3.

4 HOMEOSTASIS IN HUMAN (A) The necessity to maintain an optimal physical and chemical condition in the internal environment "nternal Environment Consists of "nterstitial fluid and blood plasma Divided into #hysical factors E$p% body temperature% blood pressure% blood osmotic pressure Chemical factors E$p% salt and su ar level% partial pressure of o$y en and carbon dio$ide

Cells can function optimally Vital for humans to survive Enzymatic and other metabolic processes and reactions in the body will be able to function normally

(B) The meanin of homeostasis the maintenance of a constant internal environment by the nervous and endocrine systems (C) !elate chan es in blood osmotic pressure to urine output &weat heavily causes Body loses a lar e amount of water which result in 'i h concentration of dissolved substances in body fluids leads to Increase of blood osmotic pressure

ess urine is produced Concentration of solutes in the blood decreases

(idney is stimulated to allow more water to be reabsorbed into bloodstream o!er blood osmotic pressure

Drin) a lot of water

causes

result in

More urine is produced 1

(idney is less stimulated to allow less water to be reabsorbed into bloodstream

(D) The formation of urine "idne#s primary or ans of e$cretory system which plays an important role in homeostasis located on the dorsal wall of the lumbar re ion of the abdomen* about +, cm lon % bean-shaped and dar) red filter blood and form urine(fluid consists of water% urea% dissolved wastes% e$cess nutrients) which e$its body throu h ureters% urinary bladder and urethra* $unctions - re ulate water and salt balance. blood volume - re ulate the osmotic pressure and ionic levels - e$crete waste products (urea% creatinine% uric acid% dru s% and to$ins) - re ulate blood p' Vena cava !enal artery

!enal vein !i ht )idney

/eft )idney 0reter

0rinary bladder 0rethra

'uman e$cretory system

1edulla (inner dar)-red re ion) #elvis Corte$ (outer li ht-red re ion) /on itudinal section of the )idney 2

!enal artery (supplies o$y enated blood and nutrients) !enal vein (carries away filtered blood) 0reter

Efferent arteriole Afferent arteriole

7lomerulus

#odocytes

Capsular space

Distal convulated tubule 7lomerulus !enal vein Collectin duct CORTEX MEDULLA

!enal artery Bowmans Capsule #ro$imal convulated tubule

Capillary networ)

/oop of 'enle The structure of the a nephron Nephron 2unctional unit of a )idney Consists of 3 ma4or parts5 (a) lomerulus !enal corte$ (b) Bowman6s capsule (c) renal tubule -pro$imal convulated tubule - loop of 'enle !enal corte$ -distal convulated tubule 3

renal medulla

3 basic processes5 (a) Ultrafitration 'i h blood pressure in the lomerulus forces fluid throu h the filtration membrane into capsular space of Bowman6s capsule and form %lomerular filtrate( water% lucose% amino acids% urea% mineral salts and small molecules without red blood cells and plasma proteins) (b& 'eabsorption 1ovement of essential nutrients across the walls of the renal tubule into the capillary networ) #ro$imal convulated tubule reaborbs 8a9 ions(:;<) actively pumped but Cl- ions passive 7lucose and amino acids(+,,<) = active transport >ater(:;<) = osmosis /oop of 'enle and distal convulated tubule(hi h concentration of urea) 1ore water% sodium and chloride ions reabsorb Collectin duct ??< water reabsorb into bloodstream 2iltrate are called urine(+< water% @;< urea) to be e$creted (c) Secretion #rocess which waste and e$cess substances are secreted from capillary into renal tubule(A,< blood plasma is filtered) via passive diffusion and active transport Bccurs in the renal tubules and collectin ducts but active at the distal convulated tubules Eliminate and increase rate of waste removal from body !e ulate blood levels of certain ions. p' (E) 1echanism of Bsmore ulation 'omeostasis is achieved by the ne%ati(e feedbac) mechanism Ne%ati(e feedbac) = whenever a chan e occurs in a system% the chan e automatically initiates a corrective mechanism which reverse the ori inal chan e and brin s the system bac) to normal *osti(e feedbac) - a response that intensifies the ori inal chan e% harmful and rare E$p% the release of hormone o$ytocin which stimulates and intensifies uterine contractions durin labour* Osmore%ulation #rocess of maintainin% the !ater content of the blood at a constant level !e ulatin the volume of urine production and e$cretion from the )idney "nvolvin antidiuretic hormone(AD') which is produced in the hypothalamus and stored in the posterior pituitary land (7)The conseCuences of impaired )idney function +ause of dama e = diseases% dru s or in4ury +onse,uences = cannot maintained blood osmotic pressure and blood volume% built-up of to$ic waste can result life-threatenin condition* 4

