0
x(kT )z 1
k =
otherwise
-1
-2
-3
= 1 + z +z +z +.
=
1
1 + z 1
1
Therefore, z[1(t)] = 1 + z 1
Or, z[1(t)] =
z
, z >1
z 1
t
x(t) =
0
otherwise
Or, x(KT) = KT for k = 0,1,2,3.
Thus,
k =0
-1
-2
-3
X(z) =
z 1
1 2
= T. (1 z )
1
T.z
1
(1 z
2
)
K<0
0
Where a is constant.
k =0
X(k) = a k z
k =0
-1
2 -2
3 -3
= 1 + az +a z + a z +
k
1
Z[a ] =
1
1 az
1
k
Or, z[a ] = 1 az
4. Exponential function:
at
for t 0
x(t) =
otherwise
-akT
Where, x(kT) = e
, K = 0,1,2..
We have,
0
X(z) = z[e ] = e
-at
akT
k =0
-aT -1
Or, X(z) = 1 + e z +e
1
-2aT -2
z +e
-3aT -3
z
aT
X(z) = 1 eaT z 1 = z e
5. Sinusoidal Function:
for
t0
x(t) =
Noting , e
jwt
t<0
= coswt +jsinwt
-jwt
= coswt-jsinwt
we have ,
Sinwt = 1/2j[e
& coswt = 1/2[e
jwt -jwt
-e
jwt
+e
-jwt
We know that,
-at
Z[e ] =
1 eat z 1
1
Z[e ] =
1 e jwT z 1
jwt
1
Z[e- ] =
jwt
1 e jwT z 1
jwt -jwt
cos wt + z
Similarly,
z
Z[coswt] = 1 2z
1
1
cos wt
cos wt + z
X(z), then,
3. Multiplication by a :
If z[x(k)] = X(z) , then
k
-1
Z[a x(k)] = X(a z)
Proof:
k
Z[ a x(k)] =
x(k)z
= x(k)(a
k =0
z)
k =0
-1
= X(a z)
4. Shifting theorem:
If x(t) = 0 for t< 0 and
x(t)
Z
X(z)
-n
n1
X (z)
x(KT )z
..(ii)
k =0
k =0
x(k n).T.z (k n) .z n
k =0
= z
.x(k n).T.z
(k n)
k =0
Z[x(mT)] = z
. x(mT ).z
m=n
k =0
= x(k + n).T.z
(k +n)
.z
k =0
= z n .x(k + n).T.z
(k +n)
k =0
Z[x(mT)] = z
.x(mT ).z
m=n
n1
= z
x(mT ).z
x(mT ).z
m=0
m +
m=0
x(mT ).z m
= zn
n1
m=0
x(mT ).z m
m =n
n1
x(mT ).z m
m=0
-at
Z[e x(t)] =
k =0
aT
= X(e z)
aT
= X (ze )
5. Initial value Theorem:
lim
If x(t) has the z-transform X(z) and if z X (z) exist then, the initial value x(0)
of x(t) is given by ,
lim
x(0) = z X (z)
6. Final Value Theorem:
lim
lim
x(k) = z 1 (1
z ) X (z)
Assignment # 02:
1. Prove all the important properties of z-transform.
1
Example: 01: Obtain the z-transform of x(s) = s(s +1)
Solution:
1
Given, x(s) = s(s +1)
= A+ B
s
s +1
.
Where, A = s(s +1) s s = 0
A=1
1
And, B = s(s +1) .(s +1) s = 1
B = -1
1
1
Therefore, x(s) =
s s +1
-t
Taking inverse Laplace Transform, we have, x(t) = 1 e
Again taking z-transform on both sides,
-t
Z[x(t)] = z [ 1 e ]
-t
= z[1] z[e ]
1
1
=
1
1z
1 eT z 1
1/ e
(1 z
1
1/+ z
)(1 eT z
) (1 eT )z 1
1
(1 z )(1 e z )
Example: 02 Obtain the z-transform of
k 1
k = 0,1,2,3.......
a
f (a) =
K0
Z[f(a)] =
f (a).z k
k =0
1
1 = X (k)
1 az
k-1
-1
Then, z[x(k-1)] = z[a ] = z .X(z)
1
Here, z[x(k)] = z[ak] =
k-1
Therefore, z[a
k-1
Z[a
-1
] = z 1 az
z 1
1
] = 1 az
-at
sint
-at
[ii] e
cost
Date:2065/5/3
-at
[i] e sint
We know that
sin T
X (z)
1
cos wT + z =
Z[sinwt] = 1 2z
We know that,
-at
akT
Z[e x(kT)] = X[ze ]
-at
aT
aT
sin wt
cos wt + e
2aT
Example 04: Consider the function y(k) , which is sum of functions x(h) where, h = 0, 1, 2
.k , Such that
k
y(k) = x(h)
h=0
(1 z
T 1
)(1 e z
z 1 1 eaT z 1
a>0
x() = z 1[(1
lim
z )X (z)]
1
1
z 1 (1 z
aT
1e
aT
1 e z
z 1
lim
= z 1 1
1z
1
1z
lim
= z 1 1
1
1
ze
aT
= 1-0
= 1 Ans.
The inverse z-transform:
(1) Direct division method:
Example 01: Find x(k) for k = 0, 1,3,4. When X(z) is given by ,
X(z) = (10z+5)/(z-1)(z-0.2)
Solution:
X(z) = (10z+5)/(z-1)(z-0.2)
2
= (10z+5)/(z - 1.2z+0.2)
-1
-2
-1
-2
= (10z + 5z )/(1-1.2z +0.2z )
10z
17z
17z
+ 5z
12z
2z
20.4z
+ 3.4z
+18.4z
10z
+ 3.4z
+ 2z
18.4z
22.08z
18.68z
18.68z
18.736z
+ 3.68z
3.68z
22.416z
3.7362z
+ 3.7362z
-1
-1
X(z) = z /(1-az )
1
-1
=z
1
1 az
-1
= z [X(z)]
-1
Where, Y(z) = 1/(1-az )
-1
The inverse z-transform of Y(z) is z [Y(z)] =
k
a So, the inverse z-transform of (z) = z
1
-1
k-1
[Y(z)] z [X(z)] = a = y(k-1)
k-1
Therefore, x(k) = y(k-1) = a
2. partial fraction method: We use the following formula for the function written in the
form
X (z) = a1 = a2 + ............ an
zp
zp
zp
Z
1
ai = (z-pi)
(i)
X (z)
Z z = pi
Again if,
C1
C2
X (z)
Then,
=
+
Z
(z p ) (z p )
2
C1 = (z-p1) X (z)
Z z = p1
And , C
d
2 X (z)
(z
z Z =P
dz
In general , if there are n- multiplication roots then,
1 d n1
X (z)
n
Cn =
n1 (z p1 )
(n 1)! dz
z Z =P
2=
p1 )
aT
1 e .z
Example 01: Given X(z)
aT
(z 1)(z e ) Where a is a constant and T is the sampling
=
period. Determine the inverse z-transform x(KT) by the use of partial fraction expansion
method.
Solution:
aT
(1 e )Z
aT
X(z) = (z 1)(z e )
X (z)
1 eaT
=
aT
(z 1)(z e )
Z
X (z)
A
B
=
+
Z
z 1 z eaT
aT
1e
X (z)
A = (z-1)
= (z 1)
aT
Z z =1
(z 1)(z e ) z =1
=
1e
aT
=1
1 eaT
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X (z)
Similarly B =
=
aT
aT
z=e
Z
1e
= (z e
1e
aT
aT
) (z 1)(z e ) z = e
aT
1)
(eaT
B = -1
X (z) = 1 1
Z
z 1
z eaT
z
z
X (z) =
z 1
z eaT
1
1
1
X (z) = 1 z
aT 1
-1 1 e z
Therefore, x(t) = 1 e
-akT
ans.
