GRAVE MARKERS AS SPEAKING OBJECTS

Cheryl Aine Morrison 6/5/2010

Cheryl Aine Morrison Lis 508 05/29/10 The three gravesites are hard to find. The cemetery consists of large rolling grass hills and expansive views. As you turn in the gates you come to a T in the road. You take a left and follow the winding road through trees and lawns. Taking another left, a maintenance shed and an expanse of grassy hill comes into view. Parking near the first water faucet you walk up the hill at an angle, searching for the right gravestones among so many plain markers, flush with the grass. This plain small style of gravestone we are so familiar with today has changed a great deal in the past two hundred years. This reflects the change in culture that influences how we view cemeteries and our remembrances of the dead. In the decades following the American Revolution, new, idyllic graveyards were created on the outskirts of town as a response to overcrowding, vandalism, and neglect (Sloane, 44-5). In the mid nineteenth century, they changed again and became known as rural cemeteries. They were located even further away from town and served to counterbalance the new commercial urban centers being created (Sloane, 2). This new cemetery style coincided with the increased popular interest in the profession of landscaping architecture and public parks (Farrell, 99). The most famous of these, Mount Auburn in Cambridge Massachusetts, was so successful it served as a model for others. Established in 1831 by an association of families and individuals, it was designed to serve as more than just a cemetery. However the radical new design caused financial concern. Fearing that not enough people would buy plots, the founders formed a partnership with the Horticultural Society to minimize risk. Their hope was that the new gardening style, a mixture of French and English formal gardens, would influence the publics appreciation for horticulture. With an arboretum, a botanical tour, and local and national historical museums it was designed to encourage people to visit (Sloane, 44-6). Mount Auburn was a great success for several reasons. First, Boston was becoming very busy and crowded. Having a beautiful, remote, spot where one could get away to walk and enjoy nature, met with favor. Having the two combined, cemetery and park, allowed for contemplation of life and death and gave ease and comfort to those left behind. People could visit their loved 2

Cheryl Aine Morrison Lis 508 05/29/10 ones without being bogged down by gloom and depression. This new style reflects and shapes the changing attitudes that were occurring in society at the time. We began to separate the world of the living from the dead (46). The rural cemetery style spread across the county. Families formed associations to create cemeteries which were larger and more richly ornamented. It also ensured wanted that their loved ones would be buried in a safe, secure, and permanent spot. (Sloane 63-64) Because the associations were not interested in controlling individual plots, families were responsible for planting, erecting monuments, and maintaining the lots (70). This proved to be problematic however, when lot owners did not maintain their lots, because this created an undesirable appearance. To combat this, Mount Auburns board created a repair fund for maintenance of the lots (Sloane, 71). During this period, a shift in monuments from a religious to a more individualistic style occurred. Motifs gained in complexity, became more focused on nature and hope, and monuments changed from slate and limestone to the softer marble (77-78). In the 1850s, a new kind of cemetery, known as the lawn-park cemetery, began to take shape. Though beautiful, the rural cemeteries were somewhat impractical. They required large amounts of land be set aside for paths and plants; crowding and grave placement became an issue. In 1855, Adolph Strauch, a gardener in the Spring Grove cemetery in Cincinnati began to shape a new cemetery design. Under his plan bushes and trees were thinned and marker sizes were reduced (97). He wanted to find a balance between excessive ornamentation, usually found in rural cemeteries, and extreme simplicity possible in nature (100). Monuments became formalized and classical styles such as Greek columns and Egyptian obelisks were encouraged. Gaudy or excessive markers, such as a replica steam fire engine which one lot owner wanted erected on his lot were discouraged (105). To create an unlimited and unified landscape, Strauch tore down the outer wall and replaced it with a rolling roadway. He also restricted the use of private gardeners by lot holders so they would use the cemeterys services and the cemetery would retain unity in its appearance

