by Ellen Jovin

C
O
M
M
U
N
I
C
A
T
I
O
N

G
U
I
D
E
S
Ellen Jovin is a founder and principal
of Syntaxis, a communication skills
training rm based in New York City.
She is responsible for the companys
written communication skills practice.
Ms. Jovin has taught business writing,
e-mail etiquette, and grammar at
major corporations in industries
ranging from nance and fashion to
law and entertainment. Previously she
worked as a college writing instructor
and professional writer, creating
marketing and advertising materials
for diverse corporate clients. She has
published more than two hundred
articles on banking, technology,
sports, and a variety of other subjects.
Ms. Jovin earned a B.A. in German
studies from Harvard University and
has an M.A. in comparative literature
from UCLA.
Syntaxis trains business
professionals to speak and
write more powerfully. Its
experts conduct seminars in
presentation skills, business
writing, grammar, and
e-mail etiquette for leading
organizations throughout
North America. The rm
also provides one-on-one
presentation skills training
for senior executives.
www.syntaxis.com
A solid grasp of grammar
is the foundation on which
good writing rests.
A Grammar Guide for Business Professionals
AGrammarGuide
for Business Professionals
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by Ellen Jovin
C
O
M
M
U
N
I
C
A
T
I
O
N

G
U
I
D
E
S
Ellen Jovin is a founder and principal
of Syntaxis, a communication skills
training rm based in New York City.
She is responsible for the companys
written communication skills practice.
Ms. Jovin has taught business writing,
e-mail etiquette, and grammar at
major corporations in industries
ranging from nance and fashion to
law and entertainment. Previously she
worked as a college writing instructor
and professional writer, creating
marketing and advertising materials
for diverse corporate clients. She has
published more than two hundred
articles on banking, technology,
sports, and a variety of other subjects.
Ms. Jovin earned a B.A. in German
studies from Harvard University and
has an M.A. in comparative literature
from UCLA.
Syntaxis trains business
professionals to speak and
write more powerfully. Its
experts conduct seminars in
presentation skills, business
writing, grammar, and
e-mail etiquette for leading
organizations throughout
North America. The rm
also provides one-on-one
presentation skills training
for senior executives.
www.syntaxis.com
A solid grasp of grammar
is the foundation on which
good writing rests.
A Grammar Guide for Business Professionals
AGrammarGuide
for Business Professionals
S
y
n
t
a
x
i
s

P
r
e
s
s
A

G
r
a
m
m
a
r

G
u
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d
e

f
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r

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P
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Copyright 2007 by Ellen Jovin
Published by Syntaxis Press
TM
, a division of Syntaxis, Inc.
2109 Broadway, Suite 12-104
New York, New York 10023
www.syntaxis.com
info@syntaxis.com
(212) 799-3000
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior
written permission of the Publisher.
ISBN: 978-0-9785823-2-6
Library of Congress Control Number: 2006911327
Text set in Scala and Scala Sans
Design by Alton Creative, Inc.
Printed in the United States of America
Contents
Preface ............................................................................................................................... ix
Introduction: The Foundation of Good Writing ................ 1
Chapter . Parts of Speech ......................................................................... 5
. Nouns ................................................................................................................... 5
.2 Pronouns .......................................................................................................... 7
.3 Verbs ..................................................................................................................... 8
.3. Action Verbs ................................................................................. 8
.3.2 Linking Verbs ............................................................................. 9
.3.3 Auxiliary (Helping) Verbs ............................................. 9
.4 Adjectives ...................................................................................................... 10
.5 Adverbs ........................................................................................................... 11
.6 Prepositions ............................................................................................... 12
.7 Conjunctions ............................................................................................ 13
.7. Coordinating Conjunctions ..................................... 13
.7.2 Subordinating Conjunctions .................................. 14
.7.3 Correlative Conjunctions ............................................ 14
.8 Interjections ............................................................................................... 15
Chapter 2. Sentence Structure .......................................................... 17
2. Clauses ............................................................................................................ 17
2.2 Sentence Types ....................................................................................... 19
2.2. Simple Sentences ................................................................ 19
2.2.2 Compound Sentences .................................................... 19
2.2.3 Complex Sentences ........................................................... 20
Chapter 3. Punctuation and Mechanics .................................. 23
3. Commas ......................................................................................................... 23
3.. Items in a Series ................................................................... 23
v
vi
3..2 Coordinate Clauses ........................................................... 25
3..3 Introductory Phrases ....................................................... 25
3..4 Parenthetical Words and Phrases ..................... 26
3..5 Appositives ................................................................................. 26
3..6 Relative Clauses .................................................................... 28
3..7 Compound Adjectives .................................................... 30
3..8 Quotations .................................................................................. 31
3..9 Dates and Places .................................................................. 31
3..0 Dependent Clauses ........................................................... 32
3.. Comma Splices ...................................................................... 33
3.2 Semicolons .................................................................................................. 33
3.2. Between Independent Clauses ............................ 34
3.2.2 With Conjunctive Adverbs ........................................ 34
3.2.3 Special Case: Items in a Series ............................ 36
3.3 Colons ............................................................................................................... 36
3.4 Dashes .............................................................................................................. 38
3.4. Parenthetical Expressions .......................................... 39
3.4.2 Dramatic Emphasis .......................................................... 40
3.5 Parentheses ................................................................................................ 40
3.6 Quotation Marks ................................................................................... 42