2
z +z+2
2
X (z) = (z 1)(z z +1) by partial fractional
z2 + z + 2
= A
+ Bz + c
2
(z 1)(z z +1) (z 1) z 2 z +1
2
2
z +z+2
A(z z +1) + (Bz + C)(Z 1)
=
2
(z 1)(z 2 z +1)
(z 1)(z z +1)
2
2
Z + z +2 = (A+B)z - (A+B-C)z +(A-C)
2
0
Comparing the coefficient of z , z and z we get,
B+A = 1
-(A+B-C) = 1
A-C = 2
Solving the above equation we get,
A = 4 , B = -3, C = 2
A
Bz + c
Thus , X (z) =
+ 2
z z +1
(z 1)
4
3z +1
X (z) =
+ 2
(z 1) z z +1
1
2
4z 1 + 3z + 2z
X (z) =
1
(1 z ) 1 z 1 + z 2
1
1
1 0.5z
1
1
X (z) = 4z
1 3z
1
2
z1 z
+z
1
1
1
1
1 0.5z
1/ 6.z
1
1
1
X (z) =
X (z) = 4z
1 z
3z
+ 3z
1 z +z
1 z +z
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X (z) = 4z
1
z 1
3z
1 0.5z
z 1 + z 2
3 1
1 1
2z
+
z
3 1 z 1 + z 2
We know that
z
-1
=1
1 z
1
1 0.5z
-1
= cos k
2
+z
3
3
1
z .
-1
2
z 1 z 1 + z 2 = sin k 3
z
1 z
-1
Date: 2065/5/10
3. Inverse Integral method:
-1
The inversion integral for the z-transform X(z) is given by z [x(z)] = x[kT] =
1 x(z)z k 1dz (i)
2 j
-1
Where c is a circle with its centre at the origin of the z-plane such that all poles of x(z)z
are inside it.
The equation for giving the inverse z-transform in terms of residues can
be derived by using the theory of complex variables. It can be obtained as follows.
k-1
X(kT) = x1 + x2 + .+xn denotes the residues of x(z)z at poles z1, z2 ..zm
respectively.
k-1
In evaluating residues, if the denominator of x(z)z contains a simple
pole at z = zi , then the corresponding residue x is given by,
k 1
lim
.(ii)
ki = z0 z1 [( z zi )X (z)z
k-1
If X(z) z contains a multiple pole zi or order q, then the residue k is given by ,
1
1
dq
lim
q
k 1
x(k) =
1
ki = (q 1)! .z 2 j
dzq [( z zi ) X (z)z
..(iii)
01 Obtained x(kT) by using the
inversion integral method when,
Example:
aT
z(1 e )
X (z) =
aT
)
(z 1)(z e
Solution:
aT
X (z) =
z(1 e
(z 1)(z e
aT
X (z)z
k 1
kT
aT
z(1e
aT
(z 1)(z e )
k
aT
z (1 e )
X (z)z k 1 =
aT
(z 1)(z e )
k-1
-aT
For k = 0,1,2.x(z)z has simple poles at z1 = 1and z2= e
2
k-1
at pole z = zi
i=1
= k1 + k2
lim
[( z zi )X (z)z
Where k1 = z z 1
= z lim z1
k 1
( z 1)
z (1 e
]
aT
)
aT
aT
1 (1 e )
aT
(z e )
(z 1)(z e
K1 = 1
For K2 ,
K2 =
lim
[( z z2 )X (z)z
z z2
akT
] aT
)z (1 e
aT
(1 e
(z e
aT
lim
z e
aT
k 1
aT
(z 1)(z e
aT
-akT
Therefore , k2 = - e
-akT
2
X(z) = (z 1) (z e
z k +1
k-1
aT
X(z)z = (z 1) (z e )
k-1
-aT
X(z) z has simple pole at z = z1 = e and double pole at z = z2 =1 ( i.e q =
2) The inverse z-transform is therefore given by, x(kT) = k1 +k2
Where, k1 = z lim e
aT
aT
lim
= z e
(z eaT )z k +1
2
(z 1) (z e
aT
a(k +1)T
e
aT
(e
1)
lim
, k2
(2 1)!
z1
aT
dz (z e
)
aT
k
k +1
(z e )(k +1)z z
lim
(z e
k
aT
k +1
(k +1)k (1 e ) 1
aT
(z 1) (z e
z k +1
z1
z k +1
2
dz
lim
. (z 1)
.z1
aT
(z e )2
(k
aT
ke
eaT
aT
)
aT
(k +1)(1 e ) 1
(1 e
aT 2
(1 eaT )2
a(k +1)T
Therefore, x(kT) k1 + k2 = eaT
+
(e
1)2
aT
ea(k +1)T + k ke
eaT
X(kT) =
aT 2
(1 e )
k keaT eaT
aT
(1 e )2
z 2
1 3
Example 03: Obtain the inverse z-transform of x(z) = (1 z )
k 1
1
lim
3 z.z
d2
Where k1 =
2!
.z1.
( z 1)
dz
(z 1)
2
1 d
k
= 2! . 2 [z ]
dz
z =1
1 d k 1
] z =1
= 2 . dz [kz
1
k 2
= 2 . k ( k 1)z
] z =1
k(k 1)
2
-1
x(z)
z z = 1
A = 1.
Similarly, B = -1,
x( z)
z
1
+1 z + 2 x(z)
z
z
=z+ 1z+ 2
=z
x(z) =
1 1
1 + z 1 1 + 2z 1
x(z) =
1
1
1 ( 1)z 1 1 ( 2)z 1
The inverse z-transform of x(z) is
k
k
X(z) = -(1) (-2) , k = 0,1,2..
Example 02: Obtained the solution of the following difference equation in terms of x(0) and
x(1).
X(K+2) + (a+b)x(k+1) + ab x(k) = 0
2
2
Z x(z) z x(0) zx(1) + (a+b) [z x(z) z x(0)] + ab x(z) =
2
2
0 X(z) [z + (a+b)z+ab] = [z + (a+b)z] x(0) + z x(1)
[z 2 + (a + b)z]x(0) + zx(1)
X(z) =
z 2 + (a + b)z + ab
B
X(z) = [z + a + b]x(0) + x(1) = A +
z+a z+b
(z + a)(z + b)
ax(0) + x(1)
bx(0) + x(1)
Where, A =
and
B=
(a b)
(b a)
bx(0) + x(1)
x(z) =
z
x(z) =
ax(0) + x(1)
(b a) +
(a b)
(z + a)
(z + b)
bx(0) + x(1) ax(0) + x(1)
(b a)
1 (a)z
bx(0) + x(1)
X (z) =
(b a)
(a b)
1
1 (b)z
ax(0) + x(1) k
k
(b)
(a) +
(a b)
b]
Now for a = b,
2
(z + 2az)x(0) + zx(1)
X(z) =
2
2
z + 2az + a
x(z) =(z + 2a)x(0) + x(1)
z
(z + a)
] for case a = b
k ak-1
lim
x(k) = z
And ,
k-1
1X (z)
k =0
x(h)
1
=
i1
X (z) x(h)z
(1 z
)
Where 1 i (k-1)
h=i
h=0
(b)
x(z) =
(z + 2)
(z 2).z
2
(z 2) (z 1)
10
z(z + 2)
(c ) x(z) =
(d) x(z) =
2
(z 1)
(z 2)(z 1)
2
(e) x(z) = 1 + 6z + z 3
1
1
(1 z )(1 0.2z )
(f) x(z) = 1 + z
+z
1 z 1
5. Solve the following difference equations:
a. 2x(k) 2x(k-1) +x(k-2) = u(k)
Where x(k) = 0 for k< 0
k = 0,1,2.....