Treatment (a) under oin haemodial#sis #rocess of filterin% blood b# usin% artificial means-dial#sis machine& that replaces the functions of failed )idney Blood from the artery is passed throu h the machine which contains a dialyser >aste molecules(to$ins) and e$cess salt diffuse from the blood to the dialysis fluid while lucose and reCuired substances can be restored by the dialysis solution* The filtered blood re-enters the blood vessels (b) havin )idne# transplant !is) of recipient6s body re4ectin the transplanted or an*

'e%ulation of blood osmotic pressure

+orrecti(e Mechanism Distal convulated tubule and collectin duct become more permeable to water More !ater is reabsorbed from the filtrate into blood

Bsmoreceptor cells in the hypothalamus detect and send impulse to stimulate pituitary land to release more A.H into the blood Blood osmotic pressure increases (sweating/drinks too little water)

Blood osmotic pressure decreases (negative feedback) Ur ne !e"omes "on"en#ra#e$ an$ $ar%er n "olour

8ormal blood osmotic pressure

8ormal blood osmotic pressure

Blood osmotic pressure decreases (drinks too much water) Bsmoreceptor cells in the hypothalamus are less stiumulated and pituitary land release less A.H into the blood

Blood osmotic pressure increases (negative feedback) Ur ne !e"omes more $ lu#e an$ l &'#er n "olour

+orrecti(e Mechanism Distal convulated tubule and collectin duct become less permeable to water less !ater is reabsorbed from the filtrate into blood

(') 'e%ulation of blood su%ar le(el +orrecti(e Mechanism "nsulin stimulate the upta)e of lucose by liver% muscle and adipose cells for respiration lucose lyco en(liver D muscles) lucose fats(adipose tissues)

"slet cells in the pancreas is stimulated to release insulin into the blood Blood glucose increases (after a meal)

Blood glucose decreases (negative feedback)

8ormal blood lucose level

8ormal blood lucose level

Blood glucose decreases (in between meals/ after strenuous exercise)

Blood glucose increases (negative feedback)

+orrecti(e Mechanism "slet cells in the pancreas is stimulated to release %luca%on into the blood 7luca ons stimulate liver lyco en lucose promotes lipid brea)down fatty acid(metabolised)

(") 'e%ulation of bod# temperature

+orrecti(e Mechanism i) Vasodilation smooth muscles in arterioles rela$ increase amount of blood flowin throu h s)in "ncrease amount of heat radiated and loss throu h the s)in via blood ii) Erector muscles rela$% hairs slantin to trap less air and free to escape iii) &weat lands secrete sweat* durin evaporation% sweat will absorb the heat from the s)in iv) s)eletal muscle are not stimulatedE shiverin does not occur v) Thyroid land is less stimulated to secrete thyro$ine* vi) Adrenal land is less stimulated to secrete adrenaline* metabolic rate is lowE no e$cess heat is enerated

,ormal !o$- #empera#ure 36.) /C

Thermore ulatory centre in the hypothalamus sends impulses to effectors Body temperature increases 0 $e#e"# !- #'ermore"ep#ors n #'e s% n an$ '-po#'alamus