3.7 Capitalization ........................................................................................... 44
3.8 Apostrophes ............................................................................................... 46
3.8. Possessives of Singular Nouns ............................ 47
3.8.2 Possessives of Plural Nouns ................................... 48
3.8.3 Joint Ownership ................................................................... 48
3.8.4 Possessive Pronouns ....................................................... 49
3.9 Hyphens ......................................................................................................... 50
Chapter 4. Common Verb Errors ................................................... 57
4. Subject -Verb Agreement ............................................................. 57
Contents
Contents
4.. Subjects That Appear to Be
Plural But Are Not .............................................................. 57
4..2 Subjects and Prepositional Phrases ............... 59
4..3 The Word Number .............................................................. 59
4..4 Each, Neither, and Either .............................................. 60
4..5 Either/or and Neither/nor............................................. 60
4..6 Plural Units, Singular Concepts......................... 61
4..7 Verb Forms After Who................................................... 61
4..8 Collective Nouns .................................................................. 62
4.2 Common Errors in Verb Form ............................................. 63
4.2. To Lie vs. To Lay ..................................................................... 63
4.2.2 Of as a Verb Substitute ................................................. 64
4.3 Passive Voice ............................................................................................. 64
Chapter 5. Common Pronoun Errors ........................................ 69
5. Personal Pronouns ............................................................................. 69
5.2 The Who vs. Whom Conundrum ........................................ 71
5.3 His or Hers? .............................................................................................. 75
5.4 That vs. Which ......................................................................................... 76
Chapter 6. Grammatical Miscellany ........................................... 81
6. Misplaced Modiers ......................................................................... 81
6.2 Dangling Modiers ........................................................................... 83
6.3 Parallelism ................................................................................................... 83
6.4 Split Innitives ....................................................................................... 86
6.5 Ending a Sentence with a Preposition ......................... 88
6.6 Unique .............................................................................................................. 89
6.7 Nonwords ..................................................................................................... 90
6.8 Superstitious Avoidance of I and You ............................ 91
6.9 And, But, and Because as Sentence Starters............ 92
vii
viii
Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 95
Appendix: Parts of Speech Cheat Sheet .................................. 97
Index ............................................................................................................................. 101
Contents
Introduction
The Foundation of
Good Writing
1
Grammar has a bad reputation. It is often re-
garded as dull, dry, mysterious, and frustrating.
That is an unfortunate perspective. Gaining a deep-
er understanding of language and its structure can
in fact be an exciting and rewarding activity. It is
certainly a valuable one, with many practical profes-
sional benets.
After all, a solid grasp of grammar is the foun-
dation on which good writing rests. Good grammar
is not by itself a guarantee of good writing, but good
writing cannot exist without it.
The purpose of this small book is to provide
guidance to professionals perplexed by questions
about the proper placement of the comma, or the
nature of dangling modiers, or the difference be-
tween who and whom. With a better understanding
of the building blocks of language, you will be bet-
ter equipped to focus on other ingredients of good
writing, such as content, clarity, and style.
Besides reviewing the grammar vocabulary
necessary to a discussion of grammatical princi-
A Grammar Guide
A Grammar Guide
2
ples verbs, pronouns and clauses, for exam-
ple this guide covers sentence structure, the
rules of punctuation, and common problems in
grammar and usage. It does not provide an exhaus-
tive survey of these topics; instead, it focuses on
the grammatical issues most relevant for business
communications.
By minding the grammatical details, business
professionals can make their writing as well as
speech clearer, more precise, more professional,
and more authoritative.
Chapter 3
Punctuation and
Mechanics
23
In this age of e-mail and instant messages, punc-
tuation has suffered. Thats unfortunate, because
punctuation matters! It tells the reader where to
stop and start, as well as how words and phrases
relate to one another.
This chapter covers the basic rules of punc-
tuation as well as an area called mechanics, which
governs the proper use of parentheses, quotation
marks, capital letters, apostrophes, and hyphens.
3.1 Commas
The rules for comma use are complicated. The
recommendations included here are not exhaus-
tive; they do, however, cover key sources of comma
confusion in business communications.
3.1.1 Items in a Series
Use commas to separate items in a series, as
in the following examples:
I ordered a salad, macaroni, and a soda.
A Grammar Guide
A Grammar Guide
24
The home furnishings company recently hired forty
more salespeople, added two new business lines, and
expanded its call center facility in Roanoke.
You may have noticed that in each of these ex-
amples, a comma appears before the and in the
series. Many people were taught in school that this
nal comma is unnecessary, and it is in fact accept-
able to omit it if you prefer that style. Journalists,
for example, typically leave it out in accordance with
Associated Press guidelines, and in business writ-
ing it is also frequently absent.
However, because the omission of the nal com-
ma sometimes leads to confusion, the preference of
many grammar experts seems to be to keep it.
Whatever choice you make, try to be consistent.
One caveat, though: even if you generally prefer to
omit the nal comma, you should include it when-
ever there is any ambiguity about the boundaries
between the items in a series. For instance, ambi-
guity may occur when there is an and within one
of the items, as in the following sentence:
I ordered a salad, macaroni and cheese, and a soda.
The second item in the series macaroni and
cheese contains an and. Therefore, a comma should
appear before and a soda; otherwise, the reader will
have to sort through the words macaroni and cheese
and a soda to gure out which items go together.
25
3.1.2 Coordinate Clauses
A comma should generally appear before a
coordinating conjunction that combines two inde-
pendent clauses (known in this case as coordinate
clauses). In the following examples, clauses are
indicated with brackets.
[I went to Staples to buy paper], and [Joan began
binding the report].
[Last year the community college began offering special
night classes for employees of local businesses], but [so
far few people have signed up].