1,
And u(k) =
k<0
0,
b. x(k+2) x(k+1) + 0.25x(k) = u(k+2)
where, x(0) = 1, x(1) = 2
u(k) = 1 for k 0.
c. x(k-2) x(k-1) + 0.25 x(k) = u(k-2)
x(0) =1 x(k) = 0, for k<0.
u(k) = 1 for k 0
(6) Consider the difference equation .
X(k+2) = x(k+1) +x(k)
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-1
-2
2.1
= 1
52
= 1+ 5
2
= 1 5
2
x(z) =
z
=
2
z
z z 1
1
1+5
z
=
z
A
1+5
15
z
B
15
We get,
A = 1/5 , B = -1/5
x(z) =
z
5
z
x(z) =
1
1 + 5
2
1
5
1+
1
1
1 5
2
1 5
z
2
.(i)
2
1
k +1
2
1+ 5
k +1
.(ii)
x(k +1) =
x(k)
1 5
k +1
2
1
2
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1 5
< 1 when k
Lim k
1 5
2
15
The terms
15
k +1
and
lim k
x(k +1)
=
x(k)
+ 5 k +1
2
k
1+ 5
= 1.6180 proved
2
1 + 5
2
Impulse Sampling:
Let us consider an ideal sampler commonly called an impulse sampler. We assume
= 0 for t< 0. The sampler o/p is equal to the product of the continuous time i/p x(t)
train of unit impulse T(t) which means the sampler may be considered as a modular
x(t )
and
with
x(t) as the modulating signal and T(t) as the carrier as shown in fig1 below.
Modulator
x(t)
x*(t)=x(t)(t)
(t)
Figure:1
*
Let us consider x (t) to represent the impulse sampled o/p. The sampled signal x (t), a train
*
of impulses, can
thus be represented by the
infinite summation, i.e x (t) =
x(kT )
(t kT ) ..(i)
k =0
T (t) = (t kT )
.(iii)
k =0
X (s) = x(0).1+x(T).e
X (s) = x(kT )e
*
kTS
+ x(2T).e
+.
.(iv)
k =0
We define e
sT
= z .(v)
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X (s) = x(kT )z
*
= X(z)
k =0
(vi)
Data hold:
zero order hold
x(t)
x(kT)
(ZOH)
h1(t)
X*(s)
X*(s)
Gho(s)
h2(t)
H2(s)
Data hold is a process of generating a continuous time signal h(t) from a discrete time
sequence x(k). A hold ckt covert the sampled signal into a continuous time signal. A hold ckt
hold the amplitude of the sampled from one sampling instant to the next. Such a data hold is
called zero order hold or clamper or stair case generator. The o/p of the zero order hold is a
staircase function.
Assuming x(t) = 0 for t<0,
The ZOH circuit smoothens the sampled signal to produce the signal h(t) , which is constant
for the last sampled value until the next sample is available, i.e ,
h1(t+kT) = x(kT) for 0 t T ..(i)
The o/p h1(t) may be assumed as
h1(t) = x(0) [ 1(t) -1(t-1)]+x(T) [ 1(t-1)-1(t-2T)] + x(2t)[1(T2t) -1(t-3T)]+ .
We know that
-kTs
[1(t-kT)] = e
/s
Therefore , the laplcae transform of equation (ii) be written as:
[h1(t)] = H1(s) =
= x(kT )
k =0
= x(kT )
H1(s) =
1e
x(kT )
kTS
s
e
kTS
TS
[1(t-kT) -1(t-(k+1)T)]
k =0
(k +1)TS
S
(k +1)TS
s
k =0
But from fig (ii) b,
[h2(t)] = H2(s) = H1(s)
Thus,
k =0
TS
1e
H2(s) =
x(kT ).eKTS .(iv)
s
k= 0
From fig (ii)b, we can write , H2(s)
= Gho(s) X*(s) (v)
But we know
KTS
k =0
line is parallel to
1
imaginary axis in the p-plane and separate the poles of X(P) from those of [1 eT (s p) ]
Equation (i) also be written as
1
X ( p)
X * (s) = 2 j 1 e T (s p) dp
The above integral is equal to the sum of residues of X(p) in the closed container i.e
X ( p)
X * (s) = residue of
at poles of X ( p)
T (s p)
1e
But we know that
e = z X*(s)
= X(z)
X ( p)z
X (z) = residue of
poles of X ( p)
Tp at
ze
By changing the complex variable rotation from p to s obtained
X (s)z
X (z) = residue of
at poles of X (s)
z es
Assume that X(s) has poles S1 , s0 sm. If a pole at s = sj is a simple pole , then residue.
X (s)z
lim
k j = s s j (s s j ).
z e TS
If a pole at s = si is a multiple pole of
order ni , then the residue ki =
d
1
ni1
X (s)z
lim
n
s si
(s s j ) .
ds
(ni 1)!
Ts
ze
ni1
1
Example:01: Obtained the z-transform of X(s) = s (s +1) by the use of convolution integral
method.
Solution:
1
2
s (s
X(s) =
+1)
X (s)z
z
TS = 2
TS
ze
s (s +1)(z e )
Thus by convolution integral method,
z
X (z) = residue of 2
X (s)
TS at poles of
s (s +1)(z e )
= k1 + k2
z
lim
Where,
k1 = s 1 .(s
+1). 2
(s +1)(z TS
s
e
)
z
T
= 1 (z e )
z
2
K1 = (z e
1
K2 =
s 0
lim
(2 1)!
=
)
s 0
lim
ds
d
.
s (s +1)(z e
z
Ts
Ts
ds s (s +1)(z e )
2
z + z + zT
2
(z 1)
Thus X(z) = k1 +k2
2
z + z + zT
z
=
+
T
(z e )
(z 1) 2
=
+ 1 + z
+z
1 2
z 1eT
(1 z )
G(s)
1
X (s) = 1 eTS .G(s) . Prove that
Example:02:
Given
X (z) = (1 z
)z
OR
s
s
consider the zero order Hold circuit succeeded by the plant
with transfer function G(s).
Explain how would you determine the z-transform of such combined system.
Soluotion:
1
Suppose the transfer function G(s) follows the zoH. Then, the product of the transfer function
of ZOH and G(s) becomes:
1e
X (s) =
TS
X(s)
.G(s)
(1 e TS
G(s)
)
s
TS
X(s) = (1 e ).G (s)
1
TS
X(s) = G (s) e .G (s)
1
-1 -TS
[X1(s)] =
[e G1(s)]
-1 -TS
-1
=
[e ]*
[G1(s)]
-1
[X1(s)] = g0(t) * g1(t)
x1(t) =
g0 (t ) * g1 ( )d
But,
-1 -TS
[e
] = (t-T)
Thus , x1(t) =
(t T ).g1 ( )d
0
= g1(t-T)
Hence by writing z[g1(t)] = G1(z)
Thus,
Z[x1(t) ] = z[g1(t-T
T)] X1(z) = z .G1(z)
Thus , X(s) = G1 (s) X1(s)
Or, X(z) = z[g1(t)]-z[X1(t)]
T
= G1(z) z .G1(z)
-T
= G1(z)[1-z ]
-T
= [1-z ].z[G(s)/s]
[G1(s) = z[(G(s))/s]
-T
For T = 1,
-1
proved
G(s) = k.