Body temperature decreases (negative feedback)

,ormal !o$- #empera#ure 36.) /C Body temperature decreases 0 $e#e"# !- #'ermore"ep#ors n #'e s% n an$ '-po#'alamus

1+

+orrecti(e mechanism i) Vasoconstriction smooth muscles in arterioles contract decrease amount of blood flowin throu h the s)in and reduce heat via blood ii) Erector muscles contract% raisin s)in hairs to trap insulatin layer of still% warm air ne$t to s)in iii) sweatin does not occur and heat conserved iv) s)eletal muscles are stimulated5 shiverin occurs and heat enerated v) Thyroid land is stimulated to secrete more thyro$ine to increase the metabolic rate* vi)* Adrenal land is stimulated to secrete more adrenaline to increase the metabolic rate such as heart beat% ventilation rate and hasten the conversion of lyco en to lucose*

Body temperature increases (negative feedback)

Thermore ulatory centre in the hypothalamus sends impulses to effectors

11

3./ *'A+TISIN0 A HEA TH1 I$EST1 E (A) The effects of dru and alcohol abuse on humans A dru% is a substance that is used to prevent% dia nose% treat or relieve symptoms of a disease refers to a substance that alters a person6s mood or body function and can be addictive .ru% abuse misuse or o(eruse of any medication or dru includin alcohol results in a tolerance of the dru . more and more dru s is needed to produce the same initial effect dru addict will e$perience !ithdra!al s#mptoms such as shi(erin%2 s!eatin% and nausea when deprived of the dru psycholo ical effects li)e impaired 4ud ement and verbal inability to concentrateE antisocial behaviourE deteriorated relationship with family% friends and co-wor)er Types &timulants T#pes of dru%s and their effects on the bod# Effects increase the activity of the central nervous system(C8&) e$cessive use can cause a temporary euphoria that is soon followed by depression once the level of neurotransmitters fall to its normal or below normal levels e$p% cocaine bloc)s the removal of pleasure-inducin neurotransmitterE amphetamines% caffeine% ecstasy% tobacco slow down the activity of C8C e$p% tranCuilisers slow down transmission of nerve impulseE alcohol affects coordination and 4ud ement and inhibits the release of AD' from the posterior pituitary(alcoholic often passes lar e volume of urine which leads to dehydration)E cannabis% barbiturates% heroin psychedelic dru sE alter how a person feels and thin)s a user see% hear and perceive thin s that do not e$ist e$p% /&D(D-lyser ic acid diethylamide) cannabis% mari4uana induce feelin s of euphoria% bloc) pain si nals and slow down normal brain functions e$p% heroin and morphine mimic) neurotransmitters by bindin to their reseptor sitesE opium% codeine deliberate sniffin of common products found in homes and schools to obtain Fhi h6 slow down the body6s function% e$perience sli ht stimulation% feelin leses inhibited or loss of consciousness cause brain and lun dama e% coma or even death e$p% lues.adhesives% nail polish remover% mar)in pens% paint thinner% asoline% propane as

Depressants

'allucino ens

8arcotics

"nhalants

12

(B) 2actors that can lead to dru and alcohol abuse see)in a trill or pleasure. out ,f curiosity to enhance physical performance = anabolic steroid to increase sport performance or amphetamine to stay awa)e more hours influenced by bad company. dru addict peer roup pressure and influence to reduce unpleasant an$iety and depression feelin s (C) #ractisin a healthy lifestyle stay free of dru s 3.3 * ANT HO'MONES (A) &tate what plant hormone are phytohormonesE a substance. or anic compound produced at low concentrations which influence the rowth and development of plant or ans (B) E$ample of plant hormones au4ins eth#lene ibberellins cyto)inins abscisins (C) "nfer the effects of au$ins on rowth responses