Sometimes if the clauses are very short, you
may omit the comma, as in:
[The door slammed] and [Rex jumped].
However, it would also be correct to insert a comma
after slammed. The choice in this sentence is really
a stylistic one.
3.1.3 Introductory Phrases
You will sometimes nd a phrase a group of
related words at the very beginning of a sentence.
Generally a comma appears after an introductory
phrase, especially if it consists of three or more
words.
Before the start of the conference, anxious presenters
3 | Punctuation and Mechanics
A Grammar Guide
26
fortied themselves with pastries and coffee.
Even very short introductory phrases sometimes
read better when they are followed by a comma.
In 1898, Manhattan and the Bronx merged with
Brooklyn, Queens, and Staten Island to form modern-
day New York City.
Still, commas after introductory phrases are
often more about stylistic preferences than about
rigid, unbreakable punctuation rules.
3.1.4 Parenthetical Words and Phrases
Sometimes a parenthetical word or phrase
(parenthetical meaning that it is not essential to
a sentences main idea) will interrupt the ow of
a sentence. When this happens, commas should
precede and follow the interrupting word or expres-
sion, as in these examples:
Elaine did not, as a matter of fact, show up for the
brainstorming session.
Bob is allergic to wheat and corn. He is not, however,
allergic to rice or bran.
3.1.5 Appositives
Another type of interrupting expression is an
appositive: a word or group of words that essen-
tially renames the noun or pronoun that precedes
27
it. Many appositives are set off with commas, as in
this sentence:
My colleague, an accomplished pianist, is going to play
for us at our upcoming staff retreat.
In this case, an accomplished pianist is the apposi-
tive an alternative way to refer to the colleague.
In some cases, however, an appositive does
not take a comma. The following sentences both
include appositives and are both correct, but they
mean two different things:
My son, John, is smart.
My son John is smart.
In each of the two sentences above, the pres-
ence or absence of commas tells us how to inter-
pret the sentences meaning. In the rst case, the
commas around John tell us that the writer has
just one son, and his name happens to be John.
With this type of appositive, called a nonrestric-
tive appositive, you can think of the commas as
indicating the nonessential nature of the informa-
tion. If you take out the word John, the sentence
still works because there is only one son and
there can therefore be no doubt about whom the
sentence describes.
In the second sentence, the lack of commas in-
3 | Punctuation and Mechanics
A Grammar Guide
28
dicates that the writer has more than one son. Here,
John is a restrictive appositive, because it restricts
the discussion to one specic son out of multiple
sons. Without the name, you wouldnt know which
of the sons the sentence referred to; the name is
essential information. Do not use commas with
restrictive appositives.
3.1.6 Relative Clauses
Relative clauses are a particular type of clause
beginning with pronouns such as who, which, or
that.
The manager rewarded the employees who
contributed most to the companys success.
We passed by the old warehouse, which had been
abandoned ten years earlier.
Smith Collins is the rm that I read about in the
newspaper today.
One of the three sentences above includes a
comma before the relative clause; the other two
do not. In order to know how to punctuate these
clauses correctly, you must rst understand the
distinction between restrictive and nonrestrictive
relative clauses.
Restrictive clauses are essential for gram-
matical and logical completeness. Nonrestrictive
clauses, in contrast, can be omitted without any
29
signicant loss of meaning and without disruption
to the grammatical structure of a sentence.
Of the three sentences in the preceding exam-
ples, the rst and third contain restrictive clauses.
In the rst sentence, the clause who contributed most
to the companys success restricts the class of all em-
ployees to those who most helped to ensure that the
company would succeed. If the clause were deleted,
the sentences meaning would be destroyed. The
same holds true for the third sentence. Do not place
commas before restrictive relative clauses.
The second sentence, however, contains a
nonrestrictive clause. The clause adds information
about the noun or pronoun that precedes it in
this case, warehouse but removing it would have
no signicant impact on either grammar or mean-
ing. Use a comma before nonrestrictive relative
clauses.
People often use that and which interchange-
ably. In particular, it is common to see restrictive
relative clauses beginning with which, perhaps in
part because some people believe which sounds
more elegant than that. However, among grammar-
ians there is considerable support for a thatwhich
distinction restricting the use of that to restrictive
relative clauses and which to nonrestrictive. Observ-
ing this distinction can help ensure that there is no
misunderstanding about your intended meaning.
3 | Punctuation and Mechanics
A Grammar Guide
30
(See Section 5.4 for additional discussion of the dif-
ference between that and which.)
If you distinguish carefully between that and
which in your writing, your relative clauses should
usually be punctuated as follows:
n
that clause: no preceding comma
n
which clause: preceding comma
n
who clause: preceding comma if clause
contains nonessential information; no pre-
ceding comma if clause contains essential
information
3.1.7 Compound Adjectives
When nouns or pronouns are preceded by
multiple adjectives, it can sometimes be difcult
to determine whether a comma is needed to sepa-
rate the adjectives from one another. Consider these
examples:
a talented British attorney
a talented, well-known attorney
The rst contains no comma between talented
and the second adjective (British); the second does.
How do you know whether to include a comma?
Heres a trick: try reading the phrase with an
31
and between the adjectives. If it doesnt sound
right a talented and British attorney does not
sound right then no comma is necessary. If add-
ing the and sounds reasonable and a talented and
well-known attorney does then you should insert
a comma.
3.1.8 Quotations
If a quotation is a complete sentence, place a
comma after introductory words such as she says or
they write. For example:
Wattley writes, The government has failed the people.
If the quotation is not a complete sentence,
punctuate your sentence the same way you would
if there were no quotation marks; in most cases, no
comma will be necessary.