1e
1
.
s
s(s +1)
s
1e
. [since k = 1]
2
s (s +1)
G(z) = Z[G(s)]s
G(s) =
1e
=z
s (s +1)
0.3679z + 0.2642
(z 0.3679)(z 1)
Now the closed loop transfer function of G(z) is
C(z)/R(z) = G(z)/[1+G(z)]
Therefore , the characteristics equation is given by ,
1+G(z) = 0
1+ 0.3679z + 0.264z
(z 0.3679)(z 1)
Or (z-0.3679)(z-1) +
2
0.3679z+0.2642 Z -z+0.6321 = 0
From which we get,
2
Z z+0.6321 = 0
Form which we get,
Z1 = 0.5+j0.6181 Z2
= 0.5 j0.6181
2
2
|z| = |z1| = |z2| = (0.5 + (0.6181) ) =
0.7950 Since the |z| < 1 , the system is stable.
The jury stability test:
Assume,
n
n-1
n-2
P(z) = anz + an-1z + an-2z + . a1z+a0
..(i) Where,
An > 0 , then for stable system the following condition should be specificed.
1. |a0|> an
2. P(z) |z =1 > 0
3. p(z) |z =-1 > 0 if n = even
< 0 if n = odd
4. |bn-1| >|bo|
|cn-2| > |co|
.
.
|q2| > |qo|
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Where,
a
bk = n
a
ck =
k +1
a
n 1
k = 0,1,2.n-2
n
b2k
b0
k +1
.
.
qk =
k = 0,1,2.n-1
n1 k
p3
2k
k = 0,1,2
k +1
Date: 2065/5/22
The jury stability Test:
n
n-1
n-2
P(z) = a0z + a1z + a2z + . An-1z+an
..(i) Where,
a0 > 0 then, for a stable system the following conditions should be fulfilled.
1. |an| > a0
2. p|(z)|z =1 > 0
3. P(z)|z= -1 > 0 n = even
< 0 n = odd
4. |bn-1| > |b0|
|Cn-2| > |c0|
|q2| > |qo|
4
3
Example:01: construct the Jury stability table for the following equation. P(z) = a0z + a1z +
3
a2z +a3z+a4 ,Where a0 > 0. Write the stability conditions since n = 4 the stability conditions
are:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
|a4| > a0
p|(z)|z =1 = a0+ a1+ a2 +a3+a4
P(z)|z= -1 = a0- a1+ a2 -a3+a4 > 0 [since n = 4 = even ]
|b3| > |b0|
|C3| > |c0|
The Jury stability table can be constructed for n = 4 as follows:
0
Row z
Z1
Z2
Z3
Z4
a4
a0
a3
a4
a1
a4
a0
a3
a2
a4
a0
a2
a3
a4
a0
a1
b3
b0
b0
b1
b1
b3
b0
b2
b2
b3
b0
b3
b2
b1
b0
c2
c1
c0
b1
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z0
Z1
-0.08
1
-0.08
1
-0.08
1
-0.08
0.3
1
-1.2
-0.9936
-0.204
-0.9936
-0.204
-0.9936 1.176
-0.204
-0.0756
Z2
Z3
-1.2
0.3
0.07
0.07
Z4
1 = -0.993
-0.08
= 1.176
= -0.0756
= -0.204
-0.204
-0.0756
-0.0756
-1.176
= 0.9456
= -1.1838
= 0.315
Example: 03: A control system has the following characteristics equation P(z) = z 1.3z
0.08z + 0.24 = 0
Determine the stability of the system by jury stability test.
3
Example:04: Examine the stability of the characteristics equation given by : P(z) = z 1.1z
0.1z + 0.2 = 0 . Use jury method.
z = w +1
w 1
w=
z + 1
z 1
We choose w so
that W = +j
3
w + 1
w 1 , we get P(z) as,
W
2
W
1
W
W
1
-7.75
-38.30
-36.43
-14.14
0
-14.14
The above equation and array show that there is a sign change in the following system is not
stable. It indicates that there is a pole in the right half of w plane which in turn indicates that
there is a pole outside the unit circle in z-plane.
Example: 02: Consider y(k) = 0.6y(k-1) 0.81y(k-2)+0.6y(k-3) 0.12y(k-4) = x(k) where,
x(k) is the input and y(k) is the output of the system. Check the stability of the system using
Jury stability method.
Solution:
-1
-2
-3
-4
Y(z) -0.6z y(z) 0.81z y(z) + 0.6z y(z)- 0.12z y(z) = X(z)
Y (z)
1
=
1
2
3
4
X (z) 1 0.6z 0.81z + 0.6z 0.12z
4
z
4
3
2
z 0.6z 0.81z + 0.6z 0.12
For which the characteristics equation is
4
3
2
Z 0.6z 0.81z + 0.6z 0.12 = 0
Date: 2065/6/5
S-plane to z-plane mapping:
Mapping of the left half of s-plane into z-plane:
We know z and s are related by the equation,
TS
Z = e .(i)
This means that a pole in s-plane can be located in the z-plane through transformation
TS
Z=e ,
Also we know that ,
S = +j .(ii)
Thus equation (i) become ,
T( +j)
Z=e
jT
=e .e
Z=e
.(iii)
We see that the poles and zeroes in s-plane , where frequencies differ in integral multiple of
the sampling frequency 2 /T are mapped into the some locations in the z-plane . This means
that there are infinite may values of s for each value of z.
)
is ve in the left half of the s-plane , the left arm of the s-plane corresponds to |z| = e
=e
-T
Since
<1
im
Complementary
strip
Primary
strip
Re
Re
Complementary
strip
z-plane
s-plane
(i)
jw
im
eT2
1
-1
Re
e-T1
s-plane
z-plane
im
1
Re
-1
s-plane
z-plane
(ii)
Mapping of constant frequency Loci: A constant frequency loci w = w1 , in the splane is mapped into a radial line of constant angle Tw1 ( in radian) in the z-plane as
shown in the fig. below.
jw
im
w1
w2
w2T
w1T
Re
w1T
-w1
s -plane
z -plane
(iii) Mapping of constant damping ratio. ( ) A constant damping ratio line (a radial line) in
the s-plane is mapped into a spiral in the z-plane as shown in figure below.
= 1
Re
s -plane
z -plane
Z = exp.
2
2
wd
wd
+ j2
w
ws
s
Hence ,
|z| = exp
w
2
d
2
w
s
wd
z=2
ws
Example:01: For a given region in s-plane draw the corresponding region in z plane.
jw
jw1
e1
(2 w2T)
w1T
e2
1
-jw2
=2
=1
2065/6/5
Reconstruction of original signal from samples:
Instantaneous sampling (i.e when the duration of the sampling pulse s 0 or delta function )is
referred to as ideal sampling . In this case the sampling function is the train of impulses,
i.e
As HLPF(f) = 0 for the frequency components higher then fx , the spectrum at the output of
LPF for
K = 1/fs will be x(f) , the spectrum of the message signal .
Which is shown in equation (i)
In time domain
-1
-1
X(t) = f [x(f)] = f [x(f) HLPF(f)]
x(t) = x (t) * hLPF(t)
Where hLPF(t) is the impulse response of ideal LPF which is expressed as.
hLPF (t) = 2BTs sinc [
2Bt] Where,
Ts = 1/fs
B = fx , the higher frequency component.
Thus signal at the output of low pass filter for
X(t) = x(kTs)
at t = kTs
n=
Will be,
x(t) = x(kTs)
x(t) = 2BTs
The above equation (ii) shows that the original message signal
Can be reconstructed from its sampled values x(kTs) if the sampling is done at Ts 1/2fx
Chapter: 3
Analysis of control system:
The pulse Transfer Function:
X(z)
G(z)
Y(z)
The transfer function for the continuous time system relates the Laplace Transform of the
continuous time output to that of continuous time input while the pulse transfer function
relates the z-transform of the output at the sampling instants to that of the sampled input.