Cheryl Aine Morrison Lis 508 05/29/10 (105). This careful planning also allowed space to be used more economically. More people could be buried, and it truly became a garden of graves (107). This new design required that one person be charge of the landscape and gardening. Thus, a new position, superintendent of the grounds and landscape gardener was created (106). This opened the way to the new cemeteries that were to follow. This new management method was expensive however, and a new way of financing had to be found. New buyers were offered a choice between a more expensive perpetual care plan, or paying a lower price and an additional annual care fee. The annual care payment option was given to owners who already had lots (105). The Spring Grove cemetery became a model for new cemeteries and served as an inspiration for Frederick Olmstead in his designing of the Mountain View cemetery in Oakland California. After carefully considering the indigenous vegetation in the area, he came to the conclusion that the forested park cemeteries located in the East were not appropriate. He therefore designed a cemetery which would fit in with its locattion. Both Olmstead and Strauch envisioned a cemetery with one purpose, to honor the dead with simple, stylish, artistic monuments (109). They did not want it to be a park, a playground, or a garden. The modern cemetery owes its existence to this new vision. Strauchs move to more professional management, limited the lot holders on their input on design and plantings. Guidelines were created for monuments and markers, and any plantings had to be agreed upon by the superintendent and planted by the grounds crew (109). By the 1870s, all cemeteries increased their income through perpetual care payments, annual care fees, and bequests to accommodate this new style (109). These new financing techniques made cemeteries more profitable for investors and a rising focus on business practices in America proved useful for unifying and reordering cemeteries (128). This shift towards entrepreneurial cemeteries created many smaller cemeteries which could not compete with older more established landscapes of the bigger, rural cemeteries. They chose instead to focus on their size and more open appearance, aggressively pursuing sales of burial lots. (134-5). 4

Cheryl Aine Morrison Lis 508 05/29/10 This style of cemetery continued until about 1913 when the Forest Lawn Cemetery in Glendale California, was restructured under Hubert Eaton. He created a memorial park by removing most traces of death, expanding the lawn, and getting rid of the family monument. He wanted all markers to be simple and made of granite or bronze. They were designed to be a familys private remembrance rather than a public display. He hoped this new kind of cemetery would display celebration and hope rather than the gloom often evoked by monuments (161). He joined the funeral director, cemetery and monument dealer into the memorial park to streamline burial. Under his direction, the new multifaceted business we are familiar with was created (159). Perhaps Eatons most important contribution was his insistence on managements control of everything within the park; especially, the kinds of markers and artwork to be used, whether artificial flowers and knick-knacks could be left on the gravestones, and what kinds of plants could be planted. He wanted a place where people would want to spend time (167). American cemeteries are unique because they are almost completely privatized, unlike Europe, where the government and church officials control burials and cemeteries. In some European cemeteries, families will rent the space and pay an annual fee. They are often responsible for the upkeep of the grave and if they dont pay and/or dont maintain the grave, then the person will be moved elsewhere and the space used for someone else. Monuments are common in church graveyards and there is very little grass or open space (3). The privatization of American cemeteries creates many differences. Our cemeteries are more commonly intended to be permanent plots. The space is bought in perpetuity with a fee for perpetual care by the cemetery staff, included in the cost of the grave. A variety of services are offered such as a burial ceremony, and vaults, coffins, and grave markers are available for purchase. And finally, rules and regulations are in place, governing the size, placement, and decoration of monuments and markers. Starting with Eaton in 1913, markers often could only be made of bronze. Touted as a consequence of the durability of the material, there existed a political aspect to this new marker as well. Many memorial parks offered complete burial packages to their clients. Bronze markers allowed cemeteries to cut out stone monument makers, adding it as a source of income (Sloane, 5

Cheryl Aine Morrison Lis 508 05/29/10 185). Markers also had to be flush with the ground to make it easier and more cost efficient to mow. The cemetery and the gravestones mentioned in the begging of this paper reflect this new American cemetery culture. The three gravestones mentioned above are lined up next to each other in the grass. No flowers adorn them, although here and there throughout the cemetery, potted plants and flowers can be seen. Other than these natural flowers, no other objects adorn the graves in this section of the cemetery. The grave farthest to the left is very simple. It is a dark grey stone with a lighter inset that contains the carved words In loving memory over the name Thomas M. Morrison. Between the two dates 1947 and 1986 there is a small picture of a piano superimposed over a treble clef. To the left of the name is a picture of a cross with flowers. In comparison, the two markers of dark grey, almost black stone to the right are quite ornate. Across the top of the first stone is carved the words Ada Lorraine Morrison. Below the name are the dates July 6, 1916 and Dec. 20, 1999, commemorating her birth and death dates. An epitaph is included under the date of death which reads Beloved Mother, Wife, Teacher and Friend. The rest of the stone is covered in images. On the left, is a violin and bow laying on top of a page of sheet music. Above the violin are roses. To the right, are mountains, with the symbol of the Eastern star, and a picture of a young woman holding a violin. More roses are located on the right side of the stone. Next to this stone is another, highly ornate maker. Made from the same kind of granite as the one to the left, it has the name Thomas Jim Morrison carved across the top. The dates Feb. 2, 1908 and June 2, 1997 are present to denote his birth and death dates. Below the death date is the epitaph Beloved Father, Husband and Friend. The rest of the stone consists of a picture depicting a steam locomotive and above it a mountain range. To the right is the seal for Montana State College in Bozeman, Montana. The images on these three stones indicate something about these people; what was important to them, or what aspect of themselves is important to those they leave behind: music and the piano for Thomas M. Morrison; the violin, mountains, roses, and the order of the Eastern Star for Ada Lorraine; and a steam engine train, mountains, and Montana State College for 6