Wattley writes that the government has failed the people.
Please see Section 3.6 for additional details re-
garding punctuation placement around quotation
marks.
3.1.9 Dates and Places
If a full date (month, day, and year) appears in
a sentence, punctuate it as follows:
She was born on March 4, 2002, in Georgia.
3 | Punctuation and Mechanics
A Grammar Guide
32
If only the month and year appear, no commas
are necessary.
She was born in March 2002 in Georgia.
If a city and state appear mid-sentence, they
should be punctuated as in this example:
She was born in Atlanta, Georgia, in March 2002.
If you take away either the state or the city,
though, the commas disappear. For example:
She was born in Atlanta in March 2002.
3.1.10 Dependent Clauses
If a complex sentence (see Section 2.2.3) begins
with a dependent clause, you should generally in-
sert a comma between the dependent clause and a
subsequent independent clause.
Because it was raining, he took an umbrella.
However, if this sentence were reversed so that
the independent clause came rst and the depen-
dent second, then no comma would be necessary.
He took an umbrella because it was raining.
These comma principles are not universally
applicable, as there are sometimes grammatical or
33
stylistic reasons to add or delete a comma where
these sentence models would suggest otherwise.
For the most part, however, the general guidelines
described in this section hold true.
3.1.11 Comma Splices
A comma splice is a sentence error occurring
when a writer combines two independent clauses
with a comma and nothing more. It should be
avoided. The following sentence, for example, is a
comma splice.
Incorrect
The economic situation was dire, we therefore had to
shut two of our stores.
One easy way to x this problem is to replace
the comma with a semicolon, whose use is dis-
cussed in more detail in the next section.
Correct
The economic situation was dire; we therefore had to
shut two of our stores.
3.2 Semicolons
The semicolon signals a more signicant pause
than a comma but a less signicant pause than a
period. Following are three common semicolon ap-
plications.
3 | Punctuation and Mechanics
A Grammar Guide
34
3.2.1 Between Independent Clauses
The most common use of the semicolon is as
a connector between two independent clauses. For
instance:
His ight was canceled; he cursed his luck.
What is the difference between the sentence
above and the following example?
His ight was canceled. He cursed his luck.
The period calls for a more complete stop than
the semicolon did. Use a semicolon when the re-
lationship between the two clauses is a close one.
In this example, the writer could use either the
semicolon or the period, depending on his or her
stylistic preferences.
3.2.2 With Conjunctive Adverbs
A particular type of adverb, known as a conjunc-
tive adverb, sometimes appears as a transitional word
between independent clauses. Examples include:
consequently nevertheless
furthermore otherwise
however therefore
thus moreover
In business writing today, conjunctive adverbs
35
are frequently punctuated incorrectly. The sentences
below illustrate incorrect and correct punctuation.
Incorrect
The work is exciting therefore the human resources
department receives many rsums.
The work is exciting therefore, the human resources
department receives many rsums.
The work is exciting, therefore the human resources
department receives many rsums.
The work is exciting, therefore, the human resources
department receives many rsums.
Correct
The work is exciting; therefore, the human resources
department receives many rsums.
Incorrect
The child misbehaved constantly, however his parents
never reprimanded him.
Correct
The child misbehaved constantly; however, his parents
never reprimanded him.
In addition to the semicolon preceding therefore
and however in the correct examples above, note
the comma that follows. In both of these examples,
the semicolon could be replaced with a period; that
choice is a stylistic one.
3 | Punctuation and Mechanics
A Grammar Guide
36
3.2.3 Special Case: Items in a Series
As you saw earlier, in Section 3.., you should
generally use a comma to separate items in a series.
However, when an item in the series includes one
or more commas itself, you may want to use semi-
colons rather than commas to separate the items.
That way your reader will easily be able to identify
the boundaries between them. For example:
He had written about the gas, electricity, and paper
markets; the healthcare industry; and an assortment of
regulatory and enforcement agencies.
3.3 Colons
Use a colon when what follows the colon amplies
or further explains what precedes it. For example:
Rachel had just two goals that summer: to learn French
and to pass the required swimming test.
In the sentence above, what appears before
the colon two goals that summer is equivalent
to what appears after it (to learn French and to pass
the required swimming test). The colon adds dramatic
impact by creating suspense; the reader must wait
until the end of the sentence to nd out what Ra-
chels goals were.
In part because the colon can be high-impact,
you should use it sparingly. In this next example,
37
note how the colon adds punch by deferring the
central revelation of the sentence:
The committee concluded that responsibility for the
scandal rested with just one person: the CEO.
In many cases, the colon sets up a kind of
equivalency. For instance, if you look just to the
left of the colon in the example above, you see the
words just one person. Look just to the right of the
colon and you see that person identied. If this
were a math problem, you could put an equals sign
where the colon stands.
The same goes for the sentence below:
The company introduced several new products: lawn
chairs, beach blankets, and water-resistant radios.
The several new products are equal to the lawn chairs,
beach blankets, and water-resistant radios. But what
if we added the word including after products? The
following sentence illustrates a misuse of the colon,
one that is very common in business writing:
Incorrect
The company introduced several new products,
including: lawn chairs, beach blankets, and water-
resistant radios.
The presence of a list is not by itself enough
to justify a colon. For one thing, we no longer have
3 | Punctuation and Mechanics
A Grammar Guide
38
roughly equivalent ideas to the left and right of the
colon. As a general rule, do not use a colon after a
form of the verb include. In the incorrect sentence
above, no colon is necessary; it should be deleted.