E4periments b# .ar!in and .ar!in and 5o#sen67ensen +A,, = Charles Darwin and 2rancis conducted e$periments to find out how and why plants row toward sunli ht* They concluded that the tip of the shoots ware responsible for sensin li ht* 'ypothesis- si nals were transmitted downwards from the tip to the elon ation re ion of the shoots*

13

#eter Boysen-Gensen separated tips of the shoots with bloc) of elatin* The shoots bend towards the li ht* "f separated by an impermeable barrier (mica)% the shoot did not bend towards the li ht*

E4periment b# $. 8. 8ent +?:H = 2* >* >ent proved that the si nal was a chemical messen er produced at the shoot tip* The chemical messen ers diffused into the a ar and stimulate rowth* "t was later named au$in* -E& The role of au4ins in tropism Au$ins promotes cell elon%ation. len thenin produced in the apical meristem at the tip of the shoots result in an increase in stem len th by increasin the rate of cell division *hototropism 9 rowth of shoots or roots in response to sunli ht *ositi(e phototropism = row to!ards sunli ht e$p% shoots Ne%ati(e phototropism = row a!a# from sunli ht e$p% roots Coleoptile = the shoot of a rass seedlin enclosed in a sheath The rowth of a plant towards li ht is caused by une,ual distribution of au4ins in the shoot

li ht

"f the shoots of a plant are e$posed to uniform li ht from all sides or )ept in the dar)% they will %ro! strai%ht up!ards*

14

>hen a plant is e$posed to li ht from one direction% au$ins build up on the shady side and stimulate rowth beneath the shoot tip >ith more au$ins% cells on the shaded side elon ate more and faster than the cells on the bri hter side* This results in the shoot bendin% to!ards the li%ht*

The role of au$ins in eotropism 0eotropism is plant response to ravity* !oots of plants show positive eotropism% shoots show ne ative eotropism*

Bn the round% ravity causes the au$ins to diffuse to the lower sides of both the shoot and root* Hi%her concentration of au$ins causes the cells on the lower part of the shoot to elon%ate rapidl# which result in the shoot bends up!ard* Bnce the shoot tip is vertical% even distribution of au$ins cause the stem to %ro! strai%ht up* 'owever% the hi%her concentration of au$ins on the lower side of the root inhibits elon%ation of cells but unaffected cell elon ation on the upper side which result in the root bends downwards* Bnce the root tip points downwards% even distribution of au$ins cause the root to row strai ht downwards*

15

The raph (based on the wor) of (* V* Thimann) shows the effect of au$in concentration on root and stem rowth* The difference between the behavior of roots and stems lies in the difference in the sensitivity of their cells to au$ins* Au$ins concentrations hi h enou h to stimulate stem rowth but inhibit root rowth* -$& The use of hormones in a%riculture 'ormone Au$ins 7ibberellins 0ses stimulate the rowth of adventitious roots from the stem stimulate parthenocarpy(development of fruits without fertilisation) to produce seedless fruitsE use au$ins to treat flowers that have not been pollinated as a herbicide(H-@-D) to )ill broadleaf weeds prevent fruits from droppin before harvest is due ethane which is produced in fruits% leaves and stem durin ripenin of fruits speeds up ripenin by stimulatin the production of cellulase which hydrolyses the cellulose in plant cells walls ma)in the fruit soft promotes brea)down of comple$ carbohydrates into simple su arE ripe fruit taste sweeter than unripe one induce flowerin in pineapple plants increase late$ flow in rubber trees to ether with au$ins stimulate the production of shoots and roots in tissues culture prolon the stora e life of reen ve etables such as aspara us% broccoli and celery after harvest treat oran e to remain on tree for lon er period of time increase production of bi er and uniform bunches of seedless rapes increase su arcane yield by promotin elon ation of stal)s increase flower bud production and stimulate early flowerin 16

Ethylene

Cyto)inins

1(