Cheryl Aine Morrison Lis 508 05/29/10 Thomas Jim Morrison. The stones for Ada and Jim also indicate these two people were married, possibly to each other, and had a family who misses them. Markers have been used to commemorate the dead in this way, for centuries. In Greece, starting sometime around the 7th century BC, epitaphs were used: to praise the dead; represent their most important characteristics; show their affiliation with groups or societies; warn the living; and bridge the two worlds by showing scenes of daily life. They are meant to be an enduring memorial to the deceased (Paraskevas, 149). In contrast, for a long time, American markers were fairly simple. They contained - a simple notation of vital statistics in rectangular format on a stones center complemented by a few rosettes carved in the upper corners... (Hamscher, 8). This was a result of the new memorial park and its focus on celebration and hope, rather than on the death of an individual. Since the 1970s however, there has been a shift towards personalized headstones containing pictorial images. These can range from natural landscapes, to teddy bears, cars, and even often depict hobbies or professions of the deceased (7). Interestingly enough, these pictorial images are similar to an older form of commemorating the dead. Old colonial and Victorian headstones displayed a rich variety of pictorial images. One gravestone, from 1775, even contains a portrait. This was not common however, due to the expense of manufacture. In this case, the portrait of the reverend Nathanial Rogers was meant to show his status in the community (Meyer, 13). Headstones of the Victorian era frequently were adorned with images and symbolism of such complexity that books were written to explain the meanings. Markers from this time also showed family lineage. Compared to the often plain and unprepossessing markers from the 1930s to the 1960s, modern American markers seem almost gaudy and out of place, and yet when compared to the older gravestones, they appear to be just an indication of a return to an older tradition (Hamscher, 8) Two things truly differentiate modern markers from the past. The first is the highly detailed images that previous stones could not match mostly due to the new technology available to us, which speaks about our culture. The second difference, and perhaps even more striking in 7

Cheryl Aine Morrison Lis 508 05/29/10 its way, is that images on modern stones are rarely religious in nature. They seem to be more private than public, for all their display to anyone who cares to look, as they walk by. Their focus is on the individual and they inform the living about the ideals, lifestyle, and interests of the deceased (8-9). They are more personal more of a memoriam than previous stones. Interestingly, not all modern stones are personalized. Many factors can influence how stones will look. Cemetery regulations can control the size and shape of a marker, the materials it is made from, and even how much decoration or what type of symbols can be used. The high cost of funerals may make decoration too costly; even though some families may want to memorialize their loved ones in this way. Also, the death of a loved one is a very emotional time, with lots of decisions which have to be made quickly. It can be overwhelming to be confronted with all the choices present in a burial, and it may be easier to use a more traditional type of marker matching others close by (9). Perhaps the greatest reason for this return to elaborate pictorial markers is the stone monument industry itself. In the decades following World War II, monument makers faced two major business challenges. The first was the increased mobility and fracturing of American families. With families scattering across the country, the need for large family plots decreased which in turn decreased the need for large monuments and headstones. The second challenge faced by the stone monument industry were the cemeteries themselves. New regulations limited the kinds of products and artistic designs that could be offered to customers (10). By the 1950s monument makers began to look to personalization as a way to revitalize their business. One possibility was the shape of the headstone. While not detailing a particular object, by using shaping and lines, a suggestion of the concept such as streamlining for an automobile maker, or a contour suggesting nature could be present. At this time pictorial images were confined to celebrities, but trade journals published in the 50s and 60s increased interest in simple, personalized images on gravestones. Landscapes, nature hobbies such as hunting and fishing, and other objects became increasingly popular with customers, and by the late 70s purchasers were encouraged to promote artistic personalization