Correct
The company introduced several new products,
including lawn chairs, beach blankets, and water-
resistant radios.
An important exception would occur if we
turned the list of new products into a bulleted
list. In this case, the colon would be reinstated, as
shown here:
Correct
The company introduced several new products,
including:
lawn chairs
beach blankets
water-resistant radios
3.4 Dashes
Compared to the guidelines for the preceding punc-
tuation marks, the rules for the dash are a little
more freewheeling. However, be careful not to
overuse it.
39
3.4.1 Parenthetical Expressions
Use a dash to set off a parenthetical expression
when the dash is necessary for the sake of clarity.
Confusing
I called my mother, a former principal, and my sister.
This sentence is confusing. The mother is
the former principal alluded to, yet because of the
punctuation it may seem that the writer has in fact
called three people: Mom, a former principal, and
a sister. A dash can x this problem:
Clear
I called my mother a former principal and my
sister.
In the following example, too, the dash clears
up potential confusion:
Confusing
We invited CEOs of three major rms, General Electric,
Merrill Lynch, and Lehman Brothers, to the conference.
Clear
We invited CEOs of three major rms General
Electric, Merrill Lynch, and Lehman Brothers to the
conference.
3 | Punctuation and Mechanics
A Grammar Guide
40
3.4.2 Dramatic Emphasis
The dash can also be used for dramatic empha-
sis in various contexts. For example:
The re destroyed their house, their car, and all of their
belongings but it could not destroy their hope for the
future.
Sometimes it can be difcult to choose between
a colon and a dash. Where a colon is suitable, you
should generally use that rather than the dash. For
example, in the following sentence a dash might
work, but the sentence structure is ideally suited
to the colon:
Acceptable
Joe has three ambitions a good job, a nice home, and
a dozen children.
Stronger
Joe has three ambitions: a good job, a nice home, and a
dozen children.
3.5 Parentheses
Parentheses enclose peripheral or nonessential in-
formation. If the enclosed words are not a complete
sentence, punctuate as follows:
Only three people (the interns in the development
ofce) failed to show up for the meeting.
41
In college Marla had multiple majors (and no free time).
If a complete sentence is enclosed in parenthe-
ses, it can either appear as part of another sentence
or stand apart on its own. The following examples
illustrate proper punctuation and capitalization of
a parenthetical sentence:
I dont have time to talk now (the meeting begins in
ve minutes) and probably wont be free until late
afternoon.
If you would like a copy of the manuscript (my assistant
has an extra one), I would be glad to mail it to you.
I ran out of time. (Joan, on the other hand, ran out of
energy.)
Often in a report or other document, writers
make reference to various charts and exhibits. Both
of the following approaches are acceptable:
GNP rose dramatically during that period (see Table 2).
GNP rose dramatically during that period. (See Table 2.)
Be careful not to overuse parentheses, as an
abundance of them can make your writing sound
choppy. If you have quite a few parentheses in a
document, you may be including too much infor-
mation that is only marginally relevant to the doc-
uments purpose. If an idea doesnt really further
your goal in writing, you can simply remove it.
3 | Punctuation and Mechanics
A Grammar Guide
42
Alternatively, if the material in parentheses is
directly relevant, you might consider removing the
parentheses and integrating the material more fully
with the rest of your text.
3.6 Quotation Marks
Generally avoid using quotation marks to empha-
size or set off words, as in the following example:
Weak
The doctor was not people-friendly.
When writers use quotation marks in this way,
often the wording of the sentence is poor and needs
to be revised. Instead of using quotation marks,
express your ideas so that the words themselves
naturally carry the weight of what you want to say.
For example:
Stronger
The doctor showed a lack of diplomacy in his
interactions with patients.
Do, however, use quotation marks when you are
actually quoting someone or something. The follow-
ing examples illustrate common quotation formats
(see also Section 3.1.8):
She said, The trial will begin tomorrow morning.
The trial will begin tomorrow morning, she said.
43
In American usage (which differs from British
practices), commas and periods always go inside
closing quotation marks, regardless of whether the
punctuation is actually part of the quoted material.
For example:
The paralegal called the case a terrifying, interminable
debacle.
The paralegal called the case a terrifying, interminable
debacle, but she said she thought we would win.
Question marks and exclamation points work
differently, however. They appear inside the quota-
tion marks only if they are part of the actual quota-
tion.
He asked, Is the lock broken?
Is the lock broken? he asked.
but
What did she mean when she referred to the unethical
dealings of our local government?
Also:
He exclaimed, Dont be late!
Dont be late! he exclaimed.
but
How dare you call me a greedy sycophant!
If a semicolon immediately follows a quota-
3 | Punctuation and Mechanics
A Grammar Guide
44
tion in a sentence, place the semicolon outside the
quotation marks, as in:
The company publicly questioned its rivals multiple
conicts of interest; however, it declined to identify
those conicts in any detail.
3.7 Capitalization
Capitalize names of specic places, buildings, peo-
ple, organizations, and so on. For example:
Marisa Stuckey
Brooklyn Bridge
Amalgamated Bank
If you are uncertain about whether to capitalize
something, try looking it up in a dictionary. You will
often nd the information you need there.
In titles of reports, articles, etc., use initial capi-
tal letters for all major words. Also capitalize the
rst and last words of both the title and the subtitle,
regardless of whether they are major words or not.