The pulse transfer function is defined by
G(z) = Y(z)/X(z) ..(i)
Of the discrete time system As seen from the above equation we write,
Y(z) = G(z) x(z) ..(ii)
Equation (ii) may also be written as,
Y*(s) = G*(s) x*(s) ..(iii)
General procedure for obtaining Pulse transfer function:
x*(t)
x(t)
y(t)
G(s)
X*(z)
y*(t)
Y(z)
y(t)
Y(s)
G(s)
G(s)
x(t)
u(t)
u*(t)
H(s)
y(t)
y*(t)
Fig. 3(a)
x(t)
x*(t)
G(s)
H(s)
y(t)
y*(t)
Fig. 3(b)
Consider the system shown in fig (iii) (a) we can write that
G(s) = G(s).X*(s) ..(i)
Y(s) = H(s).U(*(s) .(ii)
Now taking starred laplace transform of equation (i) and
(ii) U*(s) = G*(s).X*(s) (iii)
Y*(s) = H*(s) U*(s) .(iv)
From equation (ii)
Y*(s) = H*(s)U*(s)
= H*(s).G*(s).X*(s)
Or, Y*(s)/X*(s) = G*(s). H*(s)
Taking z-transform of the above equation.
Y*(z)/X*(z) = G(z).H(z) .(v)
Which is the pulse transfer function between i/p x*(t) and o/p y*(t)
Downloaded from www.bhawesh.com.np / - 43
s +b
.
ba s+a
1
1
=z
Y(z)/X(z) =
AT
s+b
1
BT
ba 1 e z
1e z
Thus we conclude that G(z).H(z) is not equal to function GH(z).
PTF of a closed loop system:
R(s)
E(s)
+-
E*(s)
G(s)
C(s)
H(s)
E*(s)
E(s)
+-
G*(s) m*(s)
D
1-e-TS
s
U(s)
G (s)
C(s)
Fig. (v)
From fig (v) , let ,
-Ts
1-e /s. Gp(s) = G(s)
..(i) Also,
C(s) = G(s) GD*(s) E*(s)
Or C(s) = G*(s) GD*(s) E*(s) (ii)
In term of z-transform, equation (iii) can be written as:
C(z) = R(z) C(z) (iv)
Thus , equation (iii) becomes
C(z) = G(z) GD(z)[R(z)-C(z)]
C(z) = [ 1+G(z)GD(s)] = G(z) GD(z) R(z)
Or C(z)/R(z) = G(z)GD(z) / 1+G(Z)GD(z)
C(z)/R(z) = GD(z)G(z)/1+GD(z)G(z) (v)
Which the required closed loop PTF of a Digital control system.
PTF of a digital PID controller:
The PID control action in analog controller is
m(t) = kp e(t) +
1
T
de(t)
t
e(t)dt
+ Td
.(i)
dt
i 0
where e(t) is the i/p to the controller , m(t) is the o/p of the controller, k is the proportionality
gain , Ti is the integral time and Td is the derivative time.
To obtain the PTF for the digital PID controller , we first discritise equation (i) .
Then , by approximating the integral term by the Trapezoidal summation rule and the
derivative term by two-point difference formula. Thus equation (i) becomes at t = kT ,
1 e(0) + e(T ) e(T ) + e(2T )
e(k 1) + e(kT )
+
e(KT )
m (kT) = kp
+ ......
2
e(kT ) e(k 1)T
+ Td .
+ ........
T
k
=kp e(KT ) + T . e((h 1)T ) + e(hT ) +
T
i
Let,
Ti
h=1
h=1
h=1
z.
h =1
z.
f (hT )
h=1
-1
= 1/(1-z ). [F(z)-f(0)]
-1
= 1/(1-z ). F(z) .(v)
Also ,
F(z) =z[f(hT)]= z
2
-1
F(z) = (1-z )/2.E(z)
Thus from equation (iv) becomes,
k
1
e((h 1)T ) + e(hT )
1+z
z.
=
1 E(z) .(V)
2
=
2(1 z )
Hence equation (ii) becomes by taking z-transform on both sides,
1
1z
Td
T
1
M(z) = z[m(kT)] = Kp E(z) +
.
E(z) +
(1 z
)E(z)
T 2(1 z 1 )
T
h1
-1
-1
-1
M(z) = kp'+
+ k D .(1 z 1 ) E(z)
.(vi)
1z
Where, kp =
T
k
2T
proportional gain
T
Ki = k
p T
= Integral gain
Kd = k p
d = Derivative gain
T
Form equation (vi) we can write that
Ki
GD(z) = M(z)/E(z) =
kp'+
+kD
.(1 z 1 ) (vii)
1 z
Where, GD(z) is the closed loop PIF for digital PID controller equation (vii) is also know as
the proportional form of PID control scheme.
Where, ais and bis are real coefficient and n # m. The above transfer function can
be represented by various structures (below) using the following methods:
(i) Direct programming
(ii) Standard programming
(iii) Ladder programming
(iv) Series programming
(v) Parallel programming
(i)Direct programming:Equation (i) can be represented as
-1
-2
..-anX(z)z
= bo + b1z
-1
-2
+b2z
-2
-m
+..+bmz
-n
Y(z)
H(z)
And
-1
-2
-m
_________(ii)
1
z 2
2
_______________(iii)
+.........a
z n
n
G(z)=Ao =
B 1z +
A1 +
1B2Z +
1
.
.
.
.
A+
DZ+ 1
n1
An
The programming method based on this scheme is known as ladder programming.
Let, us defines:1
,i =1,2.............n 1
Biz + Gi (A)(A)(z)
( A)
1
Gi (Z ) =
,i =1,2.............n 1
Gi
(b)
(Z ) =
Aiz + Gi+1 ( B) z
1
( B)
Gn (Z ) =
1 ,i =1,2.............n 1
BnZ +
A
n
G(z) = Ao =
B1 z +
A1 +
1B2 Z +
1
.
.
.
.
A +
1
DZ+ 1
n1
(B)
(A)
(Z) G
An
(B)
(Z), and G2 (Z); the G(z) may be rewritten as:
G(z) =Ao +
1
1
B1z+ A +G(B)(Z)
1
1
= Ao + B z + G ( A) (z)
1
(B)
( B)
(z) =
Yi (z)
X i(z)
1
Bi z + Gi
( A)
(z)
(A)
+Gi zYi(z)
(A)
Now for Gi
Gi
( A)
(A)
(z)
(z) =
Yi (Z )
1
=A
+G
X i (z)
i
i+1
( B)
(z)
(A)
+Gi zYi(z)
1+0.5z-1
-1
X(z) 1+0.5z
-1
-1
Or, Y(z) +0.5z Y(z) = 2X(z) -0.6z X(z)
-1
Or, Y(z) = 2X(z) -0.6z-1X(z) -0.5z Y(z)
H(z) X(z)
-1
Y(z) = 2- 0.6z
H(z)
H(z) =
1
X(z)
1+0.5z-1
Now,
Y(z) = 2H(z) 0.6z-1H(z)
___________(i) X(z) = H(z) +0.5z-1 H(z)
H(z) = X(z) 0.5z-1H(z) _______________(ii)
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1
1z +1
-1.6
-3.2
Ao = 2 , B1 = -1/1.6, A1 = -1/3.2
-2
Examples:- 02
-1
1 + 0.4z 0.122
z-1
(i) D
(ii) S
(iv) L
Peak time:- peak time is the time required for the response to reach the first peak
of the over shoot.
Maximum over shoot (Mp):- It is the maximum peak value of the response
measure from the unity. If the final steady state value of the response differs from
the unity. Then it is common to use maximum percent overshoot which is defined
by
Maximum % overshoot = C(tp) C() x 100%
C()
Where,
C(tp) = Amplitude at time tp
C() = Final steady state value.
(5)
Setting time (ts):- It is the time required for they response curve to reach an stay
within a range about the final value of a size specified as an absolute % of the
final value.