Cheryl Aine Morrison Lis 508 05/29/10 with images or sayings with personal meaning. These more personalized markers became more widespread throughout the 80s (10-11). But monument makers would not have been able to do this without the advances in technology which began to occur at the same time. Sandblasting got a boost in the 70s with the ability to transfer photos to the sandblast stencil, enabling makers to etch personal photos on the stones. The introduction of Computer Assisted Design or CAD programs in the 80s, allowed highly personal designs to be created inexpensively. Coupled with improved carving technology, photos and designs could now be reproduced with a clarity and detail previously unknown. (145). A further boost occurred when a variety of conditions, in the early 80s made imported black granite extremely affordable for Americans, and manufactured diamonds allowed hand etching to create ever finer detail (18). This continuing affordability and more sophisticated fine design helped to encourage more consumers to choose personalized markers. Today, images on grave markers today serve the same function as epitaphs found on older monuments. As one designer, Chuck Guest, puts it, the old slate and marble stones had a whole paragraph written about the person who was buried there. All were really doing is putting a picture there instead. Isnt a picture worth a thousand words?(18). The idea of using a picture to tell a story is not new of course; some scholars believe that pictures are the ancestors of our modern written language. What is interesting is that, although a gravestone with a lot of pictures can perhaps convey a general sense of something, it is unable to do so with the fine detail of which words are capable. This is evident in the three headstones that have been described in detail above. Much more ornate than Thomas, the fine detail and multiplicity of images on Lorraine and Jims headstones indicates an effort to communicate something about the people below to people who pass by. Thomass on the other hand, resembles many of the headstones nearby. The cross and rose picture is found regularly throughout the cemetery, as are the words, In loving memory. The only striking differences between it and other similar stones is the lack of a full birth and death dates, and the small picture of a piano on top of a treble clef. This lack of full 9

Cheryl Aine Morrison Lis 508 05/29/10 dates may be caused by the picture taking up too much space but it gives less information to strangers. It seems much more personal and private. This marker displays the bridge between the very personal and private nature of most 20th century headstones, and the need for a more public memorial, which is becoming more common. My Uncle Thom died in May of 1986, when I was 15. He was the first person I knew to have died. It was very hard on my family and my grandmother was devastated. Somehow though, she managed to make all the arrangements for the burial, including picking out his headstone. She really liked having the option to place the piano and treble clef on the headstone and often talked about it afterwards. My uncle was a very gifted musician on the piano. He had the ability to hear something played and after 3 or 4 tries he could play it back. For my grandmother, the personalization was the most meaningful part of the headstone. This small unprepossessing image captured the essence of my uncle as she understood him. It would always be there as a reminder to the family of what music meant him. My grandfather died suddenly in 1997. He had been living with my parents, and I remember the day I received the phone call at work asking me to fly to Phoenix as soon as I could. That was one of the worst days of my life. I prayed for the plane to go faster so I could get to say goodbye, but I was too late; he died at about the same time my plane was landing. The next few days were a confusion of funeral arrangements for my dad as he picked out a coffin, arranged for the body to be flown to Seattle for burial, and notified the extended family about his passing. Dad really liked the personalization on my Uncles headstone and wanted to do something similar for his dad. My grandfather was a wonderful man. The son of an Irish immigrant family, he grew up in Livingston Montana. His father worked on the railroad until he lost his job after a strike in support of other workers. Unable to get a job and struggling with alcoholism, he was unable to support his family and the burden fell to my great grandmother and their oldest son, who helped by finding work in a butchers shop. My grandfather was also the first of his family to attend college. He joined the Army and served in World War II in cryptography and helped to build the Alaska Highway. He eventually 10