Otherwise, do not capitalize the following:
n
articles (a, an, the)
n
coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or,
nor, for, so, yet)
n
prepositions four letters or shorter (e.g., by,
with, to, of )
45
The following titles illustrate standard capital-
ization practices:
Software Training for the Technophobic
Interviewing with Condence: A Managers
Guide to Hiring
Beware of the pervasive tendency towards over-
capitalization in business documents. Professional
titles are one area where unnecessary capitalization
is rampant. Titles should generally not be capital-
ized if they appear after a persons name. Even
before someones name, only very ofcial, formal
titles are capitalized for example, titles of senior
politicians, academics, generals, and so on. This
category does not usually include business titles.
In the seven sample sentences below, the titles
in the rst and last sentences are the only ones that
require an initial capital letter.
I read that Mayor Jones would be attending the
conference.
I read that Lisa Jones, the mayor of Smalltown,
would be attending the conference.
We received a note from chairman of the board
Roberta Weintraub.
We received a note from Roberta Weintraub,
chairman of the board.
3 | Punctuation and Mechanics
A Grammar Guide
46
The report discusses research conducted by
Thomas Ruddick, professor of sociology.
The report discusses research conducted by
sociology professor Thomas Ruddick.
The report discusses research conducted by
Professor Ruddick.
Now, suppose you were creating a conference
brochure in which you listed various speakers. In
that case, capitalization of professional titles would
be both appropriate and desirable. For example:
Presenters
Lisa Jones
Mayor, Smalltown
Roberta Weintraub
Chairman of the Board
XYZ, Inc.
Dr. Thomas Ruddick
Professor of Sociology
Smalltown University
3.8 Apostrophes
Apostrophe rules for possessives are confusing be-
cause common practices vary. In fact, grammar and
style guides reect some differences of opinion on
the question of possessive forms. Simple guide-
lines on apostrophes in possessives appear below,
though if your company or department has its own
47
established preferences for possessive formation,
you should probably follow those practices.
3.8.1 Possessives of Singular Nouns
To form the possessive of a singular noun,
add s.
a dogs life
the bosss daughter
Mr. Joness rm
Now, many journalists do not add an s when
they form the possessive of a singular proper noun
already ending in s. Therefore, dont be surprised if
what you see in the news sometimes differs from
the guideline illustrated above. If you prefer to fol-
low that fairly common journalistic style, you will
have plenty of company, but keep in mind that most
non-journalist language experts as well as lead-
ing periodicals such as the New York Times and the
Washington Post actually prefer Mr. Joness rm to
Mr. Jones rm.
Regardless of your position on what to do with
Mr. Jones, there are some Biblical and classical
names whose possessives are usually s-free:
Moses teachings
Jesus birth
Aristophanes plays
3 | Punctuation and Mechanics
A Grammar Guide
48
3.8.2 Possessives of Plural Nouns
To form the possessive of a plural noun, gener-
ally add an apostrophe to the end of the word, as
in:
the executives analysis
the Smiths house
Some plural nouns, however, do not end in s.
In such cases, form a possessive by adding an s to
the end of the word, as in:
the womens room
the childrens school
the mens sauna
The following forms are always mistakes:
Incorrect
mens
womens
childrens
3.8.3 Joint Ownership
Sometimes a possessive involves two or more
nouns. Where there is joint ownership, the forma-
tion of the possessive depends on the meaning of
the sentence. Compare these two examples:
Jill and Jacks company
49
3 | Punctuation and Mechanics
Jills and Jacks desks
In the rst example above, Jill and Jack share
ownership of a company; in cases such as this, only
the second possessive noun here, Jacks shows
the possessive form.
In the second example, Jill and Jack each have
a desk. In this scenario, where ownership is not
shared, both of the nouns reect the possessive
form hence, Jills and Jacks. If they shared a sin-
gle large desk, however, the phrase would be Jill and
Jacks desk.
3.8.4 Possessive Pronouns
People often mistakenly add an apostrophe to
possessive pronouns such as the following:
ours
its
theirs
yours
hers
None of the possessives above should ever ap-
pear with an apostrophe. Its is a word, but it is not
a possessive pronoun; rather, it is a contraction for
it is or it has.
If you are unsure whether to use its or its in a
particular context, try substituting the words it is or
A Grammar Guide
50
it has. If the substitution doesnt make sense, use
the (apostrophe-free) possessive pronoun its.
3.9 Hyphens
Many business documents suffer from either
overhyphenation or underhyphenation. Part of the
problem is that hyphens are a tricky business; good
dictionaries, books, and magazines vary in their
treatment of them. Often hyphenation is a stylistic
choice rather than a strict right-versus-wrong deci-
sion, though at other times there is less exibility.
One thing many people dont realize is how
much excellent hyphenation guidance is readily
available in dictionaries. If you are unsure wheth-
er to hyphenate something, try looking it up in a
dictionary rst. What you are looking for may not
always be there, but you may get lucky!
For example, multiple dictionaries list full-time
with a hyphen for both the adverb and adjective
forms. You would therefore write:
Adverb
He works full-time.
Adjective
He has a full-time job.
Real estate, in contrast, can appear either as two
51
independent words or as a single hyphenated term
depending on whether it is being used as a noun or
an adjective. Dictionaries often list the unhyphen-
ated real estate as a noun and the hyphenated real-
estate as an adjective. The difference is reected in
these two examples:
Noun
The fund manager invested in real estate.
but
Adjective
The fund manager invested in real-estate stocks.
The hyphenated examples above are easy ones,
because they are so common that they have become
xtures in reference books and can easily be looked
up. What about this example, though?
Joans shirt was stained with chemicals. She took her
chemical-stained shirt to the cleaners.