G(z) = Z [ (1 e ) . Gp(s)]
S
Where,
-TS
1e
= PTF of
ZOH S
-1
Thus, G(z) = (1 z ) z [Gp(s)]
S
Or, E(z) =
.R(z)
1+GH(z)
Thus, by substituting the value of E(z) in equation (ii),
-1
g
(ii)
ess = 1 1+Kp
(1 z )
Then,
-1
ess = lim (1-z )
1. .
1+GH(z)
z1
Tz-1
-1 2
(1-z )
ess = lim
z1
T
-1
(1-z )(1+GH(z))
now,
static velocity error constant Kv is defined by,
Kv = Lim
(1-z-1)(1 + GH(z)
z1
T
ess = 1/Kv
If r(t) = t
Draw a root locus diagram for the system of the sampling period T = 0.5 sec. Also,
determine the critical value of k. finally locate the closed loop poles corresponding to
k = 2.
The General DCS of Fig (i) is of integral type for which.
GD(z) = Ki
Ki = integral gain.
Now, for closed loop poles, we provide as follows,
Z[Gn(S)Gp(s)] = Z 1
e TS .
S
1
1
= (1 z
)Z
s +1
s
= (1 z
1
(s +1)
1
1z
-1
Or, Z[Gn(s).Gp(S)] = 1 - 1-Z 1-1 -1
e z
-1 -1
=1- e z -1+
-1
-T -1
z 1-e z
1
eT
-T
= z-1(1-e )
-T -1
(1-e z )
-T
=1-e
-T
z-e
Ki.
-1
1-z
1-e
-T
z-e
-T
= G(z)
Or, Kiz(1-e )
-T
(z-1)(z-e )
The closed loop poles are given
by, 1 + G(z) = 0
-T
Or, Kiz(1-e ) = 0
-0
0.393kz
=0
(z-1)(z-0.606)
In order to draw the root locus diagram, we need to first determine, we need to first
determine the break in points or break array point which is evaluated as below,
We know,
1 + G(z) = 0
Or, 1 + K B(z) = 0
A(z)
Where,
G(z) = K B(z)
A(z)
And , K = -A(z)
B(z)
Then, the breakaway and break in point is determined as,
Dk = -A(z)B(z) +A(z)B(z) = 0
2
B (z)
Dz
If the value of k corresponding to a root z =zo of , is +ve , point z = zo is an actual
breakaway or break in points.
The given characteristic equations is
1+
ki 0.393z = 0
(z -1)(z -0.606)
Here, We assume,
Ki = K
The, 1 +
Kz 0.393
(z-1)(z-0.606)
Here, A(z) = (z 1) (z 0.606)
B(z) = KZ 0.393
dk
Dz
- 1.606z + 0.606
0.393
0.393z
z 0.393
1 - 0 - 0.606
2
z 0.393
0.393
2
z - 0.606
=0
Z 0.393
Z = 0.7788 ( and also z = -0.7788)
For which,
Ki = -A(z)
B(z)
= -(z-1)(z-0.606)
Z 0.393
2
= - Z 1.606z + 0.606)
Z 0.393
2
for,
z = - 0.7788
K2 = 0.124
for,
z = 0.7788
Z1 = 0.41 +j 0.66
Z2 = 0.41 j 0.66
For,
Z = eTS
= eT(-rWn +jWn 1r
) From which, we get,
/z/ = e
-Tr
Wn
But, Wd = Wn 1r
<Z = = TWd
# For Z = 0.4098 + j 0.6623 and T = 0.5 s, Find out the damping ratio. We know for
damping ratio r.
/Z/ = e-TrWn __________(i)
2
(0 .40987)2 + (0.6623)2
= 0.7788 _________(iii)
Or,Wn 1r = 2.0332_________(vi)
Dividing equation (vi) and (v) ,
1 r
= 2.0332
r
0.5
r = 0.254
1 r 2
= 1.0166
= 1.968 rad/sec
0.5 1 0.254
= 1968 1
(0.254)2
= 1.903 rad/sec.
Question:- Find out the static velocity error constant for G(z) for K = 2.
Kv = lim G(z) (1-z-1)
Z1
T
For T = 0.5 sec, we had,
G(z) = 0.393 Kz
(z-3)(z-0.606)
= 0.393 x 2 x 2
(z-3)(z-0.606)
= 0.786z
Kv = Lim
z-3)(z-0.606)
-1
0.786z
(1-z )
Z1 (z-3)(z0.606) = 3.99
Try for T = 1 and T = 2 sec
.
Question:- Design a digital controller for the system shown below. Given r = 0.5 and
setting time of 2sec. The sampling period is assumed to be 0.2 sec. obtained the response of
designed digital control system to a unit step o/p. Also obtained static velocity error
constant of the system.
Hint:- ts = 4/rWn
of GzoH(S) = 1-e
S
Gp(S) = 1/s(s+3)
G(z) = Z[GzoH(S).Gp(s)]
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S (S+2)
For which ,
G(z) = 0.01758 (Z+0.8760)
(z-1)(z-0.6703)
Here,
=Z
1
S2(S+2)
=Z A+
B+
S
A=d
Ds
2
B=S .
S
S+2
S. 1
S@(S+@
S =0
1
2
S (S+2) S = 0
C = (S+2).
1
2
S .(S+2). S = -2
-1
G(z) = 1 Z ) Z -0.25
+ 0.5 + 0.25
2
S
S+2
S
-1
= (1-Z-1) -0.25 0.25 TZ
0 .25
-1 2
-1
- 1
1-e2TZ
(1-z ) (1-z )
But,
T = 0.2sec
G(z) = 0.01758 (Z + 0.8760)
(z-1)(z-0.6703)
Also, given
R = 0.5
Ts = 4 = 2 rWn
or, rWn = 2
or, Wn = 2/0.5 = 4
Wd = Wn 1r
=4 1
0.5 Wd = 3.464
Also, sampling frequency.
Ws = 2
T
= 2 = 31.4 rad/sec
0.2
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the upper half of the Z- plane, then, the total sum of angles at point P must be 180
= 231.26
The angle deficiency will be:
-
0
0
Example:-2
Design a digital controller shown in the above figure which has dead time of 2sec.
The samping peiod is 1sec. The digital controller must be PI controller. Given r = 0.5 and
Wd/Ws =1/10.obtained the step response and Kv.
(no of samples per cycle of damped sinusoidal oscillation is 10.).
From figure (i)
-TS
G(s) = 1 e
. E-2s S
(S+1)
G(z) = Z[G(s)] = Z 1- e-TS. E-2s
S
S+1
-1
= (1-z ) Z e-2s
S(S+1)
-1 -2
== (1-z )z Z 1
S(S+1)
-1
-2
= (1-z ) Z Z 1 _ 1
-1
-2
= (1-z ) Z
S
1 _
-1
1-Z
(S+1)
1
-T -1
1-e Z
= 0.6321
2
Z (Z -0.3679)
Let, us consider the PI controller be of the form.
GD(z) = Kp + Ki 1
-1
1-Z
= Kp + Ki Z
Z -1
= Kp(Z-1) +KiZ
(Z-1)
= (Kp + Ki) Z = Kp
Z-1
GD(z) = (Kp + Ki) (Z - Kp
(Kp+Ki)
(Z 1)
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Z (Z 1) ( Z 0.3679)
Now, In order to specify the position of the PI controller We go as follows:From given,
R = 0.5
Wd = 1
Ws
10
T=1
Td = 2 sec.
From magnitude and angle condition,
2 r
Wd
.