Cheryl Aine Morrison Lis 508 05/29/10 settled in Seattle, but maintained a love of the Rocky Mountains, and his Montana home. His other great passion, born from his early life in Livingstone Montana, was a love of trains, particularly steam locomotives. Technology had advanced since my Uncle Thoms stone had been created, and a larger more detailed picture was now possible. To capture the essence of my grandfather, my dad worked with the cemetery and monument manufacturers over a six month period to create the perfect design. He placed a steam locomotive train in such a way, that it looks like it will come right out of the stone. It is the image that first draws the eye. Above the train a picture of mountains represents the Rockies and Montana. Below them is the seal of Montana state College, where he graduated with a Masters degree in chemical engineering. On the front of the locomotive my dad placed an additional subtle message. The number on the engine, 0816 represents the birth years of both my grandfather and my grandmother. When talking with my dad, recently, about the gravestones, I asked him about the purpose these images represented for him. Was it a way to tell others about his parents? He answered that in a way it was, but he knew most people would never really understand the connections. Instead the stones are intended for the family, to capture the essence of the person and keep them alive in our hearts with good memories. My grandmother passed away in 1999. It was very hard on dad as she was the last of his immediate family. We helped him as much as we could with the arrangements, and he chose to have a decorated gravestone for her as well. She had grown up in Livingston like my grandfather and as a young woman had been an exceptional violin player. In fact, her playing is what first attracted my grandfather. They married and she followed him as he was transferred in the army. She eventually became a math teacher in the Seattle school district until her retirement. She loved roses and had a beautiful yard filled with them, which grandpa tended for her. To capture the essence of her, my dad chose a violin and a piece of sheet music to represent her skill and love of the violin. He included mountains to show her connection to Montana, and multiple carvings of roses to show how much she loved them. He included the symbol of the Eastern star, of which she was a proud member, and a picture of her holding her 11

Cheryl Aine Morrison Lis 508 05/29/10 violin when she was young. Technology had increased by this time to allow for this new feature. He hoped that these images would keep her alive in our hearts, and show how special she was as a person. This new form of gravestone, in some ways, is a representation of a much older communication style. Gelb (1965) in his chapter Forerunners of Writing discusses how meaningful pictures may have developed into formal writing. He examines how communication was achieved by simple drawings such as a no thoroughfare petroglyph in New Mexico and early Native Americans letters and signs. He concludes that [t]he drawings attempt to communicate a certain message by certain persons in a way that could be understood by the people for whom the message was intended. (35) The three gravestones I have examined are much like this early form of communication. The artwork is designed to capture the essence of a person in just a few details with no explanatory words. Strangers passing by can only see the individual symbols and assume some sort of relationship. But, without knowing the people buried here, they cant grasp the full meaning being conveyed. Much like ancient cave paintings, these symbols can only be fully understood by the family or close friends who knew this person. For everyone else it is mostly, pretty pictures (27). At home I have a favorite picture of my grandfather. It was one he had done many years ago to give as gifts to the family. In it, he is wearing a bow tie, something he always wore, and smiling his special smile at the camera. For years, I kept it at work next to a little metal wind up train engine. I also keep a picture of my grandmother taken when she lived with my parents in Arizona. She is in a wheelchair, holding her Chihuahua, and being pushed by Grandpa. I treasure these pictures, but when I visit the cemetery and see the headstones, I remember so much more about them. I think my dad was truly able to catch a bit of their essence for the rest of the family to treasure and remember. Eventually of course, those of us for whom these markers have the most meaning will be gone. But perhaps, in a small way, they will still be able to convey something of these people to others. They may not tell a complete story in the

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Cheryl Aine Morrison Lis 508 05/29/10 way that written words can, but perhaps the images themselves will be able to convey, better than words, the emotions and love that is represented in these three gravestones.

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Cheryl Aine Morrison Lis 508 05/29/10

Bibliography

Farrell, James J. Inventing the American Way of Death, 1830-1920. American civilization. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1980. Print. Gelb, I. J. (1965). A Study of Writing. Chicago, University of Chicago Press. 24-36. print Hamscher, Albert N. Pictorial Headstones: Business, Culture, and the Expression of Individuality in the Contemporary Cemetery. Markers: the annual journal of the Association for Gravestone Studies. 23 (2006): 7-30. Print. Meyer, Richard E. ""death Possesses a Good Deal of Real Estate": References to Gravestones and Burial Grounds in Nathaniel Hawthorne's American Notebooks and Selected Fictional Works." Studies in the Literary Imagination. 39.1 (2006): 1. Print. Paraskevas, Cornelia. "The Geography of the Cemetery: a Sociolinguistic Approach." Studies in the Literary Imagination. 39.1 (2006): 143. Print. Sloane, David C. The Last Great Necessity: Cemeteries in American History. Creating the North American landscape. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991. Print.

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