You will probably not nd chemical-stained in
your dictionary. Thus, it is up to you to determine
whether a hyphen is necessary. In this case, a hy-
phen is useful, as it shows that chemical describes
stained, and that they are working together as a
single adjective modifying shirt. Although the av-
erage reader is unlikely to be confused about the
writers intended meaning in this case, one goal of
hyphenation is to make word relationships such as
3 | Punctuation and Mechanics
A Grammar Guide
52
these instantly clear to the reader.
In addition, omitting standard hyphens looks
unprofessional and can in some cases actually cre-
ate confusion as the reader struggles to gure out
which words go together and which dont. Consider
the following example.
I noticed a fast talking man.
Is the man moving fast and talking at the same
time, or is he a fast talker? The likelier interpreta-
tion is the second, but the ambiguity lies in the fact
that fast can technically be an adjective modifying
man. To make it easier for the reader to read the
sentence correctly, a hyphen is preferable in this
case.
I noticed a fast-talking man.
Now it is clear that fast modies talking.
While neglecting necessary hyphens can add to
a readers labor, it is also distracting for the reader
if you hyphenate unnecessarily. Avoiding this com-
mon problem will help your writing appear more
polished. Dont put hyphens in words where they
arent needed. For example:
Incorrect
Ken attended the semi-annual human resources
conference.
53
Correct
Ken attended the semiannual human resources
conference.
Incorrect
She needs to re-set the machine.
Correct
She needs to reset the machine.
In these cases, the writer could have simply
looked up the well-established words semiannual
and reset in any number of dictionaries and found
them there, hyphen-free.
One of the most common types of hyphenation
errors occurs when businesspeople automatically
hyphenate verb and noun forms the same way. The
following two sentences illustrate correct and incor-
rect verb formats.
Incorrect
The staff set-up the chairs.
Correct
The staff set up the chairs.
For the noun version, the form is different:
Correct
Has the staff completed the set-up?
n
Setup is also an acceptable noun form.
3 | Punctuation and Mechanics
A Grammar Guide
54
A comparable example involves follow-up (or
followup), which can be used as a noun or an adjec-
tive, and follow up, for the verb form.
Noun
Lisas follow-up was inadequate.
n
Followup is also acceptable.
but
Verb
Lisa will follow up with the marketing director.
A nal common example of overhyphenation
appears after adverbs ending in ly, as in the follow-
ing examples:
Incorrect
She bought a fully-refundable airline ticket.
Correct
She bought a fully refundable airline ticket.
The hyphen is unnecessary because fully is an
adverb. As discussed in Section 1.5, adverbs can
modify only verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.
In this sentence, the only nearby word that fully
could modify is the adjective refundable. It is not
grammatically possible for fully to modify ticket, so
reader confusion is not a concern.
Index
101
action verbs, 89, 10, 98
active voice, 65
adjectives, 5, 1011, 12, 15,
5051, 52, 54, 81, 82, 84,
8586, 98
articles, 11, 44, 60, 98
punctuation of, 3031
adverbs, 5, 1112, 50, 54, 82,
88, 98
conjunctive, 3435, 95
along with, subject-verb
agreement with, 58
and
commas with, 2324, 25
starting sentences with,
9293
antecedents, 7, 62, 75
apostrophes, 23, 4650
its vs. its, 4950
in possessives, 4650
appositives, 2628
articles, 11, 44, 60, 98
asas, errors with, 8485
as well as, subject-verb agree-
ment with, 58
auxiliary verbs (helping
verbs), 8, 910, 98
to be
forms of, 9
in passive voice, 64, 65
pronoun forms follow-
ing, 70
because, starting sentences
with, 9293
bullets, 38
business titles, capitalization
of, 4546
but, starting sentences with,
9293
capitalization, 23, 41, 4446
of business titles, 4546
of titles of works, 4445
clarity, grammar and, 1, 2,
39, 5152, 77, 8182, 92,
95
clauses, 12, 10, 1718, 57, 72,
73, 77, 84
coordinate, 25
A Grammar Guide
102
dependent (subordinate),
14, 18, 19, 2021, 3233,
92
independent, 18, 1921,
25, 32, 33, 34, 59, 92
nonrestrictive, 2830
relative, 2830, 61, 73
restrictive, 2830
subordinate. See clauses,
dependent
collective nouns, 6, 6263
colons, 3638, 40
comma splices, 33
commas, 1, 2333
with appositives, 2628
comma splices, 33
in complex sentences,
3233
with compound adjec-
tives, 3031
around conjunctive ad-
verbs, 35
with coordinate clauses,
25
with dates, 3132
with dependent clauses,
3233
with introductory phra-
ses, 2526
with items in a series,
2324, 36
with nonrestrictive clau-
ses, 2830
with parenthetical words
and phrases, 26
with places, 32
with quotations, 31, 4243
with relative clauses,
2830, 6162, 73, 74
with which, 2830, 77
with who, 2830
complex sentences, 19,
2021, 3233
compound adjectives, 3031