2
1r
Ws
1r
10
= e-0.3628
/Z/ = 0.6958
0
And <Z = Twd 2 Wd = 2 . Wd = 2 . 1 = 36
Ws
Ws
10
Z = /Z/ <Z
= 0.6958< 36
Z = 0.5629 + j 0.4090
If point P is the location of dominant closed loop, the plot for the upper half of the zplane will be:-
= - 93.4
0
Therefore, the PI controller must provide +93.4 at Kp
Kp+Ki
0
= 0.5872
= 0.5872
Kp + Ki
g
g
(Z 1)
And Ki = 0.2092
1
1-Z
-1
HGD(Z) G(Z)
Z (Z-0.3679)
(Z-1)
1 + 0.5070(Z 0.5872) . 0.6321
gg
(Z-1)
Z (Z 0.3679)
=
Finally, we know,
Kv = Lim (1 Z-1) . GD(Z) G(Z)
Z 1 T
= ..
Discrete time state equations:Introduction:For linear time varying discrete time system, the state equations and output
equations may be written as:X(x + 1) = G(K)x(K) + Hu(K)
Y(k) = C(k) x(k) + D(K) x(K)
Where,
X(k) = n vector (state vector) Y(k)
= m vector( output vector) U(k) = r
vector( input vector) G(k) = m x n
matrix( state matrix ) H(k) = n x r
matrix ( input matrix) C(k) = m x n
matrix (output matrix)
Fig. (i) Block diagram of linear time invariant discrete control system.
State space Representation of DCS:We know the discrete time system can be described by:Y(k) + a1y(x-1) +a2y(k-2) + +any(-n) = b2u(k) +b1u(k-1) +. bnu(k-n).
Now, taking z- transform on both sides,
-1
-2
-n
-2
U(z)
-1
-2
-n
bo z +b 1z
n
z + a 1z
n-1
n-1
+b2z
+a2z
n-2
n-2
+ .bn
+.an
]
There are various ways to relies the state space equations. The major 4 forms are:(i)
controllable canonical form.
(ii)
Observable
(iii)
(iv)
(i)
Diagonal
Jordon
Controllable Conical form:-
01
00
= 01
01
Xn(K +1)
0 .0
1 .0
0 .0
0 .0
0 1 0 .0
X1(k)
X2(k)
X3(k)
Xn-1(k)
0
0
0
0
Xn(k)
Y!(K)
X1(k)
Y2(K)
Y3(K) = [bn anbn : bn-1 an-1b0 ..b1 a1b0]
X2(k)
X3(k)
Yn-1(K)
Xn-1(k)
Yn(K)
Xn(K)
(ii)
Observable canonical form:In this case, the state space equation is represented by:X!(K +1)
X2(K +1)
.
.
01
10
+
.
an-1
.
.
X1(k)
X2(k).
.
.
bn - anbn
.bn-1-anbo
+.
.
Xn-1(K +1)
0 0 .0
a2
Xn-1(k)
b2-a2bo
Xn(K +1)
0 0 .0
a1
Xn(K)
b1-a1bo
.0
.0
.
a1
X1(k)
Y2(K)
X2(k)
.
= [0, 0 ,0 ..0 1]
.
.
Xn-1(k)
Yn(K)
Xn(K)
(iii)
Diagonal Canonical form:-If poles of the PTF are distinct, the state
space equation in matrix form can be expressed as:-
X!(K +1)
P1 0.0
X1(k)
X2(K +1)
.
.
0 P2
0
.
.
X2(k).
+.
.
.
.1
.
Xn-1(K +1)
0 0 .Pn-1
Xn-1(k)
Xn(K +1)
0 0 .0
ln
Xn(K)
.0
.
U(K)
X1(K)
.
+ b0U(K)
.
.
Xn(K)
Where, P1, P2, ..Pn are all distinct poles and C1, C2, ..Cn are all
constant coefficients of the respective poles.
(iv)
Jordan canonical form:- If the PTF given by equations (i), (ii) and (iii) involves
and multiple pole of order m at z = P1 and all other poles are distinct, then the
state space equation in matrix form may be represented as:X!(K +1)
P1 1 0.0
0 ..0
X1(k)
X2(K +1)
.
.
0 P1 1
.
.
.0 0 ..0
.
.
X2(k).
.
.
0
.
+ . U(K)
Xm(K +1)
Xm+1(K +1)
.
.
0 0 0..P1 0..0
0 0 0 .0 0.0
. ..
..
.
. . .
.
.
Xn(K+!)
0 0 0
and the o/p matrix is given by:-
Xm(k)
Xm-1(K)
.
.
Pn
1
1
.
.
Xn(K)
Y(K) = [C1
C2.
.Cn] X1(K)
X2(K)
+ boU(K)
.
.
Xn(K)
Z+1
2
Z + 1.32 + 0.4
U(z)
Represent the above PTF in
(i)
Controllable
(ii)
Observable
(iii) Diagonal
Soln:The given PTF is
2
Z+1
= boZ + b1Z + b2
Y(z) =
2
Z + 1.32 + 0.4
Where,
Z + a1Z +a2
b0 = 0
b1 = 1
and
b2 = 1
a1 = 1.3
a2 = 0.4
Let, Z + 1
2
Z + 1.32 +0.4
= C1
+
Z+ 0.5
= Z+1
(Z+ 0.5) (Z+0.8)
= 5/3 + -2/3
Z+0.5 Z+0.8
C1 = 5/3,
C2
Z+ 0.8
P1 = -0.5
C2 = -2/5, P2 = -0.8
(i)
Controllable:X1(K+1)
X2(K+1
For o/p,
Y1(K)
0 1
-0.4 -1.3
=0
Y2(K)
X1(K) +
X2(K)
0
1
X1(K)
U(z)
X2(K)
U(K)
b0 = 0
bn anb0
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Observable:X1(K+1)
= 0 -0.4
1 -1.3
X1(K) +
=0
X1(K)
X2(K+1
And o/p,
X2(K)
= -0.5 0
0 -0.8
X1(K) +
X2(K)
1
1
= -5/3 -2/3
X1(K)
Y1(K)
Y2(K)
(iii)
X2(K)
1
1
U(K)
b0 = 0
Diagonal:-
X1(K+1)
X2(K+1
For o/p,
Y1(K)
X2(K)
Y2(K)
U(K)
b0 = 0
Example: 01
-1
-2
Y(z) = Z + 2Z
U(z)
-1
-2
1+ 4Z +3Z
Example:- 02
-2
-3
Y(z) =
Z + 4Z
U(z)
-1
-2
-3
1+ 6Z +11Z +6Z
Solving Discrete Time state space equations:The LTI discrete time state equations is
X(k+1) = Gx(k) +Hu(k) ___________(i)
We need to find solution of equations (i) by the following
process. Equations can be rewritten as , for k = 0,1,2..
X(1) = Gx(0) + Hu(0)
X(z) = Gx(1) +Hu(1)
= G[Gx(0) +Hu(0) ] +Hu(1)]
2
+GHu(0)
=G
[G x(0)
+hu(1) X(3) = Gx(z) +HH(z)
2
-J-1
GK
+ Hu(j) K= 1, 2,3.__________(ii)
2 representing the contribution of input U(j), J= 0,.1,2, 3.(k1) The o/p y(k) is given by
Y(K) = CGK X(0) +C
k 1
j= 0
k 1
j= 0
= (K) X(o) +
(K-j-1) HU(j)
k 1
j= 0
(J)HU(K-J-1)
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
X(K) = Z [Z (ZI-G) Z]X(0) +Z [ZI-G) HU(Z)]]----------(vi) Now, comparing equation (v) and (vi)
-1
-1
Examples:- 02
Obtained the state transition matrix of the following discrete time system:X(K+1) = GX(K) + HU(K)
And Y(K) = CX(K)
Where, G = 0
1
H=1 ,
C = [1, 0]
-0.16
-1
1
1
-1
Z +Z+ 0.16
Z +Z+ 0.16
-0.16
=
2
Z +Z+0.16 Z +Z+0.16
Z+1
1
(Z+0.8) (Z+0.2)
(Z+0.8)(Z+0.2)
0.16
Z
(Z+0.8)(Z+0.2)
(Z+0.8)(Z+0.2)
4/3
-1/3
5/3
+
Z+0.2
Z+0.2
Z+0.2
-0.8/3 +
0.8/3
-1/3
+
Z+0.2
Z+0.8
Z+0.2
-1
-5/3
Z+0.8
4/3
Z+0.8
-1
(k) = GK = Z [(GI G) Z]
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Or,
-1/3
Z+0.2
0.8/3
Z+0.8
-0.8/3 +
Z+0.2
5/3
Z+0.2
-1/3
Z+0.2
-5/3
Z+0.8
4/3
Z+0.8
5/3(-0.2)k-5/3(0.8)k
-1/3(-0.2)k+4/3(-0.8)k
Z
Z-1
= Z
Z-1
Z
Z-1
ZX(0) + HU(z) = Z +
-Z +
Z =
Z-1
Z
Z-1
2
Z + 2Z
Z-1
-1
(ZI-G)
Z-1
ZX(0) + HU(z)]
=
(Z +2)Z
(Z+0.2)(Z+0.8)(Z-1)
-Z + 1.84Z)Z
(Z+0.2)(Z+0.8)(Z-1)
X(z) = -17/6z
Z+0.2
34Z/6
Z+0.2
22z/9 +
Z+0.8
Z-1
-17.6z/9 + 7/18z
Z+0.8
Z-1
25z/18
22(-0.8)
9
25.1
18
24(-0.2)
6
=
24(-0.2)
6
-17(0.2)
6
17.6(-0.8)
9
(1 0) 17(0.2)
6
22(-0.8)
9
17.6(-0.8)
9
22(-0.8)
9
7. 1
18
25.1
18
7. 1
18
25.1
18
Examples:- 03
Find the inverse matrix ( 2KI G) for
G = 0.1
0.3
0
0.1
-0.1
0
0
-0.2
-0.3
Pulse Transfer function Matrix:A single input single output discrete time system may be modeled by a
pulse transfer function s. Extension of pulse transfer function concept to a multiple
input multiple output discrete time system gives us the pulse transfer function matrix.
The state space representation of a nth order LTI discrete time system with r input
and m output can be given by,
X(k+1) = Gx(k) +HU(k) __________(i)
Y(k) = (x(k)) +DU(k)_________(ii)
Where,
X(k) is an n-vector
U(k) is an r-vector
Y(k) is an m-vector
G is an n x n matrix
C is an m x n matrix
D is an m x r matrix
Now, taking the z-transform of equation (i) and (ii)
ZX(Z) ZX(0) = GX(Z) + HU(Z)
Y(Z) = CX(Z) +DU(Z)
Noting that we assume,
X(0) = 0
Then, we obtain
-1
Where,
-1
F(Z) = C(ZI - G) H + D
___________(iii) F(Z) is called the pulse transfer
function matrix. Also,
Equation (iii) can be rewritten as:F(Z) = C adj(ZI G) H +D __________(iv)
/ZI - G/
Equations (iv) show that the poles of F(Z) are at,
/ZI G/ = 0
Discrimination of continuous time state space equations:In digital control system we need to convert continuous time state space equation into
discrete time state space equation. Such conversion can be done by introducing
instantaneous sampler and holding devices into continuous time system.
Consider the continuous time state equation and output equations:X = AX + BU ________(i)
Y = CX + DU___________(ii)
To clarify more in the following procedure we use (K+1) instead of (k+1) and KT instead
of K.
For which the state space equation in discrete time becomes,
X(()K+1)+T) = GX(KT) + HU(KT)
We also assume the constants factors G and H depends on the sampling period T,
thus, the above equation becomes,
X((K+1) T) = G(T) X (KT) +
H(T)U(KT) Where,
G(T) = e
AT
__________(iii)
H(T) =
Where, = T t
Finally, the o/p equation is,
S+!
It is of 1 order type where, the state space representation for equation (i)
in controllable canonical form will be,
0
X = -aX + 1V
0
X = -aX +U __________(ii)
& Y = X __________(iii)
Now,
In order to discretise, the above equations (ii) and (iii) we need to find out G(T) &
H(T). We know,
G(T) = eAT,
But, A = -a
G(T) = e-aT
H(T) =
A
e
d B,
And, H(T)
but, A = -a & B = 1
e
=
d
a
1e
aT
Thus, the discretised version of equation (ii) and (iii) are:X((K+T)T) = G(T) X(KT) + H(T) U(KT)
X(K+1)T = e
-aT
X (KT) + (1-e
a
-aT
)U (KT) __________(iv)
and ,
Y(KT) = X(KT) ___________(v)
Finally, the pulse transfer function in this case is,
F(Z) = [C(ZI-G)-1H(T)
+D] Here, D = 0 [ Y = CX +
DV]
C=1
-aT
H(T) = 1-e
a
-aT
G(T) = e
-aT -1
-aT
) . (1-e
..
-aT
)
A
1
(Z- e
-aT
Example:- 2
Obtained the discrete time state and output equations and pulse transfer function
(when sampling period T= 1) of the following continuous time system:
G(S) = Y(S) = 1
U(S)
S(S+2)
Which may be represented in state space by the equation s:0
X
1
X1
X2
-2
X2
Y=
[1
0]
X1
X2
P12
P22
P32
P13
P23
P33
P11
P21
P11
P21
&
P12
P22
>0
P12
P22
P13
P23
>0
P31 P32
P33
We generally choose,
Q=I
Where, I is Identity matrix.
Example:- 01
Determine the stability of the equilibrium state of the following system.
o
X1 = -X1 X2
o
X2 = X1 4X2
Also find out the liapunov function.
Soln:- The given system can be represented as:X = AX
Where,
A = -1
-2
1
-4
Now for the system to be stable, we have
A*P + PA = - Q_________(i)
We choose,
Q=I=1
0
0
Also,
P=
P11
P=
P11
P12
P21
P12
P22
P21 P22
Thus, equation (i) becomes,
-1
-2
-4
P11
P21
P12 + P11
P22
P21
P12
P22
-1
1
-2 = -1
-4
0
-P11 + P12
-P11+P12 +
-P11 +P12
-2P11-4 P12
-P11
P11 -P12
-P11+P12
-2P11-4 P22
+ P12
0
-1
-1
-1
-2P11 +2P12
-2P11 - 5P12+P22
-1
-2P11 - 5P12+P22
-4P12 -8P22
0
-1
Comparing and equating the corresponding elements of the above system:
-2P11 + 2P12 = -1
- 2P11 5P12 + P22 = 0
-P12 8P22 = -1
Solving the above set of equations (ii), we get,
P11 = 23/60
P12 = -7/60
P22 = 11/60
Hence, P =
23/60
-7/60
-7/60
11/60
st
The 1 matrix,
/P11/>0
The 2
nd
minor,
23/60
-7/60 =
204/3600 > 0
-7/60
11/60
Since P is +ve definite, The system is stable,
Now, the liapunov function is given by
V(X) = X*PX
=[X1 X2]
-7/60 X1
-7/60
11/60 X2
Liapunov Stability Analysis of Discrete Time system:Consider the discrete time system.
X(K+!) = GX(K) ________(i)
In this case,
G*PG P = -Q
Here,
G is constant non-singular matrix
Q is identity matrix.
P is Hermitian matrix
And the system will be stable if P is +ve definite.
23/60
Example:- 01
Consider the following system,
X1(K+1)
X1(0)
X2(K+1)
X2(0)
-0.5 -1
Determine the stability of the system and also determine the liapunov function (i.e
V(x) = X*PX)
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