compound sentences, 1920
conjunctions, 5, 1315, 99
coordinating, 1314, 19,
20, 25, 44, 85, 99
correlative, 13, 1415,
6061, 8586, 99
starting sentences with,
9293
subordinating, 13, 14, 18,
19, 99
conjunctive adverbs, 3435,
95
contractions, 4950, 64
coordinate clauses, 25
coordinating conjunctions,
1314, 19, 20, 25, 44, 85,
99
correlative conjunctions, 13,
1415, 6061, 8586, 99
dangling modiers, 1, 83
dashes, 3840
dates, punctuation of, 3132
denite articles, 11, 60
Index
103
dependent clauses (subor-
dinate clauses), 14, 18, 19,
2021, 3233, 92
punctuation of, 3233
dictionaries, 44, 5051, 53,
9091
direct objects, 89, 63, 69,
72
each, subject-verb agreement
with, 60
either, subject-verb agree-
ment with, 6061
either/or, 1415, 6061, 99
e-mail, punctuation in, 20,
23
exclamation points, and
quotation marks, 43
fragments, sentence, 18
gender-neutral language,
7576
helping verbs. See auxiliary
verbs
his or her, 7576
hyphens, 23, 5054
I vs. me, 6971
I and you, superstitious
avoidance of, 9192
indenite articles, 11, 60
independent clauses, 18,
1921, 25, 32, 33, 34, 59,
92
innitives, 81, 8688
interjections, 5, 15, 99
intransitive verbs, 89, 63
introductory phrases, punc-
tuation of, 2526
irregardless, 90
items in a series
parallelism in, 84
punctuation of, 2324, 36
its vs. its, 4950
joint ownership, 4849
journalistic style, 24, 47,
9192
Latin, 88
to lie vs. to lay, 6364
linking verbs, 8, 9, 10, 98
main verb, 10
me vs. I, 6971
mechanics, 23, 4054
misplaced modiers, 8183,
95
neither, subject-verb agree-
ment with, 6061
neither/nor, 1415, 6061, 99
nonrestrictive appositives, 27
nonrestrictive clauses,
2830
nonwords, 9091
Index
104
not only/but also, 1415,
8586, 99
nouns, 57, 10, 11, 12, 13, 17,
18, 2627, 29, 30, 5051,
53, 54, 57, 75, 81, 84, 85,
97, 98
collective, 6, 6263
possessive forms of,
4749
proper, 67, 18, 47, 97
number, subject-verb agree-
ment with, 5960
object, of a preposition,
1213, 59, 69, 70
object form, of a pronoun,
6975, 91
of, as incorrect substitute for
have, 64
only, as misplaced modier,
8283
parallelism, 81, 8386
parentheses, 23, 4042
parenthetical language, 26,
3940
parts of speech, 5, 11, 15, 84,
9799. See also adjectives;
adverbs; conjunctions;
interjections; nouns; prep-
ositions; pronouns; verbs
passive voice, 6466
past participles, 6465
periods
and quotation marks, 43
vs. semicolons, 33, 34, 35
personal pronouns, 6971,
72, 9192
places, punctuation of, 32
plural, 6, 48, 5763, 70, 75
possessive forms, 4650
predicate, 1718, 85
prepositional phrases, 1213,
59, 65, 82, 99
subjects and, 59
prepositions, 5, 1213, 99
capitalization of, 44
ending sentences with,
8889
object of a preposition,
1213, 59, 69, 70
prepositional phrases,
1213, 59, 65, 82, 99
pronouns, 12, 5, 7, 10, 11, 12,
13, 15, 17, 2627, 28, 29,
30, 59, 60, 62, 6978, 81,
97, 98
antecedents, 7, 62, 75
I and you, superstitious
avoidance of, 9192
object, 6975, 91
personal, 6971, 72,
9192
possessive forms of,
4950
reexive, 6970, 71
subject, 6975
that vs. which, 2830,
Index
105
7678
who vs. whom, 1, 69, 7175
proper nouns, 67, 18, 47, 97
punctuation, 12, 1314,
2341, 43, 78. See also co-
lons; commas; dashes; ex-
clamation points; periods;
question marks; semi-
colons
question marks, and quota-
tion marks, 43
quotation marks, 23, 31,
4244
quotations, punctuation of,
31, 4244
reexive pronouns, 6970,
71
relative clauses, 2830, 61,
73
restrictive appositives, 2728
restrictive clauses, 2830
run-on sentences, 20
semicolons, 3336, 95
with conjunctive adverbs,
3435
between independent
clauses, 1920, 3334
with items in a series, 36
and quotation marks,
4344
sentence fragments, 18. See
also sentences, incom-
plete
sentence structure, 12, 17,
65, 71, 89. See also sen-
tences
sentences
complete, 18, 9293
complex, 19, 2021, 3233
compound, 1920
incomplete, 18, 9293
run-on, 20
simple, 19
simple sentences, 19
singular, 6, 47, 5762, 70,
75, 76
split innitives, 81, 8688
subject, of a clause or sen-
tence, 1718, 5763, 65,
69, 72, 74
and prepositional phra-
ses, 59
subject form, of a pronoun,
6975
subject-verb agreement,
5763, 95
subordinate clauses. See
dependent clauses
subordinating conjunctions,
13, 14, 18, 19, 99
that vs. which, 2830, 69,
7678
titles of works, capitaliza-
tion of, 4445. See also
Index
106
business titles, capitaliza-
tion of
transitive verbs, 89, 63
unique, usage problems
with, 8990
verbs, 12, 5, 810, 11, 12, 17,
38, 5766, 72, 8283,
85, 98
action, 89, 10, 98
auxiliary (helping), 8,
910, 98
to be, 9, 64, 65, 70
common errors in form,
53, 54, 6364
hyphenation errors with,
5354
intransitive, 89, 63
linking, 8, 9, 10, 98
main, 10
of, as incorrect substitute
for have, 64
in passive voice, 6465
split innitives, 81, 8688
subject-verb agreement,
5763, 95
transitive, 89, 63
which
punctuation of, 2830, 77
vs. that, 2830, 69, 7678
who
punctuation of, 2830
verb forms after, 6162
vs. whom, 1, 69, 7175
writing, relationship be-
tween grammar and, 12,
17, 95